UNIT-2: Foundations of Individual Behaviour: Perception: Definition of Perception-

Factors of Perception- The Perception Process-Motivation: Definition of Motivation-

Theories of Motivation: Maslow’s Hierarchy Theory of Needs-Herzberg’s Two-Factor
Theory-Mc Gregor’s Theory of Motivation-Learning: Definition Learning- Objectives of
Learning- Process of Learning- Theories of Learning-Classical conditioning theory- Operant
conditioning theory.
Definition of Perception: “Perception is the process through which the information
from outside environment is selected, received, organised and interpreted to make it
meaningful to you. This input of meaningful information results in decisions and actions.”
“Perception may be defined as a process by which individuals organize and interpret their
sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.”
Various Definitions by Different Authors:
According to S.P. Robbins, "Perception may be defined as a means by which people organize
and understand their sensory impressions to give meaning to their surroundings".
According to Joseph Reitz, "Perception includes all those processes by which an individual
receives information about his environment-seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting, and smelling",
According to Kolasa, "Perception is selection and organization of material which originates
from the external environment at one time or the other to provide the meaningful reality we
experience".
Nature of Perception: The nature of perception in organisational behaviour is as
follows:
 1. Intellectual Process: Perception involves the selection, organization, and analysis of
data from the surroundings to gain some viewpoints. Hence, it is an intellectual process.
2. Psychological Process: Perception is based on the psychology of individuals.
Hence, it can be said that how a person acts, thinks, or feels is influenced by the
perception of his environment. 
3. Subjective Process: Two or more persons might observe the same event differently.
This depends on their ability to choose what to understand, and how to classify the
information collection and analysis of the event. Thus, perception is a subjective process.
4. Lens Providing Worldview: Perception acts as a lens because it equips a person
with a viewpoint about his surroundings and reality.
5. Socially Connected: Every individual needs to understand the nature of another
person every now and then because the mindset of an individual keeps on changing with
time. Hence, it is said that perception is socially connected.
6. Culturally Influenced: Views of people can be influenced by their
cultural values about the world. For example, people belonging to different cultures
speak different languages.
7. Self-Fulfilling: When we talk about person perception, both the perceiver and the
perceived are the persons, which ultimately makes the scenario more complex.For
example, during hard times, people believe that the present situation is bad and it will
become worse in the days to come. Hence, they start behaving selfishly. They just focus
on protecting themselves and their families.
Factors influencing perception: The factors which affects perceptual mechanism are
of three kinds:
1. Characteristics of the Perceiver (Internal Factors): These are the personal
characteristics of the individuals:
a) Needs & Motives: Individual’s perception is basically determined by their inner
needs and motives. They take things differently according to their different needs and
motives. Different needs results in different stimuli, similarly people select different
items to satisfy their needs. According to Freud, “Wishful thinking is the means by
which the Id, a part of personality, attempts to achieve tension reduction.” In such
cases, people will perceive only those items which suit their wishful thinking.
 b) Self-Concept: How actually a person views others or the rest of the world will
clearly decide that how he thinks about himself, or what his self-concept is. It is
largely based upon individuals’ complex psychological make-up. Self-understanding
helps understanding others.
c) Beliefs: A person’s belief has direct impact on his perception. It is very difficult for
an individual to think beyond his personal beliefs because most of the times people go
as per their beliefs and they perceive in the same manner.
d) Past Experience: People’s perception is greatly influenced by their past
experiences. A person, having good experience in past will perceive accordingly and
vice versa.
e) Current Psychological State: Current psychological or emotional state of
people plays an important role in perception. Present position of the person defines
how a person will perceive thing. Like, a person in a good mood will perceive in a
different manner as compared to a person who is not in a good mood.
f) Expectations: Again, expectations are major players in deciding how a person will
perceive. Expectations are related with the state of anticipation of particular behaviour
from a person. E.g. If a person thinks that Mr. X will never do anything good to him
then even if Mr. X is right that person will always remain under an impression that
Mr. X is wrong.
2. Characteristics of the Perceived or Target: These are the personal
characteristics of the individuals:
a) Size: The bigger is the size of the perceived stimulus, the greater the possibility that it
is perceived & vice versa. People tend to understand things better when it is explained
in a clearer manner and they understand the same accordingly.
b) Intensity: More intense the external stimulus is, the more likely it is to be perceived
e.g. a loud sound, bright colour etc. is more likely to attract attention than a soft sound
or relatively dull colour.
c) Frequency: The greater the frequency of repetition of things, the greater will be the
perceptual selectivity. This is also in accordance with the repetitive theory of learning.
d) Status: Perception is also influenced by the status of the perceiver. High status
people can have greater influence on perception of an employee as compared to low
status people.
 e) Contrast: The stimulus which is in contrast with the surrounding environment
attracts more attention as compared to the stimuli that blends in.
3. Situational Factors: Time, place and situation at the time of the communication plays
an important role in perception. Such situational factors can be further classified as:
a) Physical setting: This includes place, location, light, heat, ventilation, basic
amenities etc. If all these things are proper then people may perceive positively and
vice versa.
b) Social setting: This includes human resources i.e. the people around you or the
affected parties or the people concerned about you or the persons you are concerned
about or the people who you work with.
c) Organizational setting: This includes the hierarchy in the organization,
organizational setup, structure etc. All these influence the perception.

The Perception Process: Under the process of perception a person chooses information
from his surrounding environment, organises this information and then interprets it. As a
result of it ideas, view point, values, feelings and behaviour are formed. The process of
perception has been shown in the following: Input-throughput output model in the following
diagram:
 1. Perceptual Inputs: Perception input means the stimuli available in the
environment. These stimuli include objects, events and people. When a person comes in
contact with the stimuli in the environment, the process of perception starts.
Characteristics of stimuli, characteristics of the perceiver himself and the situation have a
significant role to play in the choice of stimuli by an individual. In reality, perceptual
inputs are not a part of the process of perception but it is needed to start the process of
perception.
2. Perceptual Throughputs: Perceptual throughputs is in reality the process of
perception. Under it perceptual inputs are converted into perceptual outputs. In other
words, under it during perceptual inputs the information received is processed to obtain
outputs. The following three factors are included under the perceptual throughput:
a) Selection of Stimuli: There are numerous stimuli in the environment. Our sensory
organs are not capable enough to absorb all the stimuli. We get attracted to only those
stimuli which are related to us. The remaining stimuli are simply ignored by us. In this
way, at this stage some stimuli out of a large number are selected. (Note: The choice of
stimuli is influenced by many factors which are detailed ahead in this chapter).
b) Organisation of Stimuli: After selecting the stimuli, they are organised so that they
can be made meaningful. For example, if we want to draw meanings of an incomplete
picture, first of all we shall have to complete the picture itself. Making the incomplete
picture complete is called organising. With the help of his cognitive power an individual
visualises the complete picture with his perception. Here we have a diagram.
Immediately, on seeing this diagram the image of a triangle emerges in our mind. Some
other person can look at this diagram as only three lines instead of a triangle. With the
help of his sensory system a man can the information received by doing some plus-minus
 exercise and makes the whole thing meaningful. This is what we call the organisation of
stimuli. This is what we call the organisation of stimuli.
c) Interpretation of Stimuli: After selecting and organising stimuli from the
environment an individual interprets them. In the diagram given under point (ii) the
moment an individuals looked at the three lines, he immediately organised it. After
organising these lines, he immediately thought that it was a triangle. It should be kept in
mind that every individual interprets in a particular manner. If the perceiver is not
intelligent his interpretation can be wrong. If the wrong interpretation happens to be
favourable to him, he will not shirk in doing a wrong interpretation. In the present
example, let us say that the onlooker wants to present it as a triangle but if the perceiver’s
interest lies in seeing them as three lines, then he will see only three lines and not a
triangle.
3. Perceptual Outputs: When the perceptual inputs go through the process of
perceptual throughputs, perceptual outputs start appearing. In other words, at this stage
the results of the perception process can be seen. These results are in tune with the
individual’s opinions, attitudes, values, feelings, etc. The results of this perception
process influence the behaviour of an individual along with some other factors.
Motivation: Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented
behaviours. It is what causes you to act, whether it is getting a glass of water to reduce thirst
or reading a book to gain knowledge.
Motivation involves the biological, emotional, social, and cognitive forces that activate
behavior.
Various definitions of motivation by different authors:
Michael J. Jucius – “Motivation is the act of stimulating one or oneself to get a desired course
of action to push the right button to get desired results”.
Dale Beach – “Motivation can be defined as willingness to expend energy to achieve a goal
or a reward”.
Mc Farland – Motivation refers to the way in which urges, drives, desires, aspirations,
striving or needs, direct, control or explain the behaviour of human beings.
Koontz and O’Donnell – “Motivation is a general term applying to the entire class of drives,
desires, needs, wishes and similar force that induce an individual or a group of people to
work”.
Edwin B. Flippo – “Motivation is the process of attempting to influence others to do their
work through the possibility of gain or reward”.
Scott – “Motivation means a process of stimulating people to action to accomplishing desired
goals”.
Dubin – “Motivation is the complex of force starting and keeping person at work in an
organisation”.
Lillis – “Motivation is the stimulation of any emotion or desire operating upon ones will and
prompting or driving one to action”.
J. E. Rosenz Weig and F. K. Kast – “Motivation is an inspiration process which impels the
members of the team to accomplish the desired goals.”
S. Zedck and M. Blood – “Motivation is a pre-disposition to act in a specified goal directed
way.”
The Encyclopedia of Management observes – “Motivation refers to the degree of readiness of
an organism to pursue some designated goal, and implies the determination of the nature and
locus of the forces, including the degree of readiness.”
Objectives of Motivation: Following are some important objectives of motivation:
1. To Create Conditions: Main basic objective of motivation is to create conditions in
which people are willing to work with zeal, initiative, interest and enthusiasm with a high
moral satisfaction personal as well as group. Motivation, as well creates feeling or
responsibility and loyalty. This ultimately results indiscipline. Naturally the workers feel
pride and confident towards achievement of organisational goals effectively.
2. To Stimulate Employee Growth: Motivational techniques are utilised to stimulate
employee growth. Clarence Francis rightly said that “You can buy a man’s time, you can
buy a man’s physical presence at a given place, you can even buy a measured number of
skilled muscular motions per hour or day, but you cannot buy enthusiasm, you cannot
buy initiative, you cannot buy loyalty, you cannot buy devotion of hearts, minds and
souls. You have to earn these things.” Motivation helps management in winning those
that cannot be bought. Managers believe that motivation is one of the most important
factors in managing human resources today.
3. To Achieve Organisational Goals: Predetermined objectives and goals of any
organisation can be achieved by willful as well as efficient work by the work force.
Motivation only, can make the workforce to stand to expected standards and efficiency.
 It, therefore, is a basic duty of every manager to motivate his subordinates for the
attainment of predetermined organisational goals and objectives.
4. For Better Utilisation of Human and Non-Human Resources: It is the duty
of every manager to utilise both human and non-human resources in the best possible
way. If managers motivate the employees continuously, they will automatically ensure
best utilisation of human resources. If human resources are timely and properly
motivated, they, in turn utilise the non-human resources properly. Through motivation
there will be better utilisation of resources and worker’s abilities and capabilities.
5. For Job Satisfaction: Higher motivation leads to job satisfaction of workers which
can reduce absenteeism, turnover and labour unrest.
6. For Better Industrial Relations: If management is successful in understanding the
motives or needs of the workers and provides an environment in which appropriate
incentives are available for their need satisfaction, it leads to better industrial relations
between management and workers. It also will increase efficiency and effectiveness of
the organisation. Motivation will also foster team spirit among the workers and increase
their loyalty to the organisation.
Factors of motivation: Following are some important factors of motivation:
1. Money: Money is the traditional factor of motivation. Peter Drucker also considered
money to be the most important motivator for the employees. Today also money is a
powerful motivator in developing countries. “Money” as a “motivator factor” means
monetary incentives offered to all categories of employees.
2. Achievement: ‘To achieve something’ is a natural instinct and urge in every human
being. Achievement is, therefore, said to be one of the esteem needs. Naturally chances
of achievement serve as motivating factor to the employees.
3. Recognition: Every human desires to get recognised for his extra ordinary
performance or any great or positive thing achieved by him. This satisfies his ego. In
such conditions he is automatically motivated to perform better. Getting recognition is
also another need of a human being. Thus hard work, devotion outstanding performance
by the employee must be recognised by the organisation.
4. Advancement: Employee’s urge for self-advancement is also powerful factor of
motivation. Many employees are always after their advancement may be called as self
actualisation. It is the apex level of needs which always motivates the employees.
5. The work itself: Work motivating factor is a basic factor of motivation. Every human
being keeps himself busy in some work and earn money for livelihood.
6. The growth: The possibility of growth gives satisfaction to the employees. If the
organisation provides opportunities for personal growth of employees, they will be
highly motivated.
7. Responsibility: The opportunities of higher responsibility motivate the employees
more, as they get along with higher responsibility more authority also. Therefore,
responsibility is also motivating factor.
Theories of Motivation:
Maslow’s Hierarchy Theory of Needs : Maslow (1943, 1954) stated that people are
motivated to achieve certain needs and that some needs take precedence over others. Our
most basic need is for physical survival, and this will be the first thing that motivates our
behavior. Once that level is fulfilled the next level up is what motivates us, and so on.

1. Physiological needs: These are biological requirements for human survival, e.g. air,
food, drink, shelter, clothing, warmth, sex, sleep. If these needs are not satisfied the
human body cannot function optimally. Maslow considered physiological needs the most
important as all the other needs become secondary until these needs are met.
2. Safety needs: Once an individual’s physiological needs are satisfied, the needs for
security and safety become salient. People want to experience order, predictability and
control in their lives. These needs can be fulfilled by the family and society (e.g. police,
schools, business and medical care). For example, emotional security, financial security
(e.g. employment, social welfare), law and order, freedom from fear, social stability,
property, health and wellbeing (e.g. safety against accidents and injury).
3. Love and belongingness needs: After physiological and safety needs have been
fulfilled, the third level of human needs is social and involves feelings of belongingness.
Belongingness, refers to a human emotional need for interpersonal relationships,
affiliating, connectedness, and being part of a group. Examples of belongingness needs
include friendship, intimacy, trust, and acceptance, receiving and giving affection, and
love.
4. Esteem needs: These are the fourth level in Maslow’s hierarchy and include self-
worth, accomplishment and respect. Maslow classified esteem needs into two categories:
(i) esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement, mastery, independence) and (ii) the desire
for reputation or respect from others (e.g., status, prestige). Maslow indicated that the
need for respect or reputation is most important for children and adolescents and
precedes real self-esteem or dignity.
5. Self-actualization needs: These are the highest level in Maslow's hierarchy, and
refer to the realization of a person's potential, self-fulfilment, seeking personal growth
and peak experiences. Maslow (1943) describes this level as the desire to accomplish
everything that one can, to become the most that one can be. Individuals may perceive or
focus on this need very specifically. For example, one individual may have a strong
desire to become an ideal parent. In another, the desire may be expressed economically,
academically or athletically. For others, it may be expressed creatively, in paintings,
pictures, or inventions.