Module 9: The People in Information Systems

Learning Objectives
Upon successful completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

 describe each of the different roles that people play in the design, development, and use of
information systems;
 understand the different career paths available to those who work with information systems;
 explain the importance of where the information-systems function is placed in an organization; and
 describe the different types of users of information systems.

Introduction

The opening chapters of this text focused on the technology behind information systems, namely
hardware, software, data, and networking. The last chapter covered business processes and the key role
they can play in the success of a business. This chapter discusses people, the last component of an
information system.

People are involved in information systems in just about every way. People imagine information
systems, people develop information systems, people support information systems, and, perhaps most
importantly, people use information systems.

The Creators of Information Systems

The first group of people to be considered play a role in designing, developing, and building information
systems. These people are generally technical and have a background in programming, analysis,
information security, or database design. Just about everyone who works in the creation of information
systems has a minimum of a bachelor’s degree in computer science or information systems, though that
is not necessarily a requirement. The process of creating information systems will be covered in more
detail in Chapter 10.

The following chart shows the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics projections for computing career
employment in 2020.

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics – 2020 Projections

Systems Analyst

The systems analyst straddles the divide between identifying business needs and imagining a new or
redesigned system to fulfill those needs. This individual works with a team or department seeking to
identify business requirements and analyze the specific details of an existing system or a system that
needs to be built. Generally, the analyst is required to have a good understanding of the business itself,
the purpose of the business, the business processes involved, and the ability to document them well. The
analyst identifies the different stakeholders in the system and works to involve the appropriate
individuals in the analysis process.

Prior to analyzing the problem or the system of concern, the analyst needs to a) clearly identify the
problem, b) gain approval for the project, c) identify the stakeholders, and d) develop a plan to monitor
the project. The analysis phase of the project can be broken down into five steps.

1. Seek out and identify the details

2. Specify requirements
3. Decide which requirements are most important
4. Create a dialog showing how the user interacts with the existing system
5. Ask users to critique the list of requirements that have been developed

The analysis phase involves both the systems analyst and the users. It is important to realize the role the
users take in the analysis of the system. Users can have significant insights into how well the current
system functions as well as suggest improvements.

Once the requirements are determined, the analyst begins the process of translating these requirements
into an information systems design. It is important to understand which different technological solutions
will work and provide several alternatives to the client, based on the company’s budgetary constraints,
technology constraints, and culture. Once the solution is selected, the analyst will create a detailed
document describing the new system. This new document will require that the analyst understand how
to speak in the technical language of systems developers.

The design phase results in the components of the new system being identified, including how they
relate to one another. The designer needs to communicate clearly with software developers as well
database administrators by using terminology that is consistent with both of these specialties. The design
phase of the project can be broken down into six steps.

1. Design the hardware environment

2. Design the software
3. Design how the new system will interface with the users
4. Design hardware interfaces
5. Design database tables
6. Design system security

A systems analyst generally is not the one who does the actual development of the information system.
The design document created by the systems analyst provides the detail needed to create the system
and is handed off to a developer to actually write the software and to the database administrator to
build the database and tables that will be in the database.

Sometimes the system may be assembled from off-the-shelf components by a person called a systems
integrator. This is a specific type of systems analyst that understands how to get different software
packages to work with each other.
To become a systems analyst, you should have a background both in the business analysis and in systems
design. Many analysts first work as developers and have business experience before becoming system
analysts. It is vital for analysts to clearly understand the purpose of the business of interest, realizing that
all businesses are unique.

Programmer/Developer

Programmers spend their time writing computer code in a programming language. In the case of systems
development, programmers generally attempt to fulfill the design specifications given to them by a
systems analyst/designer. Many different styles of software development exist A programmer may work
alone for long stretches of time or work as part of a team with other developers. A programmer needs to
be able to understand complex processes and also the intricacies of one or more programming
languages.

Computer Engineer

Computer engineers design the computing devices that are used every day. There are many types of
computer engineers who work on a variety of different types of devices and systems. Some of the more
prominent computer engineering jobs are as follows:

 Hardware engineer. A hardware engineer designs hardware and test components such as
microprocessors, memory devices, routers, and networks. Many times, a hardware engineer is at the
cutting edge of computing technology, creating something brand new. Other times, the hardware
engineer’s job is to re-engineer an existing component to work faster or use less power. Many times
a hardware engineer’s job is to write code to create a program that will be implemented directly on
a computer chip.
 Software engineer. Software engineers tend to focus on a specific area of software such as
operating systems, networks, applications, or databases. Software engineers use three primary skill
areas: computer science, engineering, and mathematics.
 Systems engineer. A systems engineer takes the components designed by other engineers and
makes them all work together, focusing on the integration of hardware and software. For example,
to build a computer the mother board, processor, memory, and hard disk all have to work together.
A systems engineer has experience with many different types of hardware and software and knows
how to integrate them to create new functionality.
 Network engineer. A network engineer understands the networking requirements of an
organization and then designs a communications system to meet those needs, using the networking
hardware and software, sometimes referred to as a network operating system. Network engineers
design both local area networks as well as wide area networks.

There are many different types of computer engineers, and often the job descriptions overlap. While
many may call themselves engineers based on a company job title, there is also a professional
designation of “professional engineer” which has specific requirements. In the United States each state
has its own set of requirements for the use of this title, as do different countries around the world. Most
often, it involves a professional licensing exam.
Information Systems Operations and Administration

Another group of information systems professionals are involved in the day-to-day operations and
administration of IT. These people must keep the systems running and up-to-date so that the rest of the
organization can make the most effective use of these resources.

Computer Operator

A computer operator is the person who oversees the mainframe computers and data centers in
organizations. Some of their duties include keeping the operating systems up to date, ensuring available
memory and disk storage, providing for redundancy (think electricity, connectivity to the Internet, and
database backups), and overseeing the physical environment of the computer. Since mainframe
computers increasingly have been replaced with servers, storage management systems, and other
platforms, computer operators’ jobs have grown broader and include working with these specialized
systems.

Database Administrator

A Database Administrator (DBA) is the person who designs and manages the databases for an
organization. This person creates and maintains databases that are used as part of applications or the
data warehouse. The DBA also consults with systems analysts and programmers on projects that require
access to or the creation of databases.

Help Desk/Support Analyst

Most mid-size to large organizations have their own information technology help desk. The help desk is
the first line of support for computer users in the company. Computer users who are having problems or
need information can contact the help desk for assistance. Many times a help desk worker is a junior
level employee who is able to answer basic issues that users need assistance with. Help desk analysts
work with senior level support analysts or have a computer knowledgebase at their disposal to help them
investigate the problem at hand. The help desk is a great place to break into working in IT because it
exposes you to all of the different technologies within the company. A successful help desk analyst
should have good communications skills and a sincere interest in helping users.

Trainer

A computer trainer conducts classes to teach people specific computer skills. For example, if a new ERP
system is being installed in an organization, one part of the implementation process is to teach all of the
users how to use the new system. A trainer may work for a software company and be contracted to
come in to conduct classes when needed; a trainer may work for a company that offers regular training
sessions. Or a trainer may be employed full time for an organization to handle all of their computer
instruction needs. To be successful as a trainer you need to be able to communicate technical concepts
clearly and demonstrate patience with learners.
Managing Information Systems

The management of information-systems functions is critical to the success of information systems

within the organization. Here are some of the jobs associated with the management of information
systems.

CIO

The Chief Information Officer (CIO) is the head of the information-systems function. This person aligns
the plans and operations of the information systems with the strategic goals of the organization. Tasks
include budgeting, strategic planning, and personnel decisions for the information systems function. The
CIO must also be the face of the IT department within the organization. This involves working with senior
leaders in all parts of the organization to ensure good communication, planning, and budgeting.

Interestingly, the CIO position does not necessarily require a lot of technical expertise. While helpful, it is
more important for this person to have good management skills and understand the business. Many
organizations do not have someone with the title of CIO. Instead, the head of the information systems
function is called the Vice President of Information Systems or Director of Information Systems.

Functional Manager

As an information systems organization becomes larger, many of the different functions are grouped
together and led by a manager. These functional managers report to the CIO and manage the employees
specific to their function. For example, in a large organization there are a group of systems analysts who
report to a manager of the systems analysis function. For more insight into how this might look, see the
discussion later in the chapter of how information systems are organized.

ERP Management

Organizations using an ERP require one or more individuals to manage these systems. EPR managers
make sure that the ERP system is completely up to date, work to implement any changes to the ERP that
are needed, and consult with various user departments on needed reports or data extracts.
Project Managers

Gantt Chart for managing projects

Information systems projects are notorious for going over budget and being delivered late. In many cases
a failed IT project can spell doom for a company. A project manager is responsible for keeping projects
on time and on budget. This person works with the stakeholders of the project to keep the team
organized and communicates the status of the project to management. Gantt charts, shown above, are
used to graphically illustrate a project’s schedule, tasks, and resources.

A project manager does not have authority over the project team. Instead, the project manager
coordinates schedules and resources in order to maximize the project outcomes. This leader must be a
good communicator and an extremely organized person. A project manager should also have good
people skills. Many organizations require each of their project managers to become certified as a Project
Management Professional (PMP).

Information Security Officer

An information security officer is in charge of setting information security policies for an organization and
then overseeing the implementation of those policies. This person may have one or more people
reporting to them as part of the information security team. As information has become a critical asset,
this position has become highly valued. The information security officer must ensure that the
organization’s information remains secure from both internal and external threats.

Emerging Roles

As technology evolves many new roles are becoming more common as other roles diminish. For example,
as we enter the age of “big data,” we are seeing the need for more data analysts and business
intelligence specialists. Many companies are now hiring social media experts and mobile technology
specialists. The increased use of cloud computing and Virtual Machine (VM) technologies also is
increasing demand for expertise in those areas.
Career Paths in Information Systems

Career Paths in Information Systems

These job descriptions do not represent all possible jobs within an information systems organization.
Larger organizations will have more specialized roles, while smaller organizations may combine some of
these roles. Many of these roles may exist outside of a traditional information-systems organization, as
we will discuss below.

Working with information systems can be a rewarding career choice. Whether you want to be involved in
very technical jobs (programmer, database administrator), or you want to be involved in working with
people (systems analyst, trainer, project manager), there are many different career paths available.

Many times those in technical jobs who want career advancement find themselves in a dilemma. A
person can continue doing technical work, where sometimes their advancement options are limited, or
become a manager of other employees and put themselves on a management career track. In many
cases those proficient in technical skills are not gifted with managerial skills. Some organizations,
especially those that highly value their technically skilled employees, create a technical track that exists
in parallel to the management track so that they can retain employees who are contributing to the
organization with their technical skills.

Are Certifications Worth Pursuing?

As technology becomes more important to businesses, hiring employees with technical skills is becoming
critical. But how can an organization ensure that the person they are hiring has the necessary skills?
Many organizations are including technical certifications as a prerequisite for getting hired.
Cisco Certified Internetwork Expert.

CISCO certification badge

Certifications are designations given by a certifying body that someone has a specific level of knowledge
in a specific technology. This certifying body is often the vendor of the product itself, though
independent certifying organizations, such as CompTIA, also exist. Many of these organizations offer
certification tracks, allowing a beginning certificate as a prerequisite to getting more advanced
certificates. To get a certificate, you generally attend one or more training classes and then take one or
more certification exams. Passing the exams with a certain score will qualify you for a certificate. In most
cases, these classes and certificates are not free. In fact a highly technical certification can cost thousands
dollars. Some examples of the certifications in highest demand include Microsoft (software
certifications), Cisco (networking), and SANS (security).

For many working in IT, determining whether to pursue one or more of these certifications is an
important question. For many jobs, such as those involving networking or security, a certificate will be
required by the employer as a way to determine which potential employees have a basic level of skill. For
those who are already in an IT career, a more advanced certificate may lead to a promotion. For those
wondering about the importance of certification, the best solution is to talk to potential employers and
those already working in the field to determine the best choice.

Organizing the Information Systems Function

In the early years of computing, the information-systems function (generally called “data processing”)
was placed in the finance or accounting department of the organization. As computing became more
important, a separate information-systems function was formed, but it still was generally placed under
the Chief Financial Officer and considered to be an administrative function of the company. By the 1980s
and 1990s, when companies began networking internally and then connecting to the Internet, the
information systems function was combined with the telecommunications functions and designated as
the Information Technology (IT) department. As the role of information technology continued to
increase, its place in the organization became more important. In many organizations today, the head of
IT (the CIO) reports directly to the CEO.

Where in the Organization Should IS Be?

Before the advent of the personal computer, the information systems function was centralized within
organizations in order to maximize control over computing resources. When the PC began proliferating,
many departments within organizations saw it as a chance to gain some computing resources for
themselves. Some departments created an internal information systems group, complete with systems
analysts, programmers, and even database administrators. These departmental IS groups were dedicated
to the information needs of their own departments, providing quicker turnaround and higher levels of
service than a centralized IT department. However, having several IS groups within an organization led to
a lot of inefficiencies. There were now several people performing the same jobs in different departments.
This decentralization also led to company data being stored in several places all over the company.

In some organizations a matrix reporting structure developed in which IT personnel were placed within a
department and reported to both the department management and the functional management within
IS. The advantages of dedicated IS personnel for each department must be weighed against the need for
more control over the strategic information resources of the company.

For many companies, these questions are resolved by the implementation of the ERP system (see
discussion of ERP in Chapter 8). Because an ERP system consolidates most corporate data back into a
single database, the implementation of an ERP system requires organizations to find “silos” of data so
that they can integrate them back into the corporate system. The ERP allows organizations to regain
control of their information and influences organizational decisions throughout the company.

Outsourcing

Frequently an organization needs a specific skill for a limited period of time. Instead of training existing
employees or hiring new staff, it may make more sense to outsource the job. Outsourcing can be used in
many different situations within the information systems function, such as the design and creation of a
new website or the upgrade of an ERP system. Some organizations see outsourcing as a cost-cutting
move, contracting out a whole group or department.

New Models of Organizations

The integration of information technology has influenced the structure of organizations. The increased
ability to communicate and share information has led to a “flattening” of the organizational structure
due to the removal of one or more layers of management.

The network-based organizational structure is another changed enabled by information systems. In a

network-based organizational structure, groups of employees can work somewhat independently to
accomplish a project. People with the right skills are brought together for a project and then released to
work on other projects when that project is over. These groups are somewhat informal and allow for all
members of the group to maximize their effectiveness.

Information Systems Users – Types of Users

Besides the people who work to create, administer, and manage information systems, there is one more
extremely important group of people, namely, the users of information systems. This group represents a
very large percentage of an organization’s employees. If the user is not able to successfully learn and use
an information system, the system is doomed to failure.
Diffusion of Innovation (click to enlarge)

Technology adoption user types

One tool that can be used to understand how users will adopt a new technology comes from a 1962
study by Everett Rogers. In his book, Diffusion of Innovation,[1]Rogers studied how farmers adopted new
technologies and noticed that the adoption rate started slowly and then dramatically increased once
adoption hit a certain point. He identified five specific types of technology adopters:

 Innovators. Innovators are the first individuals to adopt a new technology. Innovators are willing to
take risks, are the youngest in age, have the highest social class, have great financial liquidity, are
very social, and have the closest contact with scientific sources and interaction with other
innovators. Risk tolerance is high so there is a willingness to adopt technologies thast may ultimately
fail. Financial resources help absorb these failures (Rogers, 1962, p. 282).
 Early adopters. The early adopters are those who adopt innovation soon after a technology has
been introduced and proven. These individuals have the highest degree of opinion leadership among
the other adopter categories, which means that these adopters can influence the opinions of the
largest majority. Characteristics include being younger in age, having a higher social status,
possessing more financial liquidity, having advanced education, and being more socially aware than
later adopters. These adopters are more discrete in adoption choices than innovators, and realize
judicious choice of adoption will help them maintain a central communication position (Rogers,
1962, p. 283).
 Early majority. Individuals in this category adopt an innovation after a varying degree of time. This
time of adoption is significantly longer than the innovators and early adopters. This group tends to
be slower in the adoption process, has above average social status, has contact with early adopters,
and seldom holds positions of opinion leadership in a system (Rogers, 1962, p. 283).
 Late majority. The late majority will adopt an innovation after the average member of the society.
These individuals approach an innovation with a high degree of skepticism, have below average
social status, very little financial liquidity, are in contact with others in the late majority and the early
majority, and show very little opinion leadership.
 Laggards. Individuals in this category are the last to adopt an innovation. Unlike those in the
previous categories, individuals in this category show no opinion leadership. These individuals
typically have an aversion to change agents and tend to be advanced in age. Laggards typically tend
to be focused on “traditions,” are likely to have the lowest social status and the lowest financial
liquidity, be oldest of all other adopters, and be in contact with only family and close friends.
These five types of users can be translated into information technology adopters as well, and provide
additional insight into how to implement new information systems within the organization. For example,
when rolling out a new system, IT may want to identify the innovators and early adopters within the
organization and work with them first, then leverage their adoption to drive the rest of the
implementation to the other users.

Summary

In this chapter we have reviewed the many different categories of individuals who make up the people
component of information systems. The world of information technology is changing so fast that new
roles are being created all the time and roles that existed for decades are being phased out. This chapter
this chapter should have given you a good idea and appreciation for the importance of the people
component of information systems.