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BASIS OF SDMA TDMA FDMA CDMA
COMPARISON
Idea Segment Segments Segment the Spread the
spaced into sending time frequency spectrum using
cells or into disjoint time band into orthogonal
sectors. slots demand disjoint codes.
driven or fixed sub-bands.
patterns.
Signal Cell Synchronization Filtering in the Code plus
Separation structure, in time domain. frequency special
directed domain. receivers.
antennas.
Cell Capacity Depends on Limited Limited No absolute
the cell area. limit on
channel
capacity but it
is an
interference
limited system.
Terminals Only one All terminals are Every terminal All terminals
terminal can active for short has its own can be active
be active in periods of time frequency at the same
one cell or on same uninterrupted. place at the
one sector. frequency. same moment
uninterrupted.
Transmission Continuous Discontinuous Continuous Continuous
Scheme
Advantages Very simple Flexible & Simple, Flexible, less
& increases established fully established, frequency
performance digital. robust. planning
capacity. needed, soft
handover.
Disadvantage It is Guard space Inflexible, Complex
s inflexible as needed frequencies receivers,
antennas are (multipath are a scarce needs more
typically propagation), resource. complicated
fixed. synchronization power control
difficulty. for senders.
 What To Note Only useful It is a standard Typically Still faces
in in fixed combined with some problems
combination networks. Also TDMA and such as higher
with TDMA, together with SDMA. complexity. It
FDMA or FDMA or SDMA can be
CDMA. used in many integrated with
mobile networks. TDMA or
FDMA.

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Q5
Spread-Spectrum techniques are methods by which a signal (e.g. an
electrical, electromagnetic, or acoustic signal) generated with a particular
bandwidth is deliberately spread in the frequency domain, resulting in a
signal with a wider bandwidth.

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

The direct sequence spread spectrum (nSSS) technique also expands the
bandwidth of the original signal, but the process is different. In DSSS, we
replace each data bit with n bits using a spreading code. In other words,
each bit is assigned a code of n bits, called chips, where the chip rate is n
times that of the data bit. The following figure shows the concept of DSSS.

As an example, let us consider the sequence used in a wireless LAN, the

famous Barker sequence where n is 11. We assume that the original signal
and the chips in the chip generator use polar NRZ encoding. The following
figure shows the chips and the result of multiplying the original data by the
chips to get the spread signal.

In the figure, the spreading code is 11 chips having the pattern

10110111000 (in this case). If the original signal rate is N, the rate of the
spread signal is 11N. This means that the required bandwidth for the spread
signal is 11 times larger than the bandwidth of the original signal. The
spread signal can provide privacy if the intruder does not know the code. It
can also provide immunity against interference if each station uses a
different code.

Q6
Why hexagonal cell shape is perfect over square or triangular cell shapes in
cellular architecture? What is cell splitting? Why it is required. How it is done.
[10]

Ans. The geographic area or cellular service area is divided into small hexagonal region
called cells. It is the basic unit of a cellular system. These cells collectively provide
coverage over larger geographical areas.
Hexagonal cell shape is perfect over square or triangular cell shapes in cellular
architecture because it cover an entire area without overlapping i.e. they can cover the
entire geographical region without any gaps.

Frequency reuse and cell splitting are two main concepts in cellular networks. Cell
splitting is the process of dividing a larger congested cell into smaller cells. Each cell
has its own base station with transmitter power and antenna height.

When the traffic in an area increases, larger cells are split into smaller cells so that
frequency can be reused. By splitting the cell, the capacity of the system will be
increased because availability of additional number of channels per unit service area is
also increased. There are two types of cell splitting.

- Permanent cell splitting

- Dynamic cell splitting

In permanent cell splitting everything is planned before it is actually implemented for

new split cell. The assigned frequencies, the transmitter power, traffic load etc. are
considered before.

The implementation of dynamic cell splitting is difficult job. Dynamic cell splitting is done
according to the utilization of dedicated spectrum and traffic load
Q7
In cellular mobile communication (GSM & LTE Systems, for instance), frequency spectrum is a
precious resource which is divided into non-overlapping spectrum bands which are assigned to
different cells (In cellular communications, a cell refers to the hexagonal/circular area around the
base station antenna). However, after certain geographical distance, these frequency bands are
re-used, i.e. the same spectrum bands are reassigned to other distant cells. The co-channel
interference arises in the cellular mobile networks owing to this phenomenon of frequency reuse.
Thus, besides the intended signal from within the cell, signals at the same frequencies (co-channel
signals) arrive at the receiver from the undesired transmitters located (far away) in some other cells
and lead to deterioration in receiver performance.
Q8
BASIS OF CO-CHANNEL ADJACENT CHANNEL
COMPARISON INTERFERENCE INTERFERENCE
Description Co-channel interference can Adjacent channel interference can
be described as interference be described as the interference
between the signals from that results from the signal that
co-channel cells. is adjacent in frequency to the
required signal.
Source Co-channel interference comes Adjacent channel interference
from a device using the same comes from channels on nearby
channel. frequencies.
Occurrence Co-channel majorly occurs on Adjacent channel interference
the same channel. occurs from a different channel.
Cause A large co-channel reuse ratio Adjacent channel interference can
improves the transmission also be caused by frequency
quality because of the smaller reuse and when the frequency
level of co-channel reuse is high there are more
interference. chances for interference because
of operation.
Minimizing To reduce co-channel The adjacent channel interference
interference and provide can be minimized by proper filter
efficient isolation, Co-channel and channel assignment strategy.
cells are physically separated
by a minimum distance.

Q8
Co-channel interference :

● The interference between the signal from co-channel cells is called co-channel interference.
● Co-channel interference mainly occurs on the same channel.
● Co-channel cells are physically separated by a minimum distance to reduce co-channel interface
and also have to provide sufficient isolation.
● A large co-channel reuse ratio improves the transmission quality because of the smaller level of
co-channel interference.

Adjacent channel interference :

● The interference that results from the signal that is adjacent in frequency to the required signal
called adjacent channel interference.
● Adjacent channel interference occurs from a different channel.
 ● By proper filter and channel assignment strategy, the adjacent channel interference can be
minimized.
● Another cause for adjacent channel interference is frequency reuse and when the frequency
reuse is high there are more chances for interference because of operation.

Q9
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