Study Guide in Mathematics in the Modern World FM-AA-CIA-15 Rev.

0 10-July-2020

GE 7 Mathematics in the Modern World Module 6: Mathematics of Graphs

MODULE 6
MATHEMATICS OF GRAPHS

MODULE OVERVIEW

This module consists definitions of the basic terminologies in Graph Theory. This includes the different
parts of graphs and types of graphs. Euler path and Euler circuit will also be discussed in this module. Different
illustrations are presented to visualize more the various concepts in Graph Theory.

MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson, the readers should be able to:

a. Define a graph.
b. Recognize the different parts of a graph.
c. Construct a graph.
d. Illustrate each type of graphs.
e. Identify different types of graph.
f. Differentiate one graph from another graph.
g. Determine paths and cycles.
h. Differentiate Euler path from Euler circuit.
i. Construct graphs that have path and cycle.
j. Construct graphs that have Euler path and Euler circuit.

LEARNING CONTENTS

LESSON 1 GRAPH

1.1 Basic Terminologies in Graph Theory

We begin with some definitions of the basic terms used in graph theory before we introduce the types of graph.

Definition 1.1 Graph, Vertex and Edge

A graph � is a pair of sets �, � comprising a set � of vertices together with a set � of edges. (Ruohonen, 2013)
A vertex (plural vertices) is a point where lines or edges meet. (Weisstein E.W, 2017) An edge is a line between two vertices.
(Rodrigue, J.P, Ducruet, C., 2017)

Figure 1.1 Graph �

The graph G in Figure 1.1 consists of vertices together with the edges is a pair of sets � = �, � where � =
{�1 , �2 , �3, �4 } and � = {�1 , �2 , �3 , �4 }.

Note: Vertices are labelled by capital or small letters or numbers.

Definition 1.2 Vertex set

The vertex set of a graph is simply a set of all vertices of the graph. The vertex set of a graph � is denoted as
�(�). (Weisstein E.W, 2017)

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Figure 1.2 Vertex Set

In Figure 1.2, we have three vertices namely vertex �1 , vertex �2, and vertex �3 . Therefore, the vertex set of graph
is � � = {�1 , �2, �3 }.

Definition 1.3 Edge set

An edge set is the set of all edges of the graph. The edge set of a graph � is denoted as �(�). (Weisstein E.W,
2017)

Figure 1.3 Edge Set

The graph in Figure 1.3 has three edges namely �1, �2, and �3. The edge set of the graph is � � = {�1 , �2, �3}.

Definition 1.4 Order of G

The order of the graph G is the number of vertices of G. It is denoted as �(�) . (Sirug W.S, 2012)

Figure 1.4 The graph G

The four vertices in Figure 1.4 are �, �, �, and �. Therefore �(�) = 4.

Definition 1.5 Size of G

The size of the graph G is determined by counting the number of edges. It is denoted as �(�) . (Sirug W.S, 2012)

Figure 1.5 Size of the graph G

The seven edges in Figure 1.5 are �1, �2 , �3 , �4 , �5 , �6 , and �7 . Thus �(�) = 7.

Definition 1.6 Adjacent Vertices

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Two vertices of graph G are adjacent if there is an edge connecting them. (Sirug W.S, 2012)

Definition 1.7 Incident Edge

The edge connecting two vertices is called an incident. (Sirug W.S, 2012)

Figure 1.6 Adjacent Vertices � and � and Incident Edge �1

In Figure 1.6, two vertices � and � are adjacent because there is an edge �1 connecting them and edge �1 is called
the incident because it connects the two vertices � and �.

Definition 1.8 Adjacent Edges

Two distinct edges are adjacent if they have a vertex in common. (Sirug W.S, 2012)

Definition 1.9 Incident Vertex

The vertex connecting two edges is called the incident. (Sirug W.S, 2012)

Figure 1.7 Adjacent Edges and Incident Vertex

In Figure 1.7, two edges �1 and �2 are adjacent because they have a common vertex � and vertex � is called the
incident vertex.

Definition 1.10 Multiple edges/Parallel edges

Two or more edges that are incident to the same two vertices are called multiple edges or parallel edges. (Sirug
W.S, 2012)

Figure 1.8 Multiple Edges or Parallel Edges

In Figure 1.8, the pair of vertices � and � contain more than one edge namely edges �2 and �3 . Therefore, the
graph in Figure 1.8 has multiple edges.

Definition 1.11 Loop

An edge that begins and ends on the same vertex is called a loop. (Ruohonen, 2013)

Figure 1.9 Loop

The graph in Figure 1.9 has a loop found at the vertex � namely edge �2 .

Definition 1.12 Degree of a vertex

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The degree of a vertex �� in a graph is the number of edges incident to �� denoted as deg  �� . (Sirug W.S, 2012)

Figure 1.10 Degree of a Vertex

In Figure 1.10, the degree of the vertices a, b, c, d, and e are 1, 3, 1, 2, and 1, respectively. The degree of each
vertex is represented by ��� � = 1, since only edge �1 is incident to it, ��� � = 3 because there are three edges �1 , �2 , �3
incident to it, ��� � = 1 since only edge �2 is incident to it, ��� � = 2 because there are two edges �3 and �4 incident to it
and ��� � = 1 because only edge �4 is incident to it.

Definition 1.13 Isolated vertex

An isolated vertex is a vertex whose degree is 0. (Ruohonen, 2013)

Figure 1.11 Isolated Vertex

In Figure 1.11, the vertex h is an isolated vertex because there is no edge connected to it. In other words, the
degree of vertex h is 0 or deg(h)=0.

Definition 1.14 End Vertex

A vertex of a graph that has exactly one edge incident to it is called end vertex. (Ruohonen, 2013)

Figure 1.12 End Vertex

In Figure 1.12, vertex u is an end vertex because it has one edge incident to it.

There are various types of graphs depending upon the number of vertices, number of edges, interconnectivity, and
their overall structure. We discuss some important types of graphs in this lesson.

Definition 1.15 Null Graph

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A null graph is a graph with no edges. (Ruohonen, 2013 )

Figure 1.13 Null Graph

As an example of null graph shown in Figure 1.14, there are three vertices namely vertex �, vertex �, and vertex �
and there is no edge connected to them.

Definition 1.16 Trivial Graph

A graph with only one vertex is called a trivial graph. (Ruohonen, 2013)

Figure 1.14 Trivial Graph

The graph in Figure 1.15 is an example of a trivial graph, it has only one vertex named vertex �.
Note: Trivial graph is different from Null graph because trivial graph contain only one vertex while null graph contains two or
more vertices without edges incident to it.

Definition 1.17 Directed Graph

A set of vertices that are connected together, where all the edges are directed from one vertex to another is called
directed graph or sometimes called a directed network. . (Dublin, 2009)

Figure 1.15 Directed Graph

In Figure 1.16, there are five vertices �, �, �, � and � and six edges �1, �2, �3, �4, �5 and �6. Each edge bears an arrow
mark that shows its direction. Therefore, it is a directed graph.

Definition 1.18 Outdegree

The number of outgoing edges from a given graph vertex in a directed graph is called outdegree. This is denoted as
outdeg(V). (Weisstein, 2017)

Definition 1.19 Indegree

The number of incoming edges from a given graph vertex in a directed graph is called indegree. This is denoted as
indeg(V). (Weisstein, 2017)

Theorem 1.1
Let G be a directed graph with V vertices and E edges. Then,
� = Σ�∈� ����� � = Σ�∈� ������(�)

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Figure 1.16 Graph P

In Figure 1.17, there are six vertices a, b, c, d ,e ,and f and eight edges �1 , �2 , �3 , �4 , �5 , �6 , �7 , and �8 . Using
theorem 1.2.1, we first show the indegree of the graph:
|E| =Σ�∈� ����� �
= indeg(a) + indeg(b) + indeg(c) + indeg(d) + indeg(e) + indeg(f)
=1+1+2+2+1+1
=8
The second is the outdegree of the graph:
|E| = Σ�∈� ������(�)
= outdeg(a) + outdeg(b) + outdeg(c) + outdeg(d) + outdeg(e) + outdeg(f)
=2 +1+1+1+1+2
=8
Since we get the value of ����� � and ������(�), then
|E| = Σ�∈� ����� � = Σ�∈� ������(�)
|E| = 8 = 8
Therefore, both sums equal the number of edges in the graph.

Definition 1.20 Simple Graph

A graph with no loops or multiple edges is called a simple graph. (Dublin, 2009)

Figure 1.17 Simple Graph

The graph in Figure 1.18 has no loops or multiple edges. Thus it is a simple graph.

Definition 1.21 Regular Graph

A graph G is said to be a regular graph if all its vertices have the same degree. In a graph, if the degree of each
vertex is k, then the graph is called a k-regular graph. (Harju, 2011)

Figure 1.18 2-Regular Graph

In Figure 1.19, all the vertices have the same degree. Hence, this graph is called regular graph. The degree of each
vertices is represented by ��� � = 2, ��� � = 2, deg (�) = 2, so it is called 2-regular graph.

Definition 1.22 Complete Graph

A complete graph of n vertices is a simple graph that contains exactly one edge between each pair of distinct
vertices and it is denoted by �� . (Icutan, et.al, 2013)

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Figure 1.19 Graph �4

The graph in Figure 1.20 named K4, is a complete graph because it has four vertices and each vertex is connected
or incident to other vertices.

Definition 1.23 Bipartite Graph

A simple graph is bipartite graph if its vertex set V can be partitioned into two disjoint sets V1 and V2 such that every
edge in the graph connects a vertex in V1 and a vertex in V2. (Icutan, et.al, 2013)

V1 V2

Figure 1.20 Bipartite Graph

In Figure 1.21, we have sets of vertices V1 and V2, every edge in the graph connects a vertex in set V1 and a vertex
in set V2. Vertices d and e are connected by edge �1 . Vertices d and g are connected by edge �2 . Vertices c and f are
connected by edge �3. Vertices c and g are connected by edge �4 .

Definition 1.24 Complete Bipartite Graph

A complete bipartite graph is bipartite graph in which each vertex in set V1 is joined to each vertex in set V2 by just
one edge. It is denoted as ��,� , where m is the number of the vertices in set �1 and n is the number of the vertices in set �2 .
(Sirug W.S, 2012)

V1 V2

Figure 1.21 Graph �2,3

The graph �2,3 of Figure 1.22 showing each vertex in �1 is connected to all other vertices in �2.
Note: Bipartite graph and complete bipartite graph is different from one another because in bipartite graph, not all vertices in
set �1 connects to the vertices in set �2 while in complete bipartite graph all the vertices in set �1 is incident to the vertices in
set set �2 .

Your Turn 1

1. Determine the degree of the graph G.

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Figure 1.22 Graph �

2. Draw one bipartite graph with 6 vertices and 7 edges.

3. Give an example of a directed graph and identify the indegree and outdegree of each vertex.
4. Differentiate bipartite graph and complete bipartite graph.

Lesson 2 EULER GRAPH

2.1 Path and Cycle

We discuss some definitions of important terms related to graphs that have paths or cycles.

Definition 2.1 Walk

A walk is a sequence �0, �1, �1 , …, �� of graph vertices �� and graph edges �� such that for 1 ≤ � ≤ �, the edge �� has
endpoints ��−1 and �� . (Weisstein, 2017)

Figure 2.1 Walk

In the graph in Figure 2.1, the sequence �, �1 , �, �3 , �, �4 , � is a walk between vertex � and vertex �.

Definition 2.2 Closed Walk

A closed walk in G is a walk that ends where it begins. (Stanley, 2010)

Figure 2.2 Closed Walk

In Figure 2.2, the walk �, �2, �, �4, �, �5, �, �8, �, �3, � is a closed walk because it started from vertex � and back to
itself.

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Definition 2.3 Initial Vertex and Final Vertex
In a graph that has u-v walk, the vertex where it starts is called an initial vertex and the vertex where it ends is called
a final vertex. (Ruohonen, 2013)

Figure 2.3 Initial Vertex and Final Vertex

The graph in Figure 2.3 has �1 − �7 walk. Therefore, the initial vertex is �1 and the final vertex is �7 .

Definition 2.4 Length

The length of a walk is the number of edges in the walk. (Spring, 2009)

Figure 2.4 Length of a walk

In Figure 2.4, �, �2 , �, �4 , �, �6, �, �5 , � is a walk and its length is 4 because there are 4 edges from the initial vertex v
and final vertex w.

Definition 2.5 Path

A walk is a path if no vertex is repeated more than once. (Spring, 2009)

Figure 2.5 Path

In Figure 2.5, �, �, �, �, �, �, � is a path because no vertex is repeated.

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Definition 2.6 Trail
A trail is a walk with no repeated edges. (Weisstein, 2017)

Figure 2.6 Trail

In Figure 2.6, the sequence �, �4, �, �5 , �, �3, �, �1, �, �2 , � is a trail since there is no edge that is repeated.
Note: A walk, trail, and path is closed if it starts and ends on the same vertex but it is open when it starts and ends on
different vertices. The walks in Figures 2.3 and 2.4 are open. The path in Figure 2.5 is open. The trail in Figure 2.6 is open.

Definition 2.7 Circuit

A circuit starts from a vertex and ends to that vertex. Equivalently, a circuit is a closed walk with all edges distinct.
(Dublin, 2009)

Figure 2.7 Circuit

The graph in Figure 2.7 has a circuit , �, �1, �, �4, �, �3, �, �5 , �, �2 , � , it starts and ends with vertex b.

Definition 2.8 Cycle

A cycle is a circuit and is denoted by �� . The number of vertices in �� equals the number of edges, and every vertex
has degree 2; that is, every vertex has exactly two edges incident to it. (Tesler, 2014)

Figure 2.8 Graph �3

In Figure 2.8, we have three vertices, A, B, and C and also three edges, �1, �2 , �3 . Since every vertex has exactly
two edges incident to it. Therefore, it is a cycle and denoted as �3 .

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Figure 2.9 Graph �4

Figure 2.9 shows another example of a cycle. Here, we have four vertices a, b, c, d and also four edges
�1 , �2 , �3 , �4 . Since we have four vertices and edges, the graph is named as C4. Each vertex has two edges incident to it.

Your Turn 2
Let G be a graph

Figure 2.10 Graph G

a. Identify whether the graph G has a trail, path, circuit and cycle.
b. What is the shortest length between vertex � to vertex �?

2.2 Euler Path and Euler Circuits

Definition 2.9 Euler path

An Euler path in a graph G is a path that includes every edge of G exactly once. It starts and ends at different
vertices. (Chartrand, Zhang, 2009)

Figure 2.11 Euler Path

In Figure 2.12, the Euler path is �, �8 , �, �5, �, �3, �, �2, �, �1, �, �4 , �, �6, �, �7 , �. Each path must begin or end at either
vertex D or vertex E.

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Definition 2.10 Euler Circuit
An Euler circuit is a circuit that uses every edge of a graph exactly once. It starts and ends at the same vertex.
(Chartrand, G., Lesniak, L., 2005)

Figure 2.12 Euler Circuit

Figure 2.13 has a circuit, it has a route where you can pass by each edge or line in the graph exactly once and end
up where you began. The Euler circuit is A,�1,E,�5 ,D,�6,B,�2 ,E,�4 ,C,�3 ,A.

Note: An Euler path is different from an Euler circuit because Euler path starts and ends on different vertices while Euler
circuit starts and ends on the same vertex.

Definition 2.11 Euler Graph

An Euler graph is a graph that has an Euler circuit. (Chartrand, Zhang, 2009)

Figure 2.13 Euler Graph

The graph in Figure 2.14 is an Euler graph with an Euler circuit

�, �10, �, �7, �, �4, �, �3, �, �2, �, �1 , �, �8, �, �5, �, �6, �, �9, �.

Your Turn 3

Figure 2.14 Graph T

1. Find an Euler Path in the graph T.
2. Find an Euler circuit in the graph T.

LEARNING POINTS
A graph � is a pair of sets (�, �) comprising a set � of vertices together with a set � of edges. A vertex is a point
where lines or edges meet and an edge is a line between two vertices.
Some types of graph are discuss on this lesson: Null graph, Trivial graph, Directed graph, Simple graph, Regular

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graph, Complete graph, Bipartite graph, and Complete Bipartite graph.
A null graph is a graph with no edges while the trivial graph is a graph with only one vertex.
Directed graph or sometimes called a directed network is a graph where all the edges are directed from one vertex
to another.
Simple graph is a graph with no loops or multiple edges.
A graph G is said to be a regular graph if all its vertices have the same degree. Complete graph of n vertices is a
simple graph that contains exactly one edge between each pair of distinct vertices and it is denoted by �� . Also, a simple
graph is bipartite graph if its vertex set V can be partitioned into two disjoint sets �1 and �2 such that every edge in the graph
connects a vertex in �1 and a vertex in �2 .
A complete bipartite graph is a bipartite graph in which each vertex in set �1 is joined to each vertex in set �2 by just
one edge and it is denoted by ��,� .
An Euler path in a graph G is a path that includes every edge of G exactly once. It starts and ends at different vertices.
An Euler circuit is a circuit that uses every edge of a graph exactly once. It starts and ends at the same vertex.

LEARNING ACTIVITY

1. Find the number of vertices, the number of edges, and the degree of each vertex in the given undirected
graph and identify all isolated vertices.

a.

b.

c.

2. Find the sum of the degrees of the vertices of each graph in Exercise 1 and verify that it equals twice the
number of edges in the graph.

3. Determine the number of vertices and edges and find the in-degree and out-degree of each vertex for
the given directed multigraph.

a.

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GE 7 Mathematics in the Modern World Module 6: Mathematics of Graphs

b.

c.

4. Refer to Exercise 3. Determine the sum of the in-degrees of the vertices and the sum of the out-degrees
of the vertices directly. Show that they are both equal to the number of edges in the graph.

5. Draw these graphs.

a. K7
b. K1,8
c. C7

6. Determine whether the given graph has an Euler circuit. Construct such a circuit when one exists. If no
Euler circuit exists, determine whether the graph has an Euler path and construct such a path if one
exists.

a.

b.

c.

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d.

e.

f.

7. Determine whether the directed graph shown has an Euler circuit. Construct an Euler circuit if one
exists. If no Euler circuit exists, determine whether the directed graph has an Euler path. Construct an
Euler path if one exists.

a.

b.

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c.

d.

e.

REFERENCES

Books:
Sirug W. (2012). Fundamentals of Discrete Mathematics. Mindshapers Co., Inc.
Icutan, et.al. (2013). Simplified Discrete Mathematics. Jimczyville Publications
Chartrand G., Zhang P. (2009). Chromatic Graph Theory. Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
Chartrand G., Lesniak L. (2005). Graphs and Digraphs 4th Edition.Chapman and hall/CRC
DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION OF THE LEARNING MODULE IN GRAPH THEORY by JESSICA A. BAÑEZ
and ANGELA G. DE GUZMAN, June 2017
Online:
Ruohonen K. (2013). Graph Theory. Retrieved from https://Graph%20Theory/ GT_English.pdf
Weisstein E.W. (2017). Retrieved from http://mathworld.wolfram.com/VertexSet. html
Rodrigue J.P., Ducruet C. (2017) Retrieved from https://people.hofstra.edu/ geotrans/eng/methods/ch1m2en.html
Dublin (2009). Graph Theory and Applications. Retrieved from http://www. hamilton.ie/ollie/Downloads/Graph.pdf
Harju, (2011). Graph Theory. Retrieved from http://www2.math.uu.se/~andersj/graph
theory/lec-notes/gt-helsinki.pdf
Stanley R.P. (2010). Topics in Algebraic Combinatorics. Retrieved from https://math.
dartmouth.edu/archive/m68f11/public_html/algcomb.pdf
Spring (2009). Discrete Mathematics. Retrieved from http://cglab.snu.ac.kr/
lectures/09-1/discrete_math/dm09_slide5.pdf
Tesler (2014). Graph Theory. Retrieved from http://www.math.ucsd.edu/~gptesler/ 184a/
slides/184a_ch9slides_14-handout.pdf
Yuanxin (2008). Retrieved from http://study.com/academy/lesson/fleurys-algorithm-for-finding-an-euler-circuit.html

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