Life Cycle Models

Software Engineering
 Classical Waterfall Model
• Classical waterfall model divides life cycle
into phases:
– feasibility study,
– requirements analysis and specification,
– design,
– coding and unit testing,
– integration and system testing,
– maintenance.
Classical Waterfall Model

Feasibility Study

Req. Analysis

Design

Coding

Testing

Maintenance
 Relative Effort for Phases
• Phases between feasibility study and
testing 60
– known as development phases.
50
• Among all life cycle phases Relative Effort
40
– maintenance phase consumes
maximum effort. 30
• Among development phases, 20
– testing phase consumes the maximum 10
effort.
0

Maintnce
Req. Sp

Coding
Design

Test
 Classical Waterfall Model (CONT.)
• Most organizations usually define:
– standards on the outputs (deliverables) produced at the end
of every phase
– entry and exit criteria for every phase.
• They also prescribe specific methodologies for:
– specification,
– design,
– testing,
– project management, etc.
 Classical Waterfall Model (CONT.)
• The guidelines and methodologies of an organization:
– called the organization's software development
methodology.
• Software development organizations:
– expect fresh engineers to master the
organization's software development
methodology.
 Feasibility Study
• Main aim of feasibility study:determine whether developing the
product
– financially worthwhile
– technically feasible.
• First roughly understand what the customer wants:
– different data which would be input to the system,
– processing needed on these data,
– output data to be produced by the system,
– various constraints on the behavior of the system.
Activities during Feasibility
Study
• Work out an overall understanding of the
problem.
• Formulate different solution strategies.
• Examine alternate solution strategies in
terms of:
• resources required,
• cost of development, and
• development time.
Activities during Feasibility
Study
• Perform a cost/benefit analysis:
– to determine which solution is the best.
– you may determine that none of the solutions
is feasible due to:
• high cost,
• resource constraints,
• technical reasons.
 Requirements Analysis and
Specification
• Aim of this phase:
– understand the exact requirements of the
customer,
– document them properly.
• Consists of two distinct activities:
– requirements gathering and analysis
– requirements specification.
 Goals of Requirements
Analysis
• Collect all related data from the customer:
– analyze the collected data to clearly
understand what the customer wants,
– find out any inconsistencies and
incompleteness in the requirements,
– resolve all inconsistencies and incompleteness.
 Requirements Gathering
• Gathering relevant data:
– usually collected from the end-users through
interviews and discussions.
– For example, for a business accounting
software:
• interview all the accountants of the organization to
find out their requirements.
 Requirements Analysis (CONT.)
• The data you initially collect from the
users:
– would usually contain several
contradictions and ambiguities:
– each user typically has only a partial and
incomplete view of the system.
 Requirements Analysis (CONT.)
• Ambiguities and contradictions:
– must be identified
– resolved by discussions with the customers.
• Next, requirements are organized:
– into a Software Requirements Specification (SRS)
document.
 Requirements Analysis (CONT.)

• Engineers doing requirements

analysis and specification:
–are designated as analysts.
 Design
• Design phase transforms
requirements specification:
– into a form suitable for implementation
in some programming language.
 Design
• In technical terms:
– during design phase, software
architecture is derived from the SRS
document.
• Two design approaches:
– traditional approach,
– object oriented approach.
 Traditional Design Approach

• Consists of two activities:

–Structured analysis
–Structured design
 Structured Analysis Activity

• Identify all the functions to be performed.

• Identify data flow among the functions.
• Decompose each function recursively into
sub-functions.
– Identify data flow among the subfunctions as
well.
 Structured Analysis (CONT.)
• Carried out using Data flow diagrams
(DFDs).
• After structured analysis, carry out
structured design:
– architectural design (or high-level design)
– detailed design (or low-level design).
 Structured Design
• High-level design:
– decompose the system into modules,
– represent invocation relationships among the
modules.
• Detailed design:
– different modules designed in greater detail:
• data structures and algorithms for each module are
designed.
 Object Oriented Design
• First identify various objects (real world
entities) occurring in the problem:
– identify the relationships among the objects.
– For example, the objects in a pay-roll software
may be:
• employees,
• managers,
• pay-roll register,
• Departments, etc.
 Object Oriented Design (CONT.)
• Object structure
– further refined to obtain the detailed design.
• OOD has several advantages:
– lower development effort,
– lower development time,
– better maintainability.
 Implementation
• Purpose of implementation phase (aka
coding and unit testing phase):
– translate software design into source
code.
 Implementation

• During the implementation phase:

– each module of the design is coded,
– each module is unit tested
• tested independently as a stand alone unit, and
debugged,
– each module is documented.
 Implementation (CONT.)

• The purpose of unit testing:

– test if individual modules work correctly.
• The end product of implementation phase:
– a set of program modules that have been
tested individually.
 Integration and System Testing

• Different modules are integrated in a

planned manner:
– modules are almost never integrated in one
shot.
– Normally integration is carried out through a
number of steps.
• During each integration step,
– the partially integrated system is tested.
Integration and System Testing

M1 M2

M3 M4
 System Testing

• After all the modules have been successfully

integrated and tested:
– system testing is carried out.
• Goal of system testing:
– ensure that the developed system
functions according to its
requirements as specified in the
SRS document.
 Maintenance
• Maintenance of any software product:
– requires much more effort than the effort
to develop the product itself.
– development effort to maintenance effort
is typically 40:60.
 Maintenance (CONT.)
• Corrective maintenance:
– Correct errors which were not discovered during the product
development phases.
• Perfective maintenance:
– Improve implementation of the system
– enhance functionalities of the system.
• Adaptive maintenance:
– Port software to a new environment,
• e.g. to a new computer or to a new operating system.
 Iterative Waterfall Model
• Classical waterfall model is idealistic:
– assumes that no defect is introduced during
any development activity.
– in practice:
• defects do get introduced in almost every phase of
the life cycle.
 Iterative Waterfall Model (CONT.)

• Defects usually get detected much later

in the life cycle:
– For example, a design defect might go
unnoticed till the coding or testing phase.
 Iterative Waterfall Model (CONT.)
• Once a defect is detected:
– we need to go back to the phase where it was
introduced
– redo some of the work done during that and all
subsequent phases.
• Therefore we need feedback paths in the
classical waterfall model.
Iterative Waterfall Model (CONT.)
Feasibility
Study
Req. Analysis

Design

Coding

Testing

Maintenance
 Iterative Waterfall Model (CONT.)
• Errors should be detected
 in the same phase in which they are
introduced.
• For example:
 if a design problem is detected in the design
phase itself,
 the problem can be taken care of much more
easily
 than say if it is identified at the end of the
integration and system testing phase.
 Phase containment of errors
• Reason: rework must be carried out not only to the design
but also to code and test phases.
• The principle of detecting errors as close to its point of
introduction as possible:
– is known as phase containment of errors.
• Iterative waterfall model is by far the most widely used
model.
– Almost every other model is derived from the waterfall model.
 Classical Waterfall Model (CONT.)

• Irrespective of the life cycle model actually

followed:
– the documents should reflect a classical waterfall
model of development,
– comprehension of the documents is facilitated.
 Classical Waterfall Model (CONT.)
• Metaphor of mathematical theorem
proving:
– A mathematician presents a proof as a single
chain of deductions,
• even though the proof might have come from a
convoluted set of partial attempts, blind alleys and
backtracks.
 Prototyping Model
• Before starting actual development,
– a working prototype of the system should first
be built.
• A prototype is a toy implementation of a
system:
– limited functional capabilities,
– low reliability,
– inefficient performance.
Reasons for developing a
prototype
• Illustrate to the customer:
– input data formats, messages, reports, or
interactive dialogs.
• Examine technical issues associated with
product development:
– Often major design decisions depend on
issues like:
• response time of a hardware controller,
• efficiency of a sorting algorithm, etc.
 Prototyping Model (CONT.)

• The third reason for developing a prototype is:

– it is impossible to ``get it right'' the first time,
– we must plan to throw away the first product

• if we want to develop a good product.

 Prototyping Model (CONT.)
• Start with approximate requirements.
• Carry out a quick design.
• Prototype model is built using several short-
cuts:
– Short-cuts might involve using inefficient,
inaccurate, or dummy functions.
• A function may use a table look-up rather than performing
the actual computations.
 Prototyping Model (CONT.)
• The developed prototype is submitted to the
customer for his evaluation:
– Based on the user feedback, requirements are
refined.
– This cycle continues until the user approves the
prototype.
• The actual system is developed using the
classical waterfall approach.
 Prototyping Model (CONT.)
Build
Prototype
Requirement Customer Customer
s Quick Design Evaluation of satisfied Design
Prototype
Gathering

Refine Implement
Requirements

Test

Maintain
 Prototyping Model (CONT.)

• Requirements analysis and specification phase becomes

redundant:
– final working prototype (with all user feedbacks incorporated)
serves as an animated requirements specification.
• Design and code for the prototype is usually thrown away:
– However, the experience gathered from developing the prototype
helps a great deal while developing the actual product.
 Prototyping Model (CONT.)
• Even though construction of a working prototype model
involves additional cost --- overall development cost might
be lower for:
– systems with unclear user requirements,
– systems with unresolved technical issues.
• Many user requirements get properly defined and technical
issues get resolved:
– these would have appeared later as change requests and resulted
in incurring massive redesign costs.
 Evolutionary Model
• Evolutionary model (aka successive versions or
incremental model):
– The system is broken down into several modules which can be
incrementally implemented and delivered.
• First develop the core modules of the system.
• The initial product skeleton is refined into increasing
levels of capability:
– by adding new functionalities in successive versions.
 Evolutionary Model (CONT.)
• Successive version of the product:
– functioning systems capable of performing
some useful work.
– A new release may include new functionality:
• also existing functionality in the current release
might have been enhanced.
Evolutionary Model (CONT.)

C
A AB A
B
Advantages of Evolutionary Model
• Users get a chance to experiment with a partially developed
system:
– much before the full working version is released,
• Helps finding exact user requirements:
– much before fully working system is developed.
• Core modules get tested thoroughly:
– reduces chances of errors in final product.
Disadvantages of Evolutionary Model

• Often, difficult to subdivide problems into

functional units:
– which can be incrementally implemented and
delivered.
– evolutionary model is useful for very large
problems,
• where it is easier to find modules for incremental
implementation.
 Evolutionary Model with Iteration

• Many organizations use a combination of

iterative and incremental development:
– a new release may include new functionality
– existing functionality from the current release
may also have been modified.
Evolutionary Model with iteration
• Several advantages:
– Training can start on an earlier release
• customer feedback taken into account
– Markets can be created:
• for functionality that has never been offered.
– Frequent releases allow developers to fix
unanticipated problems quickly.
 Spiral Model
• Proposed by Boehm in 1988.
• Each loop of the spiral represents a phase of the
software process:
– the innermost loop might be concerned with system feasibility,
– the next loop with system requirements definition,
– the next one with system design, and so on.
• There are no fixed phases in this model, the phases
shown in the figure are just examples.
 Spiral Model (CONT.)
• The team must decide:
– how to structure the project into phases.
• Start work using some generic model:
– add extra phases
• for specific projects or when problems are identified
during a project.
• Each loop in the spiral is split into four sectors
(quadrants).
 Spiral Model (CONT.)
Determine Identify &
Objectives Resolve Risks

Customer
Evaluation of Develop Next
Prototype Level of Product
 Spiral Model
Determine objectives
Evaluate alternatives
alternatives and identify, resolve risks
constraints Risk
analysis
Risk
analysis
Risk
analysis Opera-
Prototype 3 tional
Prototype 2 protoype
Risk
REVIEW analy sis Proto-
type 1
Requirements plan Simulations, models, benchmarks
Life-cycle plan Concept of
Operation S/W
requirements Product
design Detailed
Requirement design
Development
plan validation Code
Design Unit test
Integration
and test plan V&V Integr ation
Plan next phase test
Acceptance
Service test Develop, verify
next-level product
 Objective Setting (First Quadrant)

• Identify objectives of the phase,

• Examine the risks associated with these
objectives.
– Risk:
• any adverse circumstance that might
hamper successful completion of a
software project.
• Find alternate solutions possible.
 Risk Assessment and Reduction (Second Quadrant)

• For each identified project risk,

– a detailed analysis is carried out.
• Steps are taken to reduce the risk.
• For example, if there is a risk that the
requirements are inappropriate:
– a prototype system may be developed.
 Spiral Model (CONT.)
• Development and Validation (Third quadrant):
– develop and validate the next level of the product.
• Review and Planning (Fourth quadrant):
– review the results achieved so far with the customer and plan the
next iteration around the spiral.
• With each iteration around the spiral:
– progressively more complete version of the software gets built.
 Spiral Model as a meta model

• Subsumes all discussed models:

– a single loop spiral represents waterfall model.
– uses an evolutionary approach --
• iterations through the spiral are evolutionary levels.
– enables understanding and reacting to risks
during each iteration along the spiral.
– uses:
• prototyping as a risk reduction mechanism
• retains the step-wise approach of the waterfall model.
 Comparison of Different Life Cycle Models

• Iterative waterfall model

– most widely used model.
– But, suitable only for well-understood problems.
• Prototype model is suitable for projects not
well understood:
– user requirements
– technical aspects
 Comparison of Different Life Cycle Models (CONT.)

• Evolutionary model is suitable for large

problems:
– can be decomposed into a set of modules that can
be incrementally implemented,
– incremental delivery of the system is acceptable to
the customer.
• The spiral model:
– suitable for development of technically challenging
software products that are subject to several kinds
of risks.