Mindanao State University at Naawan

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

Integrated Developmental School – Senior High School

LEARNING MODULE
GENERAL PHYSICS - 1
 MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY AT NAAWAN
College of Education and Social Sciences
Integrated Developmental School – Senior High School

COURSE GUIDE

Course details
Grade: 12
Subject Title: General Physics 1
Quarters: General Physics 1 (Q1&Q2)
No. of Hours/ Quarters: 40 hours/ quarter
Prerequisite (if needed): Basic Calculus
Subject Description: Mechanics of particles, rigid bodies, and fluids; waves; and heat and
thermodynamics using the methods and concepts of algebra, geometry, trigonometry, graphical
analysis, and basic calculus

Course outcomes:
At the end of the course, the learners can:
1. Solve measurement problems involving conversion of units, expression of measurements in
scientific notation.
2. Estimate errors from multiple measurements of a physical quantity using variance.
3. Estimate the uncertainty of a derived quantity from the estimated values and uncertainties of directly
measured quantities.
4. Differentiate vector and scalar quantities.
5. Perform addition of vectors.
6. Rewrite a vector in component form.
7. Calculate directions and magnitudes of vectors.
8. Convert a verbal description of a physical situation involving uniform acceleration in one dimension
into a mathematical description.
9. Recognize whether or not a physical situation involves constant velocity or constant acceleration.
10. Interpret displacement and velocity, respectively, as areas under velocity vs. time and acceleration
vs. time curves.
11. Solve for unknown quantities in equations involving one-dimensional uniformly accelerated motion.
12. Use the fact that the magnitude of acceleration due to gravity on the Earth’s surface is nearly
constant and approximately 9.8 m/s2 in free-fall problems.
13. Deduce the consequences of the independence of vertical and horizontal components of projectile
motion.
15. Calculate range, time of flight, and maximum heights of projectiles.

Course outline
Unit 1. Units
Lesson 1.1 Systems of Units
1.2 SI Units
1.3 CGS Systems of Units
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 1.4 British Engineering Units
1.5 Units as an Error-Checking Technique
1.6 Unit Conversions
1.7 General Units Examples with solutions
1.8 Learning Activity

Unit 2. Vectors
Lesson 2.1 Vectors and Scalar Forces
2.1.1 Scalar Addition
2.1.2 Vector Addition
Lesson 2.2 Resultant of Vectors
2.2.1 Graphical Method (Parallelogram)
2.2.2 Analytical Method (Trigonometrical)
2.2.3 Analytical (Component method)

Unit 3. Kinematics in One Dimension

Lesson 3.1 Introduction
3.2 Describing Motion
3.2.1 Distance and Displacement
3.2.2 Speed and Velocity
3.2.3 Acceleration
3.3 Graphical Representation of Motion
3.3.1 Position vs. Time Graph
3.3.2 Position-Time Graph Summary
3.3.3 Velocity-Time Graph
3.3.4 Velocity-Time Graph Summary
3.4 One Dimensional Accelerated Motion
3.5 Summary

Unit 4. Projectile Motion

Lesson 4.1 Range
4.2 Maximum Altitude
4.3 Shape of the Projectile Path
4.4 Hitting a Target on the Ground
4.5 Hitting a Target on a Hill
4.6 Other Considerations
4.8 Summary

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Study Schedule
Week Topic and Learning Outcome Learning Activity
Week 1 Units 1,2,3
 Explain The SI system
of units
 Differentiate the 7 SI
base units
 Explain how to convert
CGS to Systems of
Units
 Discuss the SI and
english units and
conversion Factors

Week 2 Vectors 1,2,3,4

 Define Vector
 Differentiate vector and
scalar quantities
 Discuss the rules of
vector addition,
subtraction, and
multiplication.

Week 3  Explain how to apply 5,6,7

graphical method and
analytical method in
vector.
 Relate graphical
methods of vector
addition and subtraction
to determine the
displacement of moving
objects.
 Relate analytical
methods to determine
the magnitude and
direction of a resultant
vector.

Week 4 Kinematics in one dimension 1,2,3,4,5

 Differentiate between
the concepts of position,
velocity, and
acceleration.
 Discuss the relationship
between velocity and
acceleration when an
object is speeding up,
slowing down, or
turning.

Week 5  Explain how to interpret 6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15

kinematic graphs and to
relate position, velocity,
and acceleration graphs
to each other.
 Discuss quantitative
kinematics problems,
including objects falling
under the influence of
gravity.

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 Week 6 Projectile motion
 Identify and explain the
properties of a projectile,
such as acceleration
due to gravity, range,
maximum height, and
trajectory.

Week 7  Determine the location

and velocity of a
projectile at different
points in its trajectory.
 Discuss the principle of
independence of motion
to solve projectile
motion problems.

How to Learn from this Module

To achieve the objectives cited above, you are to do the following:
 Take your time reading the lessons carefully.
 Follow the directions and/or instructions in the activities and exercises diligently.
 Answer all the given tests and exercises.

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 TABLE OF CONTENT
Topic Page
COVER PAGE ……………………………………………..........................................................i
COURSE GUIDE …………………………………………….......................................................ii
STUDY SCHEDULE ……………………………………………..................................................iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS …………………………………………….............................................vi
LEARNER’S GUIDE ……………………………………………..................................................viii

CONTENT DISCUSSION
Unit 1. Units
Lesson 1.1 Systems of Units.......................................................................................1
1.2 SI Units....................................................................................................................2
1.3 CGS Systems of Units.............................................................................................5
1.4 British Engineering Units.........................................................................................5
1.5 Units as an Error-Checking Technique...................................................................5
1.6 Unit Conversions.....................................................................................................5
1.7 SI units and conversion factors...............................................................................6
1.8 General Unit Conversion Examples........................................................................8

Unit 2. Vectors
Lesson 2.1 Vectors and Scalar Forces........................................................................19
What’s In............................................................................................................20

What’s New: (Activity 1 Graphical representation of vectors)...........................20

Scalar Addition...................................................................................................21
Vector Addition...................................................................................................21
ACTIVITY 2: (Graphing of vectors)....................................................................22
ACTIVITY 3: (Scalar addition)………………………………………………….......22
ACTIVITY 4. (Vector Addition)…………………………………………….............22

Lesson 2.2 Resultant of Vectors.................................................................................22

2.2.1 Graphical Method (Parallelogram)...........................................................23

2.2.2 Analytical Method (Trigonometrical).........................................................23

2.2.3 Analytical (Component method)...............................................................24

ACTIVITY 5: (Graphical Method (Parallelogram)..............................................26

.
ACTIVITY 6: ( Analytical Method/ Trigonometrical)...............................................27
ACTIVITY 7: ( Component method)…………………………………………….....27
Assessment: (Post-Test)...................................................................................28

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Unit 3. Kinematics in One Dimension
Lesson 3.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................29
3.2 Describing Motion.................................................................................................29
Activity 3.1. Describing motion............................................................30
3.2.1 Distance and Displacement...................................................................31
Activity 3.2. Solving distance and displacement problems.................31
3.2.2 Speed and Velocity................................................................................32
Activity 3.3. Solving speed and velocity problems..............................33
3.2.3 Acceleration...........................................................................................33
Activity 3.4. Solving acceleration problems.........................................34
Activity 3.5.Sum it up...........................................................................34
Activity 3.6. Conducting an interview...................................................34
3.3 Graphical Representation of Motion......................................................................35
Activity 3.7. Graphing motion...............................................................35
3.3.1 Position vs. Time Graph.........................................................................36
3.3.2 Position-Time Graph Summary..............................................................37
3.3.3 Velocity-Time Graph...............................................................................38
3.3.4 Velocity-Time Graph Summary..............................................................38
Activity 3.8. Through the graph!...........................................................39
Activity 3.9. Interpret me!.....................................................................39
Activity 3.10. My motion story..............................................................40
3.4 One Dimensional Accelerated Motion...................................................................40
Activity 3.11. One dimensional accelerated motion problems.............44
Activity 3.12 Aristotle or Galileo?.........................................................44
Activity 3.13: Solving Free Fall Problems.............................................47
Activity 3. 14: Create Your Own Problem.............................................48
Activity 3.15 Inform Me: The Physics of Tailgating...............................48
3.5 Summary................................................................................................................48

Unit 4. Projectile Motion

Lesson 4.1 Projectile Motion....................................................................................................51
4.2 Range.....................................................................................................................52
4.3 Maximum Altitude...................................................................................................53
4.4 Shape of the Projectile Path...................................................................................54
4.5 Hitting a Target on the Ground...............................................................................54
4.6 Hitting a Target on a Hill.........................................................................................56

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 4.7 Other Considerations...........................................................................................57
4.8 Summary..............................................................................................................57
4.9 Examples with solution........................................................................................58

References...........................................................................................................................

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LEARNER’S GUIDE
This module was prepared and designed for you to learn diligently, intellectually, and self-
sufficiently. Aside from meeting the content and performance standards of this course in accomplishing
the given activities, you will be able to learn other invaluable learning skill which you will be very proud of
as a responsible learner. The following guides and the house rules will help you further to be on track
and to say at the end of the module, “I did well”

To do well in the lesson, you need to remember and do the following:

 Read and follow the instructions very carefully.
 Read each topic diligently and answer the exercises that are provided for you.
 Perform all the activities diligently to help and guide you in understanding the topic.
 Open and view indicated videos. Explore further and deeper as your time allows.
 Take down notes as you go through the simulations, videos and experiments. Writing
on paper or typing on your computer helps you remember and understand things
easier.
 Gather the materials for the experiments and demonstrations and actually do them
yourself. The actual experiments give you a richer learning experience than just in
reading the texts and even watching related videos.
 I will be calling you at least once a week, to follow-up on your progress, and to answer
your questions and clarifications. Expect a call during Wednesday to Friday.

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 Module 1
(UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS)

Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
1. Associate physical quantities with their International System of Units (SI) and perform conversions
among SI units using scientific notation
2. Explain the most common prefixes in the SI units and be able to write them in scientific notation.
3. Describe how derived units are created from base units.
4. Perform unit conversions both in the SI and English units.

Units
The phenomena of Nature have been found to obey certain physical laws; one of the primary goals of
physics research is to discover those laws. It has been known for several centuries that the laws of
physics are appropriately expressed in the language of mathematics, so physics and mathematics have
enjoyed a close connection for quite a long time.
In order to connect the physical world to the mathematical world, we need to make measurements
of the real world. In making a measurement, we compare a physical quantity with some agreed-upon
standard, and determine how many such standard units are present. For example, we have a precise
definition of a unit of length called a mile, and have determined that there are about 92,000,000 such
miles between the Earth and the Sun.
It is important that we have very precise definitions of physical units — not only for scientific use,
but also for trade and commerce. In practice, we define a few base units, and derive other units from
combinations of those base units. For example, if we define units for length and time, then we can define
a unit for speed as the length divided by time (e.g. miles/hour).
How many base units do we need to define? There is no magic number; in fact it is possible to
define a system of units using only one base unit (and this is in fact done for so-called natural units). For
most systems of units, it is convenient to define base units for length, mass, and time; a base electrical
unit may also be defined, along with a few lesser-used base units.

1.1 Systems of Units

Several different systems of units are in common use. For everyday civil use, most of the world uses
metric units. The United Kingdom uses both metric units and an imperial system. Here in the United
States, U.S. customary units are most common for everyday use.1
There are actually several “metric” systems in use. They can be broadly grouped into two
categories: those that use the meter, kilogram, and second as base units (MKS systems), and those that
use the centimeter, gram, and second as base units (CGS systems). There is only one MKS system,
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called SI units. We will mostly use SI units in this course, but we will use other systems from time to time
so that you get some experience with using them.

1.2 SI Units
SI units (which stands for Syst`eme International d’unit´es) are based on the meter as the base unit of
length, the kilogram as the base unit of mass, and the second as the base unit of time. SI units also
define four other base units (the ampere, kelvin, candela, and mole, to be described later). Any physical
quantity that can be measured can be expressed in terms of these base units or some combination of
them. SI units are summarized in Appendix H.
SI units were originally based mostly on the properties of the Earth and of water. Under the original
definitions:
• The meter was defined to be one ten-millionth the distance from the equator to the North
Pole, along a line of longitude passing through Paris.
• The kilogram was defined as the mass of 0.001 m3 of water.
• The second was defined as 1/86,400 the length of a day (one rotation of the Earth).
• The definition of the ampere is related to electrical properties, ultimately relating to the
meter, kilogram, and second.
• The kelvin was defined in terms of the thermodynamic properties of water, as well as
absolute zero.
• The candela was defined by the luminous properties of molten tungsten and the behavior
of the human eye.
• The mole was defined by the density of the carbon-12 nucleus.
Many of these original definitions have been replaced over time with more precise definitions, as the
need for increased precision has arisen. Most recently, on May 20, 2019, there was a major re-definition
of SI units, in which the definitions of the kilogram, ampere, kelvin, and mole were all changed.
Length (Meter)
The SI base unit of length, the meter (m), has been re-defined more times than any other unit, due to the
need for increasing accuracy. Originally (1793) the meter was defined to be 1/10,000,000 the distance
from the North Pole to the equator, along a line going through Paris. Then, in 1889, the meter was re-
defined to be the distance between two lines engraved on a prototype meter bar kept in Paris. Then in
1960 it was re-defined again: the meter was defined as the distance of 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of the
orange-red emission line in the krypton-86 atomic spectrum. Still more stringent accuracy requirements
led to the current definition of the meter, which was implemented in 1983: the meter is now defined to be
the distance light in vacuum travels in 1/299,792,458 second. Because of this definition, the speed of
light is now exactly 299,792,458 m/s.
U.S. Customary units are legally defined in terms of metric equivalents. For length, the foot (ft) is
defined to be exactly 0.3048 meter.
Mass (Kilogram)
Originally the kilogram (kg) was defined to be the mass of 1 liter (0.001 m 3) of water. The need for more
accuracy required the kilogram to be re-defined to be the mass of a standard mass called the International
Prototype Kilogram which is kept in a vault at the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM) in
Paris. Each country was given its own copy of the IPK to use as its own national standard.
In 2019, the kilogram was re-defined (somewhat indirectly) by defining Planck’s constant (used in
quantum mechanics) to be exactly equal to h = 6.62607015x1034 kg m2 s-1. Since the meter and second
are given precise experimental definitions, fixing the value of h has the effect of defining the value for the
kilogram.
Another common metric (but non-SI) unit of mass is the metric ton, which is 1000 kg (a little over
1 short ton).
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 In U.S. customary units, the pound-mass (lbm) is defined to be exactly 0.45359237 kg.

Mass vs. Weight

Mass is not the same thing as weight, so it’s important not to confuse the two. The mass of a body is a
measure of the total amount of matter it contains; the weight of a body is the gravitational force on it
due to the Earth’s gravity. At the surface of the Earth, mass m and weight W are proportional to each
other:

𝓦 = mg; (1.1)

where g is the acceleration due to the Earth’s gravity, equal to 9.80 m/s2. Remember: mass is
mass, and is measured in kilograms; weight is a force, and is measured in force units of newtons.
Time (Second)
Originally the base SI unit of time, the second (s), was defined to be 1/60 of 1/60 of 1/24 of the length of
a day, so that 60 seconds = 1 minute, 60 minutes = 1 hour, and 24 hours = 1 day. High-precision time
measurements have shown that the Earth’s rotation rate has short-term irregularities, along with a long-
term slowing due to tidal forces. So for a more accurate definition, in 1967 the second was re-defined to
be based on a definition using atomic clocks. The second is now defined to be the time required for
9,192,631,770 oscillations of a certain type of radiation emitted from a cesium-133 atom.
Although officially the symbol for the second is “s”, you will also often see people use “sec” to
avoid confusing lowercase “s” with the number “5”.
The Ampere, Kelvin, and Candela
For this course, most quantities will be defined entirely in terms of meters, kilograms, and seconds. There
are four other SI base units, though: the ampere (A) (the base unit of electric current); the kelvin (K) (the
base unit of temperature); the candela (cd) (the base unit of luminous intensity, or light brightness); and
the mole (mol) (the base unit of amount of substance). With the 2019 re-definition of SI units, the ampere
is now defined by fixing the value of the elementary charge to exactly e = 1.60217663x1019 A s. The
kelvin is now defined by fixing the value of Boltzmann’s constant to exactly k B = 1.380649x1023. The
candela is a unit that measures the brightness of light, and has a somewhat complex definition that
includes a model of the response of the human eye to light of different wavelengths.
Amount of Substance (Mole)
Since we may have a use for the mole in this course, let’s look at its definition in detail. The simplest way
to think of it is as the name for a number. Just as “thousand” means 1,000, “million” means 1,000,000,
and “bil-lion” means 1,000,000,000, in the same way “mole” refers to the number
602,214,076,000,000,000,000,000, or 6.02214076x1023. You could have a mole of grains of sand or a
mole of Volkswagens, but most often the mole is used to count atoms or molecules. There is a reason
this number is particularly useful: since each nucleon (proton and neutron) in an atomic nucleus has an
average mass of 1.66053906660x10-24 grams (called an atomic mass unit, or amu), then there are
1/(1.66053906660 x10-24), or 6.02214076x1023 nucleons per gram. In other words, one mole of nucleons
has a mass of 1 gram. Therefore, if A is the atomic weight of an atom, then A moles of nucleons has a
mass of A grams. But A moles of nucleons is the same as 1 mole of atoms, so one mole of atoms has a
mass (in grams) equal to the atomic weight. In other words,
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 = ( 1.2 )
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
Similarly, when counting molecules,
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 = ( 1.3)
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

In short, the mole is useful when you need to convert between the mass of a material and the
number of atoms or molecules it contains.
It’s important to be clear about what exactly you’re counting (atoms or molecules) when using

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moles. It doesn’t really make sense to talk about “a mole of oxygen”, any more than it would be to talk
about “100 of oxygen”. It’s either a “mole of oxygen atoms” or a “mole of oxygen molecules”.
With the 2019 SI units re-definition, the mole is defined by setting Avogadro’s constant equal to exactly
NA = 6.02214076x1023 mol -1.
Interesting fact: it’s estimated that there is roughly one mole of stars in the observable Universe.

SI Derived Units
In addition to the seven base units (m, kg, s, A, K, cd, mol), there are a number of so-called SI derived
units with special names. We’ll introduce these as needed, but a summary of all of them is shown in
Appendix H (Table H-2). These are just combinations of base units that occur often enough that it’s
convenient to give them special names.
Plane Angle (Radian)
One derived SI unit that we will encounter frequently is the SI unit of plane angle. Plane angles are
commonly measured in one of two units: degrees or radians. You’re probably familiar with degrees
already: one full circle is 3600, a semicircle is 1800, and a right angle is 900.
The SI unit of plane angle is the radian, which is defined to be that plane angle whose arc length
is equal to its radius. This means that a full circle is 2 radians, a semicircle is radians, and a right angle
is radians. To convert between degrees and radians, then, we have:

180
𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑥 ( 1.4)
𝜋

and

𝜋
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 𝑥 (1.5)
180
The easy way to remember these formula is to think in terms of units: 180 has units of degrees
and has units of radians, so in the first equation units of radians cancel on the right-hand side to leave
degrees, and in the second equation units of degrees cancel on the right-hand side to leave radians.
Occasionally you will see a formula that involves a “bare” angle that is not the argument of a
trigonometric function like the sine, cosine, or tangent. In such cases it is understood that the angle must
be in radians. For example, the radius of a circle r , angle 𝜃 , and arc length s are related by

𝑠 = 𝑟𝜃 (1.6)
where it is understood that 𝜃 is in radians.

SI Prefixes
It’s often convenient to define both large and small units that measure the same thing. For example, in
English units, it’s convenient to measure small lengths in inches and large lengths in miles.
In SI units, larger and smaller units are defined in a systematic way by the use of prefixes to the
SI base or derived units. For example, the base SI unit of length is the meter (m), but small lengths may
also be measured in centimeters (cm, 0.01 m), and large lengths may be measured in kilometers (km,
1000 m). Table H-3 in Appendix H shows all the SI prefixes and the powers of 10 they represent. You
should memorize the powers of 10 for all the SI prefixes in this table.
To use the SI prefixes, simply add the prefix to the front of the name of the SI base or derived
unit. The symbol for the prefixed unit is the symbol for the prefix written in front of the symbol for the unit.
For example, kilometer (km) =103 meter, microsecond (µ s) =106 s. But put the prefix on the gram (g),

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not the kilogram: for example, 1 microgram (µ g) =10 6 g. For historical reasons, the kilogram is the only
SI base or derived unit with a prefix.

1.3 CGS Systems of Units

In some fields of physics (e.g. solid-state physics, plasma physics, and astrophysics), it has been
customary to use CGS units rather than SI units, so you may encounter them occasionally. There are
several different CGS systems in use: electrostatic, electromagnetic, Gaussian, and Heaviside-Lorentz
units. These systems differ in how they define their electric and magnetic units. Unlike SI units, none of
these CGS systems defines a base electrical unit, so electric and magnetic units are all derived units.
The most common of these CGS systems is Gaussian units, which are summarized in Appendix I.
SI prefixes are used with CGS units in the same way they’re used with SI units.
1.4 British Engineering Units
Another system of units that is common in some fields of engineering is British engineering units. In this
system, the base unit of length is the foot (ft), and the base unit of time is the second (s). The base unit
of force is called the pound-force (lbf), and mass is measured units of slugs, where 1 slug has a weight
of 32.17404855 lbf.
A related unit of mass (not part of the British engineering system) is called the pound-mass (lbm).
At the surface of the Earth, a mass of 1 lbm has a weight of 1 lbf, so sometimes the two are loosely used
interchangeably and called the pound (lb), as we do every day when we speak of weights in pounds.
SI prefixes are not used in the British engineering system.
1.5 Units as an Error-Checking Technique
Checking units can be used as an important error-checking technique called dimensional analysis. If you
derive an equation and find that the units don’t work out properly, then you can be certain you made a
mistake somewhere. If the units are correct, it doesn’t necessarily mean your derivation is correct (since
you could be off by a factor of 2, for example), but it does give you some confidence that you at least
haven’t made a units error. So checking units doesn’t tell you for certain whether or not you’ve made a
mistake, but it does help.
Here are some basic principles to keep in mind when working with units:
1. Units on both sides of an equation must match.
2. When adding or subtracting two quantities, they must have the same units.
3. Quantities that appear in exponents must be dimensionless.
-1 -1 -1
4. The argument for functions like sin, cos, tan, sin , cos , tan , log, and exp must be
dimensionless.
5. When checking units, radians and steradians can be considered dimensionless.
6. When checking complicated units, it may be useful to break down all derived units into base
units (e.g. replace newtons with kg m s -2).
Sometimes it’s not clear whether or not the units match on both sides of the equation, for example
when both sides involve derived SI units. In that case, it may be useful to break all the derived units down
in terms of base SI units (m, kg, s, A, K, mol, cd). Table H-2 in Appendix H shows each of the derived SI
units broken down in terms of base SI units.
1.6 Unit Conversions
It is very common to have to work with quantities that are given in units other than the units you’d like to
work with. Converting from one set of units to another involves a straightforward, virtually foolproof
technique that’s very simple to double-check. We’ll illustrate the method here with some examples.
Appendix N gives a number of important conversion factors. More conversion factors are available
from sources such as the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics.

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 1. Write down the unit conversion factor as a ratio, and fill in the units in the numerator and
denominator so that the units cancel out as needed.
2. Now fill in the numbers so that the numerator and denominator contain the same length, time,
etc. (This is because you want each factor to be a multiplication by 1, so that you don’t change the
quantity—only its units.)

1.7 SI units and conversion factors

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1.8 General Unit Conversion Examples
1. How to Do Unit Conversions – Ladder Method
It is common to have to convert a measurement between measuring systems. This is done using
conversion factors. An example of a conversion factor is
1 km = 1000 m
There are 1000 meters in 1 kilometer. If you want to know how many meters are in 3 kilometers, you
use this conversion factor to calculate the result.

This is possible because you are just multiplying the measurement by 1. This can be seen by dividing
both sides of the conversion factor equation by one of the units.
Divide both sides of the conversion factor by 1 km

The same is true if you divide both sides by 1000 m

It doesn’t change the value of the measurement when you multiply by the conversion factor. It just
changes the units the measurement is compared to. This method of unit conversion is called “Unit
Cancelling” because the undesired unit is canceled out by the conversion factor.
Take the 3 kilometer example above. The kilometer unit is canceled out leaving only meters on both
sides of the equation.
Occasionally it will be necessary to perform multiple conversions in a row to get the units you need on a
measurement. Since all you are doing is multiplying the base measurement by 1, you can perform all of
the conversions as one long chain of conversion factors. This method is known as the “Ladder Method”.
Each conversion step is another run of a ladder to cancel out the undesired units.
For example, if you were to convert 18 km/hr to m/s, you would have to use the following conversion
factors:
1000 m = 1 km
60 min = 1 hr
60 s = 1 min
The goal in this conversion is to end up with meters in the numerator and seconds in the denominator.
Set up your conversions so the undesired units are canceled out.

If you go ahead and perform the final calculation, the above equation reduces to:

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I have marked the cancellation of each different undesired measurement in different colors to illustrate
the ladder of calculations to arrive at the correct units. In this case, 18 km/hr = 5 m/s.
2. Length Unit Conversion Example Problems

 Feet to Inches (ft to in) Conversion

 Inches to Centimeters (in to cm) Conversion
 Feet to Inches Conversion Factor
There are 12 inches for every foot of length, or
1 foot (ft) = 12 inches (in)
The following two example problems show how to use this conversion factor to switch between inches
and feet.
 Convert Feet to Inches Example Problem
Question: How many inches tall is a man who is 6 feet tall?
Solution: Multiply the conversion factor to the 6 feet value. Make sure the undesired unit is in the
denominator.

This allows us to cancel out the unwanted unit and leave the desired unit.

6 feet = 72 inches
Answer: There are 72 inches in 6 feet.

 Convert Inches to Feet Example Problem

Question: When buying a television, the screen size is measured in inches between opposite corners.
How many feet across is a 45-inch television?
Solution: Multiply the conversion factor to the 45 inches value. Make sure the undesired unit is in the
denominator.

Note this cancels out the inches and leaves us with the foot unit.

45 inches = 3.75 feet

Answer: A 45-inch television is 3.75 feet from corner to corner.

3. Area Unit Conversion Example Problems

 Square Centimeter to Square Meter (cm2 to m2) Conversion

The conversion factor between cm2 to m2 is
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10,000 cm2 = 1 m2 or 104 cm2 = 1 m2
How do you get that? Start with the conversion from cm to m.
100 cm = 1 m
A square meter is a square 1 meter wide and 1 meter tall.
1 m2 = 1 m x 1 m
Substitute the conversion factor for meter to centimeter
1 m2 = (100 cm) x (100 cm)
1 m2 = 10,000 cm2 = 104 cm2
cm2 to m2 Conversion Example Problem
Question: How many square meters are in 75,000 square centimeters?
Multiply the conversion factor between cm2 and m2 by the 75,000 cm2. Put the unit you want to be
canceled out in the denominator.

This cancels out the undesired unit, leaving the unit we want.

7.5 m2 = x m2
Answer: There are 7.5 square meters in 75,000 square centimeters.

 m2 to cm2 Conversion Example Problem

Question: How many square centimeters are in 3 square meters?
Multiply the conversion factor between cm2 and m2 by the 3 m2. Put the unit you want to be canceled
out in the denominator.

This setup allows us to cancel out the unneeded m2 units.

30,000 cm2 = x cm2

Answer: There are 30,000 cm2 in 3 m2.

4. Volume Unit Conversion Example Problems

General Volume Example – Step by step conversion between 3 linear measurements to find the
volume.

 Cubic Centimeters to Cubic Meters (cm3 to m3) Conversion

Volume Conversion Example
How many liters of water does it take to fill a swimming pool 11.0 feet by 11.0 feet and 8.00 feet deep?
Given:
1 foot = 12 inches

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1 inch = 2.54 centimeters
1 Liter = 103 cm3
Solution:
Our swimming pool’s measurements are given in feet. We need to convert these measurements into
something we can use to find the volume measurement of liters. Looking at the given unit conversions,
we can convert feet to inches and then to centimeters.
Start with the 11.0 feet measurement.

11.0 feet = 335 cm

Now the 8.00 feet measurement.

8.00 feet = 243 cm

Now we can multiply these together to get the volume of the swimming pool.
Volume of swimming pool = 11.0 feet ⋅ 11.0 feet ⋅ 8.00 feet
Volume of swimming pool = 335 cm ⋅ 335 cm ⋅ 243 cm
Volume of swimming pool = 27,270,675 cm3 = 2.7 × 107 cm3
Now we can use the final conversion to get the volume in liters.
Now we can use the final conversion to get the volume in liters.

step 6
Volume of swimming pool = 2.7 × 104 Liters
Answer :It takes 2.7 × 104 liters of water to fill a swimming pool with dimensions 11′ × 11′ × 8′.
It is a good way to avoid errors by converting each of the linear units before trying to multiply the
lengths to get a volume.

 How to Convert cm3 to m3 – Cubic Centimeters to Cubic Meters Conversion Examples

When converting cm3 to m3, remember each cube extends in three directions. The 100 cm per meter
becomes 1 million cubic centimeters per cubic meter!

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Converting centimeters to meters is a straightforward exercise. All too often, people stumble when
arranging their centimeters in a cube. These two example problems will show the best way to convert
cm3 to m3 and back again.
The conversion factor between cm3 to m3 is
1,000,000 cm3 = 1 m3 or 106 cm3 = 1 m3
How do you get that? Start with the conversion from cm to m.
100 cm = 1 m
A cubic meter is a cube 1 meter wide, 1 meter deep and 1 meter tall.
1 m3 = 1 m x 1 m x 1 m
Substitute the conversion factor for meter to centimeter
1 m3 = (100 cm) x (100 cm) x (100 cm)
1 m3 = 1,000,000 cm3 = 106 cm3
cm3 to m3 Conversion Example Problem
Question: How many cubic meters are in 250,000 cubic centimeters?
Multiply the conversion factor to the 250,000 cm3. Put the unit you want to be canceled out in the
denominator.

This arrangement allows us to cancel out the unnecessary units, leaving only the unit we want.

0.25 m3 = x m3
Answer: 250,000 cm3 is equal to 0.25 m3.

 m3 to cm3 Conversion Example Problem

Question: How many cubic centimeters are in 5 cubic meters?
Multiply the conversion factor to the 5 m3. Put the unit you want to be canceled out in the denominator.

This setup allows us to cancel out the unneeded m3 units.

5 x 106 cm3 = x cm3

Answer: There are 5 x 106 (5 million) cubic centimeters in 5 cubic meters.

5. Mass Unit Conversion Example Problems

 Grams to Kilograms (g to Kg) Conversion

 Pounds to Kilograms (lbs to Kg) Conversion
 Grams to Kilograms Conversion Examples
Grams (g) and kilograms (kg) are the two most common units of mass in the metric system.
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It’s easy to convert grams to kilograms by cancelling units:

Another way to convert g to kg is to simply move the decimal point three spaces to the left. So, for 1536
g becomes 1.536 kg.

 Kilograms to Grams Conversion

This example problem illustrates the method to convert kilograms to grams.
Question:How many grams are in an eighth of a kilogram?
Solution:
There are 1000 grams in 1 kilogram.
Set up the conversion so the desired unit will be cancelled out. In this case, we want g to be the
remaining unit.
mass in g = (mass in kg ) x (1000 g/1 kg)
Note how the kilograms unit will be cancelled out in this equation.
mass in g = (1/8 kg) x 1000 g/kg
mass in g = (0.125 kg) x 1000 g/kg
mass in g = 125 g
Answer:There are 125 grams in an eighth of a kg.
When you convert kilograms to grams, all you need to do is move the decimal point three spaces to the
right. This is essentially multiplying by one thousand.

 Convert Lbs to Kg Example Problem

Pounds ( Lbs ) and Kilograms ( Kg ) are two units used to measure weight. Technically, kilograms are a
unit of mass and pounds are a unit of force, but both have been used to measure the weights of things.
These example problems show how to convert lbs to kg and kg to lbs.
 Lbs to Kg Conversion Factor
There are 2.20462 lbs in one kg. There is no real reason for the extra significant figures, so often this is
reduced to 2.2 lbs for one kg.
1 kg = 2.2 lbs
-Convert Lbs to Kg Example Problem
Question: Male Siberian tigers are big cats which can weigh about 660 lbs. How much do these tigers
weigh in kilograms?
Solution: Use the conversion factor with the unwanted unit in the denominator.

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This allows us to cancel out the lbs unit and leave behind the kg unit we want.

660 lbs = 300 kg

Answer: Male Siberian tigers can weigh about 300 kgs.

 Convert Kg to Lbs Example Problem

Question: Male giant pandas can weigh up to 150 kgs. What do these pandas weigh in lbs?
Solution: The procedure is the same as the previous example except for putting the kg part in the
denominator.

Now the kg units cancel out and the lbs unit is left.

150 kg = 330 lbs.

Answer: Male giant pandas weigh up to 330 lbs.
This conversion is a useful one to memorize if you work with imperial and metric measurements. Just
try to remember kilograms are heavier than pounds.

6. Temperature Unit Conversion Example Problems

 Celsius to Fahrenheit (°C to °F) Conversion

 Celsius to Kelvin (°C to K) Conversion
 Convert Celsius To Fahrenheit Example Problem 2
Occasionally, you may need to convert a temperature in Celsius to Fahrenheit. If you are an American,
most often it will be to find the outside temperature of a place just about everywhere else in the world
that reports their temperatures in Celsius. This example problem shows the steps necessary to convert
Celsius temperatures to the Fahrenheit scale.
Example Problem:
Dry ice, or frozen carbon dioxide sublimes (phase change between solid to gas) at -78.5 °C under
normal atmospheric pressures. What is this temperature in Fahrenheit?
Solution:
The formula needed to convert Celsius to Fahrenheit is:
°F = 9⁄5°C + 32
where °F and °C are the temperatures in Fahrenheit and Celsius respectively.
To solve this, plug the celsius temperature, -78.5 °C into the formula.
°F = 9⁄5(-78.5) + 32
°F = -141.3 + 32
°F = -109.3 °F
Answer:Dry ice sublimes at -109.3 °F under normal atmospheric pressure.

 Convert Fahrenheit to Celsius Example Problem

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  Converting Fahrenheit temperatures to Celsius is a common conversion students have to make.
This example problem will show how to convert Fahrenheit to Celsius.
Example Problem:
The average body temperature of a house cat is 101.5 °F. What is this temperature in Celsius?
Solution:
The formula needed to convert Fahrenheit to Celsius is:
°C = 5⁄9(°F – 32)
where °F and °C are the temperatures in Fahrenheit and Celsius respectively.
Plug 101.5 °F into the formula
°C = 5⁄9(101.5 – 32)
°C = 5⁄9(69.5)
°C = 38.6 °C
Answer:The average body temperature of a cat in Celsius is 38.6 °C.

7.Pressure Unit Conversion Example Problems

 Atmospheres to Kilopascals (atm to kPa) Conversion

 Pressure Conversions – Atm to kPa
 Pressure is a measurement of force per unit area. Unfortunately, there are many different units
associated with pressure. The SI unit for pressure is the pascal (Pa). One pascal is equal to one
newton per square meter (N/m2). One pascal is a very small amount of pressure, so the
kilopascal (kPa) is often used instead. Another common pressure unit is the atmosphere (atm).
The atmosphere unit was originally the defined standard for pressure measurements and
corresponded to the average air pressure at sea level. This unit lasted until well into the 20th
Century and is still in use for many applications in chemistry, thermodynamics, and weather.
This example problem shows how to convert atmospheres to kilopascals (Atm to kPa).
Example Problem:
A 2 liter PET soda bottle will explode at 10.2 atmospheres. What is this pressure in kilopascals?
Solution:
The relationship between atmospheres and Pascals is: 1 atm = 101325 Pa.
There are 1000 Pa in 1 kPa.
Multiply 10.2 atm by the conversion factors above to find the number of kilopascals.

? kPa = 1033.5 kPa

Answer:The 2 liter bottle will explode at 1033.5 kPa.

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 Learning Activity 1. Test yourself. Show your solution

Name: __________________________________________Section: ___________________________

Date Accomplished: _______________________________ Score :____________________________

1. Estimate or measure your height.

a. Convert your height from feet and inches to meters

b. Convert your height from feet and inches to centimeters (100 cm = 1 m)

2. Estimate or measure the amount of time that passes between breaths when you are sitting at rest.
a. Convert the time from seconds into hours

b. Convert the time from seconds into milliseconds (ms)

3. Convert the French speed limit of 140 km/hr into mi/hr.

4. Estimate or measure your weight.

a. Convert your weight in pounds into a mass in kg

b. Convert your mass from kg into μg

c. Convert your weight into Newtons

5. Find the SI unit for pressure.

6. An English lord says he weighs 12 stone.

a. Convert his weight into pounds (you may have to do some research online)

b. Convert his weight in stones into a mass in kilograms

7. If the speed of your car increases by 10 mi/hr every 2 seconds, how many mi/hr is the speed
increasing every second? State your answer with the units mi/hr/s.

8. A tortoise travels 15 meters (m) west, then another 13 centimeters (cm) west. How many meters total
has she walked?

9. A tortoise, Bernard, starting at point A travels 12 m west and then 150 millimeters (mm) east. How far
west of point A is Bernard after completing these two motions?

10. 80 m + 145 cm + 7850 mm = X mm. What is X?

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 Learning Activity 2. Test yourself. Show your solution

Name: __________________________________________Section: ___________________________

Date Accomplished: _______________________________ Score: ____________________________

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 Learning Activity 3. Test yourself. Show your solution

Name: __________________________________________Section: ___________________________

Date Accomplished: ________________________________Score: ____________________________

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