COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS AND HTML

UNIT I

What is Computer?

Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the user and
processes these data under the control of set of instructions (called program) and gives the
result (output) and saves output for the future use. It can process both numerical and non-
numerical (arithmetic and logical) calculations. It works the principle of I-P-O Cycle 

A computer has four functions:

a. accepts data Input
b. processes data Processing
c. produces output output
d. stores results Storage
(While designing the Difference Engine and Analytical Engine Charles Babage has given the
concept of these four units, Hence he is known as “Father of Computer”.)

Input (Data) :

Input is the raw information or facts entered into a computer from the input devices. It is the
collection of letters, numbers, images etc.

Process :

Process is the operation of data as per given instruction. It is totally internal process of the
computer system.

Output :

Output is the processed data given by computer after data processing. Output is also called
Result or information . We can save these results in the storage devices for the future use.
Advantages of Computer
High Speed Computer is a very fast device. It is capable of performing calculation of very
large amount of data. It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to
man who will spend many months to perform the same task.
Accuracy Computers are very accurate. The calculations are 100% error free. Computers
perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that the input is correct.
Storage Capability Memory is a very important characteristic of computers. It can store large
amount of data. It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio, etc.
Diligence Unlike human beings, a computer is free from tiredness, and lack of concentration.
It can work continuously without any error. It can perform long and complex calculations
with the same speed and accuracy from the start till the end.
Versatility: Computer is versatile in nature. It can perform different types of tasks with the
same ease. At one moment you can use the computer to prepare a letter document and in the
next moment you may play music or print a document.
Reliability A computer is a reliable machine. Output of all programs are accurate and
reliable.
Disadvantages of computers
No Intelligence:A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task. Each
instruction has to be given to the computer. A computer cannot take any decision on its own.’
Dependency It functions as per the user’s instruction, thus it is fully dependent on humans.
Environment The operating environment of the computer should be dust free and suitable.
No Feeling Computers have no feelings or emotions.

COMPUTER SYSTEM = HARDWARE + SOFTWARE+ USER 

• Hardware = Internal Devices + Peripheral Devices All physical parts of the computer (or
everything that we can touch) are known as Hardware. 
• Software = Programs Software gives "intelligence" to the computer.
• USER = Person, who operates computer.

Hardware

The term hardware refers to mechanical device that makes up computer. Computer hardware
consists of interconnected electronic devices that we can use to control computer’s
operation, input and output. Examples of hardware are CPU, keyboard, mouse, hard disk,
etc.

Hardware Components

Computer hardware is a collection of several components working together. Some parts are
essential and others are added advantages. Computer hardware is made up of CPU and
peripherals as shown in image below.

Software

A set of instructions that drives computer to do stipulated tasks is called a program.

Software instructions are programmed in a computer language, translated into machine
language, and executed by computer. Software can be categorized into two types −

 System software
  Application software

System Software

System software operates directly on hardware devices of computer. It provides a

platform to run an application. It provides and supports user functionality. Examples of
system software include operating systems such as Windows, Linux, Unix, etc.

Application Software

An application software is designed for benefit of users to perform one or more tasks.
Examples of application software include Microsoft Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Oracle,
etc.

Differences between Software and Hardware are sorted out below −

Sl.No. Software Hardware

1 It is a collection of programs to bring It includes physical components of computer

computer hardware system into system.
operation.

2 It includes numbers, alphabets, It consists of electronic components like ICs,

alphanumeric symbols, identifiers, diodes, registers, crystals, boards, insulators, etc.
keywords, etc.

3 Software products evolve by adding Hardware design is based on architectural

new features to existing programs to decisions to make it work over a range of
support hardware. environmental conditions and time.

4 It will vary as per computer and its It is mostly constructed for all types of computer
built-in functions and programming systems.
language.

5 It is designed and developed by The hardware can understand only low-level

experienced programmers in high- language or machine language.
level language.

6 It is represented in any high-level The hardware works only on binary codes 1’s and
language such as BASIC, COBOL, C,
C++, JAVA, etc.
 0’s.

7 The software is categorized as The hardware consists of input devices, output

operating system, utilities, language devices, memory, etc.
processor, application software, etc.

Types of Computer Memory

Computer memory is a generic term for all of the different types of data storage technology
that a computer may use, including RAM, ROM, and flash memory.

Some types of computer memory are designed to be very fast, meaning that the central
processing unit (CPU) can access data stored there very quickly. Other types are designed to
be very low cost, so that large amounts of data can be stored there economically.

Another way that computer memory can vary is that some types are non-volatile, which
means they can store data on a long term basis even when there is no power. And some types
are volatile, which are often faster, but which lose all the data stored on them as soon as the
power is switched off.

A computer system is built using a combination of these types of computer memory, and the
exact configuration can be optimized to produce the maximum data processing speed or the
minimum cost, or some compromise between the two.

Types of Computer Memory: Primary and Secondary

Although many types of memory in a computer exist, the most basic distinction is between
primary memory, often called system memory, and secondary memory, which is more
commonly called storage.

The key difference between primary and secondary memory is speed of access.

 Primary memory includes ROM and RAM, and is located close to the CPU on the
computer motherboard, enabling the CPU to read data from primary memory very
quickly indeed. It is used to store data that the CPU needs imminently so that it does
not have to wait for it to be delivered.
  Secondary memory by contrast, is usually physically located within a separate
storage device, such as a hard disk drive which is connected to the computer system
either directly or over a network. The cost per gigabyte of secondary memory is much
lower, but the read and write speeds are significantly slower.

Primary Memory Types: RAM and ROM 

There are two key types of primary memory:

1. RAM, or random access memory

2. ROM, or read-only memory

Let's look in-depth at both types of memory.

1) RAM Computer Memory

The most important things to understand about RAM are that RAM memory is very fast, it
can be written to as well as read, it is volatile (so all data stored in RAM memory is lost when
it loses power) and, finally, it is very expensive compared to all types of secondary memory
in terms of cost per gigabyte. It is because of the relative high cost of RAM compared to
secondary memory types that most computer systems use both primary and secondary
memory.

Data that is required for imminent processing is moved to RAM where it can be accessed and
modified very quickly, so that the CPU is not kept waiting. When the data is no longer
required it is shunted out to slower but cheaper secondary memory, and the RAM space that
has been freed up is filled with the next chunk of data that is about to be used.

Types of RAM

 DRAM: DRAM stands for Dynamic RAM, and it is the most common type of RAM
used in computers. The oldest type is known as single data rate (SDR) DRAM, but
newer computers use faster dual data rate (DDR) DRAM. DDR comes in several
versions including DDR2 , DDR3, and DDR4, which offer better
performance .DRAM consists of a transistor and a capacitor in each cell.
  SRAM: SRAM stands for Static RAM, and it is a particular type of RAM which is
faster than DRAM, but more expensive and bulker, having six transistors in each cell.
For those reasons SRAM is generally only used as a data cache within a CPU itself or
as RAM in very high-end server systems.

The key differences between DRAM and SRAM is that SRAM is faster than DRAM -
perhaps two to three times faster - but more expensive and bulkier. SRAM is usually
available in megabytes, while DRAM is purchased in gigabytes.

2) ROM Computer Memory

ROM stands for read-only memory, data cannot normally be written to it. It is a very fast type
of computer memory which is usually installed close to the CPU on the motherboard.

ROM is a type of non-volatile memory, which means that the data stored in ROM persists in
the memory even when it receives no power – for example when the computer is turned off.
In that sense it is similar to secondary memory, which is used for long term storage. The
ROM usually contains "bootstrap code" which is the basic set of instructions a computer
needs to carry out to become aware of the operating system stored in secondary memory, and
to load parts of the operating system into primary memory so that it can start up and become
ready to use.

Types of ROM

ROM is available in several different types, including PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM.

 PROM PROM stands for Programmable Read-Only Memory, and it is different from

true ROM in that while a ROM is programmed (i.e. has data written to it) during the
manufacturing process, a PROM is manufactured in an empty state and then
programmed later using a PROM programmer.

 EPROM EPROM stands for Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory, and as the

name suggests, data stored in an EPROM can be erased and the EPROM
reprogrammed. Erasing an EPROM involves removing it from the computer and
exposing it to ultraviolet light before re-burning it.

 EEPROM EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only

Memory, and the distinction between EPROM and EEPROM is that the latter can be
erased and written to by the computer system it is installed in. In that sense EEPROM
is not strictly read-only. However in many cases the write process is slow, so it is
normally only done to update program code such as firmware or BIOS code on an
occasional basis.

What is a programming language?

A programming language defines a set of instructions that are compiled together to perform a
specific task by the CPU (Central Processing Unit). The programming language mainly refers
to high-level languages such as C, C++, Pascal, Ada, COBOL, etc.

Each programming language contains a unique set of keywords and syntax, which are used to
create a set of instructions. They can be classified into two categories:
 o Low-level language
o High-level language

Low-level language

The low-level language is a programming language is highly related with the hardware, and it
is represented in 0 or 1 forms, which are the machine instructions. The languages that come
under this category are the Machine level language and Assembly language.

Machine-level language

The machine-level language is a language that consists of a set of instructions that are in the
binary form 0 or 1. As we know that computers can understand only machine instructions,
which are in binary digits, i.e., 0 and 1, so the instructions given to the computer can be only
in binary codes. Creating a program in a machine-level language is a very difficult task as it
is not easy for the programmers to write the program in machine instructions. It is error-prone
as it is not easy to understand, and its maintenance is also very high. A machine-level
language is not portable as each computer has its machine instructions, so if we write a
program in one computer will no longer be valid in another computer.

Assembly Language
The assembly language contains some human-readable commands such as mov, add, sub, etc.
The problems which we were facing in machine-level language are reduced to some extent by
using an extended form of machine-level language known as assembly language. Since
assembly language instructions are written in English words like mov, add, sub, so it is easier
to write and understand.

As we know that computers can only understand the machine-level instructions, so we

require a translator that converts the assembly code into machine code. The translator used
for translating the code is known as an assembler.

The assembly language code is not potable.

High-Level Language

The high-level language is a programming language that allows a programmer to write the
programs which are independent of a particular type of computer. The high-level languages
are considered as high-level because they are closer to human languages than machine-level
languages.A compiler is required to translate a high-level language into a low-level language.
Eg:C,C++,PASCAL,FORTRAN,Java,Pearl, Python etc

Advantages of a high-level language

o The high-level language is easy to read, write, and maintain as it is written in English
like words.
o The high-level languages are designed to overcome the limitation of low-level
language, i.e., portability. The high-level language is portable; i.e., these languages
are machine-independent.

Characteristics of a programming Language –

 A programming language must be simple, easy to learn and use, have good
readability and human recognizable.
 A portable programming language is always preferred.
 Programming language’s efficiency must be high so that it can be easily
converted into a machine code and executed consumes little space in memory.
 A programming language should be well structured and documented so that it is
suitable for application development.
 Necessary tools for development, debugging, testing, maintenance of a program
must be provided by a programming language.
 A programming language should provide single environment known as
Integrated Development Environment(IDE).
 A programming language must be consistent in terms of syntax and semantics.
Translator

A translator is a programming language processor that converts a computer program from

one language to another.  It takes a program written in source code and converts it into
machine code.  It discovers and identifies the error during translation.It translates high-level
language program into a machine language program that the central processing unit (CPU)
can understand.  It also detects errors in the program.
Different Types of Translators

There are 3 different types of translators as follows:

Compiler

A compiler is a translator used to convert high-level programming language to low-level

programming language.  It converts the whole program in one session and reports errors
detected after the conversion.  Compiler takes time to do its work as it translates high-level
code to lower-level code all at once and then saves it to memory.A compiler is processor-
dependent and platform-dependent. 

Interpreter

Just like a compiler, is a translator used to convert high-level programming language to low-
level programming language.  It converts the program one at a time and reports errors
detected at once, while doing the conversion.  With this, it is easier to detect errors than in a
compiler.  An interpreter is faster than a compiler as it immediately executes the code upon
reading the code.  An interpreter is also more portable than a compiler as it is not processor-
dependent

Assembler

An assembler is a translator used to translate assembly language to machine language.  It is

like a compiler for the assembly language but interactive like an interpreter.   Assembly
language to an even lower-level language, which is the machine code.