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IASBABA’S
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PROGRAM (PEP) 2022

MEDIEVAL HISTORY
HANDOUTS

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TOPIC – The Mughals and Marathas

MUGHALS

Babur  Babur (Zahiruddin Muhammad) was the founder of the Mughal Empire
in India.
 Babur was related to Timur from his father’s side and to Chengiz Khan
through his mother.
 Babur succeeded his father Umar Shaikh Mirza as the ruler of Farghana,
but was soon defeated by his distant relative and as a result lost his
kingdom.
 He became a wanderer for some time till he captured Kabul from one
of his uncles.
 Then, Babur took interest in conquering India and launched three
expeditions between 1519 and 1523.
 The opportunity to fulfil his ambition came to Babur when he was
invited to India by discontented party, Daulat Khan Lodhi the most
powerful noble of the Punjab and Alam Khan an uncle of Ibrahim Khan
Lodhi sought Babur to help to fight against Ibrahim Lodhi.
 India was then distracted by ambitions, rivalries and disaffection of
nobles and the Delhi sultanate existed only in name.
 This was his fourth expedition in which he occupied Lahore in 1524 and
such occupation was not what Daulat Khan desired.
 He had hoped that Babur would retire after a raid leaving the field clear
for him and so he turned against him and Alam Khan also joined hands
with him.
 Babur had to retire to Kabul to collect re-enforcements.
 Babur soon re-occupied the Punjab in 1525 and Daulat Khan Lodhi
submitted to Babur.
 On the eve of Babur’s invasion of India, there were five prominent
Muslim rulers – the Sultans of Delhi, Gujarat, Malwa, Bengal and the
Deccan – and two prominent Hindu rulers – Rana Sangha of Mewar and
the Vijayanagar Empire.
 Most of the soldiers and officers of Daulat Khan Lodhi joined the ranks
of Babur.
 Babur got rid of all the self-seeking Afghan nobles of the Punjab.
 He received messages of support from disaffected and opportunists’
nobles of Ibrahim’s court and Rana Sangha of Mewar is also said to
have sent him an invitation for a joint invasion of Delhi.

1st Battle of Panipat

 On 21st April 1526 the first Battle of Panipat took place between Babur
and Ibrahim Lodi, who was killed in the battle.
 One of the causes of Babur’s success in the battle was that Babur was
seasoned General whereas Ibrahim was a head strong, inexperienced
youth. As Babur remarks he was ‘an inexperienced man, careless in his
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movements, who marched without order, halted or retired without

method and engaged without foresight.’
 Babur was the master of a highly evolved system of warfare which was
the result of a scientific synthesis of the tactics of the several Central
Asian people. While Ibrahim fought according to the old system then in
existence in the country.
 Babur had a park of artillery consisting of big guns and small muskets
while Ibrahim’s soldiers were absolutely ignorant of its use.
 Also, Ibrahim did not get the backing of his people which weakened his
power.
 Moreover, his army was organised on clannish basis.
 The troops lacked the qualities of trained and skilful soldiers.
 Babur was right when he recorded in his diary that the Indian soldiers
knew how to die and not how to fight.
 On the other hand, Babur’s army was well trained and disciplined and
shared the ambition of conquering rich Hindustan.
 Babur occupied Delhi and sent his son Humayun to seize Agra.
 Babur proclaimed himself as “Emperor of Hindustan”.
Humayun  Humayun succeeded Babar in December 1530 at the young age of 23
and the newly conquered territories and administration was not yet
consolidated.
 Unlike Babur, Humayun did not command the respect and esteem of
Mughal nobility.
 The Chaghatai nobles were not favourably inclined towards him and
the Indian nobles, who had joined Babur’s service, deserted the
Mughals at Humayun’s accession.
 He also confronted the hostility of the Afghans mainly Sher Khan in
Bihar on the one hand and Bahadurshah, the ruler of Gujarat, on the
other.
 As per the Timurid tradition Humayun had to share power with his
brothers.
 The newly established Mughal empire had two centres of power;
Humayun was in control of Delhi, Agra and Central India, while his
brother Kamran had Kabul and Qandhar and by subsequently annexing
the Punjab, had deprived him of the main recruiting ground of his
army.
 However, the granting of the Punjab and Multan had the advantage
that Humayun was free to devote his attention to the eastern part
without having to bother about his western frontier.
 In A.D. 1532, Humayun first turned his arms against the Afghans, who
under Sultan Mahmud Lodi threatened his position in the east and
defeated the Afghan forces which had conquered Bihar and overrun
Jaunpur in eastern Uttar Pradesh at a place called Daurah near
Lucknow.
 After this success Humayun besieged Chunar then held by the able
Afghan chief named Sher Khan.
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 Sher Khan showed a submission and Humayun made a fatal mistake in

allowing Sher Khan to retain possession of Chunar.
 Humayun was anxious to return to Agra as he had to face the growing
power of Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.
 The attitude of Bahadur Shah of Gujarat was hostile to Humayun from
the very beginning. Humayun defeated Bahadur Shah but could not
retain his conquest as he was soon recalled to the east to meet the
revolt of Sher Khan.
 Humayun marched into Bengal but Sher Khan did nothing to oppose
him as his object was to lure Humayun into the interior and then to cut
off his communication.
 In the Battle of Chausa (A.D. 1539) Humayun was completely defeated
by Sher Khan.
 In 1540 Humayun had one more encounter with Sher Shah at Bilgram
near Kannauj but again met with a crushing defeat and was compelled
to leave Hindustan.
 The battle of Kannauj (A.D. 1540) was bitterly contested and it decided
the issue between Sher Khan and the Mughals.
 Humayun now became a prince without a kingdom; Kabul and Qandhar
remaining under Kamran.
 Wandering Humayun found temporary refuge at Amarkot from where
he made his way to Persia.
 The Persian king Shah Tahmasp, agreed to help him on condition that
Humayun should conform to the Shia creed.
 Humayun yielded to the necessity and conquered Kabul and Qandhar
from his brother Kamran, with the help of Persian troops.
 Freed from his brother’s opposition Humayun was now in a position to
attempt the reconquest of India.
 He had secured the services of an able officer named Bairam Khan and
the time was also favourable to him.
 Humayun defeated the Afghan forces of Sikandar Sur and occupied
Agra and Delhi (A.D. 1555).
 It is clear that the major causes of Humayun’s failure against Sher Khan
was his inability to understand the nature of the Afghan power.
 Due to existence of large numbers of Afghan tribes scattered over
north India, the Afghans could always unite under a capable leader and
pose a challenge.
 In 1556, Humayun died after tumbling down from the staires of his
library.
 His peaceful personality, patience and non-provocative methods of
speech earned him the title of Insan-i-Kamil (Perfect Man), among the
Mughals.
Sher Shah Suri  The first Afghan kingdom under the Lodis was replaced by the Mughals
under Babur in 1526.
 After a gap of 14 years Sher Shah succeeded in establishing the Afghan
rule again in India in 1540.
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 Sher Shah and his successors ruled for 15 years and this period is
known as the period of second Afghan Empire.
 The founder of the Sur dynasty was Sher Shah, whose original name
was Farid.
 He was the son of Hasan Khan, a jagirdar of Sasaram in Bihar.
 Later, Farid served under the Afghan ruler of Bihar, who gave him the
title Sher Khan for his bravery.
 He defeated Humayun at the Battle of Chausa and became the ruler of
Delhi in 1540.
 Sher Khan was a great tactician and able military commander.
 Sher Shah waged extensive wars with the Rajputs and expanded his
empire.
 His conquests include Punjab, Malwa, Sind, Multan and Bundelkhand.
 His empire consisted of the whole of North India except Assam, Nepal,
Kashmir and Gujarat.
 Sher Shah after his death in 1553 was succeeded by his son Islam Shah.
 Islam Shah had to face a number of conflicts with his brother Adil Khan
and many Afghan nobles.
 The Afghan empire was substantially weakened. Humayun saw an
opportunity and moved towards India who again captured his lost
kingdom by 1555 and ended the second Afghan Empire.

Administration
 Although Sher Shah’s rule lasted for five years, he organized a brilliant
administrative system.
 The central government consisted of several departments. The king
was assisted by four important ministers:
1. Diwan –i- Wizarat – also called as Wazir – in charge of Revenue and
Finance.
2. Diwan-i-Ariz – in charge of Army.
3. Diwan-i-Rasalat – Foreign Minister.
4. Diwan-i-Insha – Minister for Communications.
 Sher Shah’s empire was divided into forty-seven sarkars.
 Chief Shiqdar (law and order) and Chief Munsif (judge) were the two
officers in charge of the administration in each sarkar.
 Each sarkar was divided into several parganas. Shiqdar (military
officer), Amin (land revenue), Fotedar (treasurer) Karkuns
(accountants) were in charge of the administration of each pargana.
 There were also many administrative units called iqtas.

Land Revenue System

 Sher Shah’s most striking contribution was made in the field of
revenue.
 Sher Shah, however, as the only sovereign who is known to have
gained a practical experience in managing a small body of peasants
before rising to the throne came with his scheme of revenue
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settlement readymade and successfully tested by experiment. It was

but an extension of the system introduced by him at Sasaram.
 As a monarch, he unilaterally decided that the best system of
assessment must be based on actual measurement. Accordingly, the
empire was surveyed.
 In order to ensure the accuracy of measurement and honesty of
collection he fixed the wages of the measurers and the collectors.
 The uniform system of measurement in spite of strong opposition from
some quarters, was enforced all over the empire, with the exception of
Multan where political turmoil could endanger the security of the
State.

Other Reforms
 Sher Shah not only took necessary measures to ameliorate the
condition of the people but also paid attention to the promotion of
education. He gave liberal grants to both the Hindu and Muslim
educational institutions.
 The Hindus were free to regulate their educational institutions and
Sher Shah did not interfere in their working.
 Similarly, the Muslim educational institutions were mainly attached
with mosques and imparted elementary education to the children.
 To help the poor and brilliant students he awarded liberal scholarships.
 Sher Shah also made liberal provisions for the support of blind, the old,
the weak, widows etc.
 Sher Shah had also improved the communications by laying four
important highways. They were:
1. Sonargaon to Sind
2. Agra to Burhampur
3. Jodhpur to Chittor
4. Lahore to Multan.
Akbar (1556-  Akbar was at Kalanaur in Punjab at the death of Humayun’s death and
1605) therefore his coronation took place in Kalanaur itself in 1556.
 Humayun’s favourite and confidant Bairam Khan, who served as the
regent and tutor of the Mughal emperor from 1556 to 1560. He
became the wakil of the kingdom with the title of Khan-i-Khanan.
 One of the major achievements of Bairam Khan’s regency period was
the defeat of Hemu and the Afghan forces who were posing a serious
threat to the Mughal Empire. In the second Battle of Panipat in 1556,
Hemu was almost on the point of victory. But an arrow pierced his eye
and he became unconscious. The Mughal victory was decisive.
 Bairam Khan consolidated the Mughal empire. After five years he was
removed by Akbar due to court intrigues and sent to Mecca. But on his
way Bairam was killed by an Afghan.
 Akbar started a policy of expansion after overcoming initial problems
and consolidating his hold on the throne. The major political powers
spread in different parts of the country were:
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o The Rajputs who were spread throughout the country as

independent chiefs and kings, and were concentrated mainly in
Rajasthan.
o The Afghans held political control mainly in Gujarat, Bihar and
Bengal.
o Khandesh, Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golkonda and few other
kingdoms in South India and Deccan were quite powerful.
o Kabul and Qandhar, though ruled by Mughal Akbar Military
policy factions, were hostile towards Akbar.
 Akbar’s conquered northern India from Agra to Gujarat and then from
Agra to Bengal.
 He strengthened the northwest frontier and later on he went to the
Deccan.
 Akbar through a systematic policy started the task of expanding his
Empire.
 The first step that Akbar took after the dismissal of Bairam Khan was to
put an end to the conflict within the nobility. He demonstrated great
diplomatic skills and organizational capabilities in handling it.
 Akbar started his policy of expansion with central India. In 1559–60 the
first expedition was sent to capture Gwalior before moving towards
Malwa. Akbar deputed Adham Khan to lead the expedition against
Malwa in central India which was ruled by Baz Bahadur. Baz Bahadur
was defeated and fled towards Burhanpur.
 Gondwana, an independent state in Central India ruled by Rani
Durgawati, widow of Dalpat Shah, was also conquered and annexed to
the Mughal empire in 1564.

Religious Policy
 Various factors were responsible for the religious policy of Akbar.
 The most important among them were his early contacts with the sufi
saints, the teachings of his tutor Abdul Latif, his marriage with Rajput
women, his association with intellectual giants like Shaikh Mubarak and
his two illustrious sons – Abul Faizi and Abul Fazl – and his ambition to
establish an empire in Hindustan.
 In the beginning of his life, Akbar was a pious Muslim.
 He abolished the pilgrim tax and in 1562, he abolished jiziya.
 He allowed his Hindu wives to worship their own gods.
 Later, he became a skeptical Muslim.
 In 1575, he ordered for the construction of Ibadat Khana (House of
worship) at his new capital Fatepur Sikri.
 Akbar invited learned scholars from all religions like Hinduism, Jainism,
Christianity and Zoroastrianism.
 He disliked the interference of the Muslim Ulemas in political matters.
 In 1579, he issued the “Infallibility Decree” by which he asserted his
religious powers.
 In 1582, he promulgated a new religion called Din Ilahi or Divine Faith.
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It believes in one God. It contained good points of all religions. Its basis
was rational. It upholds no dogma. It was aimed at bridging the gulf
that separated different religions.
 However, his new faith proved to be a failure. It fizzled out after his
death. Even during his life time, it had only fifteen followers including
Birbal. Akbar did not compel anyone to his new faith.

Land Revenue Administration

 Akbar made some experiments in the land revenue administration with
the help of Raja Todar Mal.
 The land revenue system of Akbar was called Zabti or Bandobast
system.
 It was further improved by Raja Todar Mal. It was known as Dahsala
System which was completed in 1580.
 By this system, Todar Mal introduced a uniform system of land
measurement.
 The revenue was fixed on the average yield of land assessed on the
basis of past ten years.
 The land was also divided into four categories – Polaj (cultivated every
year), Parauti (once in two years), Chachar (once in three or four years)
and Banjar (once in five or more years).
 Payment of revenue was made generally in cash.

Mansabdari System
 Akbar introduced the Mansabdari system in his administration.
 Under this system every officer was assigned a rank (mansab).
 The lowest rank was 10 and the highest was 5000 for the nobles.
 Princes of royal blood received even higher ranks.
 The ranks were divided into two – zat and sawar.
 Zat means personal and it fixed the personal status of a person.
 Sawar rank indicated the number of cavalrymen of a person who was
required to maintain.
 Every sawar had to maintain at least two horses.
 The mansab rank was not hereditary.
 All appointments and promotions as well as dismissals were directly
made by the emperor.
Jahangir  After the death of Akbar, Prince Salim succeeded with the title Jahangir
(1605-1627) (Conqueror of World) in 1605.
 Soon after accession to the throne, Jahangir tried to win the hearts of
all the people by various measures.
 He released prisoners and struck coins in his name.
 He issued I2 ordinances to be uniformly implemented all over his
Empire:-
1. Prohibition of cesses.
2. Regulations about highway robbery and theft
3. Free inheritance of property of deceased person
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4. Prohibition of sale of wine and of all kinds of intoxicating liquor

5. Abolition of inhuman corporal punishments
6. Prohibition of forcible seizure of property
7. Building of hospitals and appointment of physicians to attend the
sick
8. Prohibition of slaughter of animals on certain days
9. Respect pay to Sunday
10. General confirmation of mansabs and jagirs
11. Confirmation of aima lands i.e. lands devoted to the purposes of
prayer and praise (of God)
12. Amnesty to all prisoners in forts and prisons of all kinds.
 Jahangir also set up a famous chain of justice between the Shah Burj in
the fort of Agra and a stone pillar fixed on the banks of Yamuna to
enable the people to approach him without any servant.
 Jahangir was a lover of art, literature and particularly painting.
 John Hawkins resided at Agra for two years and the emperor called him
Inglish Khan. Sir Thomas Roe arrived in India in September A.D. 1615
and was granted audience at Ajmer. He was granted a Farman by
prince Khurram, which gave the English reasonable facilities for trade.
 Jahangir’s rule witnessed a spate of rebellions. He suppressed the
rebellion of his son Khusrau and the prince was imprisoned. The fifth
Sikh Guru Arjun was sentenced to death for his blessings to the rebel
prince.
 He also pardoned his political opponents and accorded generous
treatment to them. The few changes that Jahangir effected in the
office’s of the state were intended to secure him a band of supporters.

Religious Policy
 Jahangir was born of a Rajput mother and had grown in the
atmosphere of ‘Idabat khana’ debates. The result was that Jahangir
imbibed these liberal tendencies and his religious views became
enlightened and liberal.
 Jahangir had respect for the teachings of Islam and retained this
attitude till the end of his life, but he can by no means be described
staunch or even an orthodox follower of the principles of his faith.
 He was friendly to the Christians.
 He held religious discourses with a Hindu saint named Yadurup and
participated in the celebration of Hindu festivals.
 He did not seek to revive the Jizya or the Pilgrim Tax and the Hindus
still occupied high office and enjoyed the freedom to erect new
temples.
 But some of his acts reflects of his harshness and discrimination. After
the conquest of Kangra, he destroyed the local Jwalamukhi temple.
 Similarly, he ordered destruction of the Varah temple at Pushkar near
Ajmer because he was convinced that God could never have incarnated
himself in that form. But even though his action might be rationally
sound, he committed the grave error of disregarding the freedom of
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conscience of others in upholding his own religious predilections.

 He suspected the Jains of having sided with Khusrau and on that
ground banished them from empire.
 On the same charge, he imposed a fine of two lakhs of rupees on Guru
Arjun and when he refused to pay the fine he put him to death on
charge of treason.
 When offended by the conduct of Christians, he had their church
closed down.
 But the only conclusion that can be drawn from these various stray
incidents is that Jahangir was not always careful to avoid wounding
religious susceptibilities of others. But it cannot be maintained that he
persecuted the Hindus, the Jains, the Christians or the Sikhs as a
community. His action affected only an individual or a particular locality
and each instance of alleged religious persecution had some non-
religious motive at its base.

Nur Jahan
 In 1611, Jahangir married Mehrunnisa who was known as Nur Jahan
(Light of World).
 Her father Itimaduddauala was given the post of chief diwan.
 Other members of her family also benefited from this alliance. Nur
Jahan’s elder brother Asaf Khan was appointed as Khan-i-Saman, a post
reserved for the nobles.
 In 1612, Asaf Khan’s daughter, Arjumand Banu Begum (later known as
Mumtaj), married Jahangir’s third son, prince Khurram (later Shah
Jahan).
 It was believed by some historians that Nur Jahan formed a group of
“junta” and this led to two factions in the Mughal court.
 This drove Shah Jahan into rebellion against his father in 1622, since he
felt that Jahangir was completely under Nur Jahan’s influence.
 However, this view is not accepted by some other historians. Till
Jahangir became weak due to ill health, he only took important political
decisions. It is revealed from his autobiography.
 However, it is clear that Nur Jahan dominated the royal household and
set new fashions based on Persian traditions.
 She encouraged Persian art and culture in the court.
 She was a constant companion of Jahangir and even joined him in his
hunting.
Shah Jahan  Shah Jahan rose in revolt against his father who ordered him to go to
(1627-1658) Kandahar. This rebellion distracted the activities of the empire for four
years.
 After Jahangir’s death in 1627, Shah Jahan reached Agra with the
support of the nobles and the army and was proclaimed emperor.
 Nur Jahan was given a pension and lived a retired life till her death
eighteen years later.
 The Portuguese settlement at Hoogly was destroyed by him in A.D.
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1632.
 The fort of Daulatabad was occupied occupied by Mahabat Khan in
June 1633.
 After ascending the throne, Shah Jahan ordered Khan Jahan Lodi to
recover Balaghat from Nizam Shah but as the latter failed, Shah Jahan
recalled him to court.
 Khan Jahan turned hostile and rebelled. He took shelter with Nizam
Shah. This infuriated Shah Jahan and he decided to follow aggressive
policy towards the Deccan states. Shah Jahan’s main concern was to
recover the lost territories of the Deccan.
 He believed that independence of Ahmednagar was in the way of
Mughal control in the Deccan. He decided to isolate Ahmednagar and
win over Bijapur and Marathas. He was successful. Fath Khan son of
Malik Ambar also made peace with Mughals.
 Now Mahabat Khan was appointed governor of Deccan, but the conflict
with Deccan states continued.
 Finally, in 1636 treaties were signed with Bijapur and Golconda which
ended the conflicts in the Deccan.
 A distinct change in Mughal policy came towards 1656–57 when the
treaties were ignored. Shah Jahan asked Aurangzeb to conquer and
annex the territories of Deccan kingdoms. It is argued by some
historians that this change of policy was to exploit resources of the
Deccan states for Mughals. However, this change did not benefit the
Mughal empire in any substantial way and created more problems for
future.
 Shah Jahan launched a prolonged campaign in the northwest frontier
to recover Kandahar and other ancestral lands. The Mughal army lost
more than five thousand lives during the successive invasions between
1639 and 1647. Then Shah Jahan realized the futility of his ambition
and stopped fighting.

War of Succession
 The last years of Shah Jahan’s reign were clouded by a bitter war of
succession among his four sons – Dara Shikoh (crown prince), Shuja
(governor of Bengal), Aurangazeb (governor of Deccan) and Murad
Baksh (governor of Malwa and Gujarat).
 Towards the end of 1657, Shah Jahan fell ill at Delhi for some time but
later recovered. But the princes started fighting for the Mughal throne.
 Aurangazeb emerged victorious in this struggle. He entered the Agra
fort after defeating Dara. He forced Shah Jahan to surrender. Shah
Jahan was confined to the female apartments in the Agra fort and
strictly put under vigil. But he was not ill-treated.
 Shah Jahan lived for eight long years lovingly nursed by his daughter
Jahanara. He died in 1666 and buried beside his wife’s grave in the Taj
Mahal.
 Foreign travelers like Bernier, Travernier and Manucci have left
accounts about his reign. Moti Masjid (Agra), Red Fort (Delhi), Jama
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Masjid (Delhi) and above all the Taj Mahal – the mausoleum of his
beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal are his famous buildings.

Religious Policy
 Orthodox Muslims did not like the views of Akbar and Jahangir and
there was some resentment among them.
 In his early years, a policy of religious persecution and religious
discrimination in favour of Islam is clearly noticeable.
 He stopped sijda, forbade the use of the royal portrait as an adornment
to the cap or the turban and restored the use of the Hijri era in place of
the Ilahi era.
 In 1633 he ordered wholesale demolition of all newly built temples and
in Benaras alone 72 temples were destroyed. Similarly, destruction
took place in Allahabad, Gujarat and Kashmir.
 He established a separate department for securing conversions to
Islam. These incidents show that Akbar’s policy of religious liberty and
equality was gradually being forsaken and religious discrimination,
began under Jahangir, was gaining in virulence and scope.
 But even under Shahjahan, there was no permanent adoption of
religious persecution as an integral element of state policy. He too did
not revive the Jizya.
 During the latter part of his reign there is no reference to temple
destruction or any other form of religious persecution.
 He continued Jharokha darshan, tula dan and tilak.
 Nor did he deprive the Hindus of high office. 20% to 25% of the higher
mansabs were still given to the Hindus. Nor did he deprive the Hindu
poets, artists and scholars of state patronage.
 It thus appears that in his early years he issued certain orders and did
certain acts on grounds of political expediency which proved harmful to
certain individuals and localities. But he never adopted a general policy
of discrimination, persecution and hatred and retained the affections of
his Hindu subjects till the end of his reign.
 But this twin-headed policy of Shahjahan led to emergence of two rival
groups in the state as the supporters of these two policies, which
proved very harmful to the state and facilitated Aurangzeb’s accession
to the throne. If he had adopted a liberal policy from the very outset,
there might have been no dissensions at court.
Aurangazeb  Aurangazeb was crowned emperor at Delhi in A.D. 1658, but it was only
(1658-1707) after the final defeat of Dara Shikoh at Deorai that he celebrated his
coronation in A.D. 1659.
 He assumed the title Alamgir (World Conqueror).
 He faced serious difficulties in the latter part of his reign. The Jats and
Satnamis and also the Sikhs revolted against him. These revolts were
induced by his harsh religious policy.
 Guru Teg Bahadur, the ninth Guru of Sikhs, was besieged and taken to
Delhi where he was beheaded.
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 In A.D. 1679, over the question of succession in Marwar, Aurangzeb

interfered and defeated the Rathors near Pushkar and their dominion
was occupied.
 Later Udaipur was also occupied, and the Rana of Mewar made peace
with Mughals.

Deccan Policy
 The Deccan policy of the Mughals started from the reign of Akbar, who
conquered Khandesh and Berar.
 Jahangir fought against Malik Amber of Ahmadnagar.
 During the Shah Jahan’s reign, Aurangazeb, as governor of Deccan,
followed an aggressive Deccan policy.
 When he became the Mughal emperor, for the first twenty-five years,
he concentrated on the northwest frontier.
 At that time, the Maratha ruler, Sivaji carved out an independent
Maratha kingdom in the territories of north and south Konkan.
 To contain the spread of the Marathas, Aurangazeb decided to invade
Bijapur and Golkonda.
 He defeated Sikandar Shah of Bijapur and annexed his kingdom.
 Then, he proceeded against Golkonda and eliminated the Kutb Shahi
dynasty and annexed it.
 In fact, the destruction of the Deccan kingdoms was a political blunder
on the part of Aurangazeb. The barrier between the Mughals and the
Marathas was removed and there ensued a direct confrontation
between them.
 Also, his Deccan campaigns exhausted the Mughal treasury. According
to J.N. Sarkar, the Deccan ulcer ruined Aurangazeb.

Religious Policy
 Aurangazeb was a staunch and orthodox Muslim in his personal life.
 His ideal was to transform India into an Islamic state.
 He created a separate department to enforce moral codes under a
high-powered officer called Muhtasib.
 Drinking was prohibited.
 Cultivation and use of bhang and other drugs were banned.
 Aurangazeb forbade music in the Mughal court.
 He discontinued the practice of Jarokha-darshan.
 He also discontinued the celebration of Dasarah and royal astronomers
and astrologers were also dismissed from service.
 Initially Aurangazeb banned the construction of new Hindu temples
and repair of old temples. Then he began a policy of destroying Hindu
temples. The celebrated temples at Mathura and Benares were
reduced to ruins.
 In 1679, he reimposed jiziya and pilgrim tax.
 He was also not tolerant of other Muslim sects. The celebration of
Muharram was stopped.
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 He was also against the Sikhs and he executed the ninth Sikh Guru Tej
Bahadur. This had resulted in the transformation of Sikhs into a warring
community.
 His religious policy was responsible for turning the Rajputs, the
Marathas and Sikhs into the enemies of Mughal empire.
 It had also resulted in the rebellions of the Jats of Mathura and the
Satnamis of Mewar. Therefore, Aurangazeb was held responsible for
the decline of the Mughal empire.

The Revolts Against Aurangzeb

Revolt of the Jats

 Bold, brave and ferocious with a deep sense of loyalty towards their
tribal organisation, the Jat peasantry was more akin to any martial
community.
 They were notorious for cattle-lifting who frequently, raided the
traders between Agra and Delhi.
 Confined to the not so fertile regions of west of Agra, they constituted
the marginal sections of peasantry.
 In 1669 A.D. the Jats under their leader Gokul, revolted. They killed the
Faujdar and plundered the Pargana of Sadabad. The rebellion soon
spread to other districts.
 Aurangzeb ruthlessly suppress the rebellion. Gokul and his limbs were
publicly displayed. The Jats, however, remained defiant and in 1686
A.D. once again rose in revolt, under Rajaram. He too, was slain but his
nephew, Churaman, continued the Jat resistance till Aurangzeb’s death.

Revolt of the Satnamis

 They were a peasant religious brotherbood who resided in Narnol.
 Its other memebrs belonged to the low professions.
 Firmly united and militant, they never hesitated to use arms to aid the
harassed members.
 Thus, when a Satnami cultivator was killed by a Muslim soldier, the
whole tribe arose to seek to seek revenge and broke into rebellion.
 When, of the Mughal efforts, they could not be quelled, the Mughals
resorted to ruthless warfare.
 Over a thousand Satnamis were slain before peace was secured in the
region.
 The Jats and the Satnamis revolts only convinced Aurangzeb of the
disloyalty of the Hindus to the Mughals state who therefore needed to
be ruthlessly suppressed.
 Moreover, it also convinced him that only the emergence of an Islamic
state would reduce the Hindus to their proper place in State.

The Revolt of the Sikhs

 The Sikh organisation was founded by Guru Nanak, a devout social
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reformer, as a peaceful universal brotherhood which was free from the

shackles of caste and community.
 Under the next three Gurus too, the community remained peaceful and
enjoyed amicable relation with Akbar who granted Guru Ram Das a
piece of land which became renowned as Amritsar.
 The fifth Guru, Arjan Singh, proved a more dynamic and zealous
organiser. He wielded the community into one compact whole. He also
was the first Guru who actively participated in politics.
 Consequently, the Mughal-Sikh conflict can be traced to Jahangir’s
reign. He ordered Arjan Singh’s execution. This was done on purely
grounds for sheltering the fugitive Khusrav and in no way was it
accompanied by the religious persecution of the Sikhs. Nevertheless,
the act deeply embittered the Sikhs against the Mughals.
 Under the leader, Har Gobind, the character of the Sikh movement, for
the first time, became more militant, while its democratic social set up
attracted the Jat peasantry in large numbers.
 Henceforth, any harshness towards the peasantry was regarded as an
oppression by the Mughal state towards the Sikhs.
 The military character was further developed under Guru Teg Bahadur
who in order to strengthen the Sikh interests encouraged the creation
of a state within the state.
 In the earlier years of Aurangzeb’s reign, there was no conflict between
Teg Bahadur and Aurangzeb. However, once the Guru publicly
condemned Aurangzeb’s anti-Hindu measures as is clearly evident from
the support that he rendered to the Hindu population of Kashmir,
Aurangzeb became suspicious of the Guru’s motives.
 Their relation rapidly deteriorated and ultimately resulted in the
gruesome murder of Teg Bahadur in 1675 A.D.
 While Guru Teg Behadur’s persecution was not accompanied by the
annihilation of the sons; (Ram Rai continued to live at the Mughal court
and his sons were granted mansabs).
 The last Guru, Gobind Singh, was determined to militarily strengthen
his community. To unite them, he formed the brotherhood of Khalsa
which free of caste and creed, advocated equality of mankind.
 To this end, he initiated the practice of drinking water, conservated by
a sword or dagger (Amrit chakna). To distinguish the member from
other communities, they were asked to wear five things—Kanghi
(comb), Kachha (underwear), Kara (iron bangle), Kesh and Kirpan
(sword).
 Henceforth, the Guru lived like a regal monarch, holding court, building
forts with the help of his followers who were as zealously dedicated to
the cause of Skihism as the soldiers of Islam.
 Their expansionist activities inevitably led ta a clash of arms with the
Mughals. The Sikhs were defeated, his two sons were executed while
the Guru ultimately escaped and settled at Anandpur.
 Guru Govind Singh was murdered by an Afghan in 1708 A.D.
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 Guru Gobind’s aspirations of founding a Sikh state were completed by

Banda, who the Guru had nominated as his military successor.

The Marathas
 The Marathas emerged in the Deccan as a vital force under Shivaji in
the middle of the 17th century and began to challenge the Mughal
authority.
 Shiviji started his offensive operations in 1656 and captured the
principality of Javli.
 Shivaji raided the Bijapur territory, and, in 1659, the Sultan of Bijapur
sent his general, Afzal Khan, to capture Shivaji, but Shivaji killed him.
 In 1662, the Sultan of Bijapur entered into a peace settlement with
Shivaji and acknowledged him as an independent ruler of his
conquered territories.
 Aurangzeb sent Shaista Khan, the viceroy of the Deccan, with a big
army against Shivaji and the Treaty of Purandhar (1665) was signed
between the two.
 Out of the 35 forts held by Shivaji, he agreed to surrender 23 forts to
the Mughals. The remaining 12 forts (with annual income of one lakh of
huns) were to be left with Shivaji.
 Shivaji was asked to pay a visit to the Mughal court at Agra. But, when
Shivaji went there, he was ill-treated and was taken a prisoner. He
managed to escape, reaching Raigarh in 1666.
 Soon he conquered all the forts which he had surrendered to the
Mughals.
 In 1670, he plundered Surat for the second time.
 In 1674, Shivaji made Raigarh his Capital and celebrated his coronation,
and assumed the title of Chatrapati.
 Shortly, after this, he made a great expedition into southern India and
conquered Jinji Vellore and many forts in Karnataka.
 He died at Raigarh in 1680 after ruling for only six years. In this short
time he founded the Maratha kingdom, which dominated western
India for a century and a half.
 Shivaji’s successor was his son Sambhaji.
 Many Maratha chiefs did not support Sambhaji and extended help to
Rajaram the other son of Shivaji.
 The internal conflict weakened Maratha power. Finally, Sambhaji was
captured and put to death in 1689 by Aurangzeb.
 Sambhaji was succeeded by Rajaram as his son Sahu was still young.
 Rajaram died in 1700 and was succeeded by his minor son Shivaji III
under the regency of Tara Bai, his mother.
 The failure of Aurangzeb against the Marathas was largely due to Tara
Bai’s energy and administrative genius.
 The Mughals, however, succeeded in dividing the Marathas into two
rival camps – one under Tara Bai and the other under Sambhaji’s son,
Sahu.
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 Sahu, who for long was in the Mughal court, was released. He
succeeded in deposing Tara Bai with the help of a Chitpavan Brahman
named Balaji Vishwanath.

Personality and Character of Aurangazeb

 In his private life, Aurangazeb was industrious and disciplined. He was
very simple in food and dress. He did not consume wine.
 He earned money for his personal expenses by copying Quran and
selling those copies.
 He was learned and proficient in Arabic and Persian languages. He was
a lover of books.
 He was devoted to his religion and conducted prayers five times a day.
He strictly observed the Ramzan fasting.
 In the political field, Aurangazeb committed serious mistakes. He
misunderstood the true nature of the Maratha movement and
antagonized them. Also, he failed to solve the Maratha problem and
left an open sore. His policy towards Shia Deccan Sultanates also
proved to be a wrong policy.
 His religious policy was also not successful. Aurangazeb was an
orthodox Sunni Muslim. But his move to apply his religious thought
rigidly in a non-Muslim society was a failure. His antagonistic policies
towards non-Muslims did not help him to rally the Muslims to his side.
On the other hand, it had strengthened political enemies of the Mughal
Empire.
Decline of the  The unity and stability of the Mughal Empire was shaken during the
Mughal long and strong reign of Emperor Aurangzeb.
Empire  However, in spite of setbacks and adverse circumstances the Mughal
administration was still quite efficient and the Mughal army strong at
the time of his death in 1707.
 This year is generally considered to separate the era of the great
Mughals from that of the lesser Mughals.
 After the death of Aurangzeb, the Mughal authority weakened, it was
not in a position to militarily enforce its regulations in all parts of the
empire.
 As a result, many provincial governors started to assert their authority.
In due course of time they gained independent status. At the same
time many kingdoms which were subjugated by the Mughals also
claimed their independence.
 Some new regional groups also consolidated and emerged as political
power with all these developments, the period between 1707 and 1761
(third battle of Panipat, where Ahmed Shah Abdali defeated the
Maratha chiefs) witnessed resurgence of regional identity that
buttressed both political and economic decentralization.
 At the same time, intra-regional as well as inter-regional trade in local
raw materials, artifacts, and grains created strong ties of economic
interdependence, irrespective of political and military relations.
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 The new emperor, Bahadur Shah I (or Shah Alam; ruled 1707-12),
followed a policy of compromise, pardoning all nobles who had
supported his rivals. He granted them appropriate territories and
postings.
 He never abolished jizya, but the effort to collect the tax was not
effective.
 In the beginning Shah Alam tried to gain greater control over the Rajput
states of the rajas of Amber (later Jaipur) and Jodhpur. When his
attempt met with firm resistance, he realized the necessity of a
settlement with them. However, the settlement did not restore them
to fully committed warriors for the Mughal cause.
 The emperor’s policy toward the Marathas was also that of half-
hearted conciliation. They continued to fight among themselves as well
as against the Mughals in the Deccan.
 Bahadur Shah was, however, successful in conciliating Chatrasal, the
Bundela chief, and Churaman, the Jat chief; the latter also joined him in
the campaign against the Sikhs.
 Jahandar Shah (ruled 1712-13) was a weak and ineffective ruler. His
wazir Zulfiqar Khan assumed the executive direction of the empire with
unprecedented powers.
 Zulfiqar believed that it was necessary to establish friendly relations
with the Rajputs and the Marathas and to conciliate the Hindu
chieftains in general in order to save the empire.
 Zulfiqar reversed the policies of Aurangzeb and abolished jizya.
 He continued the old policy of suppression against the Sikhs. His goal
was to reconcile all those who were willing to share power within the
Mughal institutional framework.
 Zulfiqar Khan made several attempts at reforming the economic system
but failed in his efforts to enhance the revenue collection of the state.
 When Farrukh Siyar, son of the slain prince Azimush-Shan, challenged
Jahandar Shah and Zulfiqar Khan with a large army and funds from
Bihar and Bengal, the rulers found their coffers depleted. In
desperation, they looted their own palaces, even ripping gold and silver
from the walls and ceilings, in order to finance an adequate army.
 Farrukh Siyar (ruled 1713-19) owed his victory and accession to the
Sayyid brothers, Abdullah Khan and Husain Ali Khan Baraha.
 The Sayyids thus earned the offices of wazir and chief bakhshi and
acquired control over the affairs of state.
 They promoted the policies initiated earlier by Zulfiqar Khan. Jizya and
other similar taxes were immediately abolished.
 The Sayyid brothers finally suppressed the Sikh revolt and tried to
conciliate the Rajputs, the Marathas, and the Jats. However, this policy
was hampered by divisiveness between the wazir and the emperor, as
the groups tended to ally themselves with one or the other.
 The Jats once again started plundering the royal highway between Agra
and Delhi. Farrukh Siyar deputed Raja Jai Singh to lead a punitive
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campaign against them but wazir negotiated a settlement over the

raja’s head.
 As a result, throughout northern India zamindars either revolted
violently or simply refused to pay assessed revenues. On the other
hand, Farrukh Siyar compounded difficulties in the Deccan by sending
letters to some Maratha chiefs urging them to oppose the forces of the
Deccan governor, who happened to be the deputy and an associate of
Sayyid Husain Ali Khan.
 Finally, in 1719, the Sayyid brothers brought Ajit Singh of Jodhpur and a
Maratha force to Delhi to depose the emperor.
 The murder of Farrukh Siyar created a wave of revulsion against the
Sayyids among the various factions of nobility, who were also jealous of
their growing power.
 Many of these, in particular the old nobles of Aurangzeb’s time,
resented the wazir’s encouragement of revenue farming, which in their
view was mere shop keeping and violated the age- old Mughal notion
of statecraft.
 In Farrukh Siyar’s place the brothers raised to the throne three young
princes in quick succession within eight months in 1719.
 Two of these, Rafi-ud-Darajat and Rafi-ud-Dawlah (Shah Jahan II), died
of consumption.
 The third, who assumed the title of Muhammad Shah, exhibited
sufficient vigour to set about freeing himself from the brothers’
control.
 A powerful group under the leadership of the Nizam-ul-Mulk, Chin
Qilich Khan, and his father’s cousin Muhammad Amin Khan, the two
eminent nobles emerged finally to dislodge the Sayyid brothers (1720).
 By the time Muhammad Shah (ruled 1719-48) came to power, the
nature of the relationship between the emperor and the nobility had
almost completely changed.
 Individual interests of the nobles had come to guide the course of
politics and state activities.
 In 1720 Muhammad Amin Khan replaced Sayyid Abdullah Khan as
wazir; after Amin Khan’s death (January 1720), the office was occupied
by the Nizam-ul-Mulk for a brief period until Amin Khan’s son Qamar-
ud-Din Khan assumed the title in July 1724 by a claim of hereditary
right.
 The nobles themselves virtually dictated these appointments. By this
time the nobles had assumed lot of powers. They used to get farmans
issued in the name of emperor in their favours.
 The position of emperor was preserved as a symbol only without real
powers. The real powers seated with important groups of nobles.
 The nobles in control of the central offices maintained an all-empire
outlook, even if they were more concerned with the stability of the
regions where they had their jagirs.
 Farmans (mandates granting certain rights or special privileges) to
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governors, faujdar, and other local officials were sent, in conformity

with tradition, in the name of the emperor.
 Individual failings of Aurangzeb’s successors also contributed to the
decline of royal authority.
 Jahandar Shah lacked dignity and decency; Farrukh Siyar was fickle-
minded.
 Muhammad Shah was frivulous and fond of ease and luxury. He was a
pleasure-loving king and was nick named Rangeela.
 During the reign of Muhammad Shah, Nadir Shah raided India and took
away the peacock throne and the Kohinoor diamond.
 Nizam ul mulk was appointed Wazir in 1722 but he relinquished the
post and marched to the Deccan to found the state of Hyderabad.
 Bengal acquired virtual independence during the governorship of
Murshid Quli Khan.
 Saddat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk who was appointed governor of Awadh by
him laid down the foundation of the autonomous state.
 During Ahmed Shah’s reign, Ahmed Shah Abdali (one of the ablest
generals of Nadir Shah) marched towards Delhi and the Mughals ceded
Punjab and Multan.
 Later on, during Alamgir reign Ahmed Shah Abdali occupied Delhi.
Later, Delhi was also plundered by the Marathas.
 During Shah Alam II reign Najib Khan Rohilla became very powerful in
Delhi so much so that Shah Alam II could not enter Delhi. The Battle of
Buxar (1764) was fought during his reign.
 During Akbar Shah II reign Lord Hastings ceased to accept the
sovereignty of Mughals and claimed an equal status.
 Bahadur Shah II was the last Mughal king, who was confined by the
British to the Red Fort.
 During the revolt of 1857 he was proclaimed the Emperor by the
rebellions. He was deported to Rangoon following the 1857 rebellion.
Causes for the  The Mughal Empire declined rapidly after the death of Aurangazeb and
Downfall of the causes for the downfall of the Mughal Empire were varied.
the Mughals  The vastness of the empire became unwieldy. It is quite evident that
the territorial expansion of Mughal empire achieved under Akbar
continued to be the core of the empire. Its further expansion during
Aurangzeb’s reign was in Deccan and in small measure in North-East
region. During Aurangzeb’s period the Mughal empire had the largest
area.
 However, the beginning of the decline of the Mughal empire also could
be traced to the rule of Aurangzeb.
 To some extent, the religious and Deccan policies of Aurangazeb
contributed to its decline.
 The breaking up of the association with the potent regional forces like
the Rajputs and failing relationships with the Deccani states and
Marathas shook the unity and stability of the Mughal empire.
 Under his weak successors the empire kept disintegrating and
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demoralization of the Mughal army also paved the way for it.
 The Mughal court became the scene of factions among the nobles.
 The financial difficulties due to continuous wars led to the decline.
 The neglect of the sea power by the Mughals was felt when the
Europeans began to settle in India.
 Further, the invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali weakened
the Mughal state.
 The weakness of the empire was exposed when Nadir Shah imprisoned
the Mughal Emperor and looted Delhi in 1739.
 Thus, the decline and downfall of the Mughal Empire was due to the
combination of political, social and economic factors.
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MARATHAS
Introduction  The emergence and growth of the Maratha state during the 17th century
was an important episode in the history of India.
 The Territory which includes modern state of Bombay Konkan, Kandesh,
Berar, part of Madhya Pradesh, and part of Hyderabad state was
Maratha state.
 The physical environment of the Maratha country shaped certain
peculiar qualities among the Marathas. The mountainous region and
dense forests made them brave soldiers and adopt guerilla tactics. The
Marathas built a number of forts on the mountains.
 The spread of the Bhakti movement in Maharashtra inculcated a spirit of
religious unity among them. The spiritual leaders like Tukaram, Ramdas,
Vaman Pandit and Eknath fostered social unity.
 The political unity was conferred by Shivaji. The Marathas held
important positions in the administrative and military systems of Deccan
Sultanates of Bijapur and Ahmadnagar. There were a number of
influential Maratha families such as the Mores and Nimbalkers. But the
credit of establishing a powerful Maratha state goes to Shahji Bhonsle
and his son Shivaji.
Shivaji  Shivaji was born at Shivneri in 1627.
 His father was Shahji Bhonsle and mother Jija Bai.
 He inherited the jagir of Poona from his father in 1637.
 After the death of his guardian, Dadaji Kondadev in 1647, Shivaji
assumed full charge of his jagir. Even before that he conquered Raigarh,
Kondana and Torna from the ruler of Bijapur.
 He captured Javli from a Maratha chief, Chanda Rao More. This made
him the master of Mavala region.
 In 1657, he attacked the Bijapur kingdom and captured a number of hill
forts in the Konkan region.
 The Sultan of Bijapur sent Afzal Khan against Shivaji, but Afzal Khan was
murdered by Shivaji in 1659 in a daring manner.
 The Mughal emperor Aurangazeb sent the Mughal governor of the
Deccan, Shaista Khan against Shivaji. Shivaji suffered a defeat at the
hands of the Mughal forces and lost Poona. But Shivaji once again made
a bold attack on Shaista Khan’s military camp at Poona in 1663, killed his
son and wounded Khan. This daring attack affected the prestige of Khan
and he was recalled by Aurangazeb.
 In 1664, Shivaji attacked Surat, the chief port of the Mughals and
plundered it. This time Aurangazeb sent Raja Jai Singh of Amber to fight
against Shivaji. He made elaborate preparations and succeeded in
besieging the Purander fort where Shivaji lodged his family and treasure.
 Shivaji opened negotiations with Jai Singh and the Treaty of Purander
was signed in 1665. According to the treaty, Shivaji had to surrender 23
forts to the Mughals out of 35 forts held by him. The remaining 12 forts
were to be left to Shivaji on condition of service and loyalty to Mughal
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empire.
 On the other hand, the Mughals recognized the right of Shivaji to hold
certain parts of the Bijapur kingdom. As Shivaji asked to exempt him
from personal service to the Mughals, his minor son Shambaji was
granted a mansab of 5000.
 Shivaji visited Agra in 1666 but he was imprisoned there, but, he
managed to escape from prison and made military preparations and
renewed his wars against the Mughals.
 Surat was plundered by him for the second time in 1670. He also
captured all his lost territories by his conquests.
 In 1674 Shivaji crowned himself at Raigarh and assumed the title
Chatrapathi.
 He led an expedition into the Carnatic region and captured Ginjee and
Vellore. After his return from this expedition, Shivaji died in 1680.

Shivaji’s administration
 Shivaji had laid the foundation of a sound system of administration and
his administrative system was largely borrowed from the administrative
practices of the Deccan state.
 Like all other medieval rulers, Shivaji was a despot with all powers
concentrated in his hands. He possessed all executive and legislative
power.
 Shivaji was a great organizer and constructive civilian administrator. The
one of the novelties of Shivajis administration was the introduction of
Maratha language as the state language.

Central Administration
 The king was at the helm of the affairs.
 The administration was divided into eight departments headed by
ministers who are sometimes called Ashtapradhan.
 The eight ministers were:
1. Peshwa who looked after the finances and general
administration.
2. Sari-Naubat who was the Senapati.
3. Majumdar looked after the accounts.
4. Waqai navis looked after the intelligence, post and household
affairs.
5. Surnavis or Chitnis looked after official correspondence.
6. Dabir looked after foreign affairs.
7. Nyayadhish looked after justice.
8. Pandit Rao looked after ecclesiastical affairs.
 The ashtapradhan was not a creation of Shivaji and many of these
officers like Peshwa, Majumdar, Waqai navis, Dabir and Surnavis had
existed under the Deccani rulers also.
 All the members of the asthapradhan except Pandit Rao and Nyaydhish
were asked to lead military campaigns.
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 Under Shivaji these offices were neither hereditary nor permanent and
held the office at the pleasure of the king. They were also frequently
transferred.
 Each of the ashtapradhan was assisted by eight assistants diwan,
Majumdar, Fadnis, Sabnis; Karkhanis, Chitnis, Jamadar and Potnis.
Chitnis dealt with all diplomatic correspondences and wrote all royal
letters.
 The Fadnis used to respond to the letters of commanders of the forts.
 The Potnis looked after the income and expenditure of the royal
treasury.

Provincial and Local Administration

 The provincial administration was also organized on the Deccani and
Mughal system.
 All the provincial units already existed under the Deccani rulers. Shivaji
reorganized and in certain cases renamed them.
 The provinces were known as Prants. The Prants were under the charge
of Subedar.
 Over a number of Subedar there were Sarsubedar to control and
supervise the work of Subedar.
 Smaller than Prant were Tarfs which were headed by a Havaldar.
 Under Tarfs there were Mauzas or villages which were the lowest unit of
administration.
 At the level of village, Kulkarni used to keep accounts and maintained
records while Patil had legal and policing power.
 At the level of Pargana, Deshpande used to keep account and maintain
records while Deshmukh had legal and policing powers.
 The Police officer in rural area was called Faujdar and in urban area was
called Kotwal.
 The Maratha polity did not have unified civilian-cum-military rank.
 Under the Marathas performance-based Brahmin elites manned the
central bureaucracy and the local administration. In this capacity they
were called Kamvishdar who enjoyed wide powers of tax assessment
and collection. They adjudicated cases, provided information about local
conditions and kept records. Later on, the British District collector was
modelled on this Maratha officer only.

Army
 Cavalry and infantry constituted the primary part of the army.
 The Paga cavalrymen were called the Bargirs. They were provided horses
by the state while the Silahdars purchased their armies and horses
themselves.
 The Paga cavalry was well organized. Twenty-five horsemen formed a
unit which was placed under a Havildar.
 Shivaji preferred to give cash salaries to the regular soldiers, though
some time the chief received revenue grants.
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 Strict discipline was maintained in the army. The plunder taken by each
soldier during campaign was strictly accounted for in the army
organization of Shivaji.
 Shivaji maintained a navy as well. The navy was divided into two parts
and each part was commanded by Darive Nayak and Mai Nayak
respectively.

Finance and Revenue

 The revenue system seems to have been patterned on the system of
Malik Ambar land revenue; Trade Tax etc. were the primary source of
the fixed income of Shivaji.
 But income from these sources was not sufficient to meet the
expenditure of the state. Therefore, Shivaji collected the Chauth and
Sardeshmukhi from the territory which was either under his enemies or
under his own influence.
 The chauth was 1/4 part of the income of the particular territory while
the Sardeshmukhi was 1/10. Shivaji collected these taxes simply by force
of his army. These taxes constituted primary source of the income of
Shivaji and after wards helped in the extension of the power and
territory of the Marathas.
 The revenue system of Shivaji was Rytowari in which the state kept
direct contact with peasants.
 Shivaji mostly avoided the system of assigning Jagir to his officers and
whenever he assigned Jagir to them, the right of collecting the revenue
was kept with state officials.

Successors of Shivaji
 There ensued a war of succession after the death of Shivaji between his
sons, Shambaji and Rajaram and Shambaji emerged victorious but later
he was captured and executed by the Mughals.
 Rajaram succeeded the throne but the Mughals made him to flee to the
Ginjee fort. He died at Satara.
 Rajaram was succeeded by his minor son Shivaji II with his mother Tara
Bai as regent.
 The next ruler was Shahu in whose reign the Peshwas rose to power.
Peshwas Balaji Viswanath (1713-1720)
 Balaji Viswanath began his career as a small revenue official and became
Peshwa in 1713.
 As Peshwa, he made his position the most important and powerful as
well as hereditary.
 He played a crucial role in the civil war and finally made Shahu as the
Maratha ruler.
 He sought the support of all Maratha leaders for Shahu.
 In 1719, Balaji Viswanath got certain rights from the then Mughal
emperor, Farukh Siyar.
1. First, the Mughal emperor recognized Shahu as the Maratha king.
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2. Second, he allowed Shahu to collect Chauth and Sardeshmukhi from

the six Mughal provinces of the Deccan including the Carnatic and
Mysore.

Baji Rao I (1720-1740)

 Baji Rao was the eldest son of Balaji Viswanath and he succeeded his
father as Peshwa at the age young of twenty.
 The Maratha power reached its zenith under him.
 He initiated the system of confederacy among the Maratha chiefs. Under
this system, each Maratha chief was assigned a territory which could be
administered autonomously.
 As a result, many Maratha families became prominent and established
their authority in different parts of India.
 They were the Gaekwad at Baroda, the Bhonsle at Nagpur, the Holkars at
Indore, the Scindias at Gwalior, and the Peshwas at Poona.

Balaji Baji Rao (1740-1761)

 Balaji Baji Rao succeeded his father as Peshwa at the young age of
nineteen.
 The Maratha king Shahu died in 1749 without issue. His nominated
successor Ramraja was imprisoned by the Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao at
Satara.
 The full control of the Maratha kingdom came under the Peshwa.
 Peshwa entered into an agreement with the Mughal Emperor in 1752.
According to it, the Peshwa gave assurance to the Mughal Emperor that
he would protect the Mughal Empire from internal and external enemies
for which the Chauth of the northwest provinces and the total revenue
of the Agra and Ajmer provinces would be collected by the Marathas.
 Thus, when Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded India, it became the
responsibility of the Marathas to protect India. The Marathas fought very
bravely against Ahmad Shah Abdali in the third Battle of Panipat in 1761.
But they got defeated. Many Maratha leaders and thousands of soldiers
died in this battle.
 Balaji Baji Rao also died on hearing the news of defeat at the battle of
Panipat. Also, this battle gave a deadly blow to the Maratha power.
Thereafter, the Maratha confederacy weakened due to internal conflicts
among the Maratha chiefs.

The Bhonsles
 The line at Nagpur Bhonsles was subordinate to the Satara rulers.
 A crucial figure from this line was Raghuji Bhonsle (ruled 1727-55), who
was responsible for the Maratha incursions on Bengal and Bihar in the
1740s and early 1750s.
 The relations of his successors, Janoji, Sabaji, and Mudhoji, with the
Peshwas and the Satara line of Bhonsles were varying, and it is in this
sense that these domains can be regarded as only loosely confederated,
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rather than tightly bound together.

 Other subordinate rulers who emerged under the overarching umbrella
provided by the Satara ruler and his Peshwa were equally somewhat
opportunistic in their use of politics.

The Gaikwads
 The Gaikwads, gathered prominence in the 1720. Initially they were
subordinate not only to the Bhonsles but also to the powerful Dabhade
family.
 However, it was only after the death of Sahu, when the power of the
Peshwas was further enhanced, that the position of the Gaikwads truly
improved.
 By the early 1750s, their rights on large portion of the revenues of
Gujarat were recognized by the Peshwa.
 The expulsion of the Mughal governor of the Gujarat province from his
capital of Ahmadabad in 1752 set the seal on the process.
 The Gaikwads preferred, however, to establish their capital in Baroda,
causing realignment in the network of trade and consumption in the
area.
 The rule at Baroda of Damaji (1768) was followed by a period of some
turmoil.
 The Gaikwads still remained partly dependent on Pune and the Peshwa,
especially to intervene in moments of succession crisis.
 The eventual successor of Damaji, Fateh Singh (ruled 1771- 89), did not
remain allied to the Peshwa for long in the late 1770s and early 1780s,
and chose to negotiate a settlement with the English East India
Company, which eventually led to increased British interference in his
affairs.
 By 1800, the British rather than the Peshwa were the final arbiters in
determining succession among the Gaikwads, who became subordinate
rulers under them in the nineteenth century.

The Holkars
 Initially the Holkars had very little political power. However, by 1730s
their chief Malhar Rao Holkar consolidated his position. He was granted
a large share of the chauth collection in Malwa, eastern Gujarat, and
Khandesh.
 Within a few years, Malhar Rao consolidated his own principality at
Indore, from which his successors controlled important trade routes as
well as the crucial trading centre of Burhanpur.
 After Malhar Rao, control of the dynastic fortunes fell largely to his son’s
widow, Ahalya Bai, who ruled from 1765 to 1794 and brought Holkar
power to great glory.

The Sindhias
 The Sindhias carved a prominent place for themselves in North Indian
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politics in the decades following the third battle of Panipat (1761).

 The Sindhias were based largely in central India, first at Ujjain, and later
(from the last quarter of the 18th century) in Gwalior.
 During the long reign of Mahadaji Sindhia (1761-94) family’s fortunes
were truly consolidated.
 Mahadaji, proved an effective and innovative military commander. He
employed a large number of European soldiers in his force. His power
grew rapidly after 1770.
 He managed to make substantial inroads into North India that had been
weakened by Afghan attacks.
 He intervened with some effect in the Mughal court during the reign of
Shah Alam II. The Mughal king made him the “deputy regent” of his
affairs in the mid-1780s.
 His shadow fell not only across the provinces of Delhi and Agra but also
on Rajasthan and Gujarat, making him the most formidable Maratha
leader of the era.
 The officials of the East India Company were very cautious in dealing
with him. His relations with the acting Peshwa, Nana Fadnavis at Pune
were fraught with tension.
 Eventually, the momentum generated by Mahadaji could not be
maintained by his successor Daulat Rao Sindhia (1794-1827), who was
defeated by the British and forced by treaty in 1803 to surrender his
territories both to the north and to the west.
 The careers of some of these potentates, especially Mahadaji Sindhia,
illustrate the potency of Mughal symbols even in the phase of Mughal
decline. For instance, after recapturing Gwalior from the British,
Mahadaji took care to have his control of the town sanctioned.
Decline After the decline of the Mughal Empire, the Marathas emerged as a great
power in India but they could not succeed in preventing the establishment
of British power in India. The important causes for the downfall were that
there was lack of unity among the Maratha chiefs like Holkar, Scindia and
Bhonsle. Also, the superiority of the British army and fighting methods
ultimately won.

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