B1 B2

Saturday 5.00-7:00 Sat: 1:00-3:00

Tuesday 5:000-7:00 Web:1:00-3.20
Thursday 4:30-6:00 Mon: 1:30- N (Test)

B3 Sun
Wed: 11:00 Mon 1:30, 3,45:30
Sun:11-1 Tues
Wed 1-3
Thurs
Maths Chem
Mon: 3-5 Sat: 5:30-7
Wed: 6-3 Mon: 5:30-7
Bio
Sat: 3:30-5 Sunday
Mon: 5-7 Monday 1:30-3:00, 3-5
Wed : 7-8 Tuesday
Wednesday 1-3,6-8,
Thursday
Tuesday : 10-2 Friday 3-5, 6-8
Saturday 1-3, 3:30-5, 5:30-7

1
The third side of the triangle represents vectors

=====

In  ABC
AB= P
BC= Q
R= AC

From  ABC,

Cos( 180-)= P2+q2-r2 Or P2 + Q2 - R2 = - PQ Cos

 R2 = P2+Q2+PQ Cos


2nd Method

RE = R cos = P+ Q cos

RN= R Sin = PSin + QSin

= Q sin

Thus

2
===

If particle rapture is considered , energy E = Mc2

If wave nature is considered , energy E = hf

According to conservation law of Energy : mc = hf

mc2 =

mc =

Momentum, P = mv

=

de Broglie wavelength, =

When this wavelength is comparable ( about same size with the

dimension of the particle ) it shows wave nature

3
 Momentum

Momentum is a vector quantity. Magnitude of a momentum is equal to the product

of mass and velocity of an object . Direction of momentum is parallel to the direction
of velocity of an object

Momentum = Mass x velocity

Momentum, P= mv

Mass = mkg
velocity= V ms-1

Q. A car of 1200 kg mass is moving at a speed to 96 km /h calculate its momentum

P= mv
= 1200 x 96

=1200

= 120

= 31000 kg ms-1

4
Newton’s second law of Motion
Rate of change in momentum is proportional to unbalanced force and tghis change
taken place along the direction of the force.

Face 

After t se

Mass of the object = m kg

Initial velocity = u ms-1
Final = ms-1

Initial momentum , P1 = mu

“ F” force acts on the objects for + Sec

Final velocity = V ms-1

Final momentum = Pp = mv
Change in momentum

 P = Pp - P1
= mv—mu
= m(v-u)
According to Newton’s 2nd law of Motion

F  ma

F  ma

F= Ema

5
One Newton force is defined as the magnitude of the force which cause an
acceleration of 1ms-1, when it acts on an object of one kg most.

If m= 1kg, a = 1 ms-2 , F – IN
Thus, K =1

So F = ma

From N2

====
A 400 g ball is moving towards East at a speed of 22 ms -1, after collision it starts
to move in opposite direction at a speed of 32 ms -1, If time of collision is 022s,
determine the magnitude and direction of force of on the bat by the ball.

= 98.2 N

6
(b) After collision it goes towards North at a speed of 30 ms-1, Determine the
magnitude and direction of force on the ball by the bat, provided that time of collision is
0.25S.

Magnitude P =
= 14.88

= 59.5

Direction :

= 36.30 with N to W

7
(C) At third over, it moves at 40 0 angle with coast towards south. Velocity o the
ball change s form 18 ms-1 to 14 ms-1 If the time of the collision is 0.13
Determine the magnitude and direction of the force on the ball

====
-P1 = -7.2 , Pp -=5.6

r2= (-pi)2+(-pp)2-2 (pi) (pp) cos So

= (-7.2)2+(5.6)2-2 (-7.2) (5.6) cos So
= 21.53
r= 4.63 Direction

= 38.6 N = Math error

Cos So =

 P = 4.63  = 88.30

8
 Before After

Mass: 3 kg Time period = 0.4s

a. Determine magnitude and direction of force by using a trigonometric method

b. Determine magnitude and direction of the force using a scale diagram
c. Determine % difference between the two readings

IMPULSE

Impulse is a vector quantity Magnitude of impulse is equal to the product of

force and it time of action

Impulse= Force x time of action

= Ft
From N2

F=

  P = F  t = Impulse

So, Impulse  P = F = t

9
Magnitude of impulse is the change in momentum and is directed at the direction
of the force

Impulse =  P
Unit = NS
= Kg ms-2, S
= Kg ms-2

Momentum Against Time Graph

=======

Gradient =

= Force

In Fig 1(a) gradient is content which represents unbalanced force is constant on

the object
In Fig 1(b) initial gradient of the graph is zero. it indicates that initial
unbalanced force on the object is zero Gradient of the graph gradually increase
which indicates increasing force.

10
 -==
This figure represents V-t, graph of 50 kg object, use the graph to determine
rate of change of momentum at initial momentum and at 8s.

Rate of change in P = Force

 = 6 mg = 50 x 9.8

[ Rate of change of momentum is the unbalanced force]

11
 Force Time Graph

=====

In fig-1, a constant force acts on an object

In Fig 1(0) total change in momentum of the object can be determined from the
shaded area

In fig 1(b) shaded area represents change in momentum between t1 and t2.

====

In fig 2(a) a lorge force acts of a small time period but is Fig 21(b) a small
force acts for a large time period. Area under both of the graph are almost equal
which represents

12
 NEWTONS 3RD LAW OF MOTION

Every force has an equal and opposite reaction

=====

Force on B by A = F
Force on A by B = R
According to N3

F= - R

Properties of 3rd law pair forces

1. They have same magnitude

2. They act in opposite dissection
3. They act on two different bodies ]
4. They are some type of force
5. They act for some time period
6. They have same time of action

13
 CONSERVATION LAW OF MOMENTUM

Total momentum of a system remains conserved during a collision or - explosion

provided that no external force acts on the system

Total momentum before collision: Total momentum after collusion provided that
no external force after on the system

===========
Before collision

Force on A by B =R
Force on B by A = F

14
Mass of A = 5 kg
Mass of B = 20 kg

After collision speed of object B change for 3 to 7 ms-2 without changing its
direction

a) Determine the magnitude and direction of A After collision

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v2+m2v2

 5 8 +203 = 5v2 + 207
 100 = 5v2 =140
V2 = -8ms-1 Direction: West speed :8ms-1

15
 =========

mass of A = 5 kg
mass of B = 20 kg

After collision speed of object B change from 7ms -1 without changing its
direction

a) Determine the magnitude and direction of A after collision

m1u1 + m2u2+= m1u2+m2v2

 5 8 + 203 = 3v1 + 207
 100= 5v1 +140
 V2 = -8ms-1 Direction : West Speed : 8ms-1

16
 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM IN TWO DIMENSION

====

Before Collision After

Mass of A = m1 kg During collision force acts on the

Mass of B = m2 kg object and their momentum change

Before Collision After collision

Momentum of A M1u1 Px = m1v1cos1 + m2v2 cos2
Momentum of B M2u2 Py = m1v1six1 - m2v2 cos2

Px = m1u1 Cos1 + m2u2cos2

Py = m1u1 Cos1 + m2u2cos

According to conservation Law, total momentum along any direction remains

constant
Px = Px

m1u1cos1 + m2u2cos2 = m1v1cos1 = m2v2cos2

Py = Py
m1u1Sin1 - m2u2sin2 = m2v2sin2 = m2v2cos1

17
VECTOR DIAGRAM OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

Before Collision

====

Fig 1(a)

In Fig (b) a vector diagram is used to determine the resulted that momentum of two
objects before collision

After collision

====
Fig 2(a) Fig 2(b)

In Fig 2(b) total momentum of the collision is determined using vector triangle

According to conservation law, momentum remains conserved

18
=============

Mass pf A = 8 Kg
Mass pf B = 5 Kg

After collision, these two objects move together . Determine their magnitude
and direction of their common velocity after collision

Method-1

====

Cos 150=

Pi = 52.z NS = 9.89= 9.90 with East to North

According to CLOM

Pi = Pf = ( m1+m2) v
58.2 =(8+5)v
 v= 4.48 ms-1

19
 Method-2

Before collision

Pxi = 40 cos0+20.cos 30
= 40+103
= 57.3 Ns
Pyi = 40 sin0 + 20 sin 30
= 10Ns

Initial momentum = = 58.2 N

After collision

(m1+m2)v = 58.2
v= 4.5 ms-1

tan

 =

 = 9.9

Method-3

P1 = Sons P2= 2ONS

5NS= 1cm 10 with cost to north
 P1 8cm
P2 4cm

20
 RELATION BETWEEN KINETIC ENERGY AND MOMENTUM

According to wave – Particle dualtge

Mass of A = m kg de Broglie wavelength

Velocity of A = V ms-1

h = 6.63 x 10-34 js
Momentum of A
P = mv

KE of A, If this wavelength is comparable to the

size of the particle it shows
wave nature

For constant mass

Or P2 = 2m Ev

A high speed beam of particle is used to determine the internal structure of small
particles like proton, neutron or nucleus
Due to their very high energy these particles have very small wavelength It this
wavelength is comparable to the target particle, the diffraction pattern can be used to
determine the internal structure

21
 Explosion

In case of explosion a large object or particle splits in two or more smaller particle

Before explosion
At rest
Mass of x = m kg
After explosion
mass of A = m1 kg
mass of B = m2 kg
m= m1+m2
Force on A by B = F
Force on B by A = R
According to N2

From , N3
F= -R  P Total = constant

Total momentum = Total

momentum

before explosion = after explosion

22
If an object splits from rest total momentum before explosion was zero, At According
to conservation law, total momentum after explosion remains zero.

If it splits into 2 parts, they will move in the some momentum in opposite direction

According to CLOM

PA = - P B
PA2 = PB
2mA kEA = 2 mB kEB

In case of explosion, particle with larger mass gains smaller ke

CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM IN 20 EXPLOSION

======

Before explosion After Explosion

Mass of x=m Px= ma

Mass of A = m1 Py= o
Mass of B= m2 Px= m1v1cos1 + m2v2cos02-m3v3
Mass of C= m3 Py= m1v1sin1 + m2v2sin
m= m1 +m2+m3

23
According to conservation Law.

m1v1cos1 + m2v2cos02-m3v3 = mu1

m1v1cos1 - m2v2sin2 = 0
m1v1sin1 - m2v2sin2

====

Determine the magnitude and direction of C after explosion.

Px= 40 x 0=0
Py = 0
Px’ = 12.6 Cos 30 + C. vcos - 10.15 = c v cos- 876
Px’ = 12.6 Cos 30 + C. vsin = 18 v cos - 876
= 36 - 18 v Sin

18vcos -87.6- 0 38 = 18 V sin

 18 cos = 87.6 2= v sin

 V cos = v=  =22.34

 V= V= 5.3 ms-1

24
Px = 40 x 0=0

Py = 0

Px1 = 18v cos +12.6 cos 30 -10.15

= 18v cos - 87.6

Py1 = 18v sin +12.6 Sin 30

= 18v Sin - 36

18v cos = 87.6 18v sins  =36

v cos = 4.87 v sins  =2

 tan =

  = 22.35
 v = 5.3 ms-1

25
 Elastic and Inelastic Collision

Elastic Collision

U1 > U2

A U1
B U2 A V1
B V2
Before collision After collision

Mass of object A =m1 kg

Mass of object B =m2 kg

Total kinetic energy = KEi,

before collision

Total kinetic energy = KEi,

after collision

 If total KE of a system remains conserved during a collision it is called

classic collision

 KEi = KEp

* If total EK of a system changes( decreases) during a collision it is called

indastic collision
Most of the real – life collisions are inelastic

In real –life collisions, KE is converted to sound, heat and elastic strain

collisions.

26
  If two objects move together after collision, total be decreases and collision
must e inelastic.

Conservation low of Momentum followed by both collisions provided that there is no

external force applied to it

Before After collision

A u B AB V
at rest

Moss of A = m kg KE before collision

Mass of B = m kg
KEi =

Before collision
KE After collision
Velocity of A = u
Velocity of B = 0 KEP =
After collision
Velocity of A and B = v =m

According to CLM
=
m1u1+ m2u3= m1v1+ m2v2
m1= m2 = m
=
u1 = u v1 v2 = v
u2 = 0
mu+0 = (m1+m2)v Thus the collision is inelastic

mu = 2mu but the momentum is conserved

 v=

27
Before After collision
V1
A B A

At rest B

V2
Before collision

Momentum of A, P = mu

After collision

Momentum of A

28
After collision two object move perpendicular to each other provided that:

i. One of the these objects was at rest before collision

ii. They must have identical mass

When a particle moves at a very high speed which is comparable to the light speed,
it mass increase,

This mass of the object is called ‘ relativistic mass’

Due to this change in mass the angel (after collision) differs from 900.

Example of conservation of momentum

==========

Object A of mass,m kg collides against a vertical wall. After collision , its moment
changes change in momentum along horizontal direction

 Px = movcos  - ( - macos
= mov cos  - ( - macos

This force, Fx, acts along perpendicular

direction to the vertical wall. It is provided by the normal redaction force between the
wall and the object.

29
Charge in momentum along vertical direction

 Py = mvisn  - musin 

Force along vertical direction

This force is provided by the friction between the object and the vertical wall. This
collision follows conservation of momentum in this process, momentum of the wall
changes equally is opposite direction, since the wall is attached to the earth, Change in
velocity of the wall is negligible.

=======

Rain drops are falling vertically and the treadle is moving horizontally Rate of change
in mass is 1.2 kgls . Initial mass of the trolley is 15 kg and it initial speed in 12 ms.

a) State and explain rate of change in momentum

b) State an explain rate of change in velocity

a) Since the raindrops are moving vertically downward, horizontal component of

their momentum is zero, Thus horizontal momentum of the trolley remains unchanged

30
b p = mv Since the momentum, p, is constant but mass

increase, velocity of trolley decreases

c) Calculate velocity of the trolley after 6s.

mini = mf vf m= 15+1.26
1512= [ 15+ ( 1.2 6 vf = 15+7.2 = 22.2kg
 = 8.1ms-1 pi = mv
= 1512=180

Experiment to Verify conservation Law of Momentum

31
Experiment

Pump

Power Source

The gliders are arranged in such a way that they move together. Their common
velocity is measured by using the time recorded by light gate.

Before collision

Total momentum
p1 = m1u1 + m2u2
u1= u u2=0
Pi = m1u
After collision
Total momentum
Pf = (m1+m2)v
The collision follows CLOM. ip Pi= pp but in practical momentum arise due to the
limitation of measuring instrument of measurement

32
For the reliability of the experiment all external force should be eliminated or
compendsated. In this experiment air track is used to minimize friction with solid surface

RADIATION PRESSURE

According to wave - particle Duality momentum of a photon,

, h = 6.63 x 10-34 gs  = wavelength

From wave equation , c=p 

If this photon is absorbed or it is reflected by surface its momentum change. Bu

following CL momentum of the surface also changes equally in opposite direction.

====

Solar sail is a large surface which is used to transfer the momentum of photon into
anther object . It the photon is absorbed by the sail if speed decreases thus
momentum of the photon becomes smaller

33
According to CC, the sail gains equal momentum and it starts to accelerate. In case
of a reflecting surface or a reflecting star sail, change in momentum of the photon is
large, Thus the soil gain larger momentum

Force ,

* A reflecting surface produce larges change in momentum compared to absorbing

surface

i = 8.72  10-6 m

p = 138  10-6 m

Wavelength of a photon change from 8.72  10-6 m to 1.38  10-7 m during its
reflection from a solar sail. If number of photon incidence per unit time is 87.5 x
1012/sec, calculate rate of change in momentum of the said

Pi = 7.6 x 10-27 Rate =

pp = 4.8 x 10-22

Rate of change in momentum = chan

= 1.09 x 10-12

b If mass of the solar sail is 380g, calculate is speed after two years

34
 v= u + at

= 1.8 10-4

ALPHA DELAY

====

The Radium nucleus o at ret before decay thus its initial momentum is zero . Time
nucleus splits in to two rudeio of different masses . According to CL total
momentum of this product nuclei must be zero. The products frovel in opposite
direction with same momentum

35
According to CLM

MRn v Rn + mv =0

In a nuclear reaction total mass of the products is slightly smaller than the mass of
parent nucleus, A small amount of mass is converted to some energy

E= mc2

This energy is released as a form of be of the product nuclei

E = Ex + ERn
Now,
P + Prn = 0
P = -Prn

P2= P pm

2m E = mRn ERn

4E  = ERn P2 =2mEk

36
 ====

The 60 kg student is at test on a trolley of mass 25kg . Calculate the velocity of the
trolley when the student starts to move in forward direction with a speed to Sms-1.

37
 Page 19. Q-4
4ms-1
6 4 5ms-1
At rest 6 300 6-5 sin 30
Before 6.5cos 30
4 
===

Determine the magnitude and direction of velocity of holg object after collision.

Pi = 6 x 4 =24

30Cos 30+ Pcos=24

P cos=24 -30 cos 30 = -1.98
P cos = -1.98
Px = 1.98

30 Sin 30- P Sin = 24

PSin = 30 Sin30 24
Py =-9

4V = 9.22
V= 2.3 ms-1

38
 Circular Motion

If motion of a particle is such that its distance from a fixed point remains constant,
with time, It motion is called ‘ Circular Motion’

In Fig-1. distance of particle P from O is always constant from point O . Thus

particle is executing circular motion Leg Motion of an electron around the nucleus

Prosperities of Circular Motion

i. Time Period : It is

39
 Angular Displacement

In Fig -2 a particle is moving is a circular path of radius `r’ m. It travels from point A
to B, along he circler path. The distance traveled by the particle is S = are AB. The
angle produced by the are at the center of the circular path is called angular
displacement.

Unit of angular displacement is radium

From the figure

 rad =

or, S = r

Distance
For a complete rotation S=  r

= 2r

40
 Angular Velocity

Angular displacement per unit time is called angular velocity

====
Fig.

Angular velocity =

For A to B
angular displacement =  rad
time taken = t sec

angular velocity,

Unit of angular velocity : radian per second

For a complete rotation

angular displacement,  = 2r
t=T

frequency ,

Thus,  = 2rf

41
 Relation Between Angular Velocity and Linear Speed

Fig
In fig 4,
Distance from A to b
and angular displacement= rad

It it takes 8mins 20 sec to travel from the sun to the Earth. Calculate speed of the Earth
around the Sun.

S = Vt V- t

= 3x 108 x 500 =

= 1.5 x 10” s =

= 29885.8ms-1
= 30 kms-1

42
 Q. Length of the hour- had of a cleck is 5.8 cm calculate speed of the moving
end of the hour – hand

As r = 0.0 58m
t = 12x 60 x 60 = 432003
v= r

Q. Average radius of the Earth is 6400 Km. ... Calculate speed of a point on the
Equator

====

V = r

= 465.4 ms-1  17000 km h-1

43
 RMP (Rotation Per Minute)

It is used as a unit for angular velocity. It represents the number of complete

rotations within are minute or 60 Sec.

Q. Convert 72000 pm to radian Is

Angular velocity

For n rotation
 2n

So,

Q convert 0.17 rads-1 into rpm

Ans:

n= 1.62 rpm

All points of a rigid object produce equal angular displacement with the same time
period. Thus all these point have the same angular velocity. Distance travelled by
these objects depend on the reading of its circulars path, Thus, the protects might
have diff., pound

44
Q.

The metal bar AB is rotating about point P calculate

i. A : B
ii. VA : VB

i. A : B = 1:1

ii.

===
The earth is moving along the rotational axis North-South, Calculate the ratio of
A :B VA : VB

A special object has a rotational axis intead of a point of a ration

Perpendicular distance of a point from the onal axis gives radius of the circular path

45
 Centripetal Acceleration

==============

If a particle moves at a constant speed in a circular path or constant angular velocity,

It motion is called uniform circular motion

In Fig s the particle is moving in a circular path a with a constant speed. At any
moment dissection of it velocity is parallel to the target to the curved path.

VA VB VC represent velocity at 3 different points, in case of uniform circular

motion at 3 different point, In case of uniform ciular motion all these vectors have
same length which indicates same Speer, but there is a change in velocity due to the
charge in directions of motion, Rode of change in direction of motion. Rate of change
in velocity is called acceleration, In a circular path, a partial always accelerates even
though its speed remains constant . This acceleration is called centripetal
acceleration.

46
 ===

According to this vector triangle, charge in velocity takes place towards the
centre of the circular path thus contents acceleration is directed towards centre

Magnitude of this centripetal cancellation is where v is speed and r is the

radius of the circular path

[ v = r ]

ac = 2r = ac = 42f2r

====

47
 Centripetal Force

In a circular path an object always accelerates towards the centre, According

to N2, unbalanced force is needed for the accelerator . This force acts along
the direction or acceleration . Thus unbalanced force is needed to keep an
object moving in a circular path. This force is called centripetal force, This
force acts towards the centre of the circular path.

Magnitude of this force

Fc = mac

Fc=

Fc= m2r

Centripetal force is not a particlar type of force. At different condition it is

provided by different sources, Actually unbalanced force towards the centre is
called centripetal force.
Fox ex Gravitational force provides centripetal for the rotational motion of the
Earth around the sun

For the circular motion of the election around the nucleus centripetal force is
provided by the electrostatic pove

= F x cos 
 = 900
 = Fx – 0
=0
Thus work done is zero, so the velocity does not increase

48
 Velocity or displacement is a circular path is parallel to the target to the path and
centripetal force acts towards the centre, So angle between displacement and
force is pet,

According to W- fx cos, work done by the centripetal force is zero

Change in Apparent Weight Due to Rotational Motion of the Esrth

=======

An object of mass M kg is place on point p where radius of the Earth is “R”

m

Two force are acting on this object

a. Govitaitonal Force
b. Normal Reaction force

Free body forces diagrom

W N

49
Since the object is moving in a circular path there most be an unbalanced force on
the object towards the centre which provides centripetal force.

According to the free- body fore diagram , unbalanced force towards the centre is
given by the expression

F= W- N
Since this force provides centripetal force ]

Fc= m 2r
So , W –N = m2r
N= W -m2r
N= mg - m2r
N= m( g-2r)

According to this equation apparent weight which is equal to normal reaction force
is less than actual weight of the object

A point P,
N= m ( g-2R)

If the particle is moved towards the poles, radius of its circular path. Decreases .
The apparent weight of the object increase At point 

N = m ( g 2 Rcos)

Thus,
N = m (g -2 cos90)
N = mg

50
G. A 60 kg object is moved from pole to the equator
Calculate change in apparent moss of the object

51
 Worksheet

=======

mv2= mg dhg

52
Ans: b) During first few collisions, kinetic energy and momentum remained unchanged
thus the bull repeats its motion. After few collisions, total EK becomes small
and is converted to heat, sound etc. To keep the momentum at lower KE the
other balls start to move. After a significant number of collision KE is completely
converted to other form and the system comes to rest at equilibrium position,
Ans2. m1u1+m2u2= m1v1 + m2v2
0 = ( 486-0.13)v + 0.13 x 30,000
v = -8.026
Ans.3 (a) Total momentum of a collision in a system remains conserved in a collision
provided no other external force acts on it

(b) (i) + = 1.3s S=

s= 0.69 m
v =0
(c) (ii) Force / acceleration is constant
(iii) m1u1+m2u2= (m1v1 + m2)2
0.84 + u + 0 = (0.84+97.3) ( 0.06)
u = 124

(c) (i) If it is reflected background component of change in momentum becomes

larger thus momentum of the toy car changes in forward direction. According to
CLOM this forward change is equal to back ground change in momentum of the pellet

53
Ans. (c) If it moves perpendicularly in backwards direction change in momentum is
largest

(d) Change in potential energy is correct

KE just after collision is larger than 0.169 because a small fraction of this KE
is used to move against frictional energy.
As the pendulum and the pellet moves together the collision is inelastic. Thus
EK before collision is greater than after collision. Thus actual speed of the
pellet is greater than the calculated value.

Ans. 4 Due to explosion there is a change in momentum of the module towards moon.
By following CL, momentum of the rocket change equally is opposite
direction. Thus resultant change in zero, After explosion Ek of the system
increases , this energy is converted from chemical energy by following CLOE.
Ans.5 At the halfway of the collision Ek is converted to clastic strain energy

Ans. 6 Momentum before decency is a because it splits from rest According to CL total
momentum of daughter nuclei after collision is zero : m1v1 +m2v2=0
m1v1 =m2v2
To keep the momentum zero, the product should more with same momentum in
opposite directions. Due to smaller

54
 mass, alpha- particle should have higher velocity to get same momentum as
recoil nucleus
Ans. 7 Change in P of H = change in p of photon

mv – 0 =

mv = 6.63  10-34 

Ans: 9. a) Total momentum before a collision and after a collision is same provided
there is no external force acting

b) ii) Inelastic because Ek decrease

Ans:10 a) i) From B to C there is backward change in momentum of the person,

following CL momentum of the ball is some in forward direction. Thus it has a
higher speed

i)

b) 1.5V ( 1.218 ) . cos + (1.5 0.7) cos45

55
Ans.12 Cating  h =

56
 Motion in a vertical circular Path

=== Force on the object

(i) Weight
(ii) Normal reaction force

At point A

N = -mg =

N = -mg +

At point B,

N=

At point C

N = -mg =

N = -mg + -mg

57
===

A car is moving over a speed breaker of radius ‘r’ m According to its free body force
diagram

W= -N=

N = mg +

If speed of the car is increased magnitude of normal reaction force decreases

If the car is at rest then v=0 , normal reaction force is equal to mg

Centripetal force, Fc= W-N, Magnitude of this force is largest when N is smallest or
zero , At this condition

mg =

V=

If speed of a car exceeds this critical speed, it will take off and move along the
tangent to the paths.

58
 Statutes

Satellites are moving in a circular path around the planet. Due to change in
direction of motion, satellites are always accelerating towards the centre of the circular
path. For this acceleration, centripetal force is needed which is provided by
gravitational force

=====

If angular velocity of he satellite is  , then centripetal force, Fc= ms2r

FG= Fc

 T2r3

is constant

If this time period is equal to the rotational time period of the plangent, the

satellite remains stationary respect to a point on the surface of the planet.

59
 G= 6.67  10-11
ME= E  10-11kg

Q. Calculate distance of the geo stationary orbit from the surface of the Earth given
that radius of the Earth is 6400 km

=
=
 r=R

60
Experiment of determine the relation between centripetal force and speed of the object

===

Apparatus:
1. A rubber stopper
2. A smooth glass or plastic tube
3. Load of different masses
4. Metre rule
5. Stopwatch
6. Marker

Description
The stopper is attached at one end of the string which passes through the glass tube,
another end of the string is attached to a lead of known mass.

When the stopper moves in a circular path of constant radius, centripetal fore =
weight of the suspended lower

and T = mg

Thus

61
Speed of the stopper is gradually increased until it reaches to a particular

radios .When it is in equilibrium state total time for a particular number of rotation is

measured by using the stopwatch. It is used to calculate avg time pesior varied. For

each load, time period is calculated

Mass of the Force Fc (N) Time Period T Speed

load (kg) (Sec) v2(ms-1)2

By using these readings, centripetal force against speed graph can be produced

Gradient

=====

If fc against v2 graph is product , it will be a straight line passing through the origin

62
Stiffness = F= Ke

Relation between force and radius

F  rn
F = krn F= mv2r-1
In F = ln (krn) F= krn
In F = lnk +lnrn

==============

==========

a) Explain why the length of the spring mass in a vertical circular path

b) Because tension changes- length greatest at the bottom

63
====

Coefficient of friction the surface is 0.62

Calculate maximum angular velocity of the table by keeping the object 72 cm away

from the centre

F = m2r = h

nh2r = hg

 2 =

===========

London Eye produces two complete rotations in one hour, calculate speed of the

capsule

rad s-1

v= r

64
=====

If Normal Reaction fore at point B is 3tims is weight , calculate radius of the circular

path at point B.

mg n =

g n =

V=

N-W =

3mg-mg =

r =

65
 Jan 10 U-h Q 12

a) Force, e)

F = ma r=

=1200 =

= 1200 = 53m

= 1.95  105 N

b) ===

c) =====

4mg –mg =

 4g-g =

 3g-g =

 g =

r =
= 110.39
d)

u2 = v2 +2g h
 u2 = u2 - 2g h
 v=
= 22.84

66
70
June 10 U-4
Ans: a) Angular velocity

= 2.09 racts

b) 22cm – 1.8m

r=
= 2.5
ac=  r
2

= 2.092 2.5 =10.9

Jan 13 U-4, Q -13

Ans 13 a) v= 0.26ms-1 c) At point A

r = 61m
mg –N=
v=
N= mg -
=
At point B
= 1474. 13 N= mg
At point C
b) F=
mg –N=
=
N= mg -

At point B
Thus mav normal reaction force at
C, and min at A

67
 June, 13 R U-H Q 16

Ans. 10 In a circular path direction of velocity changes. Thus the object always

accelerates even though its speed remains constant. For this acceleration unbalanced

force is needed ( according to N2) towards the center of the circular path.

b. Magnitude of the centripetal force, which is provided by friction, For

high speed turning friction cannot provide sufficient centripetal force if ratius of the
circular path is smaller

c. (i) HC of NRF provides centripetal force NCos

VC of NRF balance weight of the object N sin  = mg

Thus

68
 Janth IAL Q -16

A. 16 a) (i)

==

(ii) Rcos  = ma
Rcos28  = mac
 1671 Cos 28 = 80  ac
 ac = 18.44

(iii)

 V2 = ac r
 V=
= 175.5

b. Due to smaller mass, force on the children is smaller than on adults,

thus they would feel more comfortable
Abdult have larger height

69
 June 14, GCE U4 Q12

Ans. 2

====

T cos =mg

and T sin 

N= mg

If v=0

N= mg = 950  9.81
= 9319.5N

N= mg -

b. At very high speed weight of the car is not sufficient to provide required centripetal
force.

70
 June 14 IAL U4 , \Q 14

Ans-16 a) If the string becomes horizontal, vertical component of tension becomes

zero, thus there is no force to balance it weight

b) i)

= 77.9

c)

Jan -15
An. 14 a) In a circular path director of velocity changes, thus the object alungs
accelerates even though is speed remains constant. According to N2, unbalanced
force is needed to accelerate the object which acts towards the centre of the path

b. i) when the plane form s an angel with horizontal director , the lift force has a a
component towards the centre , This unbalanced force causes acceleration and the
place can move in a circular path.

71
ii) ===========

L Cos  = mg

L Sin =

So,

June 15 IAL

72
 EKLCTRK FIELD

Electrical charge is one on the fundamental properties of all partials, A particle can
be positively charged , or incivility charged. Some particles can also be changed
nuptial

===

Change is a derived quantity

Its unit is Couloomb - Amperes/ Second

Eclectic Field

Electric field is defined as the space where a charged particle experiences force

Electric field strength of a point inside the electric field is defined as the force per
unit charge

Electric field =

QA
Force on Q change is `F’N
Electronic field strength

73
SI base unit is E

= kg mA-1 5.3

Electric field is a vector quantity

Direction of electric field strength is defined as the direction of force on a

positively charged particle is an electric field

A negatively charged particle experiences force opposite to the direction of electric

field

=====

According to N2, unbalanced force cawes acceleration

F=ma
and F=QE
Thus
QE =ma

 a=

`a’ represents the acceleration of charged particle inside an electric field of field
strength `E’

74
Q. An electric field is used to accelerate an electron from rest to 00013C within 570
mico-second calculate magnitude of field strength

C= 3 108 ms-1
0.013C = 39 106 ms-1

Electric field Lines

These imaginary lines are used to represent the shape of relative strength of an electric
field. These line can be straight or curved.

These lines represent the dissection of force on a positive change. For an isolated
charge, Electric field are directed auto wards and for a negative change are directed
inwards.

======

75
In case of a combination of chares, electric field lines are started from positive changes
to negative change

=====

If the free lines are close to each other, it represents stronger electric field. Uniform
electric field is defined as the space remains unchanged. In this case field lines are
parallel to each other and they have constant separation.

76
 =========

The particle x is not rest between two charged parallel plates. Mass of the particle is
12.010-3g and its charge is 6210-6C . Draw the electric field lines

Ans To balance downwards weight of the object there, these must be an upward force
which is provided by the electric field

Fg =  =Fe
QE = mg

E=

77
To balance downward weight of the object, there must be an upward force to b

Potential Difference

Potential Difference between two points is defined as the amount of work done on
per unit change to move it from one point to another/

Q
A0 B0
Work done to move “Q” charge from A to B is `’ J, Thus pd between between these
2 points

Potential difference is a scalar quantity

unit Volt

=====

In an electric field, amount of work done to move a charged particle from one point to
another does not depend on its path of motion, it only depends on the pd of the initial
and final path.

Work , = QV
Electron volt is used to express a very small amount of energy or work done.

78
It is defined as the amount of work done to transfer an electron across I volt pd,

If Q = 1.6  10-9
and V = 1 Volt

W = l e V = 1.6 10-9V

Relation between PD and Electric Field strength,

========

Electric potential of A is VA and B is VB thus their P.d V = VA -VB

Disprove of AB = x

Amount of work done to move “Q” C from A to B is QV

W = QV

if electric field strength is E, force on the charged particle

F= QE
W= Fx
= QE.x
Thus ,
QV = QE x [ W= QV]

V= Ex

79
Q.
===

Electric field strength between the two plates is 52 NC -1 is dawnwords

direction. Calculate Potential of metal plate B

E = 52 NC-1

E=

V= E.x
= 5.2  0.32 = 16.64
VB = 280-16.54
= 296.6h

E=

Unit of E = Vm-1

Q. Show that Vm-1 is equal to NC-1

= NC + = Vm-1 =

Thus, NC-1, Vm-1, X =

= Nc-1 (showed)

80
Relation between PD and EK

A B

In this figure two verticals parallel plates are user to produce a horizontal uniform
electric field.

These two plates are connected to a DC source of PD “ V” volt, where A has higher
potential and B has lower potential

====

A positively charged particle x is placed closer to A It experience force along the

direction of electric field line.

According to N2, this fore cause acceleration and its EK increases.

Charge in EK= work done

81
From the relation between KE and momentum, we know

P2= 2mEk

Kinetic Energy
Ek= QV
Thus,

 P2= 2mQV

Q. Wavelength of an accelerated electron is 984 nm. Calculate the pd of the

acceleration

 2mQV =

 V=

= 1.559  10-6 V

82
 Election Gun

====

An election gun is a device which is used to produce a beam of high speed election. The
filament is connected across a high voltage source.

When current flows though the filament, electric energy is converted to thermal
energy, By using this energy band of electron is broken.

The produced electron have no kinetic energy. To accelerate this election an eclectic
field is produced by using two parallel plates and accelerating voltage / pd ‘ Va’ is
applied across the metal plates, Due to this voltage speed of electron increases and
they gain higher KE
Velocity of produced electron

V=

Q. An electron gun uses 32Kv accelerating potential.

Calculate: i. speed of electron

A i. ii.

= 33.5 106ms-1

83
Q. Calculate accelerating potential of an electron gum to produce beam of electron
with KE 2.6MeV.

KE = 2.6 MeV
= 2.6 106 1.6 10-19J
Q = e = 1.6 10-19C
So,

V=

i. Calculate speed of this electron

Since this speed is greater than the speed of light it is not practically possible. Since
the electric field applies force on the electron its Ek increase due to change in mass,
which is called relativistic mass.

84
 ======

The accelerating pd of the electron gum is Va. Thus he speed of the electron produced
by the electron gun is

A pd is produced across the horizontal plate x and y. Thus a vertical electric field is
produced by these 2 plates . As the plate x has higher potential this electric field is
directed vertically downwards. The beam of electron enters inside the vertical electric
filed along horizontal direction. At initial moment horizontal component of its velocity

Uy= 0

As the electron enters horizontally vertical component of velocity in zero

If there is no vertical electric field electron moves in a horizontal path which is

represented by dotted line. In presence of electric field, electron deflects in up ward
direction Point “P” represents the terminal / final point of electron inside the electric
field. Beyond this point the electron moves in a straight path following N1 of
motion.

The deflecting pd between the horizontal plats x and y is

85
VD

Thus veridical electric field strength

Upward force on electron

F= eD (qE; q=e)

According to N2,

may =

ay =

ay represents vertical upward acceleration of electron between plates x and y

Since the horizontal component of velocity remains constant, time taken to travel
through the vertical electric field.

Final vertical displacement inside the electric field is ‘h’ m

According to the equation of motion

h=

h=

If the deflecting potentials increased or the accelerating potential Va, is decreased,

vertical displacement of electron becomes larger.

86
 =====

At point P electron has both horizontal and vertical component of velocity .

Horizontal component .

Vy = uy + ay+

This resultant velocity at Point P

87
================ me = 9.1  10-31 kg
e= 1.6  10-19 C

a) calculate initial speed

b) Determine the electric field strength between x and y and state its direction

c) Calculate vertical acceleration of electron

= 1.86 1019

88
d. Calculate the time taken to travel through the vertical electric field.

t Second

c. Calculate vertical displacement of electric inside the electric field

h=

= 0.74 m
= 74cm

In practical this vertical displacement is not possible because electron will

collide with horizontal plate

Equipotent

====
These are the imaginary lines or surface in on electric field where all points have
same electric potential.

89
 ====

Metal plate x and y produce uniform horizontal electric field lines if their pd is V
volt, A, B and C represent their equipotent

A mount of work done to move charged particle from one equipotent to another
doesnot depend on the path of motion, it depends on the pd of equipotent

Pd between A and B,

V= Ed
V1 = Ex1
Pd between B and C
V2 = Ex2

Thus,

In a uniform electric field pd between the equipotentials remain constant if they

have constant separation or distance.

90
 =====

This figure represent a non- uniform radial electric field which is produced by a
positively charged particle. Since the separation between the filed times increase
with distance from the charged particle , electric.

91
 ====

There is an uniform electric field between the metal plats A and B

According to this questions pd against distance graph will have a constant gradient
if the electric field is uniform

====

Two identical charged particles short from two different point

inside an uniform electric field. Calculate the ratio of their
velocity at metal plate B.

92
 Coulomb’s law

When two charged particles are close to each other they interact with other by
belletristic force. Magnitude of this force is determined by using coulombs law.

This law states that magnitude of electrostatic force between particles is proportional
to the product of their charge and inversely proportional to the product of their
distance.

A B
d
Charge of A = Q1
Change of B = Q2
Distance = d

Q. Radios of a gold nucleus is 0.12 nm. calculate speed of electron orbiting the
nuclew . me 91  10-31 kg
e= 1.6 10-19C

93
 ====

Q. Determine the magnitude and direction of force on 2.0mc

= =

= 5394N = 1726 N

===

 F2 = 53942+19262-

94
 Electric Field Strength =

Q ap

The Q charge produces electric field around Y p is a point at ‘d’ distance from the Q
charge. A lest charge “Q” is placed at point `p’ Force on the charge,

E=

Thus electric field strength at point BP

E=

E=

Q. Calculate electric field strength of a proton at 13nm away

= 8.51  106 NC-1

For a constant charge electric field strength

Thus electric field strength follows inverse square law.

95
E-d Graph

=====

If electric field strength against graph is a straight line passing through the

origin , it represents inverse square law between field strength, and the distance

====

96
Field strength of a hollow spherical object

==========

In case of a sphere or spherical shaped conductor, all the charge are distributed

evenly over the surface,

Their electric field cancel each other inside the sphere. Thus resultant force inside

the sphere is zero

Out side the sphere the electric filed follows inverse square law in such a way that
charge is concentrated inside the sphere / centre.

Resultant electric field strength

===
Two charged particles are place at ‘d’ m distance away from each other. Since
they have some publicity, their electronic fields are directed in opposite direction in
the space between opposite direction

At a point these two electric fields have the same magnitude . Since they have
opposite directions, resultant field strength of this point is zero, it is calle neutral or
null point.

It P represent the null point between Q1 and Q2, F1 E2.

97
 E1=E2

So, Distance of the neutral point is larger from the larger charge

a) ====

1.38 cm

Calculate distance of the neutral point from helium nucleus

98
Eclectic field strength gradually change with distance from Q1 to Q2.

============

From Q1 to point P, electric strength is directed towards right E1 in larger then E2.
After point P the resultant electric field strength is directed towards left become
E2>F1.

=====

If two oppositely charged particle are placed , resultant field strength in the space
between the charged particles become larger due to their same direction

======

In the case, neutral point can be detected at a place outside of the charges and distance
of the neutral point will be greater from the larger charge.

99
===

Experiment to determine electrostatic force between two charged particle

=====

In Fig 1 a charged object is placed on an electric balance by using a non conducting

stand. Mass of this object is recorded

In Fig. 2 another charged object is placed above A by a non conducting support

If they have same polarity, object A experiences downward push by object B. Due to
this downward force, reading of the electric balance increase

If they have opposite polarity. upward force acts on A thus reading of the electron
balance decrease.

Thus from the difference between two readings magnitude of the electrostatic force
can be determined

F=  mg

100
To MAKE hOUSE

======

Experiment to determine electrostatic between two charged articles

===

In Fig.1 a charged object is placed on an electric balance by using a non conducting

stand, Mass of this object igggggs recorded.

In Fig.2 another charged object is place above A by a non conducting support

It they have same polarity object A experience downward push by object B. Due to

this downward force, reading of the electric balanced increase.

If they have opposite polarity, upward force acts on A thus reading of the electron

balance decrease.

Thus from the difference between two reading magnitude of the electrostic

force can be determinate

F=  mg

101
===

A and B are two identical object with same dimension and same mass, 2Q charge is

given to object A it these two objects touch each other charge will be distributed

evenly Fit the object are moved they will have same charge ( and polarity) . Thus

electrostatic repulsion force acts between the objects

Free body force diagram at A

===

Tension can be resolved along two perpendicular directions. According to the free

body force diagram

T cosB = mg
T Sin = F1

So,

102
====

In this figure two objects are suspended from the same Point Length of the
strings is `l’ m Distance between the objects is `r’ m/

tan =

103
 CAPACITORS

====

In Fig. 1 x and y are two parallel metal plates connected to a D f source of

pD beef of Vs.

The space between the two metal plates x and y are occupied by non- conducting

dielectric materials .

It the switch is turned on current should not flow to through the circuit due to the

broken path x and y .

But is practical a decreasing current can be observed for a small time period.

As the metal plate x is connected to the positive terminal of the cell, electrons

more from metal plate x to positive terminal. Due to electrostatic repulsion, electron

moves from metal plate y. Thus the plate y becomes negatively charged . Due to

opposite. Polarity a pd is produced across these parallel plates. It the potential

difference across x and y is Vc and across the resistor is VR,

wording to Kichoffic voltage rule

V0 = Vc+VF

Thus, VR= Vo-Vc

Current

104
 I=

I=

U4 initial moment , t = 0, charge in the parallel plates Q= O.

Thus there is no pic between x and y

VC =0

Thus pd across the resistor is largest are max/ largest current flows through the astir .

Magnitude of this largest current , Imac =

As current flows through the circuit pd across x and y gradually increase, and the

current through the circuit decrease. When the parallel plates stose sufficient charge,

their pd becomes equal to the emf of the cell. Thus pd across the resistor drops to

zero, According to Ohm’s law, current through the circuit becomes zero. At this

condition , the parallel plates have largest possible charge.

===

If these parallel plates are connected across an electric applione it can proved

energy. Thus the arrangement can store electric potential energy any seating electric

field between the plates, These armaments is called capacitor,

To transfer more change into the expositor it pd should be increased

105
Charge of a capacitor x pd between x and y

Q V
Q =CV

The proportionality constant C is called capacitance.

From the equation

C=
If V = 1 volt
C=Q

Capacitance is defined as the amount of charge stored by a capacitor when pd

across it the two plates is 1 Volt, Unit of capacitance is CV -1. Which is called Farad

(F)

In practical it is a very large unit . For real life applications

mF and uF are used

 
miti Farad micro Farad

SI base with

= amp2 sec2

= amp2 s4 m-2

106
Q- Graph

===

The equation Q= CV, reptesents linear relation between pd and charge. Thus the

graph is a straight line through the origin

In this case the applied pd is considered which is varied by using a variable

source. Thus pd is an independent variable . Source Thus pd is an independent

variable and t is plotted along horizontal axis. This gradient of the graph gives

competence. The Pd produced across the capacitors depend on the amount of charge

of the parallel plates , If we consider, this pit it will be the dependant variable and be

plotted alone the y = axis

===

107
Different types of arrangements are used as capacitors . E.g cylindrical capacitors. The

most common arrangement is called parallel. The most common arrangement is

called parallel capacitor Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor depends on:

1. Area of the parallel plates

2. Distance between the parallel plates

3. Permittivity of the dielectric materials

According to this equation

C  A [ If d and E are constant]

======

For constant E and A

======

108
According to work - Energy Theorem / relation

Work done = Energy transfer

In the final pd of a capacitor is Q1, amount of work done

to transfer this charge

W= Q , Vag

W=

Energy of a capacitor

Charge Q = CV
Energy , E =

Pd, V =
So,
Energy , E =

E=

= Area under Q-V graph

=

= Energy of the capacitor

109
====

pd 

Capacitance = = 0.8 uF

= 10

110
Efficiency of a capacitive Circuit

===

According to Kirch pp is Voltage Rule

V0= Vc + Va

If  Q amount of charge is passed through the total amount of work done by the

cell

W =Q. Y0

Amount of energy stored by the capacitor

W = Q. Vc

and amount of energy loss due resistor

Elass = G Vc

According to conservation Law of Energy

W = E + Eloss

=========

111
 =====

Area A1 represents the amount of energy stored by the capacitor and A2 represents

amount of energy lost by due to resistor

Total area, A1+ A2, represents the amount of energy provided by the cell

Thus efficiency of the charging process of captors is 50%

===

Calculate amount of charge stored by the capacitor

Q = CVc

Vc= Emf - Vc

= 5-IR

= 5-1.5 10-3 1.2103

= 2.84 Volt

Q = CVc

= 3.6  10-6  2.84

= 10.0224  10-5

112
Q. Calculate amount of energy stad by the capacitor within this time.

E=

= 1.45  10-5J

Q. Determine the amount of energy loss due to the resistor and calculate efficiency.

Energy of the cell, Energy loss = 5.1210-5-1.45  10-5

E=QV = 3.66  10-5J

=1.02  10-5 cell

= 5.112  10-5 J

Efficiency =

Efficacy is iess than 50% because it was not fully charged

113
 Series connection of Capacitors

===========

If a capacitor is connected across a DC source, two parallel plates of

capacitors store equal and opposite change. Thus the resultant charge of a capacitor

is zero

If this capacitors is connected across an appliance, charge flows from

one plate to another through the circuit. Thus charge of a capacitor refers, to the

magnitude of charge of one plate.

In the above figure two capacitors are connected is series across of DC source.

Metal plate A of cpacitor X is connected to the poostive terminal of the cell .

Thus is becomes positvely charged. Similarly metal plate of capaccitgor Y becomes
negatively charge. Due to the broken path charge cannot be transferee in the mtal
plate B & C. But these plates gain polarity due to electrostatic induction. In a series
combination both capacitors store equal amount of charge. But resultant charge
which can be provided by this arrangement is equal to the change of one capacitors.
In service combination `V’ emt
Emf, V=V1 +V2

V1 pd of capacitor x

v2 pd of capacitor y

114
 If the amount of charge stored by the capacitors is Q coulomb

pd, C1= capacitance of X

pd, C1= capacitance of Y

If the resultant capacitance is “CS”

Total charge

Q =CS V

So,

This equation can be used to determine the capacitance pf a series combination

C1=C2=C

So,

115
Parallel Connection of Capacitors

====

In this circuit two capacitors are connected in parallel. across a DC source . In

parallel combination / connection, these two capacitors have same pd. Amount of

charge stored by capacitor X, Q1 =C.V

and Q2 =C2V

Thus total charge stored by this combination is Q= Q1+Q2

If resultant capacious of this circuit is CP, total charge

Q = CpV

Thus

CpV= C1V+C2V

Cp = C1+ C2

116
 ======

When a tow-way switch is connected at point A, the capacitors store charge,

When it is connected at point B , this arrangement provides energy to the light bulls

Calculate the time to discharge

* Stop:1 total capacitance

* stop:2 Energy E =

* Step 3+

Capacitance in series=

Ce Total capacitance =

Energy =

= 165

117
Energy Stored in a Series & Parallel Combination

==

Two: identical capacitors X and Y are connected in series Total capacitance

Thus ,

Energy ,

=====

Total competence in pavellel carrniration Cp = 2C

Thus Total energy ,

Ep =

= CV2

= 4 Es

118
======

All the capacitors and bulbs are identical , compare the brightness an time of

discharge

Ans Power

In series, the bulb receives

SV

In both circuits pd across the light bulbs is 5V thus they have same brightness.

time =

Energy in series, Emerges in parallel

E=

= =100V

119
=====

Two capacitors across x and y are connected to each other. Charge will flow from

x , higher potential, to y, lower potential until they have same pd.

Calculate this find charge and final voltage

Q1 = 7  10-3 3

21 mc

Q2 = 4  10-3 2

18 10-3 mc

Q = 21 + = 29c

 4Q11= 203 -70Q11

 11Q11= 203

 Q1 =

120
Charge of a Capacitor

====

In the circuit a two way switch is used to charge and discharge a capacitor through

a resists (B) when the switch is connected at point A, charge flows from the call to

the capacitor. Thus pd across the capacitor gradually decreases with time. By

following kirchoff, Voltage Rule , pd across the resistor decrease with time, At

any Voltage

V0 = VC+ VR

At initial moment pd across the capacitor is zero

Thus VR has the largest magnitude

At f=01 Vc=0

Thus VR= VO

Current

At t=0

1 = 1 max =

If current through the circuit after `t’ sects is 1, pd across the resistor

VR= IR, S VR =

If amount of charge after ‘t’ second is Q colomb

121
122
Product of resistive and capacitive of a circuits gives a particulars time which is
called time constant of the circuit

Q. Calculate time constant of a circuit with capacitance 12mF and resistance 4.8 Kg

Time constant
T=RC
= 4.810-3  1210-3
= 57.6 sec

When the time of charging is equal to the time constant of the circuit t =RC

Amount of charge in the capacitor

Q= Qo ( 1-e )

= Qo ( 1- e-1)
= 0.63 Q0

Within time constant, a capacitor stores 63% of tis max possible charge

==============

Max current or initial current, , gradually decreases with time,

At `t’ sec, current through the circuit

I=

= Qo

The max assent or initial current car also be expressed by the expression,

123
 1 = I0 e- t/RC
This equation represents carination of current through the circuit of time. According
to this equation, current decreases exponentially with time ( In second)

==============

If time, t= RC ( time constant), current through the circuit,

= 10e-1
= 0.3710
Within time constant current through the circuit drops to 37% of is initial / max
current.

Pd across the capacitor

Thus,

According to the equation, pd across the capacitor increase exponentially with time

124
===========

Pd after first time constant , t= RC

So, V = Vo (1-e-1)
= 0.63 Vo.
Within this time period , pd of the capacitor rises/ increase to 63% of its max value,
[ emf(v0) of the cell]

Pd acres the resistor

VR= IR

VR=
LoR = Vo = max pd
VR = Coe-t/AC

Thus pd across the resister decrease exponentially with time

=
= within time constant, pd across the
resister drops to 37% of its max value
VR = Va e-1
= 0.37 V0

125
====

If the switch is connected at point B, the capacitor starts to discharge through the
resistor. At the initial moment of the discharge process, the capacitor has the largest
amount of charge. As the time progresses, charge of the capacitor gradually
decreases. According to Kirchoff’s Voltage Rule

VO= VR+ VC
Since the cell is removed, Vo=0 and VR +Vc=0
Thus pd of the capacitor

and pd of the resister

VR =IR

From kirchoffis Rule

 lnQ-lnQ0 =

 ln

126
This equation represents the variation of charge in a capacitor with time during
discharge process

Charge of the capacitor decreases exponentially with time

=== Within time constant, t= RC

Qo e-1
O. 37Q0

Within time constant, charge of the capacitor drops to 37% of its mutial / max value

Thus Current

So, I = -10e-t/RC

During discharging current decreases exponentially with time Magnitude of this

current

======

127
In this equation, negative sign repents the opposite direction of current flow through
the resistor

Within time constant, current drops to 37% of its initial current

t=RC
I = Iae-1
= 0.37 10

Time constant is a particular time by which a charged capacitor discharge to 37% of

its max charge or initial charge

Fully charging or discharging time of a capacitors is 5 time of time constant

128
 Experiment to Determine Capacitor

=====

The two way switch is connected at point A to charge the capacitor when the
capacitor is fully charged , the reading of the ammeter drops of zero

The two- ways switch is connected at point B to discharge the capacitor through a
known resistor.

The ammeter is used to record the current through the circuit. By using the timer,
corresponding time of each current is recorded

Time / Sec Current / Amp

O I0
t1 I1

By using these readings current against time graph is plotted

= From this graph time constant

is determined

129
Alternative Method

During the process of this charge , current through the circuit decreases , according
to equation

I = 10 e-t/RC
or, In I = ln [10e -+/RC]
ln I = ln I0 + lne+/RC

ln 1 =

y= mx + C

This equation represents linear relationship between In I and t. Thus ln I against +

graph will be a straight line

=== Negative gradient =

m=

 =

If the resistance of this circuit is known, capacitance can be calculated

Charge against time graph

======

130
If the resistance of the circuit is increased, initial current, , decreases, Thus

initial gradient of the graph become smaller, Due to larger resistance time constant
increases and the capacitor takes longer time to be charged

Maximum charge, [ Q0= CV0] does not depend on the resistance. Thus, final charge
of the capacitor remains unchanged.

=====

If the capacitance is increased, maximum charge of the arrangement increases and

time constant becomes larger, But initial current through the circuit remains same
and the gradient of the graph remains unchanged

====

131
If EMF of this cell is increased the time constant remains unchanged, but initial
current and max charge becomes larges

====

Properties of current against time graph

===

Area under the graph represent amount of charge transferor in this case, shaded area
represents amount of charge transferred into the capacitor between time , t1 and t2.

By measuring the area under the graph we can estimate the amount of charge stared
by the capacitors

If the resistance is increased initial current through the circuit decrease but the time
content increases.

132
==

Max charge or final charge of the capacitor does not depended on the resistance .
Thus area under these graphs are equal

It the capacitance is increased , initial current remains same , but time constant and
final charge becomes larger

=== Larger area under second graph represent

larger final charge of the capacitor

If EMF of the cell is increased , time constant remains same but initial current and
final charge become larger

===========

133
 Rectifier

===========

Fig.1 represents of half-wave rectification circuit . The died allow a clockwise

current flows through the circuit

Fig 2a repentant input voltage provided by the alternative source

Fig. 2b represents output DC signal due to half- wave verification. In cases of full
wave rectification, a continuo DC signal will be produced

Fig.3 represents full –wave rectification

In cases of rectification, direction of current remains same but it magnitude change

=====

134
 ====

In Fig 4a, a capacitor is connected across the device, the source is connectred in

parallel which creates pd across the capacitor and the appliance. When the voltage of

EMF of the source increase, the pd across the appliance and the capacitor gradually

increase with time. During this phase or time the capacitor stores charge and its pd

gradually increases.

capacitor decreases slowly (exponentially) . Since the capacitor is connected in p

After the maximum or peak voltage , emt of the alternating source gradually / sharply

decreases. But pd of the arallel across the appliance , it can maintain a constant pd

across the appliance ( exponentially decreasing pd).

135
 Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment

===

The atomiser is used to produce oil droplets. Initially these oil drop are projected
horizontally, thus vertical component of velocity is zero. Due to gravitational pull of
attraction, velocity, of oil droplets increase in downwards direction. Thus upward
friction force on the oil droplets gradually increase with time. Who these oil
drooplets move at terminal velocity total upward force is equal to total downward force

F+U=W
Up thrust = V. Pair.g

If density of air inside the container is very law, we can write

U= O
Thus,
F=W
Grnv = mg

The al droplets becomes charged by friction or due to suitable arrangement. Inside

the cylinder or chamber, two horizontal metal plates are used to produce a vertical
electric field. If the plate A is –ve and B is +ve, this electric field is directed upward,
Magnitude of this field strength.

136
 V is the pd between A and B

d is the distance between A and B

A positively charged oil droplet experiences upward force insider this electric field.
Magnitude to this force can be varied by changing the pd between A and B

Force
F=QE Q is the charge of the droplet

F=

By using or applying suitable pd, the positive oil droplet an be brought to rest. At this
condition, (friction is zeor, as it’s no longer moving ) weight of the oil droplet is equal
to electric force or force applied by the electric field

mg
Thus,
Q. 6r nVT

 Q=
Due to its very small size or dimension, it is not possible to measure the diameter or
radius of oil droplets
Terminal velocity

If pair  0

Thus charge of oil droplet

137
 Charge of oil droplet is measured several times by repeating the experiment. Al the
charges are multiple of a particular magnitude. Since charge is quantized and it is
transferred due to movement of electron. The determined charge expressed charge of
election

MAGNETIC FILD

Magnetic field is a space where a magnet or a moving charge particle experiences

force, Like an electric field, magnetic field is a vector quantity, Thus is has a
magnitude and direction.

Properties of charged particle

1) A static charge produces electric field
2) A moving charge produces both electric and magnetic field

Poles of a Magnet ( Magnetic Poles)

Poles represent the points where strength of a magnet or magnet field is

largest. A freely suspended magnet is directed along. North- South direction. The pole
of the magnet which is directed towards geographical North Pole of the Earth is
called

138
North - seeking pole or North pole of the magnet. The other pole which is directed
towards ge4ographical south is called South – seeking pole or South pole of the
magenta

Direction of magnetic field is defined as the direction of force experienced on an

individual North pole inside the magnetic field

=====

Magnetic Interaction

 Like poles repel each other

 Opposite poles attract

139
 Magnetic Field Strength

====

A magnetic field is represented by imaginary lines which are called magnetic field
lines. Separation between these filed lines represents relative field strength, It the field
lines are close to each other, it represents stronger magnetic field.

In above figures magnetic field line is passing through area. Total number of field
lines through a particular area is called magnetic of

Magnetic Flux `B’ is called magnetic field strength (Unit, Text)

 = BA `A’ represents area

This equation is applicable if the magnetic field lines are perpendicular to the
surface ( Fig. 1 & 2). In Fig.3 the magnetic field lines from 0 angel with the surface.
Component of this magnetic field strength perpendicular to the surface of the area
( along the normal) is B Sin. Thus magnetic flux,  BA cos

Unit of magnetic flux Wber (b)

Magnetic field strength

[ If  =900]

`B’ is also called flux density

Unit of B=  b m-2 or T

140
 Calculate the magnetic flux if field
Strength is 2.8mT

Area = 5.4 

 = BA cos

= 2.85 10-3  5.4 

= 4.76  10-4

Properties of Magnetic Field Lines

Magnetic field lines are continuous. They follow a complete path or loop

====

Magnetic field line do not interested each other

=====
If the magnetic filed lines are parallel to each other and they have constant
separation, it represents uniform magnetic filed

141
Force on a moving charged particle inside a magnetic field

A moving charged particle produces magnetic field around it,

If the charged particle is projected through a magnetic fie it experiences force due to
the interaction between two field

Magnitude of this force

F= QVB sin Q  charge of the particles

V  velocity of the particle
B  Magnetic field strength
BAngle between the magnetic field and
velocity
=====

The charged particle experiences largest force of sin =1 = since

= 900
If a charged particle moves in perpendicular to the direction magnetic field it
experiences largest, force of magnitude
F= QVB

 B

If Q = IC and V = 1ms-1
B=f
Magnitude of magnetic field strength is equal to the amount of force that acts
on one coulomb charge whom it moves at I ms-1 in perpendicular direction to
the direction of magnetic field. Force on the charged particle becomes
smallest.
If sin  =0 = Sin  = Sin 1800
 = 0/180  Force, F =0

142
Charged

If a particle moves along the direction of magnetic field line it does not experience
any force.

Direction of force on a moving charged particle can be determined by using Flemings

Left Hand Rule.

If index finger is placed along the direction of magnetic field, the second finger is
placed along the direction of velocity. The thumb gives the direction of force on a
positive charge inside the magnetic field. A negatively charged particle experience
fore opposite to the direction of thumb according to Flemings LHR

===== Inward magnetic field

In this diagram the electron and position are projected horizontally through a magnetic
field is directed inwards, According to Flemings LHR, an upward force acts on the
positron and it follow a curved path. Due to negative path , electron experiences
force opposite to the direction given by Fleming’s LHR. Thus the electron deflects
opposite to the direction of position.

143
Motion of Electron Inside on Uniform Magnetic Field

====
This figure represents the path of motion of an electron inside an uniform
magnetic field. Due to its charge , moving electron experiences force inside the
magnetic field. Directions of this fore can be determined by using Flemings
LHH.

Magnitude of this force e charge of electron

F- ev BSin v speed of electron

In this case, angle between the magnetic field and velocity, =900.
So, F- evB. Direction of this fore is always perpendicular to the direction of
velocity. Thus the force car provide centripetal force.

Due to this force the charged particles follow circular path inside the
magnetic field

Magnitude of centripetal fore on the electron

m mass of the electron

v velocity of electron
r radius of cir4cular path

Since the centripetal force is provided by magnetic force

 mv = eBr  r=
If v, e and B ar3e constant, the r  m

144
====

This figure represents path of an electron and proton inside on uniform magnetic field,
where they have same speed.

Due to opposite charges they experience force in opposite direction. The proton
follows anti-clockwise path by following Fleming. LHh, Direction of force on the
electron is opposite to the direction give by Flemings LHR, Thus it follow circular
path.

Radius

Momentum  = mv
So,

r =

Momentum l=
So,

r=

If mass,  and B are constant

r
If the KE remains constant, a charged particle follows uniform circular
path of constant radios . But in practical, KE gradually decreases due to random
collisions with other particles. Thus radius of the circular path gradually decreases
and it follow inward spiral path

145
Path of motion due to change in EK ( decrease in EK)

====

An accelerating charged produce Electromagnetic Wave. When a charged particle

moves in a circular path it always accelerates due to change in motion. As the
accelerating charged particle radiates Electromagnet wave, it EK decreases by
following CLOE. Thus rallies of this circular path decreases.

===== Path of motion of proton

Mass of proton = 10.67  10-27 kg

At point A it is moving horizontally and at B it is moving vertically

Speed of the proton in 0.0012c

a) Determine the direction of magnetic field
b) Calculate the magnetic field strength
An: a) The direction is outwards, according to Flemings LHR

b) r=

 2010mm =

B =

= 0.017  b

146
 === It represent the path of motion of an electron
State and explain the direction of magnetic field

It is inwards

Magnetic Field Around A Current Carrying Wire

When current flows through a wise it produces magnetic field in the space
around the curie. This magnetic field is circular and its direction depends on the
direction of current flow through the wire. Direction of this magnetic field can be
determined by using Right Hand Grip Rule

If the thumb of the right hand is placed along the direction of current flow, then
the curled fingers give the direction of magnetic field around the wire

======

Magnitude of field strength depend on:

i) Amount of current through the wire

ii) Perpendicular distance of the point form the wire.

147
=== It represents the path of motion of an election
State and explain the direction of magnetic field

Ans: It is inwards

Magnetic Filed Around A Current Carrying Wire

When current flows through a wire it produces magnetic field in the space around the
wire. This magnetic field is circular and its direction depends on the direction of
current flow through the wire. Direction of this magnetic field can be determined by
using Right Hand Grip Rule.

If the thumb of the right hand is placed along the direction of current flow, then the
curled fingers give the direction of magnetic field around the wire

====
Magnitude of filed strength depend on

i) Amount of current through the wire

ii) Perpendicular distance of the point from the wire.

148
 === Current through the wire is `I”
Magnetic Field strength at point P

Force on a Current Carrying Wire

A current carrying wire produces a magnetic field if it is placed in an external magnetic

field, it will experience force due to the interaction between two magnetic fields
Magnitude of the force
F = BIl Sin B  magnetic field strength
I current through the wire
l length of wire inside the magnetic filed
  angle between wire current + magnetic filed

====

Direction of force on the wire can be determined by suing Flemings LHh. If the index
finger is placed along the direction of magnetic field, middle finger is placed along the
direction of magnetic field, middle finger is placed along the direction of curried flow
thumb of the left hand gives the direction of force on the wire

In this diagram, direction of force of the current carrying wire is inwards. If the wise
is placed in perpendicular of the

149
Direction of magnetic field it will experience largest force (=900) . It it is placed
parallel to magnetic field, its experience least force (-00)

==== When the switch is turned or current flows through wire AB and it
becomes horizontal, If the current is 3.8A calculate MFS and state the
assumption you have made

F= BIl sin  = 900

 0.05  9.81 = B  3.8  0.87

 B=

= 0.148 b

Assumption: The weight of the wire is negligible

Current is the flow of electron through a conductor. When there electrons

move through a magnetic field force acts on each electron. As a results, wire
experience force.

F= BIL Sin 

F= B l Sin 

F= B.O. l Sin 

F= QvB Sin 
[ They are equivalent]

150
Magnetic Field around a Current Carrying Solenoid

When current flows through a solenoid it precedes magnetic field which is

similar to a bar magnet. It has a north and a swith pole, the magnetic field
lines are directed from N-S pole of the solenoid

=======

North pole of the solenoid can be determined using reverse Right Hand Grip
Rule, if the curled fingers are placed along the direction of current flow, thumb
shows the south pole of the solenoid

Magnetic field strength of a current currying solenoid

I Current

L  Length
N  total no of turns

No of turns per unit length, n=

So,
B = n I

151
 Mass Spectrometer

====

Electric Motor

Electric motor is a device which converts electric energy to kE or mechanical

energy

====

In there figures uniform magnetic fields are produced by using two opposite
poles. This uniform magnetic field is directed towards right. N-S A
rectangular loop of conducting wire is placed inside this unifrom magnetic
field. It is connected to a DC source. In Fig 1(a) the source produces a dock
wise current through the loops , This current is upward through side AB

152
According to Flemings LHh, inward force acts on side AB.

Magnitude of this force

F= BI l sin 
 = 90, So sin =1

Thus,
Force, F = BIL
The side BC is parallel to the direction of magnetic field. Thus the side does
not experience any force . Direction of current flow through side CD is
downward. According to Flemings LHh, an out word magnetic force acts the
wire

==

Due to equal and opposite parallel force , a moment acts on the loop which
causes its rotation. As the loop rotates magnitude of this moment gradually
decreases because distance between the parallel forces becomes smaller. When
the loop is perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field, these two forces acts
along the same line. Thus resultant force and resultant momentum becomes
zero. Due to inertia, the loap rotates , fig 1(b) represent condition of the loop
after 1800 rotation. The cell is allowed to rotate with the loop to a void
twisting of the wire. AT this point anti colckwise current flows through the
190p from A to B . Due to equal, opposite moment force the direction of
moment attus and the loop rolates in opposite direction. If a DC source is
connoted directly

153
 It will vibrate instead of rotating

=====

In these figures , the loops is connected to a DC source through a split ring

commulator. Due to this arrangement, direction of current flow through the
loop alters from A  D to D  A after every half rotation, and ti also to
help to avoids to the twisting of the wire. Thus dissection of moment remains
uncharged. Rotation of the loop can be increased:

1) by increasing current through the loop

2) by using stronger magnetic field
3) by increasing no of turns of the loop
4) by increasing length of sides AB and CD
5) by introducing soft magnetic core

H.W
Jan 12

154
 Hall voltage / Hall Probe

===== * electron
0 magnetic field-inward

ABCD is a rectangular metal plate, a DC source is corrected across the length of this
metal plate. Current flows from positive to negative terminal of the cell through the
metial plate. Thus electron flows is opposite to the direction of the current flow. Due
to inward magnetic field, force acts on moving electron, According to Flemings LHR
direction of force on these negatively charged electrons is upward. Thus side AB of
the metal plate becomes relatively negative and CD becomes relatively positive.
There will be pd across the width of the metal plade. This pd is called Hall voltage

Due to the hall voltage on electric field is produced inside the metal plate , This
electric field is directed upwards, If the width of the metal plate is `d’ magnitude of
this field strength.

VH is the hall voltage across the width

Negatively charged electronic experience downward force inside this electric field

Magnitude of this fore

155
Upward magnetic force of the plate is equal to the electric field . Electron will remain
unelected and the voltammeter gives a constant Hall voltage.

Thus

v  Drift velocity
VH= vdB

If V and d are constant

VH  B

The voltmeter can be calibrated to known magnetic field and it can be used to
determine unknown magnetic field strength.

156
 Electromagnetic Induction

Faradays Experiment

===

A centre- zero ammeter is connected in series with a conducting loop. A bar

magnet was moved towards and away from the loop and deflection of the
ammeter was observed.

Observation

1. When north pole of a bar magnet is moved to wards the loop, it

deflects which indicates the preserve of current through the loop.
2.
3. When north pole of the bar away the ammeter deflects in opposite
direction which indicates the flow of current through the loop in opposite
directions
4. If the magnet is moved towards the loop
5. If the magnet is moved faster, deflection of the ammeter becomes
larger, which indicates larger current through the loop or the circuit
6. If the keep and the magnet removes stariewsory both move with

157
Same speed in same direction the amoutn remmand undeleted

======

In this figure the magnet is moved towards the stationary loop. When the magnet is at
position A, number of field lines or magnetic flux of the loop is very small due to
large distance between magnet and the loop.

When the magnet is at position B, number of field lines or magnetic flux of the loop
increase due to smaller distanced between magnet and loop. So there is a change in
magnetic flux through the loop. When there is a relative motion between the magnet
and the loop. Due to this change in magnetic flux. EMF is induced across the loop
which causes current through the loop. It is called induced EMF and this method of
process is called electromagnetic induction.

If they remain stationary or both moves with same velocity there is no change in
magnetic flux through the loop . thus EMF is not induced

158
Area of the loop =A

Magnetic field strength = B

Magnetic flux
= BA sing 
If  = 90, Sin =1

 = BA [For 1 turn ]

For N turns total magnetic flux

N= NBA sin 

S is called magnetic flux linkage

According to Faradays laws os electromagnetic induction, magnitude of induced EMF

is equal to the rate of change of magnetic flux linkage or rate of out of magnetic
field lines

Induced EMF =

In this equation , negative sign represent that magnitude of induced EMF is such as itr
opposes the charges creating it.

159
According to Faradays law of Electro magnetic Induction
Induced mf

=-

Magnetic flux Linkage

N = NBA sin 
Thus,
Induced  mf

= -

If N A and  are constant

Induced mf

 =- NASin

Emf can be induced by charging magnetic field through the loop which is possible by
morning the magnet towards or away from the loop.
If N, B and  are constant
Induced mf where A = area of the loop
inside the magnetic field

 =- NASin

If N, B and A are constant

Induced mf

 =- NBA

Angular velocity

Induced mf

Thus,  = t  = NBA
 =- NBA cost (Cot
If t +1
Induced mp
0 = NBA C

160
Thus mR

===

If a loop rotates inside a uniform magnetic field. mf is induced due to change
in magnetic flux linkage. According to above equation , this emf is alternating
and it changes its direction periodically with time. It is followed to produce
electricity by generator, So we can produce electricity by this method

Origin of Induced

===

In this figer a conductor AB of length `l’ m is moved vertically downwards

through magnetic filed . This magnetic field is directed inward. Due to the nature
of metallic bonding, this conductor AB curtains a large number of free
electron. A moving charged LHR negatively charged electrons experience
force towards left. Thus end A becomes relatively negative and B becomes
relatively positive and a pd is produced across these two ends

161
 ===

Due to the pd between A and B an doctrine field is produced inside the

conductor, This elective field is directed towards left.
Due to this, electron experience force towards right

Magnitude of moving force on the electron

EB-ev B sin
Here =900, thus sin=1

Thus,
FB= evB v= speed of the conductor AB
Or, speed of electron
If the electric field strength inside the conductor, E,
magnitude of electric force on electron: FE = eE
Electric Field Strength

Here, V = induced enf =  and d= length = l

Thus,

acts
This force towards right, opposite to direction of magnetic field.
When two forces on the electron become equal, the pad across two
At the condition
FE =FB So, Induced Emf
= Blv [ When =900]
Thus

162
When the conductor AB is moved through the magnetic field, mf is induseo
across the conductor by following Faradays Law due to cut of magnate field
lines. Magnetic field lines of this induce  mf depends on
1. Magnetic Field Strength
2. Length of the conductor
3. Velocity of the conductor
4. Angle between Magnetic field strength and velocity

If two ends of the conductor is connected by conducting or metal wire, current

will flow through the circuit due to induced mf.
This current flows from higher potential (B) to lower potential (A) through the
external circuit. As the current follows a complete path, it will flow from A to B
through the conductor AB.

Direction of induced current through the conductor can be determined by using

Flemings RHR. If index finger is placed along the direction of velocity , second
finger of right hand gives direction of induced current through the conductor

=== The conductor XY is pulled downward at a speed of 28.4ms-1.

Resistance of the circuit is 5.4 r and magnetic field strength is 2.8
Tesla
a) Draw the polarity of ends X and Y
b) Calculate the current through the circuit and state its direction
==
a)

b) 6.1 =

= 12.4A [ Left or [Y  X ]

163
 LENZ’s LAW

According to this law, direction of induced emf is such that it opposes the charge
creating it. It helps us to explain the conservation of energy, in case of
electromagnetic induction.

===
In Fig 1/(a) North Pole of bar magnet is moved towards the coil or salaried
AB. Due to change in magnetic flux emf is induced across the coil. This
induced emf access current through the loop. When current flows through a
conductor or coil, it produce magnetic pole. According to lenz’s , induced emf
is such that the coil produce North pole at A. There is a magnetic repulsion
between two north poles. To move the magnet against this repulsive force,
energy is needed. This energy is provided by on external source. Thus energy
of the external source decreases. By following CL, equal amount of energy is
induced across the coil in the form of emf or electric potential energy.

=== In Fig (b) the North pole is pulled away from the coil. By
following lenzs’ Law, direction of induced emf is such that south
pole is produced at A . There most be a magnetic attraction
between two opposite poles. Thus energy is needed to move the
magnet away from the coil. This given energy is converted to
electric potential energy by electromagnetic inductions

164
 =====

In this figure A , B and C are three identical magnets, they have same initial
height from the ground. When these magnets are released. They move
downwards due to gravitational pull of the earth

Magnet A moves through a complete loop

Magnet B passes through a spitted loop
Magnet C moves directly to the ground

As magnet A approaches towards the loop, EMF is induced across the loop due
to change in magnetic flux. Direction of induced current is such that the loop
produces North Pole above it by following lenz’s law. Due to the repulsion
between two North poles, above it by following lenz’s Law. Due to the
repulsion between two North Poles, resultant downward force on the magnet
becomes smaller than actual weight. Thus the magnet accelerate at a slower rate
and it takes longer time to reach to the ground.

The magnet B and C take equal time to reach to the ground because they
experience only gravitational pull of the Earth and activate at a rate of
gravitational acceleration. In case of magnet B, current cannot flow through the
loop due to the bookplate.

Time taken by the magnet to each to the ground is measured precisely by using
suitable instruments. If magnet A takes longer time then lenz’ws law is verified.

165
 ======

In Fig.1 an oscilloscope is connected across the coil. The magnet is released which
possess which passes through the coil due to gravitational pull of the Earth., Due to
change in magnetic flow, emf in induced across the coil which can be measured from the
oscilloscope. As the magnet. Due to its acceleration, the flux linkage increases at an
increasing rate. Variation of change in magnetic flu emf is induced across the coil
which can be measured from the oscilloscope. As the magnet approaches towards the
loop, magnetic flux linkage increase. Due to its acceleration, the flux linkage increase
at an increasing rate. Variation of charge in magnetic flux through the loop due to
motion of the magnet.

According to Faradays Law, induced emf, Lenz’s Law

Thus gradient N against t graph gives magnitude of induced emf

=====

166
Initial gradient of N against t graph is zero,
At this instant rate of change in magnetic flux is zero. Accrdoing to Faradays Law,
included emf is zero
As the gradient increase magnitude of induced emf also increase following Fardays law,

At point A, rate of change of magnetic flux linkage is largest, when the N-pole of the
magnet is entering the coil.

At point B, magnetic flux linkage has largest magnitude. Zero gradient of the graph

represents zero, induced emf

After point t2, the magnet is moving away of the coil. Thus magnetic flue linkage

decreases and induced emf becomes opposite

Fig 2b represents variation of the induced emf across the coil with time.

Due to gravitational pull of attraction, speed of the magnet gradually increase. The

magnet moves away from the coil at a higher speed , thus the negative peak emf has

larger amplitude / magnitude.

When the N- pole of the magnet approaches toward the coil by following lenz’s law.

direction of induced emf is such that the coil produces N-pole above the coil ,\

When the magnet is moving away, by following lenz’s laow, N-pole is produce

below the coil to attract the s-pole of the bar magnet,

Thus there is a change in direction of induced emf

167
 ===

ABCD is a metal loop, length of each side is ‘l’ m. It is pulled at a constant

speed of ‘v’ ms-1 through uniform magnetic field along a horizontal direction

Magnetic flux
= BA sin
Here,  =900, sin =1

Thus,
 = AB

A areas inside the magnetic field

Thus Area A = lx

Due to the motion of the loop, there is a change in magnetic flux which causes
induced emf. Magnitude of this induced emf. So,  - B lx

= Thus,  = Bl -

Here, B and l are constant

168
Flemings RHR

Index  magnetic Field direction

Thumb  velocity
Middle finger  Direction of current

At position 1` side AB cuts magnetic field due to the motion of the loop,
According to Flemings RHR direction of induced current through side AB due
to cut of magnetic field line is upward (A B) , As the current follows a
complete path, the induced enf causes anti-clockwise current through the loop.

At Position 2 the loop is completely inside the uniform magnetic field, there
is no change in magnetic flux through the loop. By following Faradays law,
magnitude of induced emf is zero.
At position 3, side CD cuts magnetic field lire due to the motion of the loop.
According to Fleming RHR, direction of current is ap wards, and it causes
clockwise current through the loop
magnitude of induced current at position 1 and 3 thus,

I= R Total resistance of the looge

=======
Fig. 1 time graph for corstant speed

169
If the loops is projected through the loop, its motion will be opposed
following lens’s Law. Due to this opposing force, velocity of the loop gradually
decreases and induced emf gets smaller

===============

170
 Eddy Current

If there is a changing magnetic flux through a metal pole a current is induced into the
metal plate which follows a complete path inside the plate. This current is called Eddy
current. It follows lenz’s Law and opposes the change creating it

====

Experiment of observe the effect of Eddy current

=====

In fig 1(a) a simple pendulum, is contracted by a continue metal plate , If is released

from its maximum displacement it will swing for a long time period in absence of a
magnetic field.

In Fig 1(a) the metal plate moves though a magnetic field.

Due to change a magnetic flow, Eddy current flows through

171
metal plate By following lenzis law, motion of the metal plate is opposed due to the

induced current. As a result this metal plate comes to rest within a very short time

period.

In Fig 1(b) the spitted metal plate moves through the magnetic field. Due to the broken

current, amount of Eddy current becomes smaller. As a result, this metal plate

experience smaller force and swings for a longer time period

====

An induction cooker contains a metal coil. When current flows through the coil, it
produces magnetic field. These magnetic field lines pass through the container. Due to
the AC source both magnitude and direction of current flow through the container
changes with time. As a result, there is a charge in magnetic flux through the metal
container which causes induced. Eddy current. As current flow cause heating effect
temperature inside the container increase.

172
 =====

In a magnetic braking system, metal disc rotates inside a magnetic field which is

produced by electromagnets. In normal condition, current through the electromagnet is

zero. Thus the metal disc moves freely between the electromagnet. When the brake is

applied current flows through the electromagnet and it produce a magnetic field which

passes through the metal disk. Due to the rotation of the disk, these is a change in

magnetic flux.

As a result, Eddy current flows thought the metal disc. By following linez’s law,

direction of the Eddy current is such that motion of the disk is opposed. Thus its speed

decreases and the car slow down. In this case ke of the car is converts to thermal energy

due to flow of eddy current through the metal disc.

173
 ===

A metal detector contains a primary coil called transmitter and a secondary coil

called receiver. An AC source is connected across the transmitter. When current flows

through the primary coil, it produces magnetic field around the coil.

Due to suitable arrangement these magnetic field lines cannot pass through the

receiver. Due to AC source, magnetic field of the primary cost changes with time. In

presence of a metal on AD current is induced due to change in magnetic flux. Due to

this current, the metal produces a magnetic field around it which change continuously

coil. So there is change in magnetic flux through the secondary coil which causes

induced emf acrors the receiver, Thus the presence of a metal can be detected from the

deflection of the voltmeter connected across the receiver.

174
 Generator

====

An electric motor or generator which is used to produce electro energy from mechanical

energy. It Fig ABCD is a magnetic loop which is placed inside uniform magnetic

field. If this loop rotates there is a change in magnetic flux through the loop which

cause induced emf. This loop is connected to an external circuit by slip ring

commentator, It allows rotation of the loop without twisting of the wire.

In Fig 1 side AB of the metal loop is moving outward and CD is moving inward. At

this instant direction of velocity of AB and CD are perpendicular to the direction of

magnetic field. Due to cut of magnetic field lines current is induced into side AB and

CD. According to Flemings RHR current through side AB is upward ant CD is

downward. Since BC and AD are parallel to the magnetic field. They do not cut

magnetic field line when the loop ratates. But there is a current through these sides as

the flow through a complete path. In Fig 1 a clockwise current flows through the loop

due to out of magnetic field lines. Through the external circuit this flows from Y to X.

175
 ====

Magnitude of induced emf

 = bl v sin

In Fig 2(a) , ( initial moment),  =900 thus rate of cut of magnetic field lines is largest

which cause maximum emf at initial moment. As the loop rotates the angle between

velocity and the field strength gradually decreases and the sin becomes smaller. Thus

the induced direction of velocity of side AB and CD one parallel to the direction of

magnetic field (0). Thus these sides do not cut magnetic field lines and induced emf

remains 0. After this instant magnetic flux linkage starts to decrease the direction of

induced emf altes

===

Fig.3 represents condition of the loop after 180 0 rotation. At this inste AB is moving

inward and CD is moving outward. By following

176
Flemings RHR a clockwise current (DA) flows through the loop through the
external circuit. This current flows from X to Y. Thus the continuous rotation of the
loop cause alternating current. For multiple turns, the magnetic flux linkage

N = NBA sin 

In this expression  indicate angle between the area of the loop and the magnetic
field strength. If the loop rotates at a control angular velocity of 

Thus

N = NBA sin t

====

Fig 4a represents the change in magnetic flux linkage through the loop with time.
According to faradays, law of Electromagnetic induction

Induced emf

= - NAB  cos t

Fig-4b represents variation is charge of induced emf acros the loop with time,
magnitude of induced emf is largest.

177
When cost = +1 [ at t =0]

Thus, 0 = - NBA
Induced Emf
E= e cost

Magnitude of induced emf an be increased by :

1) number of turen of the loop

2) increasing area of the loop
3) using stronger magnetic field
4) by moving the loop faster
5) introducing soft magnetic core inside the loop volt

=====

If the loop rotator faster rate of act of magnetic field lines becomes higher.
Thus induco emf increased . At this high speed the loop takes shorter time to
produce are complete rotation thus time period of the attenuating emf decrease
and frequency increase

178
 Transformer

Fig: Graphs for transfer connected of DC source

IAL May 16 Q 14
6CE May 16 Q 15
IAL Jan 16 Q 12
IAL June 15 Q 14
6CE June 15 Q 11, 16
IAL Jan 13 Q 13
IAL Jan 14R Q 15
IAL Jan 14 Q 13

179
 PARTICLE PHYSICS

Alpha Particle Scattering Experiment

In this experiment a beam of alpha partide projected through a gold

foil and their deflection is observed

====

In this experiment a natural source of alpha radiator was used.

It was place in a lead or metal container with a small opening,
Thus a narrow bean of alpha particle was produced. Deflection of alpha
particle was measured and this arrangement was placed in a vacurm chamber

observation
1) Most of the alpha particle moves in a straight path or slightly deflected
2) Some alpha particles deflected at a larger angle
3) Very few particles deflected at 900 which is called back scattering

180
Contains
1. Most of the space inside an atom is empty
2. There is a positively charged centre which is called nucleus
3. Mass of the positively charged centre is very large, It contains almost
total mass of the nucleus

===

1) In this experiment
1) narrow beam of alpha particle was used to measure deviation
accurately
2) Gold was used as it is most malleable material. Due to is less
penetrating power alpha particle cannot pass through thick plate.
Moreover, in case of thick metal plate, alpha particle will be deflected
multiple times and a random pattorm would be produced

3) Vacam chamber was usar to avoid random collision between -

particles and air particles . In case of random collision, - particles
loses their KE, Deflection of alpha particle was observed due to it
distance from the gold nacleus. Thus all other factors 6 like KE should
be kept constant

181
 WAVe PARTIClE DUALITY

When a beam of electron passes through a circuital it is differenced which

represents wave nature of election.

Similarly photoelectric effect represents prticle nature of wave

Engergy of photon E = hf
Energy of mass, E = mc2

182
 PARTICLE ACCELERATIORS

According to Einstein’s relation between mass and energy can be explained by

the equation

E= mc2 speed of light

 mass
Energy
Lu = 1.6610-27kg

Q. Calculate energy equivalent to 1 electron mass

Ans E= mc2
= (9.1  10-31)  (3  108)2
= 8.2  10-14 J

= 5.11  105 eV
= 0.51 MeV

From the equation

mass, Unit of mass = MeV/C2

183
 Q. Mass of a particle is 840 MeV/c2. Calculate its mass in Kg

A-1 mass = 840 MeV/c2

= 1.4910-27 Kg

In a nuclear reaction energy is produced from mass.

It is also possible to produce mass from energy

When a high speed particle collides against the target,

KE of the particle decreases. By following CL of Mass- energy the EK is converted to
mass thus fundamental particles are produced

Accelerators are used to produced high speed beam of particles

Linear Accelerator ( line)

=====

In a LINAC, charge particles are accelerated in a straight path through a

series of Drifit fuble . These tubes are connected across the alternating
voltage source, Thus there is a pd between two conecuti tubex

184
 =====

Fig -2a represents variation of potential of terminal A with time. At t =0 the

positively charged like proton is at a point between tube a and tube 2 which is
represented by Fig 2(b)
At this instant tube 1 is positive and tube 2 is negative due to this pd a
horizontal electric filed is produced between the tubes. the positively charged
particle experiences force along the direction of electric field and it accelerates.
There is no electric field inside the tube and the charged particle moves at a
constant velocity.

===== At time t =1, the positively charged particle is at a position is at

a position between tube -2 and 3. At this instant tube 2 is
positive and 3 is negative. Due to the electric field, the charged
particle experience force along the direction of its motion., Thus
the charged particle experences force along the direction of its
motion., Thus the particle accelerate and kE increase . Due to the
synchronized alternating source charged parcel experiences force
along the direction of its velocity a high speed particle beam is
pounced.

For this arrangement a source of constant frequency or time period should be

used. For continuous acceleration, the charged

185
Particle should remain inside each tube for half time-period.
At constant speed, distance traveled by the charged particle within this half
time period

S = length of the tube

= Vxf

As the speed increase within same time the proton travels larger distance. To

Keep it synchronized with the source length of the tube should be increased.

When the speed of the particle approaches to light speed it cannot be increased

more. As it travels at a constant speed, lergth of the final tubes are equal

When the speed of the particle approaches of light speed its mass

increases , which is called relativistic mass

It follows the equation

mu = Rest mass

m = Relativistic mass

v= speed of the particle

c= speed of light
When speed of the particle becomes content its KE increases due to change in
mass. When this high speed particle beam collides against a larget its KE
decreases, which is converted to mass ( new particles)
Target can be arranged in two different way
1) Fixed target experimented
2) Collision beam experiment

186
1) Fixed Target Experiment

==========

In case of fixed target there is a resultant momentum before collision. Thus the
particles must have a resultant moment after collision (By following
conservation Law) These particles have a KE after collision, Total energy
given by the accelerator is not converted to mass

Energy to mass conversion efficiency is smaller

2) Collision Beam Experiment

==

In case of collision beam experiment total momentum before collision is zero, if

two particle move with same speed in opposite direction.

According to consignation law, total momentum after collision will be zero.

Thus it is possible that the particle come to rest after collision. Thus total KE
of the particle an be used to produce mass

This method of has higher efficiency of energy to mass conversion but it has
a lower probability of collision.

187
 Cyclotron

Inside a magnetic field, charged particle follows a circular path. Centripetal

force is provided by the magnetic field.

FB = Fo Momentum

QVB =

r= Thus

r=

2mEk= Q2B2r2

Ek  r2

In a cyclotron charged particle is accelerated is a circular path

======

In a cyclotron charged particle is accelerated inside two semi-circular metal

Dee’s by electrical magnetic field. The metal D x and y are connected across
an alternating voltage source.

188
 ====

Fig 2(a) represents variation of potential of terminal ( metal O x). This

arrangement is placed in an uniform magnetic field which is perpendicular to
the surface of the Deels,

A source of positive charge like proton is place at the centre of the Dees.

=====

Fig 2(b) represents the position of proton between two Dees at t=0. It

experiences force along the direction of electric field line and accelerates

using Nawton’s second law of Motin, Thus the KE of the proton increase in

the space between two Dees, Inside a Dee, there is no accelerating electric

field. Thus the particle mouse with a constant speed in the Dee.

But it accelerates by changing its direction of motion due to the magnetic field.

It follow a circular path inside the Dee.

189
 ====

Fig 2(c) represents position of the proton at time, t=t see.

At this instant Y is positive and X is negative. Thus the particle experience fore

long the direction of its motion and it KE increase.

According to equation , radius of the circular path increases as the

partricle moves at a higher speed. A and its follow an outward sprial path,

Velocity of the particle increase each time as it passes through the gap between

the Dees, For its continuous acceleration, the particle should spend half time

period inside the Dees.

‘f’ is called cyclone frequency

If this frequency is applied, motion

of the particle remains in sync with
the time period of source

190
Time inside a Dee =

When the speed of the particle approaches light speed, its mass increases. To

keep it is sync the cyclotron frequency should be reduced

Synchrotron

REAC  Radio frequency

acceleration cavity

FM  Focsing magnet

BM  Bending magical

In a synchroton chared particle acclerates in a circular path of constant radius ,

Inside the RFAL an alternating synchronized electric field is used to

accelrate the charged particle.

Bending magnets are used to provide centripetal force and keep the charged

particle moving in a circular path .

This magnetic field is produced by an electromagnet thus the strength of the

magnetic field can be modified.

191
Badius of the circular path in side the magnetic feild

To keep the radius control magnetic field is modified when the sped of the

particle increases ( After passing the accelerating cavity, RFAC), Thus the

particle accelerates at a circular path of content radius

When a charged particle accelerates it radiates , electromagnetic wave. In a

synchrotrom charged particle moves at a circular path in a constant speed,

which is very close to the speed of light. Due to its circular motion it

accelerates at a constant speed. As a result it rodiates electronmognetic

radiation which is called synchrotron radiates, Due to this radiation large

amount of energy is lost to the surroudings

PARTICLE DETECTOR

Particle Detectors are used to detect or trace the path of motion of particles

Babble Chamber

=== Bubble chameber contains liquid hydrogen.

Its temperature is higher than boiling

temperature but is kept in liquid state by applying

applying pressure, If the pressure is

released hydrogen changes it phase from liquid to gas.

192
Thus bubble inside the liquid hydrogen. This bubble production initiates

around the impurty. When a particle ( Produced by the accelerator) passess

through the bubble chamber, it causes ionization around its path of motion.

Thee ions act as impurities and bubbles are produced around the path of

motion of particle. A magnetic field is used to defector the charted partied,

From the direction of their deflection polarity of the particles can be identified

and their oharge-mass ratio can be calculated from the radies of the path

=====

Each particle has an anti-particle pair, The particle and their anti- particle. have

the same properites except the polarity of their charge. For example electron

and position have same mass, charge of electron is -1.6 x 10-19C and charged of

position is +1.6 x 10-14 C.

193
 PAIR PRODUCTION

A pair of particle can be product from energy which is called pair production,

Always a particle and its anti-parrticle are produced from energy ( Photon)

=====

If mass of particle is `m’ total energy equivalent to

E= mc2+ mc2

= 2mc2

According to conservation of mass –energy, energy of photon is anti- particle

are produced from energy ( Photon)

Energy of Photon

If mass of particle is `m’ , total energy equivalent to

E= mc2+mc2
= 2mc2
According to conservation of mass- energy, energy of photon is equal to energy
of ( anti) par tides
E photom = E particle

ANNIHILATION

When a particle and its arti- particle interact they are converted to energy
( Photon). This process of mass to energy conversion is called Annihilation.
If a particle and its antiparticle produces two photons, according to

conservation law

2hf= 2 mc2

hf =mc2

194
Q. Calculate wavelength of each photon produced by the annihilation of

electron and positron

m = 9.1 10-31

hf = mc2

= 2.43 10-12 m

FUNDAMENTAL FORCES
OR INTERACTIONS

There are 4 fundamental forces or interaction

i) Gravitational force

ii) Weak Nuclear force

iii) Electromagnetic force

iv) Strong Nuclear Force

These forces act by the exchange of field particles or field Boson

195
i) Gravitational Force

Relative strength of this force is smallest but its range is up0 to intinity.
This force acts between any two particles. The exchange particles of
this force is called Graviton.
ii) Weak Nuclear Force
Relative strength of this force is stronger than gravitational force but it
range is smallest (10-18m), Exchange particle of this force is called
W+/W- or Z Bosen
iii) Electromagnetic Force
Charged particle can interact by this force. Its range is infinite and it is
stronger than weak nuclear force. Exchange particle of this force is
photon.
iv) Strong Nuclear Force
It has maximum relative strength but it has small range (10 -15m).
Exchange particle of this force is called Gluon

196
 CLASSIFICATION OF PARTICLES

Particles can be classified into 2 types:

1) Leptons
2) Hadrons

Leptons cannot interact by strong nuclear force and these are small fundamental
particles like electron

Hadrons can interact by strong nuclear force These particles are made by Quark

Leptons
Electron (e-) Position (e+)
Electron Neutrino (re) Antis Electron Neutrino (re)
Muon() Anti Muon ()
Muon Neutrin (r) Anti Muon Neutrino (ru)
Tau (j) Anti – Tau ()
Tau Neutrine (r) Anti Tau Neatrino(rj)

Quarks

UP (U) Anti –UP (u)

Down (d) Anti –down (d) * Photon
Stronger (s) Anti –Strong (s) * Gluon
Charm (c) Anti Charm (c) * Graviton
Bottom (b) Anit Bottom (b) * Graviton
top(t) Anti top (i) *Wt/2 boson

197
 Hadrons
Baryons Mesons

Baryons are made of 4 Quarks and Anti Mesons are made of 1 Quark and of 1
Baryons are made of 3 anti Quarks anti-quark
1 anti –Quark
Proton (uub) Pion (r+) (ud)
Pion (a- ) Ud

======

Anti Proton (UUD)

=====

198
Baryons

Proton  U U d Neutron – U dd
= =

=1 =0

Proton  Neutron –
= =

=1 =0

Conservation Law of Particle Interaction

When particle interact, some of their properites remain conserved

There are

1) Momentum
2) Mass- energy
3) Charge
4) Boryon number
5) Lepton number

6) Strangers

i) Momentum: During Particle interaction total momentum remains conserved

provided that no external force acts on the system

199
2) Mass- energy: During particle interaction, energy can be used to produced

mss or mass can be produced from energy.

In a reaction if energy is produced total mass decr4eases. One the other hand

if mass of the product becomes larger, energy should be given

A+ B  X + Y + Energy

Total Initial Mass, mi= ma+mB

Total Final , Mass mf = mx + my

Energy, E=  mc2

Here, m = mi - mf

m=

According to conservation of mass- energy

mA+ mB= mx+my+

If final mass is larger than initial mass

mc = mf-m1

For this reactor energy should be provided. The minimum energy that shold be

given for this reaction is

E=  mc2

200
3) Conservation of

During particle interaction, total charge remains conserved

n  p + e+ Energy

Initial charge = 0

Final charged = 1-1=0

Q. mass of proton = 1.007276u

mass of neutron = 1.008665u u= 1.66 10-77 kg

mass of electron = 0.00054858u

Calculate the amount of energy produced during Beta deasy

Ans: E = 0.78 MeV

201
4) Conservation of Baryon Number

U C + d s b
e

- - e

Charge

Total number of Baryon before interaction/ reaction is equal to total number

of Baryon after interaction.

Baryon number is 1 for all baryon and -1 for all anti- baryons. All other

particles ( Leptons and Mesons) has 0 Baryon umber

=====

2mp 4mp
Energy + p+p  p+p+P+p
Qi= 1+1 Qf = 1+1+1-1
=2 =2

Bi= 2 Bf =2

m =2mp

E= 2mp  c2

202
5) Conservation of Lepton Number

Lepton number is assigned + 1 for all teptons and -1 for all anti-leptons. All

other particle have O lepton numbers

re, ,ru, l r

Proton is a barrier

P n + e+ + re

O -- O+(-1) +1

Lepton
number =0

6) Conservation of strangeness

strangeness is I for strange quark and it is -1 for anti-strange quark, All other

quarks have ) strangeness

Strangernsss remains conserved during strong intesraction

K aon (K) Omega, - (sss) = 3

K+ (US)  S= -1 +(sss) = -3

K- (US)  S= 1

203
It represents pair production As the track is symmetrical but in

opposite direction it indicates that the particles produced are

identical but have opposite charge

Here two particles, protons and electors are produced from a

neutral particle

A proton split to produce position and neutron, As the

position has a large charge and a very small radius thus it

follow a spiral path. The remaining part is a neutron and moves in

a straight path but it can not be seen

204


Y= m-x

Gradient =

Binding Energy per Nucleon

Aug energy to remove a unclear from a nucleus

BEPN

205