INTRODUCTION

Meditation may be said to be the core of Buddhism. Therefore, from

the very beginning it formed an essential part of the Buddhist way of
life. Various methods of meditation have been indicated in the dis-
courses of the Buddha and his disciples. The tradition of meditation
practices was handed down from teacher to pupil through the ages.
There is reason to believe that later on manuals on meditation came
to be written for the guidance of students. We have such a manual in
the form of the Vimuttimagga. The original having been lost, only
the Chinese translation of the whole work is now extant. An English
translation of this work, called The Path of Freedom, has been made
available through the joint efforts of a Japanese scholar and two Sin-
halese monks.1
The Vimuttimagga existed before the Visuddhimagga. It has been
ascribed to Upatissa Thera. In the beginning its authority was accepted
by the Saṅgha of Sri Lanka as a whole. Later on, the members of the
Mahāvihāra came to accept certain views introduced by Buddhaghosā-
cariya as more authoritative. As a result, the Visuddhimagga became
popular with them. However the members of the Abhayagirivihāra
continued to accept the authority of the Vimuttimagga.
It is not only possible but also probable that Buddhaghosācar-
iya closely followed the general plan of the Vimuttimagga in his own
work. It would not be far from the truth to say that he expanded on
the work that was already in existence, introducing his own opinions
here and there.
In dealing with a certain topic Buddhaghosācariya quoted
almost all the relevant facts from various sources of the canonical lit-
erature. In fact, he usually tried to be exhaustive. As a result his
work was more scholarly than the Vimuttimagga. In the course of
time, for several reasons, the former replaced the latter.
As mentioned above, meditation is an essential part of the
Buddhist way of life and meditation practices cannot be explained

1. The Path of Freedom, by Ehara, Kheminda and Soma, Colombo,

1961; reprinted by BPS, Kandy, 1977, 1995.

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 Guide through the Visuddhimagga

apart from the fundamental doctrines of Buddhism. In course of his

explanations, Buddhaghosācariya took full opportunity to give
elaborate expositions of these fundamental doctrines. As such his
work has served not only as a manual of meditation but also as the
standard work on the Theravada Buddhism as a whole. No other
school of Buddhism has handed down to us a work of such
importance. Therefore it is no exaggeration to say that the Visuddhi-
magga, the masterpiece of Buddhaghosācariya, occupies a unique
position in the field of Buddhism in particular and the religious litera-
ture of the world in general.
What is to the advantage of the scholar is sometimes to the
disadvantage of the layman. To some extent this is true of the
Visuddhi-magga. While going through the elaborate explanations of a
certain topic in the text, one is liable to lose its thread and become
confused. So at times in the midst of a topic, one has to pause and
relocate the thread again. This has been the experience of the author.
When he came to teaching the text, he observed it was the same case
for his students too, and I found it advantageous to give initially an
outline of the system with reference to the essential points. In the light
of the same, the details can be understood without much difficulty. It
is with this object in view that the following pages have been written
to serve as a guide through the Visuddhimagga.
In many of the Suttantas the noble path has been explained in
terms of the three-fold training (tisso sikkhā) of virtue (sīla),
concentration (samādhi) and wisdom (paññā). In some, such as the
Rathavinīta-sutta, it has also been explained in terms of the seven
purifications (satta visuddhiyo): (1) purification of virtue (sīla-
visuddhi), (2) purification of mind (citta-visuddhi), (3) purification of
views (diṭṭhi–visuddhi), (4) purification of overcoming of doubts
(kaṅkhāvitaraṇa-visuddhi), (5) purification of knowledge and insight
into the right and wrong path (maggāmagga-ñāṇadassana-visuddhi),
(6) purification of knowledge and insight into practice (paṭipadā-ñāṇa-
dassana-visuddhi), and (7) purification of knowledge and insight into
the noble path (ñāṇadassana-visuddhi). Here it has to be noted that the
first and the second purifications are represented by virtue (sīla) and
concentration (samādhi), and the last five by wisdom (paññā). Both
the Vimuttimagga and the Visuddhimagga have given their expositions
of the subject-matter according to the above two methods.
The Visuddhimagga presents the subject-matter in 23 chapters.
Among them the first two chapters are devoted to virtue and the

viii
 Introduction

ascetic practices (dhutaṅga), the next eleven chapters to concentra-

tion, and the last ten chapters to wisdom.
The present study is in three chapters. The substance of the first
two chapters of the Visuddhimagga is given in the first chapter of our
study, that of the next eleven chapters is given in the second chapter,
and that of the last ten chapters is given in the third chapter.
The first chapter is in two sections giving the substance of vir-
tue and ascetic practices (dhutaṅga) respectively. The second is in
three sections dealing with the general principles of concentration-
meditation (samādhi), the forty subjects of concentration-meditation
(kammaṭṭhāna), and the benefits of the practice of the same as
explained in the respective relevant chapters. Thus these two chap-
ters are on the first two purifications.
The third chapter is in two sections. The first section refers to
the general explanation of wisdom or paññā as given in the relevant
chapters of the text, and the second refers to the remaining five
kinds of purifications or visuddhi. Thus we have in a nutshell the
essential points of Visuddhimagga according to both the threefold
training and the seven-fold purification.
A few topics in the third and fourth chapters of the Visuddhi-
magga have been re-arranged in keeping with our method of treat-
ment. Also, the substance of the eleventh chapter has been given
before that of the tenth chapter so as to present the 36 meditation
subjects connected to the (fine-) material sphere (rūpa-kammaṭṭhāna)
together. Except for these, there are no other changes in the order of
the chapters or their topics.
At the beginning of the chapters, and also certain sections, a gen-
eral survey of the topics has been given. At several places certain facts
have been repeated in order to present them in their logical order.
There are two English translations of the Visuddhimagga—one
by U Pe Tin and the other by Ñāṇamoli Thera.2 We have closely fol-
lowed them in choosing the terminology of the technical terms.
If this small work is helpful, even in some measure, to students
in understanding the essential points of the subject-matter, we shall
feel highly rewarded.
U Dhammaratana
Nālandā

2. U Pe Tin, The Path of Purity, London, 1922. Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli, The

Path of Purification, BPS Kandy, 2010.

ix
 ABBREVIATIONS
AN Aṅguttara-Nikāya
Dhp-a Dhammapada-Aṭṭhakathā
M-a Majjhimanikāya-Aṭṭhakathā
MN Majjhima-Nikāya
MP Milindapañhā
Nidd Niddesa
Paṭis Paṭisambhidāmagga
SN Saṃyutta-Nikāya
Vin I Vinaya Mahāvagga
Vin II Cullavagga
Vin III Vinaya Pācittiya
Vin V Vinaya Parivāra

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 CHAPTER I

VIRTUE (Sīla)
SECTION I
VISM I
(1) Purification of Virtue (Sīla-visuddhi)
Sīla is moral discipline or virtue. It is observed in the right conduct
of a person, and moral precepts have been laid down to this end.
These moral precepts of Buddhism can be classified into three cate-
gories—those for the laity, those for the novices, and those for the
bhikkhus, the ordained members of the Monastic Order or Saṅgha.
The laity is expected to observe what are known as the five pre-
cepts (pañca sīlāni) in their day-to-day life. They may also observe
the eight precepts on special occasions, such as full-moon-days and
new-moon-days. The ten precepts are meant for the novices. For the
bhikkhus, there are 227 rules in their code of discipline called the
Pātimokkha. In the Vinaya, the canonical collection of texts dealing
with monastic discipline, the reasons and implications of these rules
have been worked out in some detail.
It is a matter of history that emphasis on literal conformity to
rules, in the long run, leads to formalism and casuistry, overshadow-
ing the original spirit of a discipline. Therefore it is necessary that
from time to time the essential points of a discipline should be ascer-
tained and kept in view.
The conduct of a person reflects the spirit of the moral precepts
observed. The conduct expresses itself through what are known as the
three doors of action (kamma-dvārāni)—body, speech and mind. The
actions may be unwholesome (akusala) or wholesome (kusala). The
unwholesome bodily actions are three-fold—killing, stealing and
adultery. The verbal actions are four-fold: lying, back-biting, speaking
harsh words, and gossiping. The mental actions are also three-fold—
avarice, ill-will and false views. Technically they are known as the ten

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 Guide Through the Visuddhimagga

courses of unwholesome action (dasa akusala-kammapathā). The

ten courses of wholesome action (dasa kusala-kammapathā) are
repre-sented by the abstinence from the same. These are the criteria,
so to say, of ascertaining the essential nature of the moral precepts.
In a restricted sense, sīla has a reference to bodily and verbal
actions alone. It is only in a wider sense that mental actions can be
included within the definition of sīla. In the sīla-samādhi-paññā-
formula, sīla is always used in this restricted sense.
In the codes of discipline there are certain rules which have a
direct bearing on the social behaviour of a man, and there are
others which have their bearing on his moral conduct alone.
Keeping in view these two sets of rules, in the Buddhist tradition a
distinction has been made between virtue of good behaviour
(ābhisamācārika-sīla) and that of the beginning of a life of purity
(ādibrahmacari-yaka-sīla). One is related to the social behaviour
and etiquette, while the other is related to the moral conduct. It is
the observance of the latter that keeps the moral purity of a man.
The tradition speaks of many kinds of virtue. In the Visuddhi-
magga, Buddhaghosācariya has presented them in five
classifications with many divisions and groups. These divisions are
not exclusive. Therefore in certain cases, the same virtue occurs in
several divi-sions. While there is an explanation of each group, the
four groups representing the four-fold virtue of purification
(pārisuddhi-sīlāni) have been explained at great length. The reason
is that they cover the essential points of the monastic discipline.
In the text, Buddhaghosācariya has dealt with the topic of
virtue in the form of questions and answers. It is explained under
seven headings: (i) What is virtue? (ii) In what sense is it virtue?(iii)
What are its characteristic (lakkhaṇa), function (rasa), manifes-
tation (paccupaṭṭhāna), and proximate cause (padaṭṭhāna)? (iv)
What are the benefits (ānisaṃsa) of virtue? (v) How many kinds of
virtue are there? (vi) What is the defiling (saṅkilesa) of it? and (vii)
What is the cleansing (vodāna) of it?
(i) What is virtue? The meaning of virtue has been interpreted in a
four-fold way. The first refers to volition (cetanā) that func-tions
when the observance of moral precepts is undertaken, or the
religious duties are fulfilled. The second refers to the bare fact of
abstinence (virati), represented by a mental factor. The

2
 Chapter I: Virtue

third refers to self-restraint (saṃvara), exercised through the

observance of the rules of discipline (pātimokkha-saṃvara),
mindfulness (sati-saṃvara), knowledge (ñāṇa-saṃvara),
patience (khanti-saṃvara), and energy (viriya-saṃvara). The
fourth refers to the non-transgression (avītikkama) of the
moral precepts whose observance has been undertaken. The
four interpretations refer to four different aspects of one and
the same fact.
(ii) In what sense is it virtue? Virtue is so-called because it main-
tains order among the actions of a person through moral disci-
pline, or it forms the basis of the wholesome states.
(iii) What are its characteristic, function, manifestation, and proxi-
mate cause?
(1) The characteristic of virtue is order or composition (sīlana).
Though virtue can be presented in several ways in terms of
volition, abstinence, and so on, this characteristic is common
to them all. For instance, rūpa is of many kinds, such as blue,
yellow, short, long, and so on. Though it is manifold accord-
ing to colours and shapes, there is one characteristic, i.e.,
visibility, which is common to them all. In the same way,
though virtue is manifold, the characteristic of order or com-
position is common to them all. It is maintained through the
regulation of bodily, verbal and mental actions. It is this kind
of regulation of actions that keeps order within both an indi-
vidual and the society at large.
(2) The function of virtue is two-fold. In the first place, it
destroys misconduct (dussīlya); in the second place, it keeps
a person innocent (anavajja). Therefore virtue has two
aspects—a negative one and a positive one.
(3) The appearance of virtue is purity (soceyya). We know a
man by his appearance. In the same way, we know virtue by
purity—its appearance. This purity is three-fold—purity of
bodily actions (kāya-soceyya), purity of verbal actions (vacī-
soceyya), and purity of mental actions (mano-soceyya).
(4) The proximate cause refers to the immediate reason that
conditions the cultivation of virtue. It is two-fold—con-
science (ottappa) and shame (hiri). A person does not com-
mit misdeeds either because he is governed by the dictates

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 Guide Through the Visuddhimagga

of his conscience, or because he has consideration for the

public opinion. If he were to commit a misdeed, in the first
place, he would suffer the pricks of conscience, and in the
second place he would be subject to public censure and even
corporal punishment according to the seriousness of the
case. For the same reason, conscience and shame have been
characterised as the two primary conditions which maintain
law and order in the world (loka-pālaka-dhamma). If not for
them, there would be chaos and confusion not only in the
individuals but also in the society at large.
(iv) What are the benefits of virtue? As regards the benefits of
virtue, in the discourses of the Master many of them have been
mentioned. Non-remorse (avippaṭisāra) has been mentioned as
one of its great benefits. A mind free from repentance is full of
tranquillity. Such a mind easily attains concentration (samā-
dhi). On one occasion addressing Ānanda, the Master
remarked, “Ānanda! Virtues have non-remorse as their aim and
benefit” (A IV 99). On another occasion, as reported in the
Mahāparinibbānasutta, speaking on the same topic to a gather-
ing of lay devotees at Pāṭaliputta, the Master referred to the
following five benefits of virtue: a virtuous man would come
into possession of a large fortune as a result of his diligence;
his name and fame would spread; he would attend an assem-
bly without any kind of fear or hesitation as he has no charges
against him; he would die with an easy conscience; and he
would be born in a happy place after death (D II 69–70). On
still another occasion, addressing the disciples the Master said,
“If a bhikkhu should wish to be loved and respected by the
fellow-brethren, he should lead a virtuous life” (M I 44). These
are some of the benefits referred to by the Buddha himself.
Virtue is the very foundation of a life of righteousness. The dirt
of defilements, not to be cleansed even by the waters of the
five great rivers—Gaṅgā, Yamunā, Aciravatī, Sarabhū and
Mahī—can be washed away by virtue alone. The soothing
effect of sandalwood, pearls, moon-beams and so on is no
remedy for the burning sensations created by passions. Cessa-
tion of such sensations can be brought about only through the
soothing effect of virtue. The fragrance of flowers and other

4
 Chapter I: Virtue

things would be wafted only in the direction of the wind, but

the fragrance of virtue would be wafted all round. Virtue is the
ladder that leads to heaven. The ultimate purpose of the culti-
vation of virtue is the attainment of Nibbāna. For the same
reason, it has also been characterised as the entrance to the
city of Nibbāna.
(v) How many kinds of virtue are there? In the Visuddhimagga, dif-
ferent kinds of virtue have been classified in numerical order
from one to five.
(1) All virtues are said to be of one kind in so far as they serve
one and the same purpose of leading to self-composition. As
such there is only one division and one group in the first
classification.
(2) In the second classification there are seven divisions of two
groups each:
(a) Virtue of keeping (cāritta-sīla) and that of avoiding
(vāritta-sīla). Performing what the Master has recom-
mended is the virtue of keeping, and not committing
what the Master has prohibited is the virtue of avoiding.
(b) Virtue of good behaviour (ābhisamācārika-sīla) and
that of the beginning of the life of purity (ādibrah-
macariyaka-sīla). One is the fulfilment of the small
duties of the monastic life. The other is the observance
of the moral precepts, which leads to the attainment of
the higher states. The latter is so called because it con-
stitutes the basis of the religious life.
(c) Virtue of abstinence (virati-sīla) and that of non absti-
nence (avirati-sīla). The first refers to abstinence from
killing, etc. The other refers to volition, etc.
(d) Dependent virtue (nissita-sīla) and independent virtue
(anissita-sīla). The first refers to virtue based on (i)
desire or (ii) a false view. Thus virtue observed with a
view to be born in heaven belongs to virtue based on
desire, and virtue treated as an end in itself belongs to
virtue based on false view. When virtue is not affected
by either desire and false view, it is said to be inde-
pendent.

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 Guide Through the Visuddhimagga

(e) Temporary virtue (kālapariyanta-sīla) and lifelong vir-

tue (āpāṇakoṭika-sīla). The first refers to virtue
observed only for a limited period, whereas the second
refers to that observed up to the end of life.
(f) Limited virtue (sapariyanta-sīla) and unlimited virtue
(apariyanta-sīla). The first refers to virtue that is vio-
lated in the interest of gain, fame, relatives, limbs and
life. The second refers to virtue that is observed even at
the cost of all this.
(g) Mundane virtue (lokiya-sīla) and supramundane virtue
(lokuttara-sīla). The first refers to virtue that is defiled
(sāsava) and the second refers to virtue that is free
from all defilements (anāsava).
(3) In the third classification there are five divisions of three
groups each:
(a) Inferior virtue (hīna-sīla), medium virtue (majjhima-
sīla) and superior virtue (paṇīta-sīla). Virtue under-
taken out of desire for fame, etc., is inferior, that
undertaken for the sake of merit is medium, and that
undertaken in consideration of the noble nature of the
practice itself is superior. Several other explanations
have also been given.
(b) Virtue giving precedence to self (attādhipateyya-sīla),
that giving precedence to the world (lokādhipateyya
sīla), and that giving precedence to Dhamma (dham-
mādhipateyya-sīla). The first refers to virtue observed
out of regard for one’s position, the second refers to
that observed out of consideration for the public opin-
ion, and the third refers to that observed out of respect
for Dhamma.
(c) Affected virtue (parāmaṭṭha-sīla), not-affected virtue
(aparāmaṭṭha-sīla) and tranquillised virtue (paṭippas-
saddhi-sīla). The first refers to virtue affected by desire
and false view, the second refers to virtue not so
affected, and the third refers to virtue of the Arahants.
It is so called because since an Arahant has fulfilled vir-
tue, his exertion has come to an end.

6
 Chapter I: Virtue

(d) Purified virtue (visuddha-sīla), unpurified virtue (avi-

suddha-sīla), and dubious virtue (vematika-sīla). The
first refers to virtue observed without committing any
offence, or in case of commission, proper amends have
been made. The second refers to a case where an
offence has been committed, but no amends have been
made. The third refers to a case where one is in doubt
as to whether an offence has been committed or not,
and where an offence has been committed, one is in
doubt regarding its nature.
(e) Virtue of the learner (sekha-sīla), that of the non-
learner (asekha-sīla), and that of neither (nevasekha-
nāsekha-sīla). The first refers to virtue of those who
have attained the first seven supramundane states, the
second refers to that of the Arahants, and the third
refers to that of a worldling.
(4) In the fourth classification there are four divisions of four
groups each:
(a) Virtue partaking of diminution (hānabhāgiya-sīla), of
stagnation (ṭhitibhāgiya-sīla), of distinction (visesa-
bhāgiya-sīla), and of penetration (nibbedhabhāgiya-
sīla). The first refers to virtue of a person who has
fallen from a position of virtue due to negligence, the
second refers to virtue of a person who remains where
he is, the third refers to virtue of a person who makes
further progress in religious life on the basis of his vir-
tue, and the fourth refers to the virtue of a person who
is able to develop insight-knowledge into the true
nature of things.
(b) Virtue of ordained monks (bhikkhu-sīla), of ordained
nuns (bhikkhunī-sīla), of novices (anupasampanna-
sīla), and of the laity (gahaṭṭha-sīla). They refer to the
precepts to be observed by the four categories of the
disciples of the Buddha.
(c) Natural virtue (pakati-sīla), customary virtue (ācāra-
sīla), necessary virtue (dhammatā-sīla), and virtue
related to previous experience (pubba-hetuka-sīla). The
first refers to virtue observed by beings of certain

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 Guide Through the Visuddhimagga

planes as a matter of course, the second refers to

observance of customs prevalent in a particular society,
the third refers to virtues of an extra-ordinary nature
that do not come within the normal state of affairs, and
the fourth refers to the noble virtues of great beings
conditioned by their experience in previous births.
(d) Virtue of restraint of the code of discipline
(pātimokkha-saṃvara-sīla), of restraint of sense-facul-
ties (indriya-saṃvara-sīla), of purification of livelihood
(ājīva-pārisuddhi-sīla), and of basic requisites (paccaya-
sannissita-sīla). Great importance has been attached to
these four groups, which have a special application to
the bhikkhus. Therefore their explanation will be given
here at some length.
(i) The virtue of restraint of the code of discipline. It is ful-
filled by leading a disciplined life according to the rules
of the Vinaya. The meditator who leads such a life con-
ducts himself properly both in private and public life
(ācāra-sampanno). He keeps the company of such per-
sons and frequents such places as would be conducive
to his way of life, and avoids the company of persons
and the frequenting of places of the opposite nature
(gocara-sampanno). Further he sees danger even in the
violation of minor rules of discipline, such as those
related to matters of etiquette (anumattesu vajjesu
bhaya-dassāvī).
(ii) The virtue of the restraint of sense-faculties. It is ful-
filled by exercising control over the sense organs. We
receive information about the world through the sense-
organs. For instance, we perceive the world as repre-
sented by visual objects (rūpāyatana) with the eye.
This is true of the other sense-objects and their respec-
tive sense-organs also. Now the controlling of the
sense-organs does not mean non-perception of their
objects. It means to perceive the objects in their true
nature, without taking a superficial and hence a per-
verted view which could give rise to defilements, such
as passion, hate and so on. In the beginning this can be

8
 Chapter I: Virtue

done by cultivating mindfulness. This point has to be

understood with reference to the explanation given in
the Abhidhamma. According to the Abhidhamma a full
course of cognition that arises in relation to the first
five sense-organs is represented by sixteen thought-
moments beginning with vibration in the life-contin-
uum (bhavaṅga-calana) and ending with registering
consciousness (tadālambana). The course of cognition
related to the mind-door (manodvāra) is represented
by 10 thought moments. In the case of the first five
courses of cognition, the thought-moments from life-
continuum to determining (voṭṭhapana) are concerned
only with the perception of the respective objects.
Therefore they may be said to be more or less passive
in nature. It is at the next stage, called impulsive activ-
ity or javana, which is usually represented by seven
thought-moments, that the mind becomes active. At
this stage it takes a decision and passes judgement on
the object. If it is an unpleasant one, it will give rise to
the unwholesome mental states (akusala-dhamma),
such as passion, hate, etc. Therefore it is the javana
stage of mind that has to be taken care of. In fact it is
the point of control. When it is controlled the sense-
organ concerned is said to be well-guarded. This has
been explained with reference to the analogy of a well-
fortified city, whose entrance is well-guarded. For this
reason, with reference to the controlling of the eye it
has been said: when the meditator sees a visual object,
he does not take a superficial view of it as a whole (na
nimittaggāhī hoti), nor does he take a superficial view
of different parts of it individually (nānubyañjanaggāhī
hoti), which could lead to the arising of greed, hate,
etc. This is true of the remaining sense organs also.1
(iii)The virtue of the purity of livelihood. Food and certain
other things are necessary to maintain life. Even a
meditator whose goal is Nibbāna has to depend on

1. M I 231.

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 Guide Through the Visuddhimagga

these basic necessities of life. He has to obtain them by

right means. In this connection the Visuddhimagga
refers to six rules of the Parivāra of the Vinaya, spe-
cially related to the subject-matter.2 The meditator is
not to seek his necessities by resorting to the following
objectionable methods: hypocrisy (kuhanā), flattering
(lapanā), hinting (nemittikatā), belittling virtues of
others and magnifying one’s own virtues (nippesikatā),
and giving something to others with a view to get more
or something better in return (lābhena lābhaṃ nijigīsa-
natā). Further it also instructs the meditator not to take
to such professional practices as astrology, dream-
interpretation and so on, which have been mentioned
in the Brahmajāla-sutta.3
(iv) The virtue of the proper use of the basic requisites. It is
fulfilled by making the right use of the basic requisites
got by right means. This has to be done by keeping in
mind the purpose of their use. The basic requisites are
four-fold: robe (cīvara), alms-food (piṇḍapāta), resi-
dence (senāsana) and medicine (gilānapaccaya). The
robe is the first requisite. It is meant to cover up the
nakedness of the body, and protect it against climatic
extremes and the bites of mosquitoes and creeping
things, so that the meditator can lead a life free from
discomfort and danger and fulfil the mission of his life.
The robe is not meant for beautifying the body. Alms-
food is the second requisite. In using it the meditator
has to remember that it is meant for maintaining life,
so that the noble life may be led. It is not meant for
building up a good physique as done by the physical
culturists. Residence is the third requisite. In using it
the meditator has to bear in mind that it is meant to
protect him against the inclement weather and other
dangers to life and virtue. Medicine is the fourth requi-
site. In using it also he has to remember its utility.

2. Vin V 146.
3. D I 10.

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 Chapter I: Virtue

(5) In the fifth classification, there are two divisions of five

groups each:
(i) Virtue of limited purification (pariyanta-pārisu-
ddhi-sīla), of unlimited purification (apariyanta-pārisud-
dhi-sīla), of fulfilled purification (paripuṇṇa-pārisuddhi-
sīla), of unadhered-to purification (aparāmaṭṭha-pārisu-
ddhi-sīla), and of tranquillised purification (paṭippassa-
ddhi-pārisuddhi-sīla). The first refers to precepts other
than those of the bhikkhus, the second refers to the pre-
cepts of the ordained members of the Monastic Order,
the third refers to the virtue of the good worldling, the
fourth refers to the virtue of the noble ones who have
attained the first seven supramundane states, and the
fifth refers to the virtue of the Arahants.
(ii) Virtue of abandoning (pahāna-sīla), of refraining
(veramaṇī-sīla), of volition (cetanā-sīla), of restraint
(saṃvara-sīla), and of non-transgression (avītikkama-
sīla). The Visuddhimagga quotes in full the detailed
explanation of these virtues as given in the
Paṭisambhidāmagga.4 They have been explained with
reference to the ten courses of unwholesome action, the
unwholesome states overcome in trances, the
misconceptions removed by developing the eighteen
kinds of principal insights (aṭṭhārasa mahāvipassanā),
and the fetters destroyed by the supramundane paths.
The fulfilment of this five-fold virtue has been explained
with reference to all the relevant states one by one; for
instance, with reference to the first course of
unwholesome action (akusala-kamma-patha), it is
said—in case of killing a living thing (pāṇātipāta),
abandoning is virtue, abstinence is virtue, volition is
virtue, restraint is virtue, and non-transgression is virtue.
Thus each case has been explained with reference to all
the five aspects of sīla.
(vi) What is the defiling of it? Virtue is said to be defiled when the
precepts are violated. This violation may be of a minor or a

4. Paṭis 47–53.

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 Guide Through the Visuddhimagga

major nature. Whatever it is, it is the temptations that are at

the root of all the violations.
(vii) What is the cleansing of it? Virtue is said to be pure when the
precepts are observed without any violation. This can be done
in two ways: by realising the dangers of their violation, and
through the benefits of keeping them. These two ways have
been explained with reference to quotations given from several
suttantas.
In the light of these instructions, when the meditator goes on
fulfilling virtues, he becomes free from so many unwholesome
states. As a result, his mind becomes serene and tends towards con-
centration (samādhi).

SECTION II
VISM II
Practices of Purification (Dhutaṅga)
Dhutaṅga are practices of purification. They are so called because
their observance leads to a life of purity. Therefore they have been
characterised as observances or practices which have a bearing on
the religious life (vata). Dhutaṅga are not virtue (sīla) as such. For
this reason they were not included in the chapter on virtue but were
treated in a separate chapter of their own. However, as they are
closely related to virtue, they are dealt with immediately after the
former.
References in Early Literature
No mention was made of dhutaṅga as such in the Suttas and in the
Vinaya. Certain ascetic practices included among dhutaṅga were
mentioned individually in several suttantas. Among others, we come
across the following words—sapadāhacārī, piṇdapātika, paṃsuku-
lika, abbhokāsika, āraññika and pantasenāsanika. In the Saṃyutta-
Nikāya5 and the Etadaggapāli of the Aṅguttara-Nikāya,6 Mahākas-
sapa Thera, one of the eighty principal disciples of the Master, has

5. S II 132.
6. A I 23.

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 Chapter I: Virtue

been described as the foremost among those who teach dhutas. The
Niddesa refers to eight dhutaṅga.7 In the Milindapañhā, a late work,
13 dhutaṅga are listed together for the first time.8
Both the Visuddhimagga and the Vimuttimagga give ful expla-
nations of these practices.

Dhutaṅga and the Middle Path

To some extent dhutaṅga can be said to be ascetic practices. So
sometimes the question is asked as to how could their position be
reconciled with the Middle Path of the Buddha. In this connection it
has to be noted that the Buddha did not prescribe dhutaṅga as
compulsory practices to be observed by one and all. In the beginning,
the four basic requisites (nissaya) were made compulsory for all the
bhikkhus.9 But later on, they had to be relaxed in consideration of the
practical necessities. They became optional practices to be observed
by those who found them conducive to their religious life.
There is reason to believe that the Buddha recognised the exist-
ence of what may be called the ascetic temperament. He permitted
monks with such a temperament to observe these practices. But he
did not want to attach undue importance to external practices. Here
again, he wanted his disciples not to give any publicity to them for
the sake of name, fame and gain. One was expected to observe them
even without the knowledge of one’s fellow-brethren.
It is on record that once Devadatta went to the Buddha and
requested him to make the following five rigorous practices compul-
sory for the bhikkhus: they should remain all their life in the forest,
live under trees, live on alms only, use robes made of rags only, and
be pure vegetarians (Vin II 197).
The Buddha refused to grant his request. He said that those
who wished to follow these practices may do so, but they would not

7. Nidd I 66.
8. Mil 359.
9. The four nissaya refer to the minimum requisites prescribed for
bhikkhus: 1. To live on food received by begging only (piṇḍapātikaṅga),
2. To use robes made of rags only (paṃsukūlikaṅga), 3. To live at the foot
of a tree (rukkhamūlikaṅga), and 4. To use only myrobalans fermented in
cow urine as medicine (pūtimutta-bhesajja). See Vin I 58, 96. Cf. A II 26.

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 Guide Through the Visuddhimagga

be made compulsory for all. This also shows that he did not want to
attach undue importance to them.
It is quite clear from the first sermon and several other
discourses that the Buddha rejected self-mortification (attakilamath-
ānuyoga) as such. He even declared ascetic practices as obstacles to a
higher life. When it is said that the Buddha rejected asceticism, it does
not mean that he encouraged self-indulgence (kāmasukhallikānuy-
oga), the other extreme. He rejected it with the same deprecation.
What the Buddha wanted was that the people should lead a
decent life and not a shabby one, a healthy life of simple habits and
not a life of luxury, and cultivate the noble virtues. He believed in a
healthy mind in a healthy body. While he rejected asceticism as a
creed, he believed in strict moral discipline.
According to Mahāsakuludāyi-sutta (MN 77), when Udāyi, an
ascetic, told the Buddha that the latter was venerated by the people
for his life of holiness, purity and simplicity, the Buddha remarked
that in the matter of simplicity there were his own disciples who sur-
passed him. For instance, there was Mahākassapa who observed rig-
orous practices. He lived all his life on alms, begged from door to
door, and spent his days in the forest, whereas the Buddha used to
live occasionally in palatial buildings and accept royal invitations.
He further said in reply to Udāyi that the wise men paid hom-
age to the Tathāgata for his attainments in higher culture (adhisīla),
knowledge and vision (ñāṇadassana), higher wisdom (adhipaññā),
and above all for that liberation of mind which is not to be perturbed
again (akuppā-cetovimutti). From all this we can have some idea
about the attitude of the Buddha regarding dhutaṅga.
It is from the point of view of simplicity that the Buddha must
have permitted the practice of dhutaṅga. There is enough evidence
to show that during the lifetime of the Master, some of his disciples
observed these rigorous practices. Later on, they became popular
with a section of the Saṅgha. That tradition was handed down from
generation to generation. At present the dhutaṅga are observed only
by the bhikkhus who live in forest hermitages. There are thirteen
dhutaṅga:

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 Chapter I: Virtue

(i) The practice of wearing robes made out of rags (paṃsukū-

likaṅga), collected from streets, cemeteries, etc.
(ii) The practice of having only three robes (tecīvarikaṅga). The
three robes are the outer double robe (saṅghāṭi), outer robe
(uttarāsaṅga) and inner robe (antaravāsaka).
(iii) The practice of living on alms collected from door to door
(piṇḍapātikaṅga). In observing this practice the meditator has
to give up the fourteen kinds of food-offering permitted in the
Vinaya such as partaking in a meal offered to the Order.
(iv) The practice of begging from house to house in consecutive
order (sapadānacārikaṅga), without leaving any house in-
between on considerations of wealth, position, etc.
(v) The practice of taking meals at one sitting (ekāsanikaṅga),
without interruption. Once the meal is discontinued, it is not to
be resumed.
(vi) The practice of having only one bowl in which all kinds of food
have to be taken (pattapiṇdikaṅga). No other plate or saucer
can be used for the purpose.
(vii) The practice of not taking any food after finishing or after
expressing the intention of finishing one’s meal (khalupacchā-
bhattikaṅga).
(viii) The practice of dwelling only in forests (āraññikaṅga), which
should be at a considerable distance from human habitation.
(ix) The practice of living under a tree (rukkhamūlikaṅga). Such a
tree must not be one of the boundary marks of a village, or one
within the compound of a monastery or a shrine, or a fruit-
bearing tree.
(x) The practice of living in the open (abbhokāsikaṅga). One
observing this dhutaṅga and the practice of living under a tree
(rukkhamūlikaṅga) is permitted to take shelter in a covered
place at the time of raining.
(xi) The practice of living in a cemetery (sosānikaṅga). A plot of
land set apart for a cemetery, but not yet used, is not to be
treated as a cemetery (susāna). One left unused by the people
even for twelve years, after using it even once, is to be treated
as a cemetery.
(xii) The practice of using whatever bed or seat is allotted to one
without any change (yathāsanthatikaṅga).

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 Guide Through the Visuddhimagga

(xiii)The practice of spending nights in the sitting posture without

lying down (nesajjikaṅga). A meditator practising this
dhutaṅga can use other postures (iriyapātha) also.
The Meaning of the Term Dhutaṅga
The meaning of the term dhutaṅga, lit. “factor for shaking off
(defilements),” has been interpreted in three ways: In the first place,
these practices are called dhutaṅga because they are observed by
one who is given to shaking off the defilements. In the second place,
they are so called because the knowledge of shaking off, which
shakes off defilements, forms part of these practices. In the third
place, they are so called because they constitute the path that leads
to the shaking off of the defilements.
Dhutaṅga Explained Under Five Matrices
All the dhutaṅga have each been explained under five matrices or
lists (mātikā): (i) method of undertaking (samādāna), (ii) directions
and conditions (vidhāna), (iii) grades (pabheda), (iv) breach (bheda)
and (v) benefit (ānisaṃsa).
(i) The first matrix explains how the meditator has to undertake
the observance of a dhutaṅga. In each case two statements
have been given. The meditator has to undertake it with refer-
ence to one of them. For instance, in the case of paṃsukū-
likaṅga, he has to undertake it with reference to one of the
following statements: “I refuse robes given by householders” or
“I undertake the refuse-rag-wearer’s practice.”
(ii) The second matrix gives the directions for and the conditions
under which a dhutaṅga has to be observed. Thus in the case of
the practice of wearing robes made out of rags the directions
refer to the nature of rags that the meditator may pick up for
making his robes.
(iii) The third matrix explains how many grades are there. In each
case, three grades have been mentioned— strict (ukkaṭṭha),
moderate (majjhima) and mild (muduka). One who is very
strict in his observance is said to be strict, another who is mod-
erate is said to be moderate, and a third who is not very strict
is said to be mild.

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 Chapter I: Virtue

(iv) The fourth matrix explains under what conditions the breach
of a dhutaṅga is committed.
(v) The fifth matrix explains the benefits of observing the dhutaṅga
practices. While each dhutaṅga has its own benefits, they all lead
to the common benefits explained in relation to the practices of
the noble lineage (ariyavaṃsa) Having a few necessities (appic-
chatā), contentment (santuṭṭhitā), effacement of defilements
(sallekhatā), and cultivating detachment (pavivekatā).
How Many Dhutaṅga are to be Practised
A bhikkhu, an ordained member of the order of monks
(bhikkhusaṅgha), may practise all the 13 dhutaṅga. Here it has to be
noted that a bhikkhu who observes one or more severe dhutaṅga may
not observe others which are less severe. Thus one who dwells in the
open need not observe the practice of dwelling at the root of a tree.
One who begs from house to house is necessarily one who goes on
alms. One who taking meals at one sitting can easily be one who only
eats out of his bowl or one who is not taking any food after finishing.
A bhikkhunī, a member of the order of nuns (bhikkhunī-
saṅgha), is allowed to practise only eight of the thirteen dhutaṅga.
The exceptions are: forest dwelling, not taking food after finishing,
living in the open, dwelling at the root of tree, and dwelling in a
cemetery. In the beginning bhikkhunīs also used to follow some of
the practices such as forest-dwelling but then they were troubled by
rogues, and therefore they had to be debarred from observing such
practices.
A novice (sāmaṇera) is allowed to observe twelve dhutaṅga,
the exception being the practice of only wearing three robes. A
female trainee (sikkhamānā) or a female novice (sāmaṇerī) is
allowed to observe seven of the dhutaṅga observed by bhikkhunīs,
with again the exception being the practice of only wearing three
robes. For lay-followers (upāsaka and upāsikā) only two dhutaṅga,
namely, eating at one sitting and eating only out of a bowl, have
been recommended. The remaining dhutaṅga are not in keeping
with their way of life.

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 CHAPTER II

CONCENTRATION (Samādhi)
SECTION I
(2) Purification of Mind
(Citta-visuddhi)
VISM III–IV
Purification of mind (citta-visuddhi) or concentration (samādhi) is the
second stage in the path of purification. It is three-fold momentary
concentration (khaṇika-samādhi), access-concentration (upacāra-
samādhi) and fixed-concentration (appanā-samādhi). The first
appears intermittently in certain wholesome types of thought. The
second is gained just before attaining a jhāna (absorption). For this
reason it is known as neighbourhood concentration. The third is the
full-fledged concentration which marks the attainment of a jhāna as
such. The first is momentary in nature, the second is more durable,
and the third lasts for a long time. A meditator can penetrate into the
true nature of things even with reference to the first type of concen-
tration. But it can be done with greater ease at the higher levels.
Therefore the latter two have an advantage over the first.
Samādhi or concentration has been used in a general sense for
concentration that is associated with all types of thought—moral,
immoral and non-moral. For the same reason, in the Abhidhamma it
has been included among those mental factors which are common to
all types of thought (sabbacittasādhāraṇa-cetasikāni). But it has to be
noted that there is a great difference between concentration associ-
ated with the lower types of thought and that associated with the
higher ones. In the latter the mind gets absorbed in the object,
whereas in the former it becomes aloof from it. Therefore this differ-
ence amounts not to one of degree but to one of kind.
Buddhaghosācariya deals with this topic in eleven chapters
(Chs. 3 to 13), covering 323 pages in the PTS edition. He explains

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 Guide Through the Visuddhimagga

concentration under eight matrices (mātikā). The first six matrices

are explained in 4 pages. The explanation of the seventh matrix cov-
ers some 287 pages. The last and the eighth matrix is explained in
36 pages.
As usual, Buddhaghosācariya is quite exhaustive. He explains
not only different types of concentration, and for that matter jhāna
(absorption) and the practices that lead to their attainment, but also
gives certain instructions which the meditator has to observe to cre-
ate a congenial atmosphere for the same.
The third and the fourth chapters of the text deal with the
general points of the technique of development (bhāvanā) of concen-
tration with special reference to the earth kasiṇa. The next seven
chapters explain the nature of the remaining subjects of concentra-
tion. The last two chapters deal with the supernormal powers. In the
present study we have treated all the eleven chapters in one under a
number of sub-headings.
This topic was explained initially under eight headings in the
form of eight questions: (i) What is concentration? (ii) In what sense
is it concentration? (iii) What are its characteristic, function,
manifestation, and proximate cause? (iv) How many kinds of con-
centration are there? (v) What is its defilement? (vi) What is its
cleansing? (vii) How should it be developed? (viii) What are the
benefits of the development of concentration?
(i) What is concentration? In the present context, concentration
has been defined as the unification of the wholesome mental
states (kusala-cittekaggatā samādhi).
(ii) In what sense is it concentration? Concentration is so called
because it focuses the respective types of mind and their associ-
ating mental factors on a single object (ekārammaṇe).
(iii) What are its characteristic, function, manifestation, and
proximate cause? Concentration has non-distraction as its char-
acteristic. Its function is to eliminate distraction. It is manifested
as non-wavering. Its proximate cause is bliss.
(iv) How many kinds of concentration are there? The different
kinds of concentration have been presented in five classifica-
tions in their numerical order:

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 Chapter II: Concentration

(1) All kinds of concentration have the common characteristic of

concentrating the mind on a single object. For this reason,
they are said to be of one kind.
(2) In the second classification there are four divisions of two
groups each:
(a) Access (upacāra) and fixed (appanā). In access-concen-
tration the five nivāraṇa or hindrances are overcome.
Fixed-concentration or absorption marks the full-
fledged concentration. Access-concentration precedes
fixed-concentration.
(b) Mundane (lokiya) and supramundane (lokuttara). The
first is associated with the wholesome types of mind of
the three planes of existence, and the other is associ-
ated with those of the supramundane plane.
(c) Associated with joy (sappītika) and not associated with
joy (nippītika). The first refers to jhāna where joy
exists, and the other to jhāna where it does not exist.
The categorization varies according to the four-fold
and the five-fold methods of classifying jhāna.
(d) Associated with bliss (sukhasahagata) and associated
with equanimity (upekkhāsahagata). One refers to the
jhāna where bliss exists, and the other refers to those
where it does not exist. Their categorization too varies
according to the two methods.
(3) In the third classification, there are four divisions of three
groups each:
(a) Inferior (hīna), moderate (majjhima) and superior
(paṇīta). Concentration just attained is called inferior,
that which is developed to some extent is called moder-
ate, and that which is well developed is called superior.
(b) Associated with applied thought and sustained thought
(savitakka-savicāra), associated with sustained
thought, but not with applied thought (avitakka-
savicāra), and not associated with applied thought or
sustained thought (avitakka-avicāra). They have to be
understood in relation to the respective jhāna. Their
categorization varies according to the two methods.

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 Guide Through the Visuddhimagga

(c) Associated with joy (pītisahagata), associated with

bliss (sukhasahagata), and associated with equanimity
(upekkhāsahagata). They exist in the relevant jhāna.
Their categorization too varies according to the two
methods.
(d) Undeveloped (paritta), exalted (mahaggata), and
measureless (appamāṇa). Concentration associated
with the access-state (upacāra) is said to be undevel-
oped as it is limited in scope, that associated with
jhāna is exalted, and that associated with the supra-
mundane states is measureless.
(4) In the fourth classification there are six divisions of four
groups each:
(a) Associated with difficult practice and slow direct
knowledge (dukkhāpaṭipado dandhābhiñño), associ-
ated with difficult practice and rapid direct knowledge
(dukkhāpaṭipado khippābhiñño), associated with easy
practice and slow direct knowledge (sukhāpaṭipado
dandhābhiñño), and associated with easy practice and
rapid direct knowledge (sukhāpaṭipado khippābhiñño).
Here the terms ”practice” (paṭipadā) and “direct
knowledge” (abhiñña) have been used in a technical
sense. The meditation practices from the first effort up
to access-concentration are called ”practice.” The
knowledge that functions from access-concentration up
to fixed-concentration is called ”direct knowledge.”
Now, the practice may be difficult or easy, and the
attainment of direct knowledge slow or rapid. Accord-
ingly the four alternatives are possible.
(b) Limited concentration with a limited object (paritto
parittārammaṇo); limited concentration with an unlim-
ited object (paritto appamāṇārammaṇo), unlimited
concentration with a limited object (appamāṇo parit-
tārammaṇo), and unlimited concentration with an
unlimited object (appamāṇo appamāṇārammaṇo). The
first refers to concentration attained on an undevel-
oped mental image or sign (nimitta), and which cannot
be the basis for attaining a higher jhāna. The second

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 Chapter II: Concentration

refers to concentration attained on a developed sign,

but cannot serve as the basis for attaining a higher
jhāna. The third refers to concentration attained on an
undeveloped sign, but can serve as the basis for attain-
ing a higher jhāna. The fourth refers to concentration
attained on an unlimited sign and which can also serve
as the basis for attaining a higher jhāna.
(c) Associated with applied thought, sustained thought,
rapture, bliss and concentration (vitakka-vicāra pīti-
sukha-samādhi-sahitaṃ), associated with rapture, bliss
and concentration (pīti-sukha-samādhi-sahitaṃ),
associated with bliss and concentration (sukha-samā-
dhi-sahitaṃ), and associated with equanimity and
concentration (upekkhā-samādhi-sahitaṃ). In their
consecutive order, they refer to the four jhānas accord-
ing to the four-fold method.
(d) Concentration partaking of diminution (hāna-bhāgiya),
concentration partaking of stagnation (ṭhiti-bhāgiya),
concentration partaking of distinction (visesabhāgiya),
and concentration partaking of penetration (nibbedha-
bhāgiya). The first refers to a jhāna which may be lost
due to the influence of unfavourable conditions. The
second refers to a jhāna which remains steady due to
the presence of favourable conditions. The third refers
to a jhāna which remains not only steady, but can also
be the basis for attaining the higher jhānic states. The
fourth refers to a jhāna on the basis of which a medita-
tor can penetrate into the true nature of things.
(e) Concentration of the sensual plane (kāmāvacaro
samādhi), concentration of the fine-material plane
(rūpāvacaro samādhi), concentration of the immaterial
plane (arūpāvacaro samādhi), and concentration of the
supramundane plane (apariyāpanno samādhi). This
classification has been done according to the four planes
of consciousness.
(f) Concentration attained on the basis of willpower
(chanda-samādhi), that attained on the basis of strong
endeavour (viriya-samādhi), that attained on the basis

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 Guide Through the Visuddhimagga

of mind-control (citta-samādhi), and that attained on

the basis of investigation (vīmaṃsa-samādhi).
(5) In the fifth classification, concentration has been taken into
consideration according to the five-fold method of classify-
ing jhānas.
(v) What is its defilement? Concentration is said to be defiled due
to the presence of unfavourable conditions which would cause
the fall of the meditator from a higher state to a lower one.
(vi) What is its cleansing? Concentration is said to be purified due
to the presence of favourable conditions which would help the
meditator in attaining a higher state from a lower one.
(vii) How should it be developed? The explanation of this topic cov-
ers as many as two hundred pages. It is dealt with under the
heading below.
(viii) What are the benefits of the development of concentration?
The benefits of concentration are summarised in Section III
below. Among them, the attainment of the one-pointedness of
mind for penetrating into the true nature of things is the most
important.

Development of Concentration
VISM III
Forty Subjects of Meditation
There are forty subjects of meditation (kammaṭṭhāna):
(i) Ten kasiṇas: earth-kasiṇa, water-kasiṇa, fire-kasiṇa, air-kasiṇa,
blue-kasiṇa, yellow-kasiṇa, red-kasiṇa, white-kasiṇa, light-
kasiṇa, and limited space-kasiṇa.
(ii) Ten kinds of foulness (asubha): the bloated state, the livid
state, the festering state, the cut-up state, the gnawed state, the
scattered state, the hacked and scattered state, the bleeding
state, the worm-infested state, and the state of a skeleton.
(iii) The ten kinds of recollection (anussatiyo): recollection of the
Buddha, recollection of the Dhamma, recollection of the Saṅgha,
recollection of virtue, recollection of generosity, recollection of

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 Chapter II: Concentration

deities, mindfulness of death, mindfulness of the body, mindful-

ness of breathing, and recollection of peace.
(iv) The four sublime states (brahmavihāra): universal love
(mettā), compassion (karuṇā), sympathetic joy (mudita), and
equanimity (upekkhā).
(v) The four immaterial states (āruppa): the state of boundless
space (ākāsānañcāyatana), the state of boundless conscious-
ness (viññāṇañcāyatana), the state of nothingness (ākiñcaññā-
yatana), and the state of neither perception nor non-
perception (nevasaññānāsaññāyatana).
(vi) One perception (ekasaññā).
(vii) One defining (ekavavatthāna).10
Among the forty subjects of meditation two—loving kindness
and mindfulness of death—are beneficial to all under all circum-
stances. Loving kindness creates a peaceful atmosphere and the
mindfulness of death creates an urge in the meditator to lead the
religious life in all earnestness. As regards the other meditation sub-
jects, a meditator chooses one according to his temperament.
Ten Impediments
The meditator has to give undivided attention to the meditation prac-
tices to attain good results. For this purpose he has to keep his mind
entirely free from other affairs which could disturb it. In this connec-
tion Buddhaghosācariya refers to the ten impediments or pa¿ibodha
found in the following verse (gāthā):
A dwelling, family, and gain
A class, and building too as fifth,
And travel, kin, affliction, books,
And supernormal powers: ten.11
(i) Dwelling place or abode (āvāsa) can be an obstacle if one takes
an interest in its affairs, and has attachment to it. In this con-
nection Buddhaghosācariya relates a story to show that for one
who has no attachment, an abode cannot be an obstacle.

10. For their detailed explanation see Chapter 2, Section 2, below.

11. Translation by Bh. Ñāṇamoli, The Path of Purification, III. 29.

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 Guide Through the Visuddhimagga

(ii) Family (kulaṃ) refers to the families of one’s relatives and those
of one’s lay devotees. By too much of association with them, one
is likely to develop attachment to them. Here too, the teacher
relates the story of a young bhikkhu who had developed detach-
ment to such an extent that he did not disclose himself to his
parents even on visiting them after a long absence.
(iii) Gain (lābha): Sometimes requisites (paccaya) become a source
of hindrance. This is especially true of monks of reputation,
who are in great demand for religious performances to receive
requisites, etc. As they remain busy with them, they do not get
time for meditation.
(iv) Group of students (gaṇa) refers to a teacher of Dhamma—one
who is busy with teaching work also does not get time for med-
itation. Therefore students are said to be a source of hindrance.
(v) Work (kamma) refers to construction work; such work
becomes a constant source of distraction.
(vi) Travel (addhāna): Sometimes a monk is required to go to some
other place to participate in a religious ceremony, or to receive
requisites. The meditator should be free from such duties
before taking up meditation.
(vii) Relatives (ñāti) refers to illness of one’s blood relations, teach-
ers, disciples and fellow-brethren. Their illness becomes a
source of distraction. Therefore the meditator has to do his
duties to them before taking up meditation.
(viii) Disease (ābādha): When suffering from a disease, one has to
undergo treatment and get rid of it. Nonetheless, if it is a lin-
gering disease, one may take the risk and devote oneself to
meditation.
(ix) Scriptures (gantha) are a hindrance to one who is often busy
with their study.
(x) Miraculous powers (iddhi) are attained at a certain stage of
meditation. Interest in them becomes a hindrance to further
progress, especially in insight-knowledge (vipassanā). There-
fore temptation for iddhi should be overcome.
In addition to the above, Buddhaghosācariya also refers to
what he calls khuddaka-pa¿ibodha or small impediments, such as
long hair and nails to be cut, old robes to be mended, and bowls to
be cleansed, and so on.

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 Chapter II: Concentration

Kalyāṇamitta or the Spiritual Teacher

Kalyāṇamitta literally means a good friend. Here the reference is to
a spiritual teacher. After getting rid of all possible hindrances, the
prospective meditator should seek out a competent teacher (ācariya)
who can give him proper guidance.
The Buddha was the noblest friend. Referring to this fact, once
the Buddha remarked, “Ānanda, having come to me—the good
friend—living beings subject to birth, old age, sickness and death
become free from it” (S I 87). Therefore it goes without saying that if
the Buddha were living the meditator should go to him. In his
absence, the meditator should go to one of the following persons in
their descending order: an arahant, a non-returner (anāgāmi), a
once-returner (sakadāgāmi), a stream-enterer (sotāpanna), a world-
ling (puthujjana) who practises jhāna, a master of the three collec-
tions of scriptures (piṭaka), a master of two collections, a master of
one collection, a master of one section of scriptures with its com-
mentary, and lastly a conscientious teacher (lajjī) who has cultivated
self-control.
If the meditator finds a competent teacher in his own monastery,
well and good. If not, he should go to a monastery where such a
teacher resides. Once there, he should not be in a hurry to tell him
about the purpose of his coming. He should just keep on doing his
duties and wait for a few days. In due course, if the teacher does not
ask him about the purpose of his coming, he should find a suitable
occasion and tell him about it. He should express his earnestness by
telling him that he is ready even to sacrifice his life for the noble
cause. When he has thus won his confidence, the teacher is sure to
give him a suitable meditation subject with necessary instructions.
Temperament
A meditation subject has to be prescribed for a meditator according
to his temperament (cariyā). A spiritual teacher who has got the
knowledge of reading the thoughts of others (paracittavijānana-
ñāṇa) can easily ascertain the temperament of a candidate. But one
without such knowledge has to keep the candidate under observa-
tion for some time and ascertain his temperament before prescribing
a suitable meditation subject.

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 Guide Through the Visuddhimagga

In this connection six temperaments have been mentioned

according to the following mental leanings: greed (rāga), hate
(dosa), delusion (moha), faith (saddhā), intelligence (buddhi), and
speculation (vitakka).
Buddhaghosācariya refers to some teacher who believed in the
existence of 14 temperaments—the six basic types and eight others
of a mixed character. With reference to this opinion, he says that if
temperaments of a mixed character are taken into consideration,
there could be many more temperaments.
He also refers to the opinion of some other teachers who
believed in the existence of three more temperaments— craving
(taṇhā), conceit (māna), and false view (diṭṭhi).
With reference to these, he points out that craving (taṇhā) is
the same as greed (rāga), conceit (māna) is closely related to the
same. Then again, false view (diṭṭhi) does not exist apart from delu-
sion (moha). As such, the first two have to be included in the greed
temperament, and the last in the delusion temperament respec-
tively. Therefore only the six temperaments given in the beginning
have to be treated as basic types.
Though different in nature, some similarity exists between the
wholesome and unwholesome temperaments in their mode of
expression. For instance, strong faith (saddhā) arises in a greed tem-
perament, since greed is strong in nature. Conversely, if among the
unwholesome mental states, greed is mild in nature, then among the
wholesome mental states faith is mild. Greed keeps on looking for
sense-objects, and faith keeps on looking for virtues. Greed does not
give up what is harmful, and faith does not give up what is benefi-
cial. Thus they may be said to be parallel in consideration of these
points of similarity. In the same way hate (dosa) and intelligence
(buddhi) on the one hand, and delusion and speculation (vitakka)
on the other have also been compared.
Sources of Temperaments
Initially Buddhaghosācariya refers to two explanations of the
unwholesome temperaments given by Upatissa Thera in the Vimutti-
magga. According to Upatissa Thera, the nature of the first three
temperaments is conditioned by the previous lives of the individuals
concerned. Thus those who performed good deeds with attachment

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 Chapter II: Concentration

in their previous lives, and were born in a divine world (devaloka),

have in their present life a disposition for greed. Those who prac-
tised violence in their previous lives, and were born in hells and the
Nāga world, have a disposition for hate in the present life. Those
who indulged in intoxicating things, and did not care to acquire
knowledge, or those who were born among the animals, have delu-
sion in predominance in their present life.
Secondly, Upatissa Thera explains these temperaments on the
basis of the predominance of the four elements: earth, water, fire
and air. Thus those of a deluded temperament have in their body
more of earth and fire, those of a hating temperament have more of
water and air, and those of a greedy temperament have all the four
elements in equal proportion.
Buddhaghosācariya says that the above two explanations are of
a general nature, and as such there is nothing in them to determine
the nature of an individual temperament. With these remarks he
proceeds to give the orthodox explanation in keeping with the inter-
pretations of the old commentaries.
According to this explanation the different temperaments have
been determined according to the nature of rebirth-linking-mind
(paṭisandhi-citta). Thus those whose actions were mostly motivated
by greed, hatred and delusion are born with the respective tempera-
ments. The three wholesome temperaments have to be explained
with reference to the respective mental states. As regards those of a
mixed character, they have to be accounted for with reference to the
mental states concerned. In support of this explanation Buddha-
ghosācariya quotes at length from an exposition of the topic given in
the commentary on the Majjhima Nikāya.
How to Ascertain the Temperaments
The temperaments may be ascertained with reference to five points.
They have been stated in the following gāthā:
By the posture, by the action,
By eating, seeing, and so on,
By the kind of states occurring,
May temperament be recognized.12

12. Translation by Bh. Ñāṇamoli, The Path of Purification, III. 87.

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 Guide Through the Visuddhimagga

(i) Posture (iriyāpatha). Walking (gamana) of the greed tempera-

ment is orderly, that of the hatred temperament is rough, and
that of the delusion temperament is disorderly. This explana-
tion has been supported with a quotation from Māgandiya-
sutta of Suttanipāta.
The above explanation is more or less true for the remaining
three postures also—standing (ṭhāna), sitting (nisajjā), and
lying (seyyā). The wholesome temperaments are to be under-
stood more or less in the same way according to their parallel
cases.
(ii) Action (kicca). The greed temperament does things in a sys-
tematic and orderly manner, the hatred temperament does
them in a haphazard way, and the delusion temperament does
them in an unsystematic and disorderly manner. This has been
illustrated with reference to the act of sweeping. In fact, this
difference can be observed in all their actions. The wholesome
temperaments have to be understood according to their paral-
lel cases.
(iii) Food (bhojana). The greed temperament likes soft and sweet
food. While taking it, he would relish it. He is pleased to
receive some good food. The hatred temperament likes hot and
sour things. He would take things in a hurry without relishing
them. The delusion temperament (mohacarita) has no settled
choice. He would take things without paying much attention
and besmear his face with them. All the time he would be
thinking of this and that.
(iv) Seeing, etc. (dassanādito). When the greed temperament hap-
pens to see an object even slightly pleasing, he would look at it
as if surprised. He would express admiration even for a trivial
virtue, and would overlook faults. When the hatred tempera-
ment happens to see even a slightly unpleasant object, he
would try to avoid it as if tired. He would be irritated even at a
trivial fault. He would not recognise even great virtues. The
attitude of mohacarita towards objects of the above description
is indifferent. It is the indifference of the ignorant. He depends
on others for his opinion about them. In fact, he repeats what
others say. This is true of their reaction to other objects also.

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The wholesome temperaments are to be understood with refer-

ence to their parallel cases.
(v) Occurrence of mental states (dhammappavatti). The explana-
tions given under the four headings above mainly related to
the unwholesome temperaments, and the wholesome tempera-
ments were to be understood according to the parallel cases.
Under the present heading, all the six basic temperaments are
explained individually.
(a) The greed temperament is frequently influenced by the
following mental states—deceitfulness, fraud, pride, evil
desires, ambition, discontent, self-aggrandisement, and
vanity.
(b) The hatred temperament is frequently influenced by the fol-
lowing mental states—anger, enmity, disparaging, domi-
neering, envy and avarice.
(c) The delusion temperament is frequently influenced by the
following states—stiffness, torpor, agitation, worry, uncer-
tainty, and holding fast to a certain view.
(d) The faith temperament is frequently influenced by the fol-
lowing states—generosity, desire to see noble ones, desire to
listen to religious discourses, joy, ingenuousness, honesty,
and trust in things that inspire trust.
(e) The intelligence temperament is frequented by the following
states—readiness to be spoken to, possession of good
friends, moderation in eating, mindfulness, full awareness,
wakefulness, urge for religious life, and exertion.
(f) The speculation temperament is frequented by the following
states—talkativeness, sociability, not taking interest in good
works, failure to finish undertakings, making plans at night
and executing them at day time, and mentally roaming
about.
The following meditation subjects have been suggested for the
temperaments concerned:
Temperament Meditation subject
greed ten foulnesses and mindfulness of the body
hatred four divine abidings and four colour kasiṇa
delusion mindfulness of breathing

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 Guide Through the Visuddhimagga

faith six kinds of recollection

intelligence mindfulness of death, recollection of peace,
defining the elements, repulsiveness of food
speculation mindfulness of breathing
The remaining kasiṇas and the four immaterial states (āruppa)
are suitable for all temperaments.
At the end of the discussion of the temperaments, Buddha-
ghosācariya says that no explanation of the temperamental types is
given in the texts or the commentaries. These explanations are based
on the opinions of the teacher. They should, therefore, be treated as
so many suggestions for understanding different temperaments.

A Suitable Place
After receiving a meditation subject from the teacher, the meditator
has to find out a suitable place for meditation. If it is possible for him
to live in the monastery of the teacher, well and good. If not he has
to find out a suitable place, not far from that of the teacher, so that
he may go to him from time to time for advice.
In this connection Buddhaghosācariya has pointed out the fol-
lowing eighteen monasteries as unsuitable for him: (1) a large mon-
astery where there are many disturbances; (2) a new monastery
where construction work is going on; (3) a dilapidated monastery
where reparation work is going on; (4) a monastery by the side of a
main road, where people may visit day and night; (5) a monastery
by the side of a rocky pool, where people often come for water; (6) a
monastery close to a place of edible leaves, where people often come
to pick them up; (7) a place of flower trees, where people often
come for flowers; (8) a place of fruit-bearing trees, where people
come for fruits; (9) a famous shrine, where people often come for
worship; (10) a monastery close to a city, where people may often
assemble; (11) a monastery close to a place of timber trees, where
people may come for timber; (12) a monastery surrounded by fields,
where disputes may arise; (13) a monastery where there are disa-
greeable persons; (14) a monastery near a market place, where peo-
ple assemble from various places for transaction of business; (15) a
monastery in a remote area, where people have no faith in religious
life; (16) a monastery in a border area which is in dispute; (17) all

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other places which are likely to create disturbances; and (18) a place
where it is not possible to have a spiritual teacher.
A large abode, a new abode,
One tumbling down, one near a road,
One with a pond, or leaves, or flowers
Or fruits, or one that people seek;
In cities, among timber, fields,
Where people quarrel, in a port,
On border lands, on frontiers,
Unsuitableness and no good friend—
These are the eighteen instances
A wise man needs to recognise
And give them full as wide a berth
As any foot-pad hunted road.13
Conversely, a place suitable for meditation practices should ful-
fil the following conditions: (a) neither far from nor too close to the
gocaragāma (alms resort), and easy of access; (b) not crowded by
day, quiet at night; (c) not exposed to mosquitoes, serpents, strong
wind and sun; (d) easy to obtain the four requisites; and (e) there
are learned and well-disciplined elderly monks whom the meditator
may approach from time to time for instructions.

The Earth-Kasiṇa
Having selected a suitable place, the meditator may meditate on a
kasiṇa-disk (maṇḍala), say, of the earth-kasiṇa.14 The earth-kasiṇa is
said to be of two kinds—made-up (kata) and not made-up (akata).
Directions have been given as to what kind of earth has to be used, in
what shape and size the maṇḍala has to be prepared. The made-up
maṇḍala may be fixed at a place (tatraṭṭhaka), or portable
(saṃhārima). The meditator may carry the latter along with him
wherever he goes, and concentrate on it according to his convenience.

13. Transl. Bh. Ñāṇamoli, The Path of Purification, IV. 18.

14. Kasiṇa means ”wholeness” or ”entirety” and this refers to the all-
pervading nature of the disk when it has been developed fully. As is said
in MN 77.24: “He perceives the earth kasiṇa above, below, around,
undivided, measureless.”

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 Guide Through the Visuddhimagga

A disk which is not made up is a natural one, such as a field

that has been just ploughed. A meditator with experience of medita-
tion in previous existences can easily obtain nimitta on a disk which
is not made up. But one without such experience has to have a disk
which is made up for his meditation.

Three Kinds of Sign

Here sign (nimitta) refers to the object of meditation. There are
three kinds of sign: preparatory sign (parikamma-nimitta), grasping
sign (uggaha-nimitta) and counterpart sign (paṭibhāga-nimitta).
The preparatory sign (parikamma-nimitta) is the actual object
selected by the meditator for concentration, such as the earth kasiṇa
disk in the present case. To begin with, he has to withdraw his mind
from all sides and concentrate it on the object.
The grasping image (uggaha-nimitta) is the mental image of
the object of concentration. While trying to concentrate his mind on
the maṇḍala, from time to time the meditator has to close his eyes
and visualize it. In the course of this practice, a stage comes where
he is able to visualize it without the help of the maṇḍala. Then the
meditator is said to have obtained the uggaha-nimitta or the after-
image.
The counterpart sign (paṭibhāga-nimitta) is the transformed
after-image. After obtaining the grasping sign, the meditator develops
it further. In the course of continued practice on it, details disappear
and the after-image emerges in full brilliance like a looking glass
taken out of its case, or a well polished plate made of the mother of
pearls, or the disc of the moon just emerged out of a cloud, or the
cranes that appear against the back-ground of a rain-cloud.
Access-Concentration and Fixed-Concentration
Concentration is two-fold: access-concentration (upacāra-samādhi)
and fixed-concentration (appanā-samādhi). Access-concentration is
so called because it immediately precedes fixed-concentration. This
state is attained when the counterpart image (paṭibhāga-nimitta)
arises. In this state, the five hindrances (nīvaraṇa)—sensuous pas-
sion, ill-will, sloth and torpor, distraction and worry, perplexity and
ignorance—are overcome. But this state of concentration is not
steady. It has been compared to a child not yet able to stand steady,
but all the time trying to do so.

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Appanā is full-fledged concentration or absorption. This

ecstatic state is steady. A meditator who attains it is able to remain
in it as long as he likes. Therefore it has been compared to a strong
man who is able to stand on his legs for a long time. In this state of
concentration, not only the five hindrances have been overcome, but
the constituents of jhāna—application of mind on the object, sus-
taining it, rapture, bliss and concentration—also become manifest.
Measures for the Preservation of the Counterpart
Image
It is by developing the counterpart sign that the meditator can attain
fixed-concentration. It is only after making great efforts that this sign
can be obtained. So if fixed-concentration (appanā) can be attained
immediately, well and good. If not, the counterpart sign must be pro-
tected with great care for future development. In this he has to be very
particular about the selection of the following conditions:
(i) Abode or āvāsa. He has to select an abode whose atmosphere is
suitable for meditation practices.
(ii) Alms-resort (gocara). It must be at a reasonable distance from
the abode.
(iii) Talk (bhassaṃ). He must not indulge in any kind of talk likely
to lead to the loss of the sign (nimitta). In this connection the
thirty-two kinds of unsuitable talk (M-a III 233; cf. MN 76.4)
and the 10 kinds of suitable talk (MN 24.2) are referred to.
(iv) Person (puggala). He should associate with virtuous and pious
persons who take interest in the religious life.
(v) Food (bhojana). Not all kinds of food are agreeable to every
person. Therefore what is agreeable to one must be taken.
(vi) Climate (utu). Not every climate suits every person. Therefore
the meditator must live in a climate suitable to his constitution.
(vii) Posture or iriyāpatha. Among the four postures, what is helpful
in keeping with one’s concentration should be adopted.
When the meditator develops the counterpart sign (paṭibhāga-
nimitta) with these safeguards, he may attain fixed-concentration
before long. If not, he has to gain further ten-fold skill in fixed-con-
centration (appanā-kosalla):

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 Guide Through the Visuddhimagga

(i) The body and the personal belongings of the meditator should
be kept clean (vatthu-visadakiriyatā).
(ii) Equilibrium of the five ethical faculties—faith, energy, mind-
fulness, concentration, and knowledge—has to be maintained
(indriya-samatta-paṭipādanatā). When one of them is predomi-
nant, others are not able to perform their functions properly.
For instance, when faith becomes predominant other faculties
become weak in nature. The story of Vakkali Thera has been
cited to illustrate the point (SN 22:87). This is generally true of
other faculties also. The balance between faith and knowledge
on the one hand, and energy and concentration on the other
also has to be maintained. Strong mindfulness is desirable, as it
functions as the sentinel of the mind.
(iii) Skill in the sign (nimitta-kosallaṃ) is needed. It is three-fold:
The first refers to skill in obtaining the sign of a kasiṇa-disk,
etc. The second refers to skill in developing it. The third refers
to skill in safe-guarding the same.
(iv) When the mind is slack, it should be roused up by developing
the following three factors of enlightenment—investigation of
states, energy and rapture. The development of the last three
factors—tranquillity, concentration and equanimity—would
have the opposite effect. In this connection the Master has
said: If a man, who wants to make a small fire, were to put wet
cow-dung, grass, sticks, etc., he would not succeed in it. In the
same way, when the mind is slack, it could not be roused up by
developing the last three factors of enlightenment. On the
other hand if the person, who wants to make a fire, were to put
dry cow-dung, grass, sticks, etc., he would succeed. In the
same way, when the mind is slack, it could be roused up by
developing the first three factors of enlightenment.
(v) The mind should be restrained (niggahetabbaṃ) when it is
necessary to do so. When the mind gets excited due to too much
of exertion, it has to be calmed down by development of the
following three factors of enlightenment—tranquillity, concen-
tration and equanimity. The development of the three factors of
investigation of states, energy and rapture would have the oppo-
site effect. These two cases have been explained with reference
to the above two similes used in the reverse order.

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(vi) When the mind gets dejected, it has to be gladdened (sampa-

haṃsitabbaṃ). It is when the expected results are not forthcom-
ing that the mind falls into this state. So it has to be encouraged
by reviewing the eight conditions for keeping alive a sense of
urgency: birth, decay, disease, death, suffering in the states of
misery, suffering in the past, suffering in the future, and suffer-
ing in the present in seeking for food. Further the mind has to be
inspired by contemplating the qualities of the Triple Gem. This
practice would keep up the urge for a religious life.
(vii) The mind should be regarded with equanimity (ajjhupekkhitab-
baṃ) when it is necessary to do so. When the mind is on the
right path moving smoothly, the meditator should adopt an
attitude of equanimity. He should be like the charioteer who
just watches the horses when they are moving smoothly.
(viii) He should not associate with those who are not given to the
practice of concentration (asamāhitapuggala-parivajjanatā).
(ix) From time to time he should associate with those who are
given to such practices (samāhitapuggala-sevanatā).
(x) He should have full confidence in the merits of concentration
(tadadhimuttatā).
After so much of mental training, the meditator may attain
fixed-concentration. If not, he should not be disheartened or excited,
but should keep up his effort by maintaining mental equilibrium.
This has been explained with reference to five beautiful similes:
 a bee, which maintains the balance of its flight, reaches a
tree in full bloom, collects honey and enjoys it;
 a medical student, who maintains the balance of his hand,
successfully operates upon a lotus leaf and gets through his
test;
 a man who maintains the balance of his hand, wraps the
cobweb round a stick without breaking it at any place, and
receives reward for his dexterity;
 the sailor, who raises or lowers his sail according to the
speed of the wind, would reach his destination safely; or
 a student, who would pour oil into a tube without spilling it,
would receive reward from his teacher.

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In the same way, the meditator who maintains his mental equi-
librium and keeps up his effort is sure to attain fixed-concentration
in due course.
As a meditator is focussing his attention on the counterpart
sign, and fixed-concentration is about to arise, there will be a break
in the life-continuum (bhavaṅga). Then the mind-door conscious-
ness (manodvārāvajjana) will function. Immediately after, there will
arise four or five active types of consciousness (javana-cittāni). The
meditator will attain the fine-material plane (rūpāvacara-bhūmi) in
relation to the fourth or the fifth type of consciousness. In the former
case, the first three types belong to the sensual plane, and in the lat-
ter case, the first four belong to it.

The First Jhāna

With the attainment of the fixed-concentration the meditator is said
to have obtained the first jhāna. It is free from the five factors (pañ-
caṅga-vippahīnaṃ) called hindrances: sensuous passion, ill-will,
sloth and torpor, distraction and worry, and perplexity.
Here it has to be noted that though other unwholesome mental
states have not been mentioned, their absence is understood, for no
jhāna can be attained when any of the unwholesome states is present.
The jhānas of the fine-material plane are attained by transcending the
sensual plane. The five hindrances have a special reference to this
plane. Therefore they have been specially mentioned in the present
case.
The first jhāna is said to be associated with five factors: applied
thought (vitakka), sustained thought (vicāra), rapture (pīti), bliss
(sukha), and concentration (ekaggatā). Applied thought (vitakka)
and sustained thought (vicāra) are two states of one and the same
process—therefore sometimes one cannot be separated from the
other. The fine distinction between the two has been explained with
several beautiful similes:
 vitakka is like the striking of a bell, and vicāra is like the
reverberation of the same;
 vitakka is like the flapping of wings and taking air by a bird,
and vicāra is like its smooth movement;
 vitakka is like the movement of a bee towards a lotus flower,
and vicāra is like its hovering over it;

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 vitakka is like the hand that grasps a dish, and vicāra is like
the hand that rubs it; or
 vitakka is like the pin of the compass set in the centre of a
circle, and vicāra is like the pin that revolves round it.
Rapture is five-fold: minor rapture (khuddaka-pīti), momentary
rapture (khaṇika-pīti), overwhelming rapture (okkantika-pīti), uplift-
ing rapture (ubbega-pīti), and pervading rapture (pharaṇa-pīti).
The minor rapture is just able to raise the hairs on the body.
The momentary rapture just appears and disappears like a flash of
lightning. Overwhelming rapture breaks over the body like waves on
the sea shore. Uplifting rapture is able to lift one bodily into the air.
This has been illustrated by two anecdotes—one of Mahātissa Thera
and the other of a girl of the village of Vattakālaka. Pervading rap-
ture suffuses the whole body with a thrilling sensation. In the con-
text of jhāna the last is meant.
The distinction between rapture (pīti) and bliss (sukha) is also
very subtle. One arises when a person obtains a desirable object and
the other when it is enjoyed. For instance, when a traveller,
exhausted in a desert, happens to hear the sound of water or catches
the sight of a wood at some distance, he feels rapture; when he
reaches the place and drinks water in the shade, he feels bliss.
Where there is rapture there must be bliss, but where there is bliss
there may not necessarily be rapture.

The Three Excellences and the Ten Characteristics

Every jhāna—including the first jhāna—has three excellences
(kalyāṇāni) and ten characteristics (lakkhaṇāni). The first excellence
is the purity of the path of the jhāna. The second excellence is adopt-
ing an attitude of equanimity towards the path that has been treaded.
The third excellence is feeling satisfaction at the achievements made
so far. The first excellence has three characteristics, the second also
has three characteristics, and the third has four characteristics.
As regards the three characteristics of the first excellence, the
first is purification of the mind from obstructions to the first jhāna;
the second is its movement towards the state of serenity; and the
third is the attainment of the same.
As regards the three characteristics of the second excellence,
the first is equanimity at the purified mind; the second is equanimity

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at its movement towards the state of serenity; and the third is equa-
nimity at having attained the same.
As regards the four characteristics of the third excellence, the
first is satisfaction at the equilibrium of the mental states; the second
is satisfaction at the harmonious function of the faculties; the third is
satisfaction at the effective nature of energy; and the fourth is satis-
faction at repetition.
Thus there are three excellences and ten characteristics of the
first jhāna. This is true of the remaining jhānas also.
The Five Masteries
After attaining the first jhāna the meditator should not be in a hurry
to attain the second. In trying to do so, he may even lose what he
has already gained. The first jhāna is not yet in a mature state. He
has to consolidate what he has achieved before making efforts for
further progress. He has to repeat the process, attain the jhāna again
and again, and gain proficiency in it. What are known as five master-
ies (vasiyo) have been recommended for that purpose.
(i) The meditator should be able to attend to the jhāna whenever,
wherever and for as long as he wishes. This is called mastery of
attendance (āvajjanā-vasī).
(ii) He should be able to attain it whenever, wherever and as soon
as he wishes. This is called mastery of attaining (samāpajjanā-
vasī).
(iii) He should be able to remain in the jhāna whenever, wherever
and for as long as he wishes. This is called mastery of resolving
(adhiṭṭhāna-vasī).
(iv) He should be able to rise from the jhāna whenever, wherever
and as soon as he wishes. This is called the mastery of rising
(uṭṭhāna-vasī).
(v) He should be able to review the jhāna whenever, wherever and
for as long as he wishes. This is called the mastery of reviewing
(paccavekkhaṇā-vasī).

The Second Jhāna

When the meditator has gained proficiency in the first jhāna he
reviews the nature of its factors. Vitakka and vicāra appear as gross
in nature and closer to the sensual plane. He does not feel it safe to

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be in this state. So he makes efforts for the attainment of the second

jhāna. With this object in view, he concentrates on the sign of the
earth kasiṇa (pathavī-kasiṇa-nimitta) and follows the same process
as he did in the case of the first jhāna.
Now he attains the second jhāna which is free from two fac-
tors—applied thought (vitakka), sustained thought (vicāra)—and
which is associated with three factors—rapture (pīti), bliss (sukha),
and unification (ekaggatā). Being free from vitakka and vicāra, faith
or saddhā becomes very strong in this jhāna. As a result, the mind
becomes more and more tranquil and concentrated.
The Third Jhāna
After rising from the second jhāna the meditator reviews its factors
and observes rapture (pīti) as gross in nature and the remaining two
factors as peaceful. So he concentrates again on the sign of the earth
kasiṇa, follows the same method and attains the third jhāna which is
free from one factor—rapture—and is associated with two factors—
bliss (sukha), and unification (ekaggatā).
The rapture that the meditator has abandoned is alluring in
nature. So he has to be mindful not to be drawn away by it. Then
again in this jhāna his mind and body are suffused with bliss
(sukha). It is also extremely sweet in nature. Still the meditator is
able to adopt an attitude of equanimity (upekkhā) towards it. For
these reasons, this state has been highly praised by the noble ones.
The Fourth Jhāna
After rising from the third jhāna, the meditator observes bliss
(sukha) also as gross in nature, and equanimity (upekkhā) and unifi-
cation (ekaggatā) alone as peaceful. So he concentrates again on the
sign of the earth kasiṇa and attains the fourth jhāna which is free
from one factor—bliss, and is associated with two factors, equanim-
ity and unification. In this jhāna, equanimity or upekkhā appears in
its purest form.
This is the explanation of the jhānas according to the four-fold
method (catukka-naya). According to the five-fold method (pañ-
caka-naya), there are five jhānas. When a meditator who attains the
first jhāna observes only applied thought (vitakka) as gross in
nature, he abandons only applied thought and attains the second
jhāna which is associated with four factors. Accordingly the second

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jhāna of the four-fold method has to be treated as second and third

of the five-fold method by dividing its two factors. The third and the
fourth jhāna of the first method become the fourth and the fifth of
the second method. As regards the first jhāna, there is no change.

SECTION II
The Meditation Subjects
There are forty subjects of concentration meditation
(kammaṭṭhāna). Except for the earth kasiṇa, they have only been
referred to above briefly. Here a more detailed explanation of the
same is given.

1. The 10 Kasiṇas (Vism V)

The ten kasiṇa are (i) earth, (ii) water, (iii) fire, (iv) air, (v) blue,
(vi) yellow, (vii) red, (viii) white, (ix) light, and (x) limited space.
(i) The first kasiṇa, earth, has already been explained in full. The
general details given in it are applicable to all the kasiṇas.
Therefore in the case of the remaining kasiṇas, only their spe-
cial nature will be mentioned.
(ii) The water-kasiṇa is also two-fold: made-up (kata) and not
made-up (akata). A vessel filled with clean water up to the
brim belongs to the first category. A pool, lake, lagoon, etc.,
belong to the second category. A meditator who is new to the
practice has to make use of the former. One with previous
experience may use the latter.
(iii) The fire-kasiṇa is also two-fold: made-up and not made-up. As
regards the first, the meditator has to make it in a sheltered
place. A piece of cloth or some such thing with a hole in the
centre has to be hung in front of it. Then the meditator has to
concentrate just on the flame through the hole without paying
attention to other details. The second is represented by the
flame of a lamp, furnace and so on.
(iv) The nimitta of the air-kasiṇa is gained in two ways—by sight
and by touch. In the first case, it is gained by noticing movement
of plants, trees and even the hair of the body. In the second case,
it is gained by feeling its touch on one’s body.

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(v) The blue-kasiṇa is also two-fold: made-up and not made-up. The
kasiṇa is prepared by spreading blue flowers on a casket with
petals upwards, or by fastening pieces of blue cloth over the rim
of a tray or a casket. A kasiṇa-disk (maṇḍala) may also be drawn
on a wall with blue dye. As regards the second kind, a bush with
blue flowers, a blue cloth or gem, etc., can serve the purpose.
(vi-viii) The yellow, red, and white kasiṇas have to be understood
more or less in the same manner as the blue kasiṇa. The only
difference is that in preparing these kasiṇas the materials of
the respective colours have to be used.
(ix) The light-kasiṇa is also two-fold: made-up and not made-up.
To have the first, a fire may be made in a vessel with a hole in
it, and then it be so placed that the light may reflect on the
wall through the hole and form a circle. As regards the second,
a circle formed on the floor by the sunlight or moonlight pass-
ing through a ventilator, has to be treated as such. The former
is lasting and the latter is of a short duration.
(x) The limited space-kasiṇa is also two-fold: made-up and not
made-up. A hole in a wall, an opening in a window, or even a
key-hole may represent the former. As regards the latter, a hole
made in a cloth, mat, or some such thing may serve the purpose.
2. The 10 Corpse Contemplations (Vism VI)
The ten foulnesses or states of a corpse (asubhāni): (i) bloated
(uddhumātakaṃ), (ii) livid (vinīlakaṃ), (iii) festering (vipubbakaṃ),
(iv) cut-up (vicchiddakaṃ), (v) gnawed (vikkhāyitakaṃ), (vi) scat-
tered (vicchiddakaṃ), (vii) hacked and scattered (hatavikkhittakaṃ),
(viii) bleeding (lohitakaṃ), (ix) worm-infested (puluvakaṃ), and (x)
skeleton (aṭṭhikaṃ).
(i) The bloated corpse, which makes evident how the shape of the
body has undergone change, is beneficial to one who has
attachment for beautiful shapes.
(ii) The livid corpse, which makes evident how the colour has
changed, is beneficial to one who has attachment for com-
plexion.
(iii) The festering corpse, which makes evident the stench of the
body, is beneficial to one who has attachment for odours of the
body produced by flowers, perfume, etc.

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(iv) The cut-up corpse, which makes evident hollowness of the

body, is beneficial to one who has attachment for its fullness.
(v) The gnawed corpse, which makes evident the destruction of
protrusions of the flesh, is beneficial to one who has attach-
ment for protrusions of flesh at the breasts and similar parts of
the body.
(vi) The scattered corpse, which makes evident how the limbs can
be scattered, is beneficial to one who has attachment for grace
of limbs.
(vii) The hacked and the scattered corpse, which makes evident
how the build of the body can be disintegrated, is beneficial to
one who has attachment for build of the body.
(viii) The bleeding corpse, which makes evident how a body bes-
meared with blood can be repulsive, is beneficial to one who
has attachment for elegance produced by adornment.
(ix) The worm-infested body, which makes it evident that the body
is shared by so many worms, is beneficial to one who owns it
with attachment.
(x) The skeleton, which makes evident the repulsive nature of bones,
is beneficial to one who has attachment for beautiful teeth.
It is evident from these ten meditation subjects that they are
specially meant for those who are of a passionate nature. It is a matter
of psychology that for some reason or another a particular feature of
the body may have a special attraction for a certain person. The above
meditation subjects have been prescribed taking into consideration
these psychological types.
3. The 10 Recollections (Vism VII–VIII)
The ten recollections (anussatī) on: (i) the Enlightened One (Buddha),
(ii) the doctrine (Dhamma), (iii) the Order of the Noble Disciples
(Saṅgha), (iv) virtue (sīla), (v) generosity (cāga), (vi) deities (devatā),
(vii) death (maraṇa), (viii) body (kāya), (ix) breathing (ānāpānasati),
and (x) peace (upasama).
(i) The first recollection is on the qualities of the Buddha. This is
indicated in the well-known formula: “That Blessed One is
such since he is accomplished, fully enlightened, endowed with
a clear vision and virtuous conduct, sublime, the knower of the

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world, the incomparable leader of men to be tamed, teacher of

gods and men, enlightened and blessed.”
The greatness of the Buddha has to be understood in terms
of his enlightenment, his attainments and his position as a
supreme teacher. In the formula they have been referred to
under ten points.
(ii) The second recollection is on the greatness of the Dhamma. It
is given in the following formula: “The Dhamma is well pro-
claimed by the Blessed One, visible here and now, not delayed,
inviting inspection, onward leading, and directly experiencea-
ble by the wise.” Here the Dhamma has a special reference to
the noble path that leads to Nibbāna. It is to be practised by
each person for himself or herself, and the results are to be
enjoyed immediately in this very life. They have been men-
tioned in the formula under six points.
(iii) The third recollection is on the greatness of the Saṅgha. This is
given in the following formula: “The community of the Blessed
One’s disciples has entered on the straight path, the commu-
nity of the Blessed One’s disciples has entered on the true path,
the community of the Blessed One’s disciples has entered on
the proper path, that is to say, the four pairs of men, the eight
persons; this community of the Blessed One’s disciples is fit for
gifts, fit for hospitality, fit for offerings, fit for reverential salu-
tation, as an incomparable field of merit for the world.”
Here the term Saṅgha refers to the community of the noble
ones, who have attained the four supramundane paths
(magga) and the four supramundane fruits (phala). According
to the paths and fruits they represent four pairs and eight indi-
vidual types. These noble ones are worthy of gifts and venera-
tion. The greatness of the Saṅgha has been referred to under
nine points in the formula.
The above three recollections are on the Triple Gem. They are
of a devotional nature. The first gives an idea of the great teacher,
the second gives an idea of the noble path one has to tread, and the
third gives an idea of the great disciples who have reached the goal
by treading the path.
(iv) The fourth, recollection of virtue, is practised by reflecting on
the purity of virtue observed by the meditator without violation.

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He notes that it has liberated his mind from so many defile-

ments. As a result, his mind becomes more and more serene,
and gradually attains concentration.
(v) The fifth, recollection of generosity, is based on the actual
practice of generosity. After due practice, he will enjoy mental
freedom as a result of getting rid of avarice, and other
unwholesome mental states. This will lead to concentration.
(vi) In practising the sixth, recollection of the devas, the meditator
meditates on virtue, knowledge, generosity and understanding
whose cultivation leads to birth among the devas. Then he
reflects on these noble qualities as present in himself. As he is
doing so, his mind becomes more and more serene and attains
concentration.
The subjects of these three recollections are supplied by
one’s own righteous life.
(vii) The seventh recollection, mindfulness of death, has to be prac-
tised by contemplating on the inevitable nature of death. To
begin with, one should not think of the death of a near and dear
one for that would give rise to sorrow; nor should one think of
the death of a foe for that would give rise to gladness. One
should think of the death of a neutral person. In the light of the
same, he should think of the death of others. Then he should
think that his own life is subject to the same fate. The nature of
death has been explained with reference to eight points.
Attachment to life is very strong. This kind of contempla-
tion will lead to gradual abandonment of the same and other
defilements. The mind thus purified will tend towards concen-
tration.
(viii) The eighth recollection, mindfulness of the body, is on the
thirty-two parts of the body: hairs of the head, hairs of the
body, nails, teeth, skin, muscles, sinews, bones, marrow, kid-
neys, heart, liver, membranes, spleen, lungs, bowels, intes-
tines, stomach, excrement, brain, bile, digestive juices, pus,
blood, grease, fat, tears, sweat, spittle, snot, fluid of the joints
and urine. The meditator has to repeat the list of these thirty-
two parts loudly both verbally and mentally for a number of
times until the image appears.

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In the course of this practice, all the parts of the body have
to be determined by way of colour, shape, region, locality and
delimitation. Further, their five-fold repulsiveness has to be
determined by way of colour, shape, smell, origin and locality.
The natural colour of the hairs of the head is black. In shape
they are long and round like measuring rods. They grow in the
upper region. The wet inner skin that envelops the skull is the
locality. Delimitation is two-fold: one by like parts and the
other by unlike parts. As to the first—delimitation by like parts,
the hairs of the head are limited on the inside by the surface of
their own roots; on the outside by space; and all round by each
other. No two hairs are together. As regards the second—
delimitation by unlike parts—the hairs of the head are not the
hairs of the body, the hairs of the body are not the hairs of the
head. Thus the hairs of the head are not mixed up with the
remaining thirty-one parts.
As to the five-fold repulsiveness, if people happen to see
something looking like hair in a plate of gruel or rice, they
would not like it. In this way, the hairs of the head are repul-
sive through colour. When people take food at night and feel
vegetable fibres having the shape of hair, they become dis-
gusted. Thus hairs are repulsive through shape. When hair is
burnt, its smell is disgusting. Thus hairs are repulsive through
smell. This repulsiveness is stronger than that of colour and
shape. Hairs that grow on pus, blood, urine, dung, bile,
phlegm, and the like are repulsive, just as vegetables that grow
in a village sewage are repulsive to town-dwellers. This is
repulsiveness through origin. Hairs that have grown on the
heap of the thirty-one parts of the body are repulsive in nature,
just like mushrooms that have arisen on a dung-heap. This is
repulsiveness through locality.
This method has to be followed for each of the remaining
thirty-one parts also. In due course, when passion and other
unwholesome states are overcome, the meditator attains con-
centration on the nimitta of each one of the parts. The medita-
tor who is given to the practice of this meditation is able to
conquer both boredom and delight, fear and dread. He can
also endure heat, cold and other difficulties.

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(ix) Mindfulness of breathing, the ninth recollection, is practised by

focussing attention on the breath. The meditator has to begin
by counting the in-coming breath and the out-going breath. He
should count at least up to five and at most up to ten. When he
has been able to concentrate the mind to some extent, he has
to dispense with counting, and just follow the course of the
breath. If there are physical and mental disturbances, they
have to be controlled. Breath has to be regulated until inhala-
tion and exhalation take place smoothly. As he follows the
course of breath passing smoothly, it will become subtler and
subtler, and a time will come when he will feel as if it is absent.
But it is there in a very subtle form. He has to bear this in mind
and continue the practice until the counterpart sign (paṭibhā-
ganimitta) arises.
(x) The last recollection is on upasama or peace that is Nibbāna.
The meditator has to contemplate on it as the state free from
desire, and the cessation of saṃsāra, the round of rebirths. In
this connection he may take help from various epithets, such as
the unformed, the truth, the other shore, the deathlessness, the
purity and so forth, which have been used in the Suttantas.
This kind of contemplation would free the mind from defile-
ments and lead it to concentration.
Upasama is the ultimate goal of the religious life and this con-
templation would give the meditator some indirect knowledge of the
same. Direct knowledge is only possible with realization, gained by
attaining at least the first stage of sainthood.
4. The Four Divine States (Vism IX)
The four divine states are (i) loving-kindness (mettā), (ii) compassion
(karuṇā), (iii) sympathetic joy (muditā), and (iv) equanimity (upe-
kkhā).
(i) In the first place, loving-kindness has to be developed towards
oneself as follows: “May I be happy and free from suffering, may
I keep myself free from enmity, affliction and anxiety, and live
happily.” In the second place, it may be developed towards a
near and dear person, like one’s preceptor, then towards a neu-
tral person, and last of all towards an enemy, if there is one.

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When loving-kindness is practised towards an enemy,

thoughts of ill-will may arise. In that case they have to be over-
come by training the mind with reference to the following
instructions: he should (a) think of the instructions given by
the Master in the Kakacūpama-sutta (MN 21); (b) think that by
harbouring thoughts of ill-will, he would be acting as the
enemy wants him to do; (c) think only of the good points of
the enemy; (d) think that, since thoughts of ill-will are harmful
to himself, they should be treated as inimical; (d) think that all
are inheritors of their deeds (kamma); (e) think how the
Bodhisattva practised loving-kindness during many a birth, (f)
think how he was closely related to him in one form or the
other in course of saṃsāra, (g) think of eleven benefits of prac-
tising loving-kindness as given in the Mettā-sutta (AN 11:15);
(h) think of the enemy in terms of elements, and (i) exchange
gifts with him as a last resort. When the meditator trains his
mind according to one or several of these instructions, he is
sure to overcome thoughts of ill-will in due course.
He should continue this practice until all the barriers are bro-
ken, and he is able to have the same attitude towards persons of
all the categories. Further, in the light of the same, he may
develop it towards all beings in all the directions. Here it has to
be noted that even by developing loving-kindness towards a
near and dear one, the meditator may attain concentration.
(ii) In developing compassion (karuṇā), it has to be practised
towards the following persons in succession: a man in misery,
an evil-doer, a happy man who is so because of his good
kamma, a near and dear one, a neutral person, and an enemy,
if there is one. In case of an enemy, if thoughts of ill-will were
to arise, he should overcome them by following the instruc-
tions given vis-à-vis loving-kindness. Here too, the practice has
to be continued to the point of breaking down the barriers
between the persons of various categories.
(iii) As regards sympathetic joy (muditā), to begin with, it has to be
practised towards a companion who is in happy circumstances.
Then it has to be practised towards a neutral person and a hos-
tile person successively. In case of the latter, if thoughts of ill-
will were to arise, the method recommended in (i) above has to

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be followed. When the meditator has been able to develop it to

the point of breaking down the barriers between persons of vari-
ous categories, he should suffuse beings in all the directions with
the same feeling. The results would again be the same.
(iv) The divine state of equanimity (upekkhā) has to be developed
only after attaining the third jhāna on the basis of the first
three states. In doing so, he has to begin by thinking of the dis-
advantages of the first three states, and practise equanimity
towards a neutral person, a dear person, a boon-companion,
and an enemy in succession. When he has been able to have
the same attitude towards himself and the rest, he attains the
fourth jhāna associated with equanimity and concentration.

5. Perception of Repulsiveness of Food (Vism IX)

There is one perception (eka-saññā), namely the perception of repul-
siveness of food. The meditator has to develop this perception with
reference to the following ten aspects of it: going for it, seeking it,
eating, secretion, receptacle, its undigested state, its digested state,
its effects, its outflow, and smearing. As the meditator thus concen-
trates on the repulsive nature of food with reference to these ten
aspects, he overcomes greed for tastes, and to the same extent the
mind attains concentration. Further it also paves the way for under-
standing the true nature of the material states.
6. Defining of the Four Elements (Vism IX)
The one defining (ekavavatthāna) is the defining of the four elements
(catudhātuvavatthāna). The defining of the four elements comprises
the understanding of the nature of the body in terms of the four ele-
ments—earth-element, water-element, fire-element and air-element.
It may be practised according to two methods—the short method and
the long method. The first is meant for those of sharp intellect and
the other for those of slow intellect. According to the first method,
the nature of the body has to be understood in terms of the nature of
the four elements. According to the second method, the four ele-
ments have to be understood in terms of forty-two constituents of the
body. Thus the earth-element exists in the body in the form of twenty
solid constituents beginning with the hairs of the head and ending
with excrement; the water-element exists in the form of twelve
watery constituents beginning with bile and ending with urine; the

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fire-element in the body expresses itself in four ways in the form of

heat of warming up, the heat of maturity, the heat of burning up, and
the heat of digestion; the air-element expresses itself in six ways in
the form of air discharging upwards, discharging downwards, the air
in the stomach, the air in the intestines, the air supporting the move-
ment of the limbs and the breath of inhalation and exhalation. Here
it has to be noted that the twenty constituents representing the earth-
element, and the twelve constituents representing the water-element
are the same as the thirty-two parts of the body given in kāyagatāsati-
bhāvanā. But there the emphasis is on their elemental nature. This
meditation serves a double purpose. In the first place, it leads to con-
centration; and in the second place, it paves the way for understand-
ing the true nature of corporeality.
7. The Four Immaterial States (Vism X)
The thirty-six meditation subjects dealt with so far are related to the
four fine-material jhānas (rūpa-jhāna), and lead to the attainment of
the fine-material plane (rūpa-bhūmi). The meditation subjects under
discussion here are related to the four immaterial states and lead to
the attainment of the immaterial plane (arūpa-bhūmi). The former
are attained on the basis of material forms and concepts thereof,
whereas the latter are attained by transcending them.
There are four immaterial states: (i). sphere of infinite space
(ākāsānañcāyatana), (ii) sphere of infinite consciousness (viññāṇa-
ñcāyatana, (iii) sphere of nothingness (ākiñcaññāyatana), and (iv)
sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception (nevasaññā-nāsaññā-
yatana).
(i) As regards the first immaterial state (āruppa), the meditator
who has already attained fine-material jhānas, becomes aware
of its shortcomings. As a result, he becomes disgusted with the
same and aspires after the immaterial state based on boundless
space, which appears peaceful to him. With a view to attaining
the same, he takes to the practice of meditation on any of the
nine kasiṇas with the exception of limited space (paricchin-
nākāsa). When he has been able to attain the fourth fine-mate-
rial jhāna, he develops the object of the same to infinity. Then
he mentally removes the object and observes only unbounded
space (anantākāsa). The mind attains concentration on the

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same. The nature of this immaterial state has been referred to

in the following words:
”With total overcoming of the perceptions of matter
(rūpasaññānaṃ samatikkamā), with the disappearance of the
reflex-perceptions (paṭighasaññānaṃ atthaṅgamā), with non-
attention to perceptions of variety (nānatta-saññānaṃ ama-
nasikārā), aware of unbounded space (ananto ākāso ti), he
enters upon and dwells in the state of unbounded space.”
Here the expression—perceptions of matter—refers to the
perception of the objects of the fine-material plane; the expres-
sion—reflex-perceptions—refers to the perceptions that arise
as a result of the interaction between the first five sense-organs
and their respective objects; and the expression—perception of
variety—refers to all those perceptions that take place outside
jhānas. Taken together these expressions mean that the first
state of the immaterial plane is attained by transcending both
the sensual and the fine-material plane.
(ii) After attaining the first immaterial state, the meditator gains
proficiency in the same. But soon he discovers that it too is not
a safe state, as it is close to the fine-material plane. At the same
time he observes that the second state—viññāṇañcāyatana—is
safer. So he withdraws his mind from the former and applies it
to the latter. The mind attains concentration on the same. The
first state is now substituted by the infinite consciousness
(ananta-viññāṇa).
(iii) Here too, after gaining proficiency, the meditator discovers
that the very concept of consciousness is a hindrance. At the
same time he observes the third state of the sphere of nothing-
ness as safer and develops a sense of voidness. As a result, in
due course, a sense of boundless voidness pervades. It substi-
tutes the former, and the mind attains concentration in rela-
tion to the same.
(iv) After attaining the third state and gaining proficiency in the
same, the meditator discovers that it too is not a safe state as it
has been developed in relation to the concept of consciousness.
At the same time, he observes that the fourth state of neither-
perception-nor-non-perception (nevasaññānāsaññāyatana) as
safer. Accordingly he directs his mind and attains concentration
on it.

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In this state the gross forms of perception have subsided and

only the subtle ones exist. In this connection, it has to be noted that
other associated mental states also exist in a subtle form. But then
they are in a subordinate position to subtle perception which exists
in a predominant position. For this reason, this immaterial state has
been named after it.
Here it has to be noted that in the case of the fine-material
jhāna, there is the overcoming of the constituents (aṅga-samatikka-
mana). Thus when the meditator emerges from the first jhāna and
attains the second, he overcomes applied thought (vitakka) and sus-
tained thought (vicāra). But in the case of the immaterial jhānas
(arūpa-jhāna), there is the overcoming of the object of meditation
(ālambana-samatikkamana). Thus it is by overcoming the object of
meditation in the fourth fine-material jhāna that the meditator
attains the first immaterial state.
As regards constituents (aṅga), equanimity and concentration
are common to all the four immaterial states, as well as to the last
fine-material jhāna. For this reason, in the Abhidhamma where the
constituents of jhāna have been taken into consideration, immaterial
states have been treated along with the last fine-material jhāna. It
has to be borne in mind here that though these two constituents in
question are common to all the five jhānas concerned, in the higher
states they are subtler than in the lower ones.
The Relation of Meditation Subjects to Different States of
Concentration and Jhāna (Vism XI)
Out of the forty meditation subjects, the first thirty-six are based on
material forms and objects, whereas the last four are not so based.
Among the two-fold concentration, access-concentration can be
attained on all of the forty meditation subjects. But fixed-concentra-
tion can be attained only on thirty of them, the ten exceptions being:
the first seven and the tenth of the recollections (anussati), the per-
ception of the repulsiveness of food, and the defining of the four ele-
ments.
As regards the jhānas, all four fine-material jhāna can be
attained on the ten kasiṇa and mindfulness of breathing (the ninth
collection); only the first jhāna can be attained on the ten foulnesses
(ten states of a corpse) and mindfulness of the body (the eighth

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collection); only the first three jhānas can be attained on the first
three divine states; and only the fourth jhāna can be attained on the
fourth divine state. These differences are explained in terms of the
four-fold method of classifying jhāna; the differences according to the
five-fold method of classifying jhāna may be understood similarly.
kammaṭṭhāna

1 food repulsiveness

1 defining elements

4 immaterial states
4 divine states
1–7, 8, 9, 10
recollections
10 asubha
10 kasiṇa

1–3, 4
10

samādhi

upacāra x x x x x x x x x x x

appanā x x x x x x x

jhāna 1 x x x x x

2 x x x

3 x x x

4 x x x

5–8 x

The first thirty-six meditation subjects lead to the fine-material

plane (rūpa-bhūmi). The last four meditation subjects, based on
unbounded space, unbounded consciousness, nothingness and the
subtle perception, lead to the immaterial plane (arūpa-bhūmi).

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SECTION III
VISM XII–XIII
Benefits of Samādhi
The Five Kinds of Super-Normal Power
There are many benefits of practising concentration-meditation. The
Visuddhimagga refers to five of them. The attainment of the one-
pointedness of mind for penetrating into the true nature of things is
the most important among them. The meditator who attains the
jhānic states can also come into the possession of five kinds of super-
normal power. These are represented by the five types of higher
knowledge (abhiññā). These five, plus the knowledge leading to the
destruction of defilements (āsavakkhaya-ñāṇa), make up the six-fold
higher knowledge (chalabhiññā). The first five types of knowledge
are mundane; the knowledge leading to the destruction of defile-
ments is supramundane.
In the Visuddhimagga two chapters—the twelfth and the thir-
teenth—have been devoted to the explanation of the five kinds of
super-normal power represented by the five types of higher knowl-
edge. The twelfth chapter deals with the first knowledge, and the
thirteenth chapter with the remaining four. The first knowledge is
related to the super-normal powers called iddhi. In the Visuddhi-
magga Buddhaghosācariya quotes in full the explanation of ten
kinds of iddhi given in the Paṭisambhidāmagga. Among them only
three represent higher knowledge (abhiññā). The remaining seven
powers are iddhi but not abhiññā. For this reason a separate chapter
has been devoted to its explanation.
On certain occasions miracles were performed by the Buddha
and his disciples for the benefit of others. It is said that the Buddha
performed as many as 2509 miracles for the sake of the three Jaṭila-
brothers (Vin I 25–34). The twin-miracles performed at Sāvatthī are
well-known (Paṭis I 125, Mil 106, Dhp-a III 227). But then it has to be
noted in this connection that much importance is not to be attached to
them. These powers have no spiritual value. They are the by-products,
so to say, of mental development. Attachment to them could be a hin-
drance to further progress in the religious life. Therefore, according to
the Vinaya, performance of miracles is an offence (Vin III 42). All the

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same, they give evidence of the great mental forces that could be
brought into play on attaining the higher levels of mind.
As mentioned above, there are five kinds of super-normal knowl-
edge of the mundane plane that are attained on the basis of jhāna:
(i) the super-normal knowledge within the knowledge of perform-
ing miracles (iddhividha-ñāṇa).
(ii) the super-normal knowledge of the divine ear (dibbasota-ñāṇa).
(iii) the super-normal knowledge penetrating minds (cetopariya-
ñāṇa).
(iv) the supernormal knowledge of recollecting the previous exist-
ences (pubbenivāsānussati-ñāṇa).
(v) the super-normal knowledge of passing away and reappear-
ance of beings (cutūpapāta-ñāṇa).
(1) Knowledge of Performing Miracles (Iddhividha-ñāṇa)
There are ten kinds of iddhi or miraculous power:
(i) The miraculous power of the will (adhiṭṭhānā-iddhi). It refers
to the performance of wonders by exercising will-power.
(ii) The miraculous power of transformation (vikubbanā iddhi). By
exercising this power, the meditator abandons his natural
appearance and assumes the appearance of a boy, a nāga, a
supaṇṇa, etc.
(iii) The miraculous power of mind (manomayā iddhi). By exercis-
ing this power the meditator creates a mental body resembling
his physical body in every detail.
These three constitute the first super-normal power (abhiññā) called
the knowledge of performing miracles (iddhividha-ñāṇa).
The remaining kinds of iddhi are:
(iv) The miraculous power of knowledge (ñāṇa-vipphārā iddhi). It
consists in the elimination of unwholesome states through the
development of insight knowledge.
(v) The miraculous power of concentration (samādhi-vipphārā
iddhi). It consists in overcoming the hindrances in the jhānic
states.
(vi) The miraculous power of the noble ones (ariyā iddhi). It refers
to the ability of the noble ones to change their attitude at will.

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Thus a noble one is able to have an attitude of non-repugnance

when there is a situation for repugnance.
(vii) The miraculous power born of kamma (kammavipākajā iddhi).
It refers to the power of traversing the sky by deities, and so
on.
(viii) The miraculous power of a meritorious one (puññavato iddhi).
It refers to the fortunate position of a universal monarch and a
few others endowed with special gifts.
(ix) The miraculous power of the magical arts (vijjāmayā iddhi). It
refers to the power of the magicians who can travel through
the air and do other wonders by their magic.
(x) The miraculous power of right efforts (sammapayogā iddhi). In
the first place, it refers to the overcoming of the unwholesome
states through the cultivation of the wholesome states. In the
second place, according to the commentary, it refers to the suc-
cess attained in arts and sciences.
It is clear from the above account that in the list of iddhi all
wonders, extra-ordinary powers, natural gifts, worldly success, and
magical phenomena have been included. But only the first three
iddhi constitute the first super-normal power (abhiññā) called the
knowledge of performing miracles (iddhividha-ñāṇa). Among them
also the first iddhi—the miraculous power of will (adhiṭṭhānā
iddhi)—has a special significance. Therefore it may be dealt with
here at some length. This iddhi is eight-fold. It has been presented as
follows:
(i) “Being one, he becomes many; having been many, he becomes
one.” If the meditator wishes to appear in many forms, he
should enter into the fourth jhāna, and rising from it should
resolve, “May I be a hundred, may I be a hundred.” Accord-
ingly he becomes many, like the venerable Cullapanthaka. This
method has to be followed in assuming any number of forms.
(ii) “He becomes visible and invisible at will.” By exercising this
power, a meditator is able to make himself or others visible at
a distance, or reveal things which are hidden from sight. Enter-
ing into the fourth jhāna, and rising from it he resolves, “May
this dark place be lighted up, may this hidden place be
revealed.” With this resolve it comes to pass.

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(iii) “He passes through walls, ramparts and mountains.” In this

case the meditator enters into the jhāna on space-kasiṇa. Ris-
ing from it, he adverts to the object—the wall, the rampart or
the mountain—to be passed through, and resolves, “Let there
be space.” It becomes space, and he passes through it unhin-
dered.
(iv) “He dives in and emerges from earth as in water.” In this case
the meditator enters into jhāna on water-kasiṇa. Rising from it,
he adverts to the earth and resolves, “Let the earth in such and
such area be water.” The area so determined turns into water,
and he dives in and out.
(v) “He walks on water as on earth.” In this case the meditator
enters into jhāna on the
(vi) earth-kasiṇa. Rising from it, he adverts to water and resolves,
“Let the water in such and such area become earth.” The area
so determined turns into earth, and he walks, stands, sits, or
lies down there.
(vii) “Seated cross-legged he travels in space like a winged bird.” In
this case the meditator enters into jhāna on the earth-kasiṇa.
Rising from it, he adverts to space and resolves, “Let the space
in such and such area be earth.” It turns into earth. He travels,
stands, sits, and lies down thereon.
(viii) “He touches the sun and moon with hand.” Here too the medi-
tator enters into jhāna on a suitable kasiṇa. Rising from it he
contemplates on the sun or moon and resolves, “Let it be
within hand’s reach.” He finds it so. Then he touches it, sitting
or lying down.
(ix) “He controls by means of the body as far as the Brahmā-
world.” Here, after going through the preliminary stage, if the
meditator wishes to go to the Brahmā-world, though it be far,
he resolves, “Let it be near.” It is near. Though near, he
resolves, “Let it be far.” It is far. Though many, he resolves,
“Let there be few.” There are few. If he wishes to go to the
Brahmā-world with a visible body, he resolves and directs his
mind to accord with his body. When thus resolved and
directed, he is suffused with bliss and lightness, and he goes to
the Brahmā-world with a visible body. If he wants to go to the
Brahmā-world with an invisible body, he resolves and directs

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his mind to accord with his mind. When thus resolved and
directed, he is suffused with bliss and lightness, and goes to the
Brahmā-world with an invisible body.
Here it has to be noted that the meditator who wishes to
acquire the psychic powers has to attain the eight jhānas on the
eight kasiṇas, and gain efficiency in the same, in fourteen ways:
(i-iii) He attains the first jhāna on the basis of the eight kasiṇas
from the earth-kasiṇa to white-kasiṇa in the direct order,
in the reverse order, and in both the direct and reverse
order. He repeats it hundreds and thousands of times.
(iv-vi)He attains from the first to the last jhāna, i.e., the base of
neither-perception-nor-non-perception (nevasaññā-
nāsaññāyatana) in the direct order, in the reverse order,
and in both the direct and reverse order.
(vii) He attains the first jhāna on earth-kasiṇa, the third on the
same, then the sphere of infinite space, and then the
sphere of nothingness. Thus he omits every second jhāna
in the process of attainment.
(viii) He attains the first jhāna on kasiṇa omitting every second
kasiṇa.
(ix) He attains the first jhāna on the earth-kasiṇa, the third on
the fire-kasiṇa; surpassing the blue- kasiṇa, he attains the
sphere of infinite space; and surpassing the red-kasiṇa, he
attains the sphere of nothingness. Thus in this case both
the jhāna and the kasiṇa are omitted alternatively.
(x) He enters into all the jhānas on one and the same kasiṇa.
Here the difference has to be noted with reference to the
various factors of the respective jhāna.
(xi) He attains the first jhāna on different kasiṇas one by one.
Here the difference has to be noted with reference to the
change of the kasiṇa-object.
(xii) He attains the eight jhānas in gradual order on the eight
kasiṇas in the same order. Here the respective jhāna and
kasiṇa are related in their consecutive order.
(xiii) He determines the number of factors in the jhāna from the
first to the last.
(xiv) He determines the nature of the respective objects of the
jhāna concerned.

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When the meditator has thus trained his mind in the above
fourteen ways, and has gained efficiency, he can direct it towards
the performance of miraculous power of the will (adhiṭṭhānā iddhi).
(2) Knowledge of the Divine Ear (Dibbasota-ñāṇa)
It is the celestial beings who are able to listen to sounds at a great
distance—with them it is a natural gift. As for the meditator, he has
to acquire it. In the beginning, the meditator has to train his ear by
listening to various sounds, both gross and subtle. He then develops
a mental image of the same as a medium. With this image he attains
the fourth jhāna. Rising from it, he develops the capacity of the same
by gradual steps until he is able to listen to sounds at thousands of
miles away. Thus he exercises the super-normal power of listening
to sounds both divine and human, both at a distance and near at
hand.
(3) Knowledge Penetrating Minds (Cetopariya-ñāṇa)
In this case the meditator has to develop the medium of light with
which he will be able to penetrate into the heart-basis, the seat of
mind. He observes change of colours of blood taking place therein. It
is said that when the mind is joyful, the blood of the heart is red like a
ripe banyan fruit; when sad, the blood is black like a jambu fruit; and
when the mind is neutral, it is like clean sesame oil. By observing
them, he determines the nature of thoughts arising in the mind. By
developing the knowledge further he is able to know the nature of
other thoughts also without any reference to the heart-basis. These
thoughts have been set forth in sixteen forms: thoughts affected and
unaffected by greed, affected and unaffected by hate, affected and
unaffected by delusion, affected and unaffected by stiffness and tor-
por, exalted and unexalted, surpassed and unsurpassed, concentrated
and unconcentrated, liberated and unliberated. Analytically speaking,
these sixteen types cover all the eighty-nine types as given in the
Abhidhamma. This super-normal power is also known as the knowl-
edge of reading the thoughts of others (paracittavijānana-ñāṇa).
(4) Knowledge of Recollecting Previous Existences
(Pubbenivāsānussati-ñāṇa)
This is obtained by developing the faculty of memory. In this connec-
tion the meditator enters into the four jhāna in due order. Rising

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from the fourth jhāna, he begins to recollect events of the present

life beginning with those of the present moment. When he has been
able to remember the events of the present life up to its very begin-
ning, he traces their relation to the previous birth. This process he
continues until he is able to recollect many births which are con-
nected by the law of dependent origination (paṭiccasamuppāda).
This has been set forth in the following words:
“He directs his mind towards remembering the previous
births—one birth, two births, three births … hundreds of births
… thousands of births … He remembers that he was born in
such and such place in such and such form, and underwent
such and such experience. Departing from there, he was born in
some other place under different circumstances. Thus he
remembers many births with all their special circumstances.”
(5) Knowledge of Passing Away and Reappearance of Beings
(Cutūpapāta-ñāṇa)
This power is acquired by developing the medium of light. Here too,
after passing through the preliminary stage and rising from the
fourth jhāna, the meditator develops the medium of light to such an
extent that even the night would appear as day. Then he perceives
beings passing away and being born in happy and miserable places
according to their good and bad deeds. For this reason, it is also
known as the knowledge of celestial vision (dibbacakkhu-ñāṇa). In
the discourses of the Buddha this knowledge has been referred to in
the following words:
“With his mind thus concentrated … he applies and directs his
thoughts to the knowledge of the passing away and rebirth of
beings. With his divine vision, purified and surpassing human
sight, he sees beings passing away and being reborn, low or
high, of good or bad appearance, in happy or miserable
existences, according to their kamma. He fully realizes that
those beings who are given to evil conduct in deed, word and
thought, who are revilers of the noble ones, who are of false
views, who acquire the kamma of their false views, at the
dissolution of body, after death have been reborn in a miserable
existence in hell. But those beings who are given to good

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conduct in deed, word, and thought, who are not revilers of the
noble ones, who are of right views, at the dissolution of body,
after death have been reborn in a happy existence in the world
of heaven …”

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WISDOM (Paññā)
VISM XV

SECTION I
The worldling (puthujjana) takes things at their face value. As long
as this knowledge serves the practical purpose of his day-to-day life,
he does not question its validity. With the awakening of critical
understanding, it becomes clear that things are not what they
appear to be. It is a sense of disillusionment that leads one to
enquire into the true nature of things. In other words, it is the expe-
rience of suffering (dukkha) that urges one to examine the nature of
the values of life. As a result, one understands that no phenomenal
existence is free from suffering. The present life is not the be-all and
end-all of our existence. It is only a drop in the ocean of existence; it
is only a stage in the long journey through saṃsāra or the cycle of
birth and death.
The immediate cause of suffering is craving (taṇhā). The world-
ling takes the world of appearances, represented by things and beings,
as real, treats them as so many permanent entities, and tries to grasp
or shun them according to his pleasure or displeasure. In this connec-
tion, he performs various activities both good and bad. Thereby he
accumulates kamma, which keeps the process of saṃsāra going.
The process of saṃsāra can be put to an end by destroying its
cause. It has been mentioned already that craving is the immediate
cause of suffering, and for that matter saṃsāra. But then it has to be
noted that craving can only exist where there is ignorance (avijjā). It
is the ignorance of the true nature of things that gives rise to crav-
ing. Therefore the destruction of the cause of saṃsāra, in the first
instance, means the destruction of ignorance. Opposing this negative
aspect of the matter is its positive aspect—the attainment of insight-
knowledge. Therefore putting an end to the process of saṃsāra

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means the cessation of suffering on the one hand and the attainment
of the bliss of Nibbāna on the other hand.
In the ultimate analysis, the whole phenomenal existence is rep-
resented by so many mental and material states. These have been
explained in terms of the five aggregates (khandha), twelve sense-
bases (āyatana), eighteen elements (dhātu), twenty-two faculties
(indriya)15 and other groups of states (dhamma). The states are not
independent from one another. They are causally connected according
to the law of the dependent origination of things (paṭicca-samuppāda).
As stated above, due to misconception, the worldling believes
in the existence of beings and things, which he takes as permanent,
pleasant and substantial in nature. Hence he develops an attitude of
attachment towards them. Once the misconception is removed he
perceives only mental and material states brought into existence by
certain conditions which are impermanent, painful and unsubstan-
tial in nature. When this insight knowledge is gained, there arises an
attitude of detachment towards all composite things. Being free
from desire, he will no more accumulate kamma. Consequently,
there is an end to the process of saṃsāra. The path to be followed to
achieve this purpose is known as the noble eight-fold path.
The above facts have been formulated in what are known as
the four noble truths—the truth of suffering (dukkha-sacca), the
truth of the cause of suffering (samudaya-sacca), the truth of the ces-
sation of suffering (nirodha-sacca), and the truth of the path leading
to the cessation of suffering (magga-sacca).
Suffering has been explained in terms of the five aggregates of
attachment (pañcupādānakkhandhā). Further it can also be
explained with reference to the relevant terms of sense-bases (āyat-
ana), elements (dhātu), faculties (indriya) and other groups of states
(dhamma).
The cause or samudaya is generally explained, as already
referred to, in terms of craving and ignorance. These two represent
only the proximate and remote conditions. Besides these, there are
many other conditions that give rise to suffering. They have been

15. Though this group is not exhaustive, it takes into consideration cer-
tain states, both mundane and supramundane, which have been analyti-
cally stated.

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classified into several groups of states (dhamma), such as the four

floods (cattāro oghā), the four fetters (yoga), the five hindrances
(nīvaraṇāni), and so on. In the Abhidhamma they have been
explained in terms of so many unwholesome types of thought (akus-
ala-cittāni) and mental factors (cetasikāni).
Cessation (nirodha) is the cessation of suffering. It represents
the negative aspect of the summum bonum. Nibbāna is the positive
aspect, and it is a matter for self-realization. The Path or magga is
generally known as the Noble Eight-Fold Path. In fact, it refers to all
the thirty-seven states that lead to enlightenment (bodhi-pakkhiya-
dhammā). They have been classified in several groups, such as the
four kinds of mindfulness (cattāro satipaṭṭhānā), the four kinds of
right effort (cattāro sammappadhānā), the five ethical faculties
(pañcindriyāni), and so on.
The path has been explained in several ways. The three-fold
training (sikkhāttaya) of virtue (sīla), concentration (samādhi), and
wisdom (paññā) is the most popular method. The same has been
presented in terms of the seven kinds of purification (satta visuddhi).
Virtue (sīla) and concentration (citta-samādhi) represent the first
two purifications; paññā encompasses the remaining five kinds of
purification.
In our text the subject-matter has been dealt with in terms of
the seven purifications. The first two purifications have been
explained in the previous two chapters. In the present chapter, the
remaining five are taken into consideration.
As the meditator goes on meditating on the three characteris-
tics (tilakkhaṇāni) of the composite things, his insight-knowledge
also goes on deepening. As the veils of ignorance are removed one
after another, he also goes on gaining light. This phenomenon is
indicated by the five kinds of purification and the relevant types of
knowledge. When he has attained the fifth purity in order, he may
have to face what are known as the ten defilements of insight (vipas-
sanūpakkilesāni). But soon he overcomes them and makes further
progress. The attainment of the sixth purification is marked by eight
moments of knowledge. By the time the meditator attains the eighth
moment of knowledge, he is said to have comprehended the true
nature of the phenomenal existence. With the attainment of the
ninth moment of knowledge, called the knowledge of adaptation

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(anuloma-ñāṇa), he transcends the mundane plane (lokiya-bhūmi)

and attains the supramundane plane (lokuttara-bhūmi).
With the attainment of the first stage of the noble path called
sotāpatti-magga, he gains the first glimpse of Nibbāna. The medita-
tor is now a noble one or ariya destined to attain the final goal (ni-
yato sambodhiparāyaṇo). He continues to make further progress till
he attains arahatta, the last stage of sainthood. By the time he
attains the last stage of sainthood, he has fully comprehended suffer-
ing (dukkhaṃ pariññātaṃ), abandoned the cause of the same
(samudayo pahīno), realised Nibbāna (nirodho sacchikato), and
developed the path (maggo bhāvito).
Wisdom (paññā) is the third and the last stage in the religious
life. After undertaking the observance of virtue (sīla), the meditator
practises concentration (samādhi). When the mind is concentrated,
he applies it to understanding the true nature of things. Wisdom
(paññā) has to be understood as distinct from perception (saññā)
and consciousness (viññāṇa). Perception perceives one object as dis-
tinct from another in terms of colour, shape, etc. Consciousness is
the analytical knowledge. With it we know not only one object as
distinct from another, but also its characteristics (lakkhaṇāni).
Wisdom is intuitional knowledge. With it we know not only the
existence of an object and its characteristics, but also the nature of
the ultimate reality.
The difference between the three states has been explained
with reference to the following analogy. There is a heap of coins
lying on the counter of a money-lender. Three persons—a child, a
villager and a money-changer—happen to see them. The child only
knows their colours and shapes. In addition to this, the villager
knows their exchange-value. But he does not know whether they are
genuine or not. The money-changer knows all this. He is able to
make out a genuine coin from a counterfeit one, by looking at it, or
listening to its sound, or smelling it, or tasting it, or weighing it in
his hand.
Perception (saññā) is like the knowledge of the child,
consciousness (viññāṇa) is like the knowledge of the villager, and
wisdom (paññā) is like the knowledge of the money-changer. While
the element of knowledge is more or less common to them all, they
differ from one another in their nature. Perception can tell us only

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about the presence of the object. Hence this knowledge is superficial

in nature. Consciousness functions in terms of concepts in the intel-
lectual plane. It leads to the knowledge of the three characteristics
(tilakkhaṇāni) of the composite things. But it does not lead to the
attainment of the supramundane path (lokuttara-magga). Wisdom,
which is critical in nature, leads to the penetration of the true nature
of things in the light of the three characteristics, and the attainment
of the supramundane path. Thus perception is perceptual, con-
sciousness is conceptual and wisdom is intuitional.
Both perception and consciousness are helpful in attaining wis-
dom. Therefore it has been said that where there is wisdom, percep-
tion and consciousness also exist. But where there is perception and
consciousness, wisdom may not exist necessarily.

The Subject Matter of Wisdom

The meditator can realize the true nature of things only through
knowledge of the following subjects: 1. aggregates (khandha), 2.
sense-bases (āyatana), 3. elements (dhātu), 4. faculties (indriya), 5.
truths (sacca), and 6. dependent origination (paṭicca-samuppāda).
For this reason, they are also known as the ground or the soil
(bhūmi) of wisdom (paññā). Therefore, before taking on the devel-
opment of wisdom, the meditator has to have clear knowledge of
these subjects.

1. The Aggregates
(Vism XIV)
There are five aggregates: i. the aggregate of form (rūpa-khandha),
ii. the aggregate of consciousness (viññāṇa-khandha), iii. the aggre-
gate of feeling (vedanā-khandha), iv. the aggregate of perception
(saññā-khandha), and v. the aggregate of mental activities
(saṅkhāra-khandha). The whole phenomenal existence represented
by living organisms and inanimate objects can be explained in terms
of these five aggregates.
Khandha means a mass or a heap. The five khandhas or aggre-
gates are so called because all the states of the respective categories
have been included in them. Thus all the material states of past,

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present and future are included in the aggregate of form or rūpa-

khandha. This is true of the remaining four aggregates also.
(I) The Aggregate of Form
Rūpa is form or materiality. It is called rūpa because it is subject to
wear and tear (ruppana) because of being affected by heat, cold, etc.
There are twenty-eight material qualities, which have been divided
into two categories as (a) primary and (b) derived.
(1) The primary material qualities are four in number: earth ele-
ment, water element, fire element and air element.
(2) The derived material qualities are twenty-four in number:
eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, visible datum, sound, odour,
flavour, femininity-faculty, masculinity-faculty, life-faculty,
heart-basis, bodily intimation, verbal intimation, space ele-
ment, lightness of matter, malleability of matter, wieldiness
of matter, growth of matter, continuity of matter, ageing of
matter, impermanence of matter, and physical sustenance.
Buddhaghosācariya has explained these qualities in several
ways—from one-fold to ten-fold according to both the Suttantika and
Abhidhammika methods. For example, according to the two-fold way
of explanation, they are said to be internal and external, gross and
subtle, far and near, produced (nipphanna) and unproduced (anipp-
hanna), sensitive and insensitive, faculty and not-faculty, given rise to
by attachment and not given rise to by attachment.
Thus, in this way the five material qualities beginning with the
eye are said to be internal because they refer to one’s own person,
and the rest are external. The twelve material qualities—the nine
beginning with the eye and the three elements (excluding the water-
element)—are treated as gross because they are impinging in
nature; the rest are subtle because they are of the opposite nature.
What is subtle is said to be far because it is difficult to perceive, and
the rest are near because they are easy to perceive. Eighteen mate-
rial qualities—the four elements, the thirteen beginning with the
eye, and the physical sustenance—are produced, because they mani-
fest in their own nature. The rest, being dependent on them, are said
to be unproduced. The five material qualities beginning with eye are
said to be sensitive, because they respond to their respective sense

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data. The sensitive material qualities, together with the three begin-
ning with the femininity-faculty, are faculty in the sense of exercising
predominance. The rest are not faculty because they are of the oppo-
site nature. The kamma-born material qualities are said to be given
rise to by attachment, and the rest are of the opposite nature.
As regards the three-fold way, they have been explained under
the relevant triad-matrix (tika-mātikā) of the Dhammasaṅgaṇi.
According to the first triad, among the material qualities of an
impinging nature, the sense base of form (rūpāyatana) is visible, and
the remaining are invisible. The subtle material qualities are neither
visible nor impinging. The remaining triads have also to be under-
stood in the same way. The five-fold way is based on the causal
nature of the material qualities. There are four causes of material
qualities: kamma, mind or consciousness (citta), temperature (utu)
and physical sustenance (āhāra). The sense faculties and the
heartbasis are kamma-born only. The two intimations are conscious-
ness-born only. Sound is born of both consciousness and
temperature. Lightness, malleability and wieldiness are born of
temperature, consciousness and physical sustenance. All the rest,
with the exception of the composite characteristics (lakkhaṇa-
rūpāni), are born of all four. The composite characteristics do not
exist apart from other material states. Therefore their causal nature
has not been treated separately.
(II) The Aggregate of Consciousness
To cognize (vijānāti) is the characteristic (lakkhaṇa) of consciousness
(viññāṇa). So far as the general nature is concerned, consciousness is
treated as one, but it is three-fold from the point of view of its ethical
nature—1. wholesome, 2. unwholesome, and 3. indeterminate.
Within this three-fold structure, 89 types of consciousness—21
wholesome types, 12 unwholesome types and 56 indeterminate
types (of which 36 are resultants and 20 are inoperative types)—are
then expounded as follows:
1. Wholesome consciousness. It is four-fold according to the four
planes: (i) sensual, (ii) fine material, (iii) immaterial and (iv)
supramundane.
(i) There are eight types of wholesome consciousness of the
sensual plane. Among them, four are associated with joy

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(somanassa), and four with equanimity (upekkhā). Again,

four are associated with knowledge (ñāṇa) and prompting
(saṅkhāra), and four are not associated with them.
(ii) There are five types of wholesome consciousness of the
finematerial plane according to the five jhānas. The first is
associated with the five constituents—applied thought, sus-
tained thought, rapture, bliss and concentration; the second
is associated with four, with the exception of sustained
thought; the third is associated with three, with the excep-
tion of applied thought and sustained thought; the fourth is
associated with bliss and concentration; the fifth is associ-
ated with equanimity and concentration.
(iii) There are four types of wholesome consciousness of the
immaterial plane according to the four immaterial attain-
ments (aruppāni). The two constituents—equanimity and
concentration—are common to them all.
(iv) There are also four types of wholesome consciousness of the
supramundane plane according to the four paths.
So altogether there are twenty-one types of wholesome con-
sciousness.
2. The unwholesome types of consciousness belong to the sensual
plane only. There are twelve of them. Among them, eight are
rooted in greed (lobha), two in hate (dosa) and two in delusion
(moha).
Among the eight rooted in greed, four are associated with joy
and four with equanimity; these eight can also be divided into four
associated with false view and prompting, and four are not associ-
ated with them. Among the two types rooted in hate and associated
with resentment (paṭigha), one is associated with prompting and the
other is not so associated. Among the two types rooted in delusion
and associated with equanimity, one is associated with uncertainty
and the other with agitation.
3. The indeterminate types of consciousness are of two kinds: (i)
the resultant and (ii) the inoperative.
(i) The resultant are of four kinds according to the four planes—
(a) the sensual, (b) the fine-material, (c) the immaterial and
the (d) supramundane.

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(a) Those of the sensual plane are of two kinds—(1) the

wholesome and (2) the unwholesome.
(1) The wholesome are of two kinds—those not
associated with root-causes (ahetuka) and others
associated with them (sahetuka).
 The wholesome resultants not associated with root
causes are of eight kinds: five types represented by eye-
consciousness to body-consciousness, mind-element
(mano-dhātu) with the function of receiving
(sampaṭicchana) and the two mind-consciousness-ele-
ments (mano-viññāṇa-dhātu) with the functions of
investigation (santīraṇa), etc. Among the last two
types, one is associated with joy and the other with
equanimity.
 The wholesome resultants associated with root-causes
are also eight. They correspond to the eight wholesome
types.
The associated mental states are the same in both sets. But the
resultants are passive like the reflection of a face in a looking-glass,
while the wholesome are active like the face itself.
(2) The unwholesome resultants not associated with
root-causes (ahetuka) are of seven kinds; five types
represented by eye-consciousness to body-
consciousness, mind-element with the function of
receiving, and the mind-consciousness-element with the
functions of investigation, etc.
So altogether there are twenty-three resultant types of con-
sciousness of the sensual plane.
(b) There are five resultants of the fine-material plane corre-
sponding to the five wholesome types of consciousness.
(c) There are four resultants of the immaterial plane corre-
sponding to the four wholesome types.
(d) There are four resultants of the supramundane plane
corresponding to the four wholesome types.
So in all the four planes, there are thirty-six resultant types of
consciousness.

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(ii) The inoperative types of consciousness are of three kinds

according to the three planes—(a) the sensual, (b) the fine-
material and (c) the immaterial. There are no inoperative
types in the supramundane plane.
(a) The inoperative types of the sensual plane are of two
kinds—those not associated with root-causes (ahetuka)
and those associated with them (sahetuka).
(1) Those not associated with root causes are of two
types: mind-element (mano-dhātu) and mind-conscious-
ness-element (mano-viññāṇa-dhātu). The mind-element
performs the function of turning to impressions at the
five doors of senses (pañcadvārāvajjana). The mind-con-
sciousness-element is of two kinds—one is shared by all
and the other is particular to the Arahants. One shared
by all is associated with equanimity, and performs the
function of turning to impressions at the mind door
(manodvārāvajjana). The other is associated with joy,
and functions when an Arahant gives a smile based on
the relevant type of thought (hasituppāda-citta). Thus in
the sensual plane there are three types of inoperative
consciousness not associated with root-causes.
(2) Those associated with root causes are of eight
types. They correspond to the eight types of wholesome
consciousness.
(b) In the fine-material plane, there are five types of
inoperative consciousness corresponding to the five
wholesome types.
(c) In the immaterial plane, there are four types corre-
sponding to the four wholesome types.
So in total, there are twenty types of inoperative consciousness.
Thus altogether there are 89 types of consciousness: 21 whole-
some types, 12 unwholesome types, 36 resultants and 20 inoperative
types.

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Fourteen Functions Performed by Eighty-Nine Types of

Consciousness
Fourteen functions are performed by 89 types of consciousness: (i)
rebirth-linking (paṭisandhi), (ii) life continuum (bhavaṅga), (iii)
turning to impressions (āvajjana),16 (iv) seeing (dassana), (v) hear-
ing (savana), (vi) smelling (ghāyana), (vii) tasting (sāyana), (viii)
touching (phusana), (iv) receiving the impressions (sampaṭicchana),
(x) investigating them (santīraṇa), (xi) determining them
(voṭṭhapana), (xii) impulsive activity (javana), (xiii) registration
(tadālambana) and (xiv) death (cuti).
(i) Rebirth-linking. When beings are born among heavenly and
human beings, through the influence of the eight types of
wholesome consciousness of the sensual plane, the correspond-
ing eight resultants function in rebirth linking. When a being is
born blind, dumb and so on, through the influence of whole-
some types of consciousness associated only with two good
root-causes, the resultant mind-consciousness-element without
any root-cause and associated with equanimity functions in
rebirth-linking. These nine types have kamma, sign of kamma
(kamma-nimitta), or sign of destiny (gati-nimitta) as their
object at the time of death.
When through the influence of the relevant five types of
wholesome consciousness, beings are born in the fine-material
plane, the corresponding five resultants function in rebirth-
linking. In the same way, when through the influence of the
relevant four types of wholesome consciousness, beings are
born in the immaterial plane, the corresponding four resultants
function in rebirth-linking. These nine types have sign of
kamma alone as their object at the time of death.
When, through the influence of the twelve types of
unwholesome consciousness, beings are born in a state of mis-
ery, the unwholesome resultant mind-consciousness element
not associated with any root-cause functions in rebirth-linking.
It has kamma, sign of kamma, or the sign of destiny as the
object at the time of death.

16. This is two-fold: turning to impressions at the five sense-doors (pañ-

cadvārāvajjana) and at the mind-door (manodvārāvajjana).

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Thus nineteen types of resultants function in rebirth linking

in the three planes—sensual, fine-material and immaterial.
(ii) Life continuum. After the birth of beings, these nineteen types
of resultants function as life continuum in the relevant planes
and births.
(iii) Turning to impressions. When the living beings are capable of
apprehending objects, and when a visual object has come
within the range of the eye, there is a disturbance in the life-
continuum, and the inoperative mind-element arises, turning
at the eye-door. This is true of the next four sense-doors and
their objects also. But when any one of the six kinds of sense-
objects has come within the range of the mind-door, there is a
disturbance in the life-continuum, and the inoperative mind-
consciousness element without any root-cause, but associated
with equanimity, arises, turning at the mind-door.
(iv-viii) Seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting and touching. When the
inoperative mind-element has arisen turning to impressions at
the five-sense doors, there arises one of the ten types of result-
ant consciousness from eye-consciousness to body-conscious-
ness performing the relevant one among the five functions:
seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, and touching.
(ix) Receiving the impressions. After one of the above ten types of
consciousness, there arises the mind-element as a wholesome
resultant or an unwholesome resultant according to the nature
of the preceding type of consciousness, receiving the sense-
object concerned.
(x) Investigating. The mind-element is followed by the mind-con-
sciousness-element investigating the same object. Here an
unwholesome type is followed by a type of consciousness of the
same nature. But with regard to a wholesome type, either it is
followed by a wholesome type associated with joy in the case of
a desirable object, or one associated with equanimity in the case
of a neutral object. This is how the three types of consciousness
concerned perform the function of investigating the object.
(xi) Determining. After the investigating consciousness, the inopera-
tive mind-consciousness-element without root-cause, but associ-
ated with equanimity, arises, determining the same object.

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(xii) Impulsive activity. After the determining consciousness, if the

sense-objects are vivid, there arise six or seven impulsive types
on the same. In the sensual plane they are among the following
29 types: eight types of wholesome consciousness, twelve types
of unwholesome consciousness, and the remaining nine inop-
eratives. In the case of the sixth sense-door, the same impulsive
types arise next to turning to impressions at the mind door.
In the case of the higher planes, the following 26 types
arise: the five wholesome types and the five inoperatives of the
fine-material plane; the four wholesome types and the four
inoperatives of the immaterial plane; the four types of path-
consciousness and the four types of fruition-consciousness of
the supramundane plane.
So altogether fifty-five types of consciousness—wholesome,
unwholesome, inoperative, and resultant—perform the impul-
sive activities.
(xiii) Registration. At the end of the impulsive activities, in the six
sense-doors, if the object concerned is vivid, there arises one of
the eleven types of consciousness—eight resultants of the sen-
sual plane associated with root causes, and three resultant mind-
consciousness-elements not associated with root-causes—per-
forming the function of registering the impressions.
At the end of registration, the life-continuum resumes its
course. When it is interrupted, the same process is repeated
according to the conditions concerned.
(xiv) Death. The last moment of a life-time is called cuti or death. It
takes place in terms of one of the nineteen types that perform
rebirth-linking. Thus the process of saṃsāra continues until a
being attains emancipation.
(III) The Aggregate of Feeling
All kinds of feeling (vedanā) are included in the aggregate of feeling
(vedanā-khandha). They are of three kinds—wholesome (kusala), un-
wholesome (akusala), and indeterminate (avyākata). They associate
with the relevant types of consciousness. They are also of five kinds—
pleasant, painful, joyful, sad and neutral. The first two are physical,
and the last three are mental. They are also represented as of six kinds
according to the six sense contacts. Every type of consciousness

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associates with one kind of feeling or the other as the case may be.
Therefore, in the Abhidhamma, feeling has been included among
those mental factors which are common to all types of thought.
(IV). The Aggregate of Perception
All kinds of perception (saññā) are included in the aggregate of
perception (saññā-khandha). It is also three-fold—wholesome,
unwholesome and indeterminate. They associate with the relevant
types of consciousness. According to the number of sense-organs, it is
also treated as six-fold. There is no type of consciousness that does not
associate with perception. For the same reason, it is also treated as of
eighty-nine kinds.
(V) The Aggregate of Mental Activities
The aggregate of mental activities or formations (saṅkhāra) includes
fifty mental states. Together with feeling and perception, which con-
stitute two separate aggregates, they represent fifty-two mental
factors (cetasika). Formations (saṅkhāra) are also of three kinds—
wholesome, unwholesome and indeterminate. They associate with the
relevant types of consciousness. The term saṅkhāra has been used for
volition (cetanā) in a special sense, for it is volition that plays the lead-
ing part in mental activities. For this reason other mental factors, the
concomitants of volition, have also been named after it. The volition
that associates with the wholesome and unwholesome types of con-
sciousness leads to the accumulation of kamma.
The whole phenomenal existence is represented by three
planes—sensual, fine-material and immaterial. All the five aggre-
gates are available in the first two planes, but only the four mental
aggregates are available in the immaterial plane. Therefore in the
ultimate analysis, phenomenal existence including living beings has
to be explained in terms of the five aggregates.

2. Sense Bases
The second way of explaining phenomenal existence is with refer-
ence to the twelve sense-bases, āyatana, represented by the six
sense-organs and the six sense-objects:

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1. Eye 7. Visual object

2. Ear 8. Sound
3. Nose 9. Smell
4. Tongue 10. Taste
5. Body 11. Touch
6. Mind 12. Mental object
They are called āyatana because they form the bases of their
respective types of consciousness and the mental factors. Among
them, ten representing the first five sense-organs and their corre-
sponding objects include only material states, which are gross in
nature. The base of mind, (manāyatana) representing the sixth sense-
organ, includes all the eighty-nine types of consciousness. The base of
mental states (dhammāyatana), representing the sense-object of the
mind, includes the material states of a subtle nature, all the fifty-two
mental factors and Nibbāna.17 In other words, all the material states
included in the aggregate of form are represented by eleven bases—
ten completely and one partially. Three aggregates—feeling, percep-
tion and mental activities—are included in the base of mental states
(dhammāyatana) along with subtle material states and Nibbāna. Con-
tent of the base of mind (manāyatana) is the same as that of the
aggregate of consciousness (viññāṇa-khandha). Except for Nibbāna,
there is no material difference between the aggregate–group and the
sense-base-group. The difference lies only in the arrangement of the
mental and material states in the various categories.

3. Elements
The third way of explaining phenomenal existence is with reference to
the eighteen elements or dhātu represented by the six sense-organs,
the six sense-objects and their corresponding types of consciousness.18
1. Eye 7. Visual object 13. Visual consciousness
2. Ear 8. Sound 14. Auditory consciousness
3. Nose 9. Smell 15. Nasal consciousness

17. When speaking of the phenomenal existence, Nibbāna included in

the twelfth sense-object has to be excluded.
18. Here too, when speaking of the phenomenal existence, Nibbāna
included in the twelfth sense-object has to be excluded.

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4. Tongue 10. Taste 16. Gustatory consciousness

5. Body 11. Touch 17. Tactual consciousness
6. Mind 12. Mental object 18. Mind consciousness
They are called elements (dhātu) because they represent simple
mental and material states without any self-substance about them. In
this connection it has to be noted that one category of the sense-base-
group, namely the base of mind (manāyatana), includes all the eighty-
nine types of consciousness. In the element-group the 89 types are
distributed among seven of the categories, namely nos. 6 & 13–18.
The element of mind (mano-dhātu) includes three types—turning to
impressions at the five sense-doors (dvārāvajjana) and the two types
of receiving the impressions (dve sampaṭicchana-cittāni). Each of the
first five element consciousnesses (viññāṇa-dhātu)—eye-conscious-
ness to body-consciousness—includes two types each. Thus they
represent ten types in all. The element of mind-consciousness
(manoviññāṇa-dhātu) includes the remaining 76 types.
This separation of the types of consciousness into one category
in the sense-base-group, and seven categories in the element-group
is the only difference between the two groups. As regards the
remaining eleven categories, there is no material difference at all.

4. The Twenty-Two Faculties and the Four Truths

VISM XVI
(I) The Twenty-Two Faculties
In the study of the phenomenal existence and the realization of the
ultimate reality, what are known as the twenty-two faculties
(indriyāni) have also to be taken into consideration. They are so
called because they act as the dominating factors in the fulfilment of
certain functions.
The first six faculties represent the six sense-organs, which are
predominant in their respective spheres. They refer to what is
known as internal “self-hood.” Femininity and masculinity indicate
the two faculties with reference to which the distinction between the
two sexes is made. These two faculties are also dependent on the
life-faculty which comes next. The five faculties—bodily pleasure,
bodily pain, joy, grief and equanimity—represent the feelings that a

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living being experiences in the course of his journey through

saṃsāra. These experiences, in the widest sense, can be interpreted
as suffering. The development of the next five ethical faculties—
faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration and understanding—leads
to the cessation of suffering. The following are the last three facul-
ties: the faculty that “I shall realize what is not yet realized”
(anaññātaññassāmītindriya), the faculty of partial realization
(aññindriya), and the faculty of final realization (aññātāvindriya).
Among them the first faculty is related to the first path stage, the
second is related to the next six path and fruition stages, and the
third is related to the last fruition stage. Thus the last three faculties
belong to the supramundane plane. It is clear from the short account
given above that out of the twenty-two faculties, some give rise to
the process of saṃsāra and others bring about cessation of the same.
(II) The Four Truths
There are the four truths: suffering, the cause of suffering, the cessa-
tion of suffering and the path leading to the cessation of suffering.
They are also known as noble truths, because they are understood in
full by ariya or the noble ones.
The truth of suffering has been presented in terms of birth, age-
ing, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, despair, association with
undesirable ones, separation from near and dear ones, not getting
what one wants, and, in short, the five aggregates of attachment. In
the above list, only certain forms of suffering have been given. It is
not possible to enumerate all forms of suffering, nor is it necessary to
do so. The five aggregates of attachment are the basis of all suffering.
The taste of the water in the ocean can be known by taking a single
drop of it. In the same way, all forms of suffering can be known in
terms of the five aggregates of attachment. For this reason, it has
been given as the last item of the list.
The cause of suffering is desire. It is three-fold: craving for sen-
sual pleasures (kāma-taṇhā), craving for becoming as represented by
fine-material and immaterial forms of existence (bhava-taṇhā), and
craving for non-becoming (vibhava-taṇhā). The first two forms of
craving are based on the eternalist view of life, and the last one on the
nihilistic view. Craving gives rise to activities which lead to accumula-
tion of kamma that keeps up the process of saṃsāra. An elaborate

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explanation of this process has been given in the law of the dependent
origination of things or paṭiccasamuppāda, which has been formulated
in terms of twelve constituents.
The truth of the cessation of suffering refers to Nibbāna. It is
not a negative state. It does not mean the mere absence of suffering
like the absence of a horn on a hare. It is a positive state which is
unborn, unbecome, unmade, and unformed. The noble path does
not produce it, but leads to its realisation.
The truth of the path leading to the cessation of suffering is
represented by eight constituents—right view, right thought, right
speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness
and right concentration. Once the right view is gained by under-
standing the true nature of things, wrong view is abandoned. The
development of the remaining seven constituents also leads to the
abandoning of the states opposed to them.
Among the eight constituents, right speech, right action and
right livelihood represent virtue (sīla), the first stage of the noble
path; right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration repre-
sent concentration (samādhi), the second stage of the path; right
view and right thought represent wisdom (paññā), the third stage of
the path. The fulfilment of virtue leads to the development of con-
centration, and the latter leads to the attainment of insight-knowl-
edge or vipassanā-paññā.
The knowledge of the path is two-fold: one is the second-hand
knowledge gained through information, and the other is the first-
hand knowledge based on self-experience of penetration into the
four truths.

5. Dependent Origination (Vism XVII)

It has been stated above that phenomenal existence can be
explained in terms of the mental and material states presented in the
three groups—aggregates, sense-bases and elements. These states,
as it would appear at first sight, are not independent of one another.
They are dependent and inter-related in so many ways. This fact has
been explained in the doctrine of the conditional nature of things
also called dependent origination or paṭicca-samuppāda.
The system of dependent origination of twelve constituents (dvā-
dasaṅga-paṭiccasamuppāda-naya), is based on the same principle. It

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explains the process of saṃsāra in the form of a chain of twelve links:

ignorance (avijjā)—kamma-formations (saṅkhārā)—consciousness
(viññāṇa)—mentality and materiality (nāmarūpa)—the six sense
organs (sa¿āyatana)—contact (phassa)—feeling (vedanā)—craving
(taṇhā)—clinging (upādāna)—becoming (bhava)—birth (jāti)—
decay and death (jarāmaraṇa).
According to this formula from ignorance arise kamma-forma-
tions; from kamma-formations arises consciousness; from conscious-
ness arise other mental and physical states; from these mental and
physical states arise the six sense organs; from the six sense organs
arises contact; from contact arises feeling; from feeling arises crav-
ing; from craving arises clinging; from clinging arises becoming;
from becoming arises birth, from birth arise decay and death.
Twenty-Four Conditions (Paccaya)
Phenomenal existence and, for that matter, all mental and material
states are conditional in nature. Their conditional nature has been
explained in terms of the following twenty-four conditions (paccaya):
root-cause condition (hetu-paccaya), object condition (ārammaṇa-
paccaya), predominance condition (adhipati-paccaya), proximity
condition (anantara-paccaya), contiguity condition (samanantara-
paccaya), co-nascence condition (sahajāta-paccaya), mutuality
condition (aññamañña-paccaya), support condition (nissaya-paccaya),
decisive-support condition (upanissaya-paccaya), pre-nascence
condition (purejāta-paccaya), post-nascence condition (pacchājāta-
paccaya), repetition condition (āsevana-paccaya), kamma condition
(kamma-paccaya), kamma-result condition (vipāka-paccaya),
sustenance condition (āhāra-paccaya), faculty condition (indriya-
paccaya), jhāna condition (jhāna-paccaya), path condition (magga-
paccaya), association condition (sampayutta-paccaya), dissociation
condition (vippayutta-paccaya), presence condition (atthi-paccaya),
absence condition (natthi-paccaya), disappearance condition (vigata-
paccaya), and non-disappearance condition (avigata-paccaya).
An elaborate explanation of the twenty-four conditions has been
given in the Paṭṭhāna, the seventh book of the Abhidhammapiṭaka.
They are applicable to the twelve links of the chain of the dependent
origination of things. With this general introduction, an explanation of
the conditional nature of the individual links in the chain of depend-
ent origination may now be given.

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Ignorance (Avijjā)
Avijjā means the ignorance of the four truths and the conditional
nature of the five aggregates, in the past, present and future. Igno-
rance is the veil that conceals the true nature of things. Once it is
removed, the truth reveals itself and Nibbāna is attained.
Ignorance is not a kind of first cause like prakṝiti of the
Sāṅkhya-system. In a chain of events responsible for the rebirth of a
living being, it functions as the first condition. In this sense it may be
treated as a first cause.
Formations (Saṅkhāra)
The term saṅkhāra has been used in several senses. In the widest
sense it has been used for all composite things. In the aggregates it
has been used as mental activities. Here it has been used in a special
sense for those volitions which lead to kamma-formation.
There are twenty-nine volitions of a creative nature: eight
related to the wholesome types of consciousness of the sensual
plane, twelve related to the unwholesome types of the same plane,
five related to the wholesome types of the fine-material plane, and
four related to the wholesome types of the immaterial plane.
They have been divided into three categories: meritorious for-
mations (puññābhisaṅkhāra), demeritorious formations (apuññāb-
hisaṅkhāra), and imperturbable formations (āneñjābhisaṅkhāra). The
wholesome volitions of the sensual and the fine-material planes
belong to the first category, the unwholesome volitions belong to the
second category, and wholesome volitions of the immaterial plane
belong to the third category.
Volitions express themselves through the three doors of
action—body, speech and mind. Accordingly they are known after
them also as bodily formations (kāya-saṅkhāra), verbal formations
(vacī-saṅkhāra), and mental formations (mano-saṅkhāra). When the
eight wholesome volitions and the twelve unwholesome volitions of
the sensual plane express themselves through bodily intimation
(kāya-viññatti), they create bodily formations. When the same voli-
tions express themselves through verbal intimation (vacī-viññatti),
they create verbal formations. When all the twenty-nine volitions of
the three planes occur without any reference to the above two doors,
they create mental formations.

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One who has not been able to understand the true nature of
things, and is labouring under delusion, creates kamma-formations.
The meritorious kamma-formations are conditioned by igno-
rance (avijjā) by way of two paccaya: object condition (ārammaṇa-
paccaya) and decisive support condition (upanissaya-paccaya). In the
sensual plane, ignorance functions as an object condition when the
meditator comprehends ignorance as subject to destruction. In the
fine-material plane, it functions so when the meditator reads the
thoughts of others with direct knowledge (abhiññā). It also func-
tions as a direct support condition in a two-fold way. In the first
place, it functions so when a person performs meritorious deeds
with a view to overcoming ignorance. In the second place, it func-
tions so when jhānas of the fine-material plane are attained for the
same purpose.
The demeritorious kamma-formations are conditioned by igno-
rance by way of object condition, object predominance condition,
object decisive-support condition, decisive-support condition, prox-
imity condition, contiguity condition, proximity decisive-support
condition, repetition condition, absence condition, disappearance
condition, root-cause condition, co-nascence condition, mutuality
condition, support condition, association condition, presence condi-
tion, and non-disappearance.
The imperturbable kamma-formations are conditioned by igno-
rance only by way of decisive support condition.
Consciousness (Viññāṇa)
Here by consciousness or viññāṇa are meant the thirty-two resultant
types of consciousness. They are conditioned by the three kinds of
formation by way of kamma and decisive support condition. Among
them the meritorious formations (puññābhisaṅkhāra) condition the
following twenty-one resultant types of wholesome consciousness:
the five resultants beginning with eye-consciousness through to
body-consciousness, one kind of mind-element (mano-dhātu), two
kinds of mind-consciousness-elements (mano-viññāṇa-dhātu), eight
kinds of wholesome resultants of the sensual plane associated with a
root-cause, and five types of resultants of the fine-material plane.
The demeritorious formations condition seven of the resultant
types of consciousness: the five unwholesome resultants beginning

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with eye-consciousness through to body-consciousness, one mind-

element and one mind-consciousness-element.
The imperturbable formations condition the four resultant
types of consciousness of the immaterial plane.
Thus there are thirty-two resultant types of consciousness condi-
tioned by formations. Among them thirteen—two five-fold conscious-
nesses (dvi-pañca-viññāṇa), two mind-elements and the mind-
consciousness-element associated with joy but not with root-cause—
function only in the course of existence. The remaining nineteen types
function both in rebirth-linking and in the course of existence. In the
present context the latter have been taken into special consideration.
Mentality and Materiality (Nāma-Rūpa)
The rebirth-linking consciousness conditions mentality and material-
ity. By mentality is meant the mental factors represented by feeling
(vedanā), perception (saññā) and formations (saṅkhāra). No con-
sciousness arises without the relevant mental factors included in
these three aggregates. Here the reference is to the mental factors
which associate with the resultant types. Some of them function in
rebirth-linking. After the conception of a being, other types of con-
sciousness and the relevant mental factors begin to function. The
mental factors in question here are conditioned by resultant types of
consciousness in nine ways by way of co-nascence, mutuality, sup-
port, association, kamma-result, sustenance, faculty, presence, and
non-disappearance.
By materiality is meant corporeality represented by the four pri-
mary elements and the derived material states. Among them the
heart-basis is conditioned by the types of consciousness concerned in
nine ways: by way of co-nascence, mutuality, support, kamma-result,
sustenance, faculty, dissociation, presence, and non-disappearance.
The other material states are conditioned by them in eight ways: by
way of the same conditions with the exception of mutuality.
Six Bases (Sa¿āyatana)
The six bases are the six sense-organs. They are conditioned by (i)
mentality and (ii) materiality. The mentality is represented by the
three aggregates of feeling, perception and formations. The materi-
ality is represented by the four primary elements, the six bases, the

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life-faculty and sustenance. This conditional nature has got to be

understood both individually and collectively.
(i) Mentality as condition. In rebirth-linking the sixth sense-base is
conditioned by mentality in seven ways at a minimum: by way
of co-nascence, mutuality, support, association, kamma-result,
presence and non-disappearance. Some mentality also functions
by way of root-cause and sustenance. Accordingly the maximum
number of conditions has to be taken into consideration. In the
course of existence too, the sixth base is conditioned by the
resultant mentality in the same way as explained above. It is also
conditioned in six ways at a minimum: by the non-resultant
mentality by six of the above conditions except for kamma-
result. Here too, the root-cause and sustenance account for the
maximum number of conditions.
This explanation has been given with special reference to
the conditional nature of the sixth base in the immaterial plane
(arūpa-bhūmi). In the five-constituent becoming (pañcavokāra-
bhava), the sixth base is conditioned by the resultant mentality
in association with the heart-basis, in the same way as in the
case of the immaterial attainments (aruppāni). But the first
five bases beginning with eye-base are conditioned by it, in
association with the four primary elements, by way of co-
nascence, support, kamma-result, dissociation, presence, and
non-disappearance. Root-cause and sustenance account for the
maximum number of conditions.
In the course of the existence of the five-constituent
becoming (pañca-vokāra-bhava), the resultant sixth base is
conditioned by the resultant mentality in seven ways, as above,
at a minimum. But the non-resultant part of the sixth base is
conditioned by the non-resultant mentality in six ways at a
minimum. Here kamma-result is not taken into consideration.
The maximum number of conditions has to be accounted for as
explained above.
In the course of existence, the five bases beginning with eye
are conditioned by the resultant mentality having eye-
sensitivity, etc. as their physical base, by way of post-nascence,
dissociation, presence, and non-disappearance. The non-
resultant mentality has also to be explained in the same way.

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(ii) Materiality as condition. As regards materiality, in rebirth-

linking the sixth base is conditioned by the heart-basis in six
ways by way of co-nascence, mutuality, support, dissociation,
presence, and non-disappearance. In rebirth-linking and in the
course of existence, the first five sense-bases are conditioned
by the four elements in four ways by way of co-nascence, sup-
port, presence and non-disappearance. But in rebirth-linking
and in the course of existence these five bases are conditioned
by the material life-faculty in three ways by way of presence,
non-disappearance, and faculty. In the course of existence,
sustenance functions in terms of three conditions: presence,
non-disappearance, and sustenance. In the course of existence,
the sixth base representing the types of consciousness from the
visual to the tactual are conditioned by the first five sensebases
in six ways by way of support, pre-nascence, faculty, dissocia-
tion, presence, and non-disappearance. Again in the course of
existence, the sixth base, representing the remaining types of
consciousness, is conditioned by the heart-base in five ways by
way of support, pre-nascence, dissociation, presence, and non-
disappearance.
(iii) Mentality-materiality as condition collectively. In the five-con-
stituent becoming (pañca-vokāra-bhava) in rebirth-linking the
sixth base is conditioned by mentality with heart-basis (material-
ity) by way of co-nascence, mutuality, support, kamma-result,
association, dissociation, presence, and non-disappearance.
Contact (Phassa)
Contact is six-fold according to the six sense-bases: eye-contact, ear-
contact, nose-contact, tongue-contact, body-contact and mind-con-
tact. Contact (phassa) is conditioned by the six bases (sa¿āyatana).
Here by sa¿āyatana are meant the six internal bases, and by phassa is
meant the contact that associates with the relevant types of con-
sciousness. Two types of resultant consciousness—one wholesome
and the other unwholesome—arise in relation to each of the first
five bases. Then again, there are twenty-two resultant types of mun-
dane consciousness which arise in relation to the sixth base. They
are thirty-two types in all. The contact that associates with these

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thirty-two types is meant here. According to the types of conscious-

ness, it may also be said to be thirty-two-fold.
The first five sense-bases condition their respective contacts in
six ways: by way of support, pre-nascence, faculty, dissociation,
presence, and non-disappearance. The mind-base conditions its
twenty-two-fold contact in nine ways: by way of co-nascence,
mutuality, support, kamma-result, sustenance, faculty, association,
presence, and non-disappearance.
Here it has to be noted that the six internal bases function when
they come into inter-action with their relevant external bases. There-
fore these latter bases also condition the contacts in question. Thus
the base of form (rūpāyatana) to the base of contact (phassāyatana)
condition the first five contacts—visual to tactual—in four ways by
way of object, pre-nascence, presence, and non-disappearance. All of
the six bases condition mind-contact in the same four ways.
Feeling (Vedanā)
Feeling is six-fold according to the six sense-contacts. Feeling is a
mental factor that associates with all types of consciousness. Accord-
ingly it is also said to be of eighty-nine kinds. Here only the thirty-
two resultant feelings have been taken into consideration. In the
five-fold sense-door cognition, the five contacts condition the five
kinds of feeling in eight ways: by way of co-nascence, mutuality,
support, kamma-result, sustenance, association, presence and non-
disappearance. But the resultant feeling associated with receiving,
investigation and registration is conditioned by the first five sense-
contacts only by way of decisive support. In the mind-door cogni-
tion, the mind-contact conditions the resultant feeling, occurring as
registration in the above eight ways. This is true of the resultant
feeling in the three planes occurring with rebirth-linking, life-contin-
uum, and death. But the feeling associated with mind-door
registration is conditioned by mind-contact associated with mind-
door adverting only in one way—as decisive support.
Craving (taṇhā)
According to the six sense-objects, craving is also six-fold. Again
each is three-fold: craving for sense-desires, craving for becoming
and craving for non-becoming. The first is associated with the

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enjoyment of sense-objects, the second with the eternalist view of

things, and the third with the nihilistic view of things. Accordingly,
they are of eighteen kinds. According to the internal and external
data, their number is thirty-six. In relation to the three periods of
time, their number is 108. Here resultant-feeling is taken into con-
sideration. It conditions craving by way of decisive support.
Clinging (Upādāna)
Clinging or grasping is four-fold: clinging to sensuality, false views,
rules and vows and a personality as such. Craving conditions cling-
ing to sensuality by way of decisive support. It conditions the
remaining three kinds of clinging by way of co-nascence, mutuality,
support, association, presence, non-disappearance, root-cause, and
decisive-support. When it functions as a decisive support, then it
does not function as a co-nascence.
Becoming (Bhava)
Becoming or bhava is two-fold: kamma-process becoming (kamma-
bhava) and rebirth-process becoming (uppatti-bhava). The first is
the creative process of volitional activities. It is active in nature. The
other is the process of the formations of resultants. It is passive in
nature.
The second link of the chain, i.e., kamma-formations
(saṅkhāra), refers only to the creative volitions, whereas kamma-
process (kamma-bhava) refers to creative volitions and their associ-
ated mental states. It could be said that they are two different ways
of representing the same thing.
Kamma-bhava is three-fold: meritorious, demeritorious and
imperturbable. The first and the third are wholesome in nature, and
the second is unwholesome. The resultants so formed or resultant
becoming (vipāka-bhava), are also three-fold: sensual becoming
(kāma-bhava), fine-material becoming (rūpabhava) and immaterial
becoming (arūpa-bhava), represented by the relevant aggregates. In
sensual becoming and fine-material becoming, (with the exception
of worlds of non-perception [asañña-loka] which are included in the
latter), all the five aggregates are available. (In worlds of non-per-
ception, only the material aggregate is available.) In immaterial
becoming the four mental aggregates alone are available.

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Clinging conditions two-fold becoming of the fine-material and

immaterial planes, and that of the sensual plane as represented by
the wholesome actions and results, by way of decisive support. It
conditions becoming of the sensual plane as represented by associ-
ated unwholesome actions by way of co-nascence, mutuality, sup-
port, association, presence, non-disappearance and root-cause. It
also conditions becoming of the sensual plane represented by disso-
ciated unwholesome actions by way of decisive support.
Birth (Jāti)
Rebirth of a being depends on the nature of kamma accumulated by
him. Therefore birth or jāti is said to be conditioned by kamma-pro-
cess becoming (kamma-bhava), which may be either wholesome or
unwholesome. This conditional relation is established by way of
kamma and decisive support.
Decay and Death (Jarā-Maraṇa)
Birth leads to decay and death by conditioning them by way of deci-
sive support.
The Wheel of Becoming
The twelve constituent dependent origination (dvādasaṅga-paṭicca-
samuppāda) has also been presented as the wheel of becoming
(bhava-cakka). The twelve constituents or spokes belong to three
periods of time. Thus ignorance and formations belong to the past,
the eight beginning with rebirth-linking consciousness belong to the
present, and the last two—birth and ageing-and-death—belong to
the future.
Between these spokes there are three links (ti-sandhi) formed
in terms of cause (hetu) and fruit (phala). Thus between formations
and rebirth-linking-consciousness there is the first link in the form of
cause-fruit. Between feeling and craving there is the second link in
the form of fruit-cause. Between becoming and birth there is the
third link in the form of cause-fruit.
They have been further divided into four sections (catu-
saṅkhepā). Among them ignorance and formations represent the first
section; consciousness, mentality-materiality, six-fold base, contact

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and feeling represent the second; craving, clinging and becoming rep-
resent the third; birth, and ageing-and-death represent the fourth.
In fact, the four sections represent five modes each. In the first
section with only ignorance and formations, since ignorance leads to
craving, craving to clinging and clinging to becoming, there are
accordingly five modes in the first section. These five modes repre-
sent the kamma-process of becoming in the previous birth (atīta-
kamma-bhava).
In the second section, the five components are also the five
modes: consciousness, mentality-materiality, six-fold base, contact,
and feeling. They represent the resultant process of becoming in the
present (vattamāna-vipāka-bhava).
In the third section, craving, clinging and becoming have been
mentioned. But when becoming is mentioned formations are under-
stood. Again when craving and clinging are mentioned, ignorance
that associates with them is also understood. Accordingly there are
five modes in the third section too. These five modes represent the
kamma-process of becoming in the present (vattamāna-kamma-
bhava).
In the fourth section with birth and ageing-and-death, by
“birth” is understood the five modes of consciousness—mentality-
materiality, sixfold base, contact and feeling. Ageing-and-death are
the decay and death of the same. These five modes represent the
resultant process of becoming in future (anāgata-vipāka-bhava).
So in these four sections there are twenty modes, which have
been represented as the twenty spokes of the wheel of becoming.
There are three rounds in the wheel: the round of kamma
(kamma-vaṭṭa), which is represented by formations and becoming;
the round of defilements (kilesa-vaṭṭa), which is represented by
ignorance, craving and clinging; and the round of result (vipāka-
vaṭṭa), which is represented by consciousness, mentality-materiality,
the six-fold base, contact and feeling. The wheel of becoming turns
on and on in terms of these three rounds as long as the round of
defilements (kilesa-vaṭṭa) is not cut off.

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SECTION II
VISM XVIII
The Seven Purifications
The highest purity (parama-visuddhi) is a synonym for Nibbāna.
There is a process of purification, marked by seven stages, which
leads to the attainment of the same. They are known as seven purifi-
cations or visuddhis: (1) purification of virtue (sīla-visuddhi), (2)
purification of mind (citta-visuddhi), (3) purification of views
(diṭṭhi–visuddhi), (4) purification of overcoming of doubts (kaṅkhā-
vitaraṇa-visuddhi), (5) purification of knowledge and insight into
the right and wrong paths (maggāmagga-ñāṇadassana-visuddhi), (6)
purification of knowledge and insight into practice (paṭipadā-ñāṇa-
dassana-visuddhi), (7) purification of knowledge and insight into the
noble path (ñāṇadassana visuddhi).
Purification of virtue (sīla-visuddhi) and purification of mind
(citta-visuddhi) have already been explained in Chapters 1 and 2. The
remaining five purifications are attained by understanding the true
nature of phenomenal existence on the one hand and that of Nibbāna
on the other. In this connection the meditator has to have knowledge
of the five aggregates, the twelve bases, the eighteen elements, the
twenty-two faculties, the four truths and the law of the dependent
origination of things as explained in Section 1 of this chapter. This is
the theoretical knowledge of things. It is their practical knowledge
that leads to the attainment of the remaining five purifications.

(3) Purification of Views (diṭṭhi-visuddhi)

The worldling (puthujjana) is deluded by the belief in the existence of
an individuality as such (sakkāya). But as a matter of fact, this appar-
ent individuality is composed of mental and material states. Through
an analytical study, these states can be determined according to their
characteristics (lakkhaṇa), function (rasa), manifestation (pac-
cupaṭṭhāna), and the proximate cause (padaṭṭhāna).
This practice may be undertaken either on attaining access-con-
centration (upacāra-samādhi) or fixed-concentration (appanā-samā-
dhi). One who has attained only the access-concentration may begin
with the determination of the four elements and their derivative

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states. One who has attained a jhāna would emerge from it and con-
template on the mental states, and then on the material states begin-
ning with the heart-basis. One may determine them in terms of 18
elements which are in so many categories; 10½ of these categories
include material states only, and 7½ of them include mental states.
Another may determine them in terms of 12 bases, which are also in
so many categories. Here too 10½ categories include material states,
and 1½ categories include mental states. A third may determine them
in terms of the five aggregates, which are also in so many categories.
The first category includes material states, and the remaining four cat-
egories the mental states.
The mental and the material states are interdependent. Just as
two sheaves of reeds, propped against each other, stand or fall
together, in the same way these states depend on one another.
Here it has to be noted that the mental states to be taken into
consideration are the 81 types of mundane consciousness and their
associates. The 8 supramundane types of consciousness and their
associates are not included among them as they are beyond the
knowledge of those who are still in the mundane plane.
As a result of this analysis, the meditator comes to understand
that apart from the mental and material states, there is no individual
as such. So such expressions as an individual, Deva, Brahmā, etc.,
are true only in a conventional sense. With this knowledge he attains
the purity of views.

(4) Purification through Overcoming of Doubts

(Kaṅkhā-vitaraṇa-visuddhi)
The meditator understands that the process of mental and material
states called a being is not the creation of a causeless cause like a
god. They are not without their causes and conditions either. He
looks for the causes and conditions within the states themselves and
not outside.
This may be understood in several ways:
A meditator may understand the conditional nature of the
material states with reference to kamma, consciousness (citta),
temperature (utu) and sustenance (āhāra). As regards the mental
states, he observes that they come into existence as a result of the

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inter-relation between the sense-organs and their objects. This is true

of all the mental and material states of the three periods of time.
Their conditional nature may also be understood in the reverse
order of the terms of the dependent origination of things. Ageing of
the states are due to birth, birth is due to becoming … formations
are due to ignorance.
It may be understood in the direct order of the terms also:
“Ignorance leads to formations … birth leads to decay-and-death.”
It can also be understood in terms of kamma and result. The past
kamma-process-becoming is represented by ignorance, formations,
craving, clinging, and becoming. The result of the same appears in the
present represented by rebirth-linking-consciousness, mentality-mate-
riality, six-fold sense base, contact and feeling. The present kamma-
process is also represented by the same terms as those of the past. The
result of the present kamma-process will appear in future as repre-
sented by the same terms as those of the present. Thus he understands
the conditional nature of mental and material states in the past,
present and future. In the light of the same he sees that in fact there is
neither a doer of the deeds nor an experiencer of the results. He
observes the pure states (dhamma) in process: In the past states came
into existence due to certain conditions. They ceased giving rise to a
new set of states in the present. They too will come to an end giving
rise to another set in the future.
When there is a clear understanding of the conditional nature
of states in the three periods of time, there is an end to the five kinds
of doubt regarding one’s past existence—“Was I in the past? Was I
not in the past? What was I in the past? How was I in the past? Hav-
ing been what, what was I in the past?”; the five kinds of doubt
regarding one’s future existence—“Shall I be in the future? Shall I
not be in the future? What shall I be in the future? How shall I be in
the future? Having been what, what shall I be in the future?”; and
also the six kinds of doubt regarding one’s present existence—“Am
I? Am I not? What am I? How am I? Whence will this being have
come? Whither will it be bound?”.
As a result of understanding the conditional nature of things the
meditator will be free from these sixteen kinds of doubts. In fact, these
sixteen doubts refer to all the sixty-two views. Accordingly the
meditator may be said to be free from them to the same extent. This is

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purification attained by overcoming doubts. It is also known as

“knowledge of the relations of states” (dhammaṭṭhitiñāṇaṃ), “correct
knowledge” (yathābhūtañāṇaṃ), and “right vision” (sammā-
dassanaṃ).

(5) Purification of Knowledge and Vision of the

Right Path and Wrong Path
(Maggāmagga-ñāṇadassana-visuddhi)
VISM XX
After having a clear conception of the mental and material states
along with their relevant conditions, the meditator meditates on
their general nature in terms of impermanence (anicca), suffering
(dukkha) and insubstantiality (anattā). He does so by way of groups
(kalāpa-sammasana).
In this connection 24 groups of states (dhamma) have been
taken into consideration: (i) the states that occur in the doors of
consciousness together with the doors and the objects; (ii) the five
aggregates; (iii) the six doors; (iv) the six kinds of objects; (v) the
six kinds of consciousness (vi) the six contacts; (vii) the six kinds of
feeling; (viii) the six kinds of perception; (ix) the six kinds of voli-
tion; (x) the six kinds of craving; (xi) the six kinds of applied
thought; (xii) the six kinds of sustained thought; (xiii) the six ele-
ments; (xiv) the ten kasiṇa; (xv) the thirty-two parts of the body;
(xvi) the twelve bases; (xvii) the eighteen elements; (xviii) the
twenty-two faculties; (xix) the three elements; (xx) the nine kinds of
becoming; (xxi) the four jhāna; (xxii) the four measureless states;
(xxiii) the four immaterial attainments; and (xxiv) the twelve links
of dependent origination.
Further they have to be contemplated upon under forty
aspects: as impermanent, as painful, a disease, a boil, a dart, a
calamity, an affliction, as alien, as disintegrating, as a plague, a dis-
aster, a terror, a menace, as fickle, perishable, unenduring, as no
protection, no shelter, no refuge, as empty, vain, void, not self, as a
danger, as subject to change, as having no core, as the root of calam-
ity, as murderous, as due to be annihilated, as subject to cankers, as
formed, as Mara’s bait, as subject to birth, subject to ageing, subject

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to illness, subject to death, subject to sorrow, subject to lamentation,

subject to despair, and subject to defilement.
Among them ten aspects—as impermanent, as disintegrating, as
fickle, as perishable, as unenduring, as subject to change, as having no
core, as due to be annihilated, as formed, and as subject to death—
refer to impermanence. In this way, contemplation of each aggregate
under these ten aspects means fifty kinds of contemplation.
Five aspects—as alien, as empty, as vain, as void, and as not
self—refer to insubstantiality. Contemplation of each aggregate
under these five aspects means twenty-five contemplations.
The remaining twenty-five aspects refer to suffering. Contem-
plation of each aggregate under these twenty-five aspects means
hundred and twenty-five kinds of contemplation. So altogether there
are two hundred kinds of contemplation for each group of dhamma.
If the general characteristics are not clear even after this prac-
tice, he should concentrate on the mundane composite states with
reference to their respective conditions. In this connection he should
begin with the material states given rise to by kamma, conscious-
ness, temperature, and sustenance. Next, he should contemplate on
the 81 types of consciousness and their associates. In course of this
practice, he has to take into consideration how 19 types function as
rebirth-linking-consciousness, and how, in course of the life-process,
as a result of the interaction between the respective sense-organs,
their objects and the presence of other necessary conditions, the
remaining types of consciousness come into existence. After due
practice of this method, the meditator is sure to have a clear concep-
tion of the three characteristics.
Next, he concentrates on the rise (udaya) and fall (vaya) of the
composite states in the three periods of time. He observes that these
states come into existence as a result of certain conditions, and
attain cessation on the cessation of the same. In this process, nothing
comes over from the past to the present, nor does anything go over
from the present to the future.
After some practice, what are known as the ten defilements of
insight (vipassanā-upakkilesāni) arise in him: 1. illumination (obhāsa),
2. knowledge (ñāṇa), 3. rapture (pīti), 4. serenity (passaddhi), 5. bliss
(sukha), 6. resolve (adhimokkha), 7. exertion (paggaha), 8. assurance
(upaṭṭhāna), 9. equanimity (upekkhā), and 10. attachment (nikanti).

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At times after the appearance of these phenomena, the medita-

tor begins to labour under the delusion that he has reached the goal.
But the well-informed and well-instructed meditator is not deluded
by them. He understands that these phenomena are only incidental
at this stage. He makes out the path from the not-path, and keeps to
the right course.
This is the stage of budding insight (taruṇa-vipassanā). By
reaching this stage the meditator has made a start in the develop-
ment of insight (āraddha-vipassako).
The Relation of 18 Kinds of Principal Insight-Knowledge
(Mahā-vipassanā-ñāṇāni)
The meditator who has gained sammasana-ñāṇa (reflective knowl-
edge) is said to have attained the eighteen kinds of principal insight-
knowledge in some measure. The eighteen kinds of principal insight-
knowledge and the states whose elimination they lead to are as fol-
lows:
(i) the contemplation of impermanence leads to the abandoning
of the perception of permanence,
(ii) contemplation of pain leads to the abandoning of the percep-
tion of pleasure,
(iii) contemplation of not-self leads to the abandoning of the per-
ception of self,
(iv) contemplation of detachment leads to the abandoning of
attachment,
(v) contemplation of dispassion leads to the abandoning of delight,
(vi) contemplation of cessation leads to the abandoning of origina-
tion,
(vii) contemplation of relinquishment leads to the abandoning of
grasping,
(viii) contemplation of destruction leads to the abandoning of the
perception of compactness,
(ix) contemplation of the fall of formation leads to the abandoning
of the accumulation of kamma,
(x) contemplation of change leads to the abandoning of the per-
ception of lastingness,
(xi) contemplation of signlessness leads to the abandoning of sign,

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(xii) contemplation of desirelessness leads to the abandoning of

desire,
(xiii) contemplation of voidness leads to the abandoning of the
belief in self,
(xiv) development of insight into the phenomenal states that is
called higher understanding, leads to the abandoning of cling-
ing to an essence,
(xv) development of correct knowledge and vision leads to the
abandoning of misinterpretation due to confusion,
(xvi) contemplation of danger leads to the abandoning of belief due
to attachment,
(xvii) contemplation of reflection leads to the abandoning of non-
reflection,
(xviii)contemplation of turning away from the round of rebirths
leads to the abandoning of conditions conducive to bondage.
The reflective knowledge (sammasana-ñāṇa) is represented by
the items one to three. Then again, the items eleven to thirteen are
the same in meaning. The item fourteen partakes of all kinds of
insight. The item fifteen is represented by purification by overcom-
ing doubt. Therefore the meditator who has gained reflective knowl-
edge is said to have attained full knowledge of eight kinds of
principal insight, and partial knowledge of the remaining ten kinds.
He will be attaining their full knowledge from the knowledge of dis-
solution (bhaṅga-ñāṇa) onwards.

(6) The Knowledge and Vision of the Way

(Paṭipadā-ñāṇadassana-visuddhi)
VISM XXI
After attaining the purification of the path as distinct from not-path,
the meditator tries to attain purification of knowledge and vision of
the path. This consists in eight kinds of knowledge, together with the
knowledge in conformity with truth as the ninth. They are: (i) knowl-
edge of contemplation of rise and fall (udayabbayānupassanā-ñāṇa),
(ii) knowledge of contemplation of dissolution (bhaṅgānupassanā-
ñāṇa), (iii) knowledge of appearance as fear (bhayatūpaṭṭhāna-ñaṇa),
(iv) knowledge of contemplation of danger (ādīnavānupassanā-ñāṇa),

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(v) knowledge of contemplation of dispassion (nibbidānupassanā-

ñāṇa), (vi) knowledge of desire for deliverance (muñcitukamyatā-
ñāṇa), (vii) knowledge of the contemplation of reflection
(paṭisaṅkhānupassanā-ñāṇa), (viii) knowledge of equanimity about
formations (saṅkhārupekkhā-ñāṇa), and (ix) knowledge in conformity
with truth (anuloma-ñāṇa).
(i) Knowledge of contemplation of rise and fall (udayabbayānu-
passanā-ñāṇa). Being free from the ten defilements referred to
above, the meditator further develops his knowledge of rise
and fall of the composite states. As a result, their impermanent,
painful and unsubstantial nature becomes more and more clear
to him. This knowledge free from defilements is also called
“insight which has the right course of practice” (vīthipaṭipanna-
vipassanā).
(ii) Knowledge of contemplation of dissolution (bhaṅgānupassanā-
ñāṇa). As the meditator goes on meditating on the rise and fall
of composite states, a time comes when his mind becomes con-
centrated on the latter aspect only. He then observes how the
composite states break up and are subject to dissolution. Being
subject to dissolution, they are impermanent. Now what is
impermanent is painful, and what is painful is without any sub-
stantiality. So he loses all delight in them. This knowledge
gained by reflecting on the perishable nature of the composite
things leads to the following advantages: elimination of wrong
views regarding becoming, abandoning of craving for life, con-
stant application in what is suitable, purity of livelihood, elimi-
nation of anxiety, expulsion of fear, possession of patience and
self-control, and overcoming of dissatisfaction.
(iii) Knowledge of appearance as fear (bhayatūpaṭṭhāna-ñaṇa). As
the meditator concentrates on the perishable nature of things,
he sees that all the composite states of the past, in all the three
planes of existence, have ceased, those of the present are ceas-
ing, and those of the future will cease. In the light of this
knowledge, all these states appear to him as fearful.
(iv) Knowledge of contemplation of danger (ādīnavānupassanā-
ñāṇa). The meditator, to whom the composite states appear as
fearful, does not see any place of security, refuge or protection
in the whole phenomenal existence. This understanding of the

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dangerous nature of the composite states gives him a better

knowledge of their three characteristics.
(v) Knowledge of contemplation of dispassion (nibbidānupassanā-
ñāṇa). When the meditator has seen danger in all composite
states, he does not find delight in anything of the three planes
of existence. He sees safety and happiness only in dispassion
and detachment.
One who sees the fearful nature of the formations (iii
above) also sees their danger (iv above). One who sees danger
loses all delight in them and develops an attitude of
detachment towards them (v). For this reason, as is said in the
Paṭisambhidāmagga (Paṭis II 62), they may be treated as three
phases of one and the same knowledge.
(vi) Knowledge of desire for deliverance (muñcitukamyatā-ñāṇa).
As the meditator finds no delight in formations and develops
detachment for them, he becomes desirous of being delivered
from them. Just like a fish in a net, or a frog in a snake’s jaws,
he also becomes desirous of being released from these forma-
tions. As a result, the knowledge of desire for deliverance
arises in him.
(vii) Knowledge of the contemplation of reflection (paṭisaṅkhānu-
passanāñāṇa). When the meditator is desirous of deliverance,
he further develops the knowledge of the three characteristics.
He contemplates on the formations as impermanent, tempo-
rary, limited by rise and fall, disintegrating and perishable. He
also sees them as painful because they are oppressing, unbear-
able, the basis of disease, a calamity, an affliction, a plague, a
disaster and so on. They are also without a substance, because
they are empty, vain, void, ownerless, and so on. As a result of
this contemplation, there arises in him the knowledge of the
contemplation of reflection.
(viii) Knowledge of equanimity about formations (saṅkhārupekkhā-
ñāṇa). As a result of the knowledge of reflective contempla-
tion, the meditator loses the fear of and delight in all forma-
tions. He does not find anything to be called “I” or “mine.” So
he becomes indifferent towards them. With this knowledge of
equanimity about formations, the meditator is said to have

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reached the three-fold door-way leading to Nibbāna. At this

stage his mind is directed towards Nibbāna.
The knowledge of desire for deliverance, that of
contemplation of reflection and that of equanimity about
formations are but three phases of the same knowledge (see
Paṭis II 63).
(ix) Knowledge in conformity with truth (anuloma-ñāṇa). As the
meditator develops the attitude of equanimity towards the com-
posite states, his ethical faculties also become stronger and
stronger. In due course he attains the conformity-knowledge. It
is so called because on the one hand it conforms to the eight
kinds of the preceding knowledge and on the other to the noble
path and, for that matter, the fulfilment of the 37 elements of
enlightenment. With it, the insight-knowledge (vipassanā-ñāṇa),
having the formations as their object, reaches the point of culmi-
nation. It is the threshold, so to say, of Nibbāna. For this reason,
it is also called the culmination of insight-knowledge leading to
the noble path (vuṭṭhānagāminī vipassanā). But, technically
speaking, knowledge in conformity with truth is treated as the
last moment in the process (see (7) below).

(7) Purification by Knowledge and Vision

(Ñāṇadassana-visuddhi)
VISM XXII
After knowledge in conformity with truth (anuloma-ñāṇa) there arises
maturity-knowledge or gotrabhū-ñāṇa. It is so called because at this
stage the meditator leaves the lineage of the worldlings (puthujjana-
gotta) and attains that of the noble ones (ariya-gotta). This is an inter-
mediate stage between purification by knowledge and vision of the
path, and purification of knowledge and vision. It is still treated as
insight because it is in line with it. It has Nibbāna as its object.
The First State of Sainthood
Immediately thereafter follows the first path-knowledge (magga-
ñāṇa). It performs four functions at one and the same time—it
comprehends suffering, abandons the cause of suffering, realises the
cessation of suffering, and develops the path that leads to the cessa-

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tion of suffering. With the attainment of the first path, three of the
fetters—delusion of self-hood, doubt about the efficacy of religious
life, and belief in rules and vows—are destroyed. It is followed by
fruition-knowledge (phala-ñāṇa).
The latter is followed by the knowledge of reflection on the
path, the fruition, the defilements already eliminated, the defile-
ments yet to be eliminated, and Nibbāna. So there are five kinds of
reflective knowledge in the first supramundane state. This is true of
the next two kinds of supramundane state also. But after the attain-
ment of the last state, there are no defilements left to be eliminated.
Hence only four kinds of reflection are possible here. Therefore
there are nineteen kinds of reflection in all the four supramundane
states.
The meditator who has attained the first supramundane state is
called one who has entered the stream of the noble path or stream-
enterer (sotāpanna). At the most, he is destined to be born only
seven times in the worlds of devas and men (sattakkhattu-parama).
The Second State of Sainthood
The meditator, who is now a noble one, follows the same method of
meditation, and attains the second state of sainthood, attenuating
both sensuous desire and ill-will. He is bound to attain the final
emancipation after being born in the sensual plane only once. There-
fore he is called once-returner (sakadāgāmī).
The Third State of Sainthood
The meditator, who is now a once returner, further follows the same
method of meditation, and attains the third state of sainthood by
totally destroying the residue of both sensuous desire and ill-will. If
he does not attain the final emancipation in this very life, he will be
born in a Brahmā-world, where he will attain Nibbāna. As he will
not return to the sensuous plane any more, he is called the non-
returner (anāgāmi).
The Fourth State of Sainthood
The meditator, who is now a non-returner, follows the same method
of meditation and attains the fourth and the last state of sainthood,
destroying the remaining five fetters: attachment to existence in the

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fine-material and immaterial planes, conceit, excitement and delu-

sion. He becomes an arahant, a worthy one. In this very life-time he
attains the final emancipation of Nibbāna.
Fulfilment of the 37 Elements of Enlightenment
The following are the thirty-seven elements of enlightenment—the
four applications of mindfulness (cattāro satipaṭṭhānā), the four
right efforts (cattāro sammappadhānā), the four roads to power (cat-
tāro iddhipādā), the five ethical faculties (pañca indriyāni), the five
mental powers (pañca balāni), the seven factors of enlightenment
(satta bojjhaṅgā), and the eight constituents of the noble path (aṭṭha
maggaṅgāni).
These thirty-seven elements of enlightenment do not function
apart from their associated mental states. Therefore they too have to
be understood in relation to these. When the noble path is men-
tioned, all the thirty seven elements in question are meant. All of
these elements associate with every type of consciousness of the first
three path-states. As regards the last and the fourth, the four right
efforts do not associate with it. When all these elements attain their
fulfilment, the meditator gains illumination.
The Destruction of Defilements
It has been already stated how the ten fetters are destroyed by the
meditator as he goes on attaining the supramundane paths. Here it
has to be noted that, though the ten fetters have been specially men-
tioned in this connection, the destruction of other defilements too
has to be understood in the same way. All these defilements have
been classified according to certain principles. Many of the states
mentioned in them differ only in form.
They are given here in the order of their destruction by the
respective supramundane paths: the ten fetters (saṃyojanāni), the
ten corruptions (kilesā), the ten wrongnesses (micchattā), the eight
worldly states (lokadhammā), the four perversions (vipallāsā), the
four ties (ganthā), the four injustices (ayatī), the four cankers
(āsavā), the four floods (oghā), the four bonds (yogā), the five hin-
drances (nīvaraṇāni), one adherence (parāmāso), the four clingings
(upādānāni), the four inherent tendencies (cattāro anusayā), the
three stains (tīṇi malāni), the ten unwholesome courses of action

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(akusala-kammapathā), and the twelve unwholesome thought-

arisings (akusala-cittuppādā).
The ten fetters have been dealt with above. Among the ten cor-
ruptions, false view and uncertainty are destroyed by the first path-
knowledge; hate is destroyed by the third path-knowledge; greed,
delusion, conceit, sloth, agitation, consciencelessness, and shame-
lessness are destroyed by the fourth path-knowledge.
Among the ten wrongnesses, wrong views, wrong speech
(falsehood), wrong action, and wrong livelihood are destroyed by
the first path-knowledge; wrong thoughts, malicious speech, and
harsh speech are destroyed by the third path-knowledge. Here, only
volition is to be understood by speech. Gossip, wrong effort, wrong
mindfulness, wrong concentration, wrong deliverance, and wrong
knowledge are destroyed by the fourth path-knowledge.
Among the eight worldly states, resentment at loss, misfortune,
blame and suffering are destroyed by the third path-knowledge;
approval of gain, fortune, praise, and pleasure are destroyed by the
fourth path-knowledge.
The five kinds of avarice—avarice about dwellings, families,
gain, Dhamma and praise—are destroyed by the first path-knowledge.
Among the three perversions, the perversions of perception,
consciousness and views, which find permanence in the imperma-
nent and self in the not-self, and the perversion of view finding
pleasure in pain and beauty in the foul are destroyed by the first
path knowledge. The perversions of perception and consciousness
finding beauty in the foul are destroyed by the third path-knowl-
edge. The perversions of perception and consciousness finding pleas-
ure in the painful are destroyed by the fourth path-knowledge.
Among the four ties, those of adherence to rules and vows and
the insistence that “this is the truth,” are destroyed by the first path-
knowledge; the tie of ill-will is destroyed by the third path-knowledge;
and that of covetousness is destroyed by the fourth path-knowledge.
The four kinds of injustice based on partiality, ill-will, fear and
ignorance are destroyed by the first path-knowledge.
Among the four cankers, that of wrong view is destroyed by the
first path-knowledge; that of sensuality is destroyed by the third
path-knowledge; those of existence and ignorance are destroyed by

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the fourth path-knowledge. This is true of the four floods and the
four bonds also.
Among the five hindrances, that of uncertainty is destroyed by
the first path-knowledge; those of lust, ill-will and worry are
destroyed by the third path-knowledge; those of sloth and torpor
and agitation are destroyed by the fourth path-knowledge. Adher-
ence (parāmāsa) to views, which means holding false views, is
destroyed by the first path-knowledge.
Among the four clingings, clinging to views, rules and vows,
and to the doctrine of self are destroyed by the first path-knowledge;
clinging to existence is destroyed by the fourth path-knowledge.
Among the seven inherent tendencies, wrong views and doubts
are destroyed by the first path-knowledge; sensuous passion and
hate are destroyed by the third path-knowledge; tendencies of con-
ceit, craving for existence, and ignorance are destroyed by the fourth
path-knowledge.
Among the three stains, hate is destroyed by the third path-
knowledge; craving and ignorance by the fourth.
Among the ten unwholesome courses of action, killing, stealing,
adultery, falsehood and wrong views are destroyed by the first path-
knowledge; slandering, harsh words and ill-will are destroyed by the
third; frivolous talk and covetousness are destroyed by the fourth.
Among the twelve unwholesome thought-arisings, five—four
associated with doubt, and ignorance—are destroyed by the first
path-knowledge; two associated with hate by the third; and the
remaining five—four dissociated from views and associated with
craving, and that associated with distraction and ignorance—are
destroyed by the fourth path-knowledge.
Thus on attaining the final enlightenment, all the defilements
are destroyed by the four kinds of path knowledge.

Benefits of Wisdom
VISM XXIII
Among others, the following may be mentioned as the benefits of
attaining wisdom: (a) destruction of defilements, (b) enjoying the
taste of noble fruits, (c) attainment of cessation (nirodha-samāpatti),
and (d) becoming worthy of receiving gifts and so on.

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(i) The destruction of defilements has been explained with refer-

ence to the elimination of the ten fetters (saṃyojanāni) and the
associating mental states. It is the defilements that keep a liv-
ing being wandering in the ocean of saṃsāra. Therefore
destruction of defilements means the cessation of suffering.
(ii) Nibbāna is the object of fruition-states. The noble ones (ariya)
enjoy the bliss of the same by attaining them. One who attains
the first stage of sainthood gains the first vision of Nibbāna. It
is gradually developed in the course of attaining the remaining
stages. In the last stage, full vision of Nibbāna is gained. The
noble ones of the lower stages cannot attain the fruition-states
of the higher stages, nor do those of higher stages attain the
fruition-states of the lower stages. They attain their respective
states only.
(iii) The attainment of cessation (nirodha-samāpatti) is so called
because both perception (saññā) and feeling (vedanā) cease in
this state. Fruition states can be attained by all noble persons
or ariyas without any distinction. But the attainment of cessa-
tion can be attained only by Arahants, non-returners and those
who have already attained all the eight concentration attain-
ments (samāpatti), namely, the four form jhānas (rūpa-jhāna)
and the four immaterial jhānas (arūpa-jhāna). The noble ones
who attain this state can remain in it even for a week. As the
functions of the mind have ceased for the time being, he is not
aware even of the existence of his body. It appears that in this
state he is wholly absorbed in Nibbāna.
(iv) Having destroyed all defilements and attained the highest state
of saint-hood, the noble one becomes worthy of gifts offered
and the homage paid by the world.

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Related Interest

The Path of Purification: Visuddhimagga

Translated by Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli
The Visuddhimagga is the most important non-canonical work of
Theravada Buddhism. Written in the 5th century by Ācariya Bud-
dhaghosa, the book serves as a systematic encyclopaedia of Buddhist
doctrine and a detailed guide to meditation. The translation by Ven.
Ñāṇamoli itself ranks as an outstanding scholarly achievement.
BP 207H 950 pp.

See latest catalogue (http://www.bps.lk)

 THE BUDDHIST PUBLICATION SOCIETY
The BPS is an approved charity dedicated to making known the
Teaching of the Buddha, which has a vital message for all people.
Founded in 1958, the BPS has published a wide variety of books
and booklets covering a great range of topics. Its publications
include accurate annotated translations of the Buddha’s discourses,
standard reference works, as well as original contemporary exposi-
tions of Buddhist thought and practice. These works present Bud-
dhism as it truly is—a dynamic force which has influenced receptive
minds for the past 2500 years and is still as relevant today as it was
when it first arose.
For more information about the BPS and our publications,
please visit our website, or write an e-mail, or a letter to the:

Administrative Secretary
Buddhist Publication Society
P.O. Box 61
54 Sangharaja Mawatha
Kandy • Sri Lanka
E-mail: [email protected]
web site: http://www.bps.lk
Tel: 0094 81 223 7283 • Fax: 0094 81 222 3679