Linear Algebra

Linear Equations

Greg Mayer, Ph.D.

Academic Professional
School of Mathematics

Systems of Linear Equations

Topics and Learning Objectives

Topics
We will explore the following concepts in this video.
• systems of linear equations
• elementary row operations
• solving linear systems

Learning Objectives
Students should be able to do the following after watching this video and
completing the assigned homework.
• identify coefficients and variables in a linear system
• apply elementary row operations to solve linear systems of equations
A Single Linear Equation

A linear equation has the form

a1 x1 + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn = b
a1 , . . . , an and b are the coefficients, x1 , . . . , xn are the variables or
unknowns, and n is the number of variables.

For example,
• 2x1 + 4x2 = 4 is one equation with two variables
• 3x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 6 is one equation with three variables
Systems of Linear Equations

When we have one or more linear equation, we have a linear system of

equations. For example, a linear system with two equations is
x1 + 1.5x2 + 0.9x3 = 4
5x1 + 7x3 = 5
We might want to know:
• what values of the unknowns satisfy both equations?
• what procedure can we use to identify those values?
The Solution Set

Definition: A Solution of a Linear System

The set of all possible values of x1 , x2 , . . . xn that satisfy all equations is
the solution set of the system. One point in the solution set is a solution.
Two Variable Case

The equation of the form a1 x1 + a2 x2 = b defines a line. How many different

ways can two lines intersect?

x1 − 2x2 = −1 x1 − 2x2 = −1 x1 − 2x2 = −1

−x1 + 3x2 = 3 −x1 + 2x2 = 1 −x1 + 2x2 = 3
x2 x2 x2

(3, 2)
x1 x1 x1

non-parallel lines identical lines parallel lines

exactly one solution infinitely many solutions no solutions
Three Variable Case

The equation a1 x1 + a2 x2 + a3 x3 = b defines a plane. The solution set to a

system of three equations is the set of points were all planes intersect.
How many different ways can three planes intersect?

planes intersect at a point planes intersect on a line parallel planes

unique solution infinite number of solutions no solution

Number of Solutions

Theorem: the Number of Solutions to a Linear System

The solution set to a system of linear equations can only have
• exactly one point (there is a unique solution), or
• infinitely many points (there are many solutions), or
• no points (there are no solutions)

Later in this course we will see why these are the only three possibilities.
Row Reduction by Elementary Row Operations

How can we find the solution set to a set of linear equations?

We can manipulate equations in a linear system using row operations.

1. (Replacement/Addition) Add a multiple of one equation to another.
2. (Interchange) Interchange two equations.
3. (Scaling) Multiply an equation by a non-zero scalar.
When we apply these operations to a linear system we do not change the
solution set. Let’s use these operations to solve a system of equations.
Example: Solving a Linear System

Identify the solution set of the linear system.

x1 −7x3 = 8
2x2 −8x3 = 8
2x1 −2x3 = 4
Summary

We explored the following concepts in this video.

• systems of linear equations
• elementary row operations
• applying elementary row operations to solve a linear system
Linear Algebra
Linear Equations

Greg Mayer, Ph.D.

Academic Professional
School of Mathematics

Consistent Systems
Topics and Learning Objectives

Topics
We will explore the following concepts in this video.
• augmented matrices
• fundamental questions of existence and uniqueness of solutions
• row equivalence

Learning Objectives
Students should be able to do the following after watching this video and
completing the assigned homework.
• express a set of linear equations as an augmented matrix
• characterize a linear system in terms of the number of solutions, and
whether the system is consistent or inconsistent
Augmented Matrices

It is redundant to write x1 , x2 , . . . again and again. So we rewrite systems

using matrices. For example,
x1 −2x2 +x3 = 0
2x2 −8x3 = 7
can be written as the augmented matrix,
 
1 −2 1 0
0 2 −8 7

The vertical line reminds us that the first three columns are the coefficients to
our variables x1 , x2 , and x3 . Row operations can be applied to rows of
augmented matrices as though they were coefficients in a system.
Consistent Systems and Row Equivalence

Definition: Consistent
A linear system is consistent if it has at least one solution.

Definition: Row Equivalence

Two matrices are row equivalent if a sequence of row operations trans-
forms one matrix into the other.

Note: if the augmented matrices of two linear systems are row equivalent,
then the systems have the same solution set.
Example for Consistent Systems and Row Equivalence

Suppose      
1 1 1 0 1 1
A= , B= , C=
0 1 0 1 0 0

1. Are A and B row equivalent? Are A and C row equivalent?

Example for Consistent Systems and Row Equivalence

Suppose      
1 1 1 0 1 1
A= , B= , C=
0 1 0 1 0 0
   
1 1 1 1 1 1
2. Do the augmented matrices and correspond to
0 1 1 0 0 1
consistent systems?
Summary: Fundamental Questions

In this video we explored the following concepts.

• Augmented matrices, row equivalence, and consistent systems.
• Fundamental questions that we revisit many times throughout our course:
1. Does a given linear system have a solution? In other words, is it consistent?
2. If it is consistent, is the solution unique?
Linear Algebra
Linear Equations

Greg Mayer, Ph.D.

Academic Professional
School of Mathematics

Echelon Form and RREF

Topics and Learning Objectives

Topics
We will explore the following concepts in this video.
• echelon form and row reduced echelon form

Learning Objectives
Students should be able to do the following after watching this video and
completing the assigned homework.
• identify whether a matrix is in echelon form or in row reduced echelon
form (RREF)
• give examples of matrices in echelon form or in RREF
Motivation: Identifying a Solution to a Linear System

This matrix below in a form referred to as row reduced echelon form.

 
1 0 3
0 1 7
By inspection, what is the solution to the linear system?
Definition: Echelon Form

A rectangular matrix is in echelon form if

1. All zero rows (if any are present) are at the bottom.
2. The first non-zero entry (or leading entry) of a row is to the right of any
leading entries in the row above it (if any).
3. All entries below a leading entry (if any) are zero.
Examples
Matrix A is in echelon form. B is not in echelon form.
 
2 0 1 1  
0 0 3
A= 0 0 5 3 , B=
 
0 0 2
0 0 0 0
Definition: Echelon Form

A matrix in echelon form is in row reduced echelon form (RREF) if

1. All leading entries, if any, are equal to 1.
2. Leading entries are the only nonzero entry in their respective column.
Examples
Matrix A is in RREF. B is not in RREF.
   
1 0 0 1 1 0 6 1
A= 0 0 1 3 , B= 0 0
   1 3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Example of a Matrix in Echelon Form

 = non-zero number, ∗ = any number

 
0  ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
0
 0 0  ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
0
 0 0 0 0 0 0  ∗ ∗
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0  ∗
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Example

Which of the following are in RREF?

 
1 0

a) d) 0 6 3 0
0 2

   
0 0 1 17 0
b) e)
0 0 0 0 1

 
0
1
c)  
0
0
Summary: Echelon and RREF

In this video we explored the following concepts.

• echelon and row reduced echelon forms
• identifying whether a matrix is in echelon or in RREF
Linear Algebra
Linear Equations

Greg Mayer, Ph.D.

Academic Professional
School of Mathematics

The Row Reduction Algorithm

Topics and Learning Objectives

Topics
We will explore the following concepts in this video.
• row reduction algorithm
• pivots and pivot columns

Learning Objectives
Students should be able to do the following after watching this video and
completing the assigned homework.
• characterize a linear system in terms of the number of leading entries,
pivots, pivot columns, pivot positions
• apply the row reduction algorithm to reduce a linear system to echelon
form, or to RREF
Definition: Pivot Position, Pivot Column

A pivot position in a matrix A is a location in A that corresponds to a

leading 1 in the row reduced echelon form of A.

A pivot column is a column of A that contains a pivot position.

Example: Express the matrix in RREF and identify the pivot columns.
 
0 −3 −6 9
 −1 −2 −1 3 
−2 −3 0 3
Row Reduction Algorithm

The algorithm we used in the previous example produces a matrix in RREF. Its
steps can be stated as follows.

Step 1: Swap the first row with a lower one so the leftmost nonzero
entry is in the first row
Step 2: Scale the 1st row so that its leading entry is equal to 1
Step 3: Use row replacement so all entries above and below this leading
entry (if any) are equal to zero
Then repeat these steps for row 2, then for row 3, and so on, for the
remaining rows of the matrix.
Notes on the Row Reduction Algorithm

• There are many algorithms for reducing a matrix to echelon form, or to

RREF.
• If we only need to count pivots, we do not need RREF. Echelon form is
sufficient.
Summary: Fundamental Questions

In this video we explored the following concepts.

• pivot, pivot columns, pivot positions
• the row reduction algorithm
Linear Algebra
Linear Equations

Greg Mayer, Ph.D.

Academic Professional
School of Mathematics

Existence and Uniqueness

Topics and Learning Objectives

Topics
We will explore the following concepts in this video.
• consistency, existence, uniqueness
• pivots, and basic and free variables

Learning Objectives
Students should be able to do the following after watching this video and
completing the assigned homework.
• determine whether a linear system is consistent from its echelon form
• apply the row reduction algorithm to compute the coefficients of a
polynomial
Basic and Free Variables

Consider the augmented matrix

 
  1 3 0 7 0 4
A ~b = 0 0 1 4 0 5
0 0 0 0 1 6
The leading one’s are in first, third, and fifth columns.
• The pivot columns of A are the first, third, and fifth columns
• The corresponding variables of the system A~x = ~b are x1 , x3 , and x5 .
Variables that correspond to a pivot are basic variables.
• Variables that are not basic are free variables. They can take any value.
• The free variables are x2 and x4 . Any choice of the free variables leads to
a solution of the system.
Notes on Basic and Free Variables

• Note that a matrix, on its own, does not have basic variables or free
variables. Systems have variables.
• If A has n columns, then the linear system
 
A ~b

must have n variables. One variable for each column of the matrix.
• There are two types of variables: basic and free. And a variable cannot be
both free and basic at the same time.
n = number of columns of A
= (number of basic variables) + (number of free variables)
Existence and Uniqueness

Theorem
A linear system is consistent if and only if (exactly when) the last column
of the augmented matrix does not have a pivot. This is the same as
saying that the RREF of the augmented matrix does not have a row of
the form

0 0 0 ··· 0 | 1
Moreover, if a linear system is consistent, then it has
1. a unique solution if and only if there are no free variables, and
2. infinitely many solutions that are parameterized by free variables.
Example: Existence and Uniqueness

If possible, determine the coefficients of the polynomial y(t) = a0 t + a1 t2 that

passes through the points that are given in the form (t, y).
a) L(−1, 0) and M (1, 1)

b) P (2, 0), Q(1, 1), and R(0, 2)

Summary: Fundamental Questions

In this video we explored the following concepts.

• augmented matrices and consistent systems
• pivots, and basic and free variables
• fundamental questions that we will revisit throughout the course regarding
consistency, existence, uniqueness
Linear Algebra
Linear Equations

Greg Mayer, Ph.D.

Academic Professional
School of Mathematics

Vectors in Rn
Topics and Learning Objectives

Topics
We will explore the following concepts in this video.
• vectors in Rn , and their basic properties

Learning Objectives
Students should be able to do the following after watching this video and
completing the assigned homework.
• apply geometric and algebraic properties of vectors in Rn to compute
vector additions and scalar multiplications
Motivation

We want to think about the algebra in linear algebra (systems of equations

and their solution sets) in terms of geometry (points, lines, planes, etc).

x − 3y = −3
2x + y = 8

This other perspective:

• gives us deeper insight into the properties of systems and their solutions
• requires that we introduce n-dimensional space Rn , and vectors inside it.
Definition of Rn

R denotes the collection of all real numbers.

Let n be a positive whole number. We define

Rn = all ordered n-tuples of real numbers (x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . , xn ).
When n = 1, we get R back: R1 = R. Geometrically, this is the number line.
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
Definition of R2
Note that:
• when n = 2, we can think of R2 as a plane
• every point in this plane can be represented by an ordered pair of real
numbers, its x- and y-coordinates
 
3
Example: Sketch the point (3, 2) and the vector .
2
Vectors as Points in Rn

In the previous slides, we were thinking of elements of Rn as points: in the

line, plane, space, etc.

We can also think of them as vectors: arrows with a given length and
direction.

 
3
For example, the vector points horizontally in the amount of its
2
x-coordinate, and vertically in the amount of its y-coordinate.
Vector Algebra

When we think of an element of Rn as a vector, we write it as a matrix with n

rows and one column. For example, suppose
   
u1 v1
~u = , ~v = .
u2 v2
Vectors have the following properties.
1. Scalar Multiples:  
cu1
c~u =
cu2
2. Vector Addition:  
u1 + v1
~u + ~v =
u2 + v2

Note that vectors in higher dimensions have the same properties.

Parallelogram Rule for Vector Addition

~a + ~b
~b

~a
Summary

We explored the following concepts in this video.

• geometric and algebraic properties of vectors in Rn
• vector algebra: compute vector additions and scalar multiplications
Linear Algebra
Linear Equations

Greg Mayer, Ph.D.

Academic Professional
School of Mathematics

Linear Combinations
Topics and Learning Objectives

Topics
We will explore the following concepts in this video.
• linear combinations of vectors

Learning Objectives
Students should be able to do the following after watching this video and
completing the assigned homework.
• characterize a set of vectors in terms of linear combinations
Linear Combinations Definition

Definition
Given vectors ~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp ∈ Rn , and scalars c1 , c2 , . . . , cp , the
vector ~y , where
~y = c1~v1 + c2~v2 + · · · + cp~vp
is called a linear combination of ~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp with weights
c1 , c2 , . . . , cp .
Linear Combinations Example

Can ~y be represented as a linear combination of ~v1 and ~v2 ?

     
1 1 −1
~y = , ~v1 = , ~v2 =
3 1 1
Solution
If ~y can be represented as a linear combination of ~v1 and ~v2 , we can find c1
and c2 so that c1~v1 + c2~v2 = ~y . The vector equation c1~v1 + c2~v2 = ~y is
     
1 −1 1
c1 + c2 =
1 1 3
Can we represent this vector equation as a system of equations?
Linear Combinations Example

Our vector equation c1~v1 + c2~v2 = ~y is

     
1 −1 1
c1 + c2 =
1 1 3
This can be written as
       
c1 −c2 c1 − c2 1
+ = =
c1 c2 c1 + c2 3
Thus, we have the linear system
c1 − c2 = 1
c1 + c2 = 3
There is a solution to this system, c1 = 2, c2 = 1. Therefore, ~y can be
represented as a linear combination of ~v1 and ~v2 .
Linear Combinations Example

We found that 2~v1 + ~v2 = ~y .

x2

~y
~v2

2~v1

~v2 ~v1
x1
Geometric Interpretation of Linear Combinations

Any vector in R2 can be represented as a linear combination of two vectors in

R2 that are not multiples of each other.

2~v + ~u 2~v + 2~u

2~v − ~u 2~v
1.5~v − 0.5~u ~v + 2~u
~v ~v + ~u
~v − ~u
~u 2~u
−~u ~0
Linear Combinations Example in R3

Can ~y be represented as a linear combination of ~v1 and ~v2 ?

     
1 1 −1
~y =  3  , ~v1 =  1  , ~v2 =  1 
1 0 0
Solution
If ~y can be represented as a linear combination of ~v1 and ~v2 , we can find c1
and c2 so that c1~v1 + c2~v2 = ~y . The vector equation c1~v1 + c2~v2 = ~y is
     
1 −1 1
c1 1 + c2
   1  = 3

0 0 1
Linear Combinations Example in R3

Expressing this as a linear system, we obtain

c1 − c2 = 1
c1 + c2 = 3
0c1 + 0c2 = 1
Thus, the system is inconsistent.
• There is no solution to this system.
• There are no values of c1 and c2 so that c1~v1 + c2~v2 = ~y
• ~y cannot be expressed as a linear combination of the other two vectors.
Summary

We explored the following concepts in this video.

• characterizing a set of vectors in terms of linear combinations
• determining whether a given vector can be represented by a linear
combination of a set of vectors
Linear Algebra
Linear Equations

Greg Mayer, Ph.D.

Academic Professional
School of Mathematics

Span
Topics and Learning Objectives

Topics
We will explore the following concepts in this video.
• the span of a set of vectors

Learning Objectives
Students should be able to do the following after watching this video and
completing the assigned homework.
• characterize a set of vectors in terms of linear combinations and their
span, and how they are related to each other geometrically
Span

Definition
Given vectors ~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp ∈ Rn , and scalars c1 , c2 , . . . , cp .
The set of all linear combinations of ~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp is called the
span of ~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp .
Span Example

Is ~y in the span of vectors ~v1 and ~v2 ?

     
1 2 7
~v1 = −2 , ~v2 = 5 , and ~y =
     4 .
−3 6 15
The Span of Two Vectors in R3

In the previous example, did we find that ~y is in the span of ~v1 and ~v2 ?

In general: Any two non-parallel vectors in R3 span a plane that passes

through the origin. Any vector in that plane is also in the span of the two
vectors.

~0
Summary

We explored the following concepts in this video.

• characterizing a set of vectors in terms of linear combinations, their
span, and how they are related to each other geometrically
Linear Algebra
Linear Equations

Greg Mayer, Ph.D.

Academic Professional
School of Mathematics

The Matrix-Vector Product

Topics and Learning Objectives

Topics
We will explore the following concepts in this video.
• matrix notation for systems of equations
• the matrix product A~x

Learning Objectives
Students should be able to do the following after watching this video and
completing the assigned homework.
• compute matrix-vector products
• express linear systems as vector equations and matrix equations
Multiple Representations

“Mathematics is the art of giving the same name to different things.”

- H. Poincaré

In this section we introduce another way of expressing a linear system that we

will use throughout this course.
Notation for Dimensions of Vectors and Matrices

symbol meaning
∈ belongs to
Rn the set of vectors with n real-valued elements
Rm×n the set of real-valued matrices with m rows and n columns

Example
The notation ~x ∈ R5 means that ~x is a vector with five real-valued elements.
Matrix-Vector Product as a Linear Combination

Definition
If A ∈ Rm×n has columns ~a1 , . . . , ~an and ~x ∈ Rn , then the matrix
vector product A~x is a linear combination of the columns of A.
 x1
 

| | · · · | x 
2
A~x = ~a1 ~a2 · · · ~an  
 ..  = x1~a1 + x2~a2 + · · · + xn~an
. 
| | ··· |
xn
Note that A~x is in the span of the columns of A.
Linear Combination Examples
   
1 0 2
Suppose A = and ~x =
0 −3 3
1. The following product can be written as a linear combination of vectors:

A~x =

 
2
2. Is ~b = in the span of the columns of A?
9
Summary

We explored the following concepts in this video.

• computing matrix-vector products
• expressing linear systems as vector equations and matrix equations
Linear Algebra
Linear Equations

Greg Mayer, Ph.D.

Academic Professional
School of Mathematics

Existence of Solutions
Topics and Learning Objectives

Topics
We will explore the following concepts in this video.
• solution sets

Learning Objectives
Students should be able to do the following after watching this video and
completing the assigned homework.
• express linear systems as vector equations and matrix equations
• characterize solution sets of linear systems using the concepts of span,
linear combinations
Equivalent Solution Sets

Note that if A is a m × n matrix with columns ~a1 , . . . , ~an , and ~x ∈ Rn and

~b ∈ Rm , then the solutions to
A~x = ~b
has the same set of solutions as the vector equation
x1~a1 + · · · + xn~an = ~b
which as the same set of solutions as the set of linear equations with the
augmented matrix h i
~a1 ~a2 · · · ~an ~b
Linear Combinations and the Existence of Solutions

Theorem
The equation A~x = ~b has a solution if and only if ~b is a linear
combination of the columns of A.

This follows directly from our definition of A~x being a linear combination of
the columns of A.
Using Linear Combinations to Characterize a System

Example  
b1
For what vectors ~b =  b2  does the equation have a solution?
b3
 
1 3 4
 2 8 4  ~x = ~b
0 1 −2
Multiple Representations of Linear Systems

We now have four equivalent ways of representing a linear system.

1. A list of equations: 2x1 + 3x2 = 7, x1 − x2 = 5
 
2 3 7
2. An augmented matrix:
1 −1 5
     
2 3 7
3. A vector equation: x1 + x2 =
1 −1 5
    
2 3 x1 7
4. A matrix equation: =
1 −1 x2 5
Each representation gives us a different way to think about linear systems.
Summary

We explored the following concepts in this video.

• computing matrix-vector products
• expressing linear systems as vector equations and matrix equations
• characterize linear systems and sets of vectors using the concepts of span,
linear combinations, and pivots
Linear Algebra
Linear Equations

Greg Mayer, Ph.D.

Academic Professional
School of Mathematics

Homogeneous Systems
Topics and Learning Objectives

Topics
We will explore the following concepts in this video.
• homogeneous systems
• parametric vector forms of solutions to linear systems

Learning Objectives
Students should be able to do the following after watching this video and
completing the assigned homework.
• characterize homogeneous linear systems using the concepts of free
variables, span, pivots, linear combinations, and echelon forms
Homogeneous Systems

Definition
Linear systems of the form A~x = ~0 are homogeneous.

Linear systems of the form A~x = ~b, ~b =

6 ~0, are inhomogeneous.

Because homogeneous systems always have the trivial solution, ~x = ~0, the
interesting question is whether they have non-trivial solutions.
Homogeneous Systems

Observation
A~x = ~0 has a nontrivial solution
⇐⇒ there is a free variable
⇐⇒ A has a column with no pivot.
Example: a Homogeneous System

Identify the free variables, and the solution set, of the system.
x1 + 3x2 + x3 = 0
2x1 − x2 − 5x3 = 0
x1 − 2x3 = 0
Summary

We explored the following concepts in this video.

• characterizing homogeneous and inhomogeneous systems
• relationships between free variables, pivots, and solutions
• identifying free variables of homogeneous systems
Linear Algebra
Linear Equations

Greg Mayer, Ph.D.

Academic Professional
School of Mathematics

Parametric Vector Forms

Topics and Learning Objectives

Topics
We will explore the following concepts in this video.
• homogeneous systems
• parametric vector forms of solutions to linear systems

Learning Objectives
Students should be able to do the following after watching this video and
completing the assigned homework.
• express the solution set of a linear system in parametric vector form
Recall: Homogeneous Systems

Definition
Linear systems of the form A~x = ~0 are homogeneous.

Linear systems of the form A~x = ~b, ~b =

6 ~0, are inhomogeneous.

These systems are related to each other in a way that is easier to see with
parametric vector form.
Parametric Vector form of the Solution of a
Non-homogeneous System

Write the solution as a sum of vectors. Give a geometric interpretation of the

solution.
x1 + 3x2 + x3 = 4
2x1 − x2 − 5x3 = 1
x1 − 2x3 = 1
Note that the left-hand side is the same as a previous example.
Parametric Forms, Homogeneous Case

In general, suppose the free variables for A~x = ~0 are xk , . . . , xn . Then all
solutions to A~x = ~0 can be written as
~x = xk~vk + xk+1~vk+1 + · · · + xn~vn
for some ~vk , . . . , ~vn . This is the parametric form of the solution.
Summary

We explored the following concepts in this video.

• expressing the solution set of a linear system in parametric vector form
• the geometric relationship between the solution to A~x = ~b and A~x = ~0
Linear Algebra
Linear Equations

Greg Mayer, Ph.D.

Academic Professional
School of Mathematics

A Definition of Linear Independence

Topics and Learning Objectives

Topics
We will explore the following concepts in this video.
• linear independence
• geometric interpretation of linearly independent vectors

Learning Objectives
Students should be able to do the following after watching this video and
completing the assigned homework.
• characterize a set of vectors and linear systems using the concept of linear
independence
A Motivating Question

What is the smallest number of vectors needed in a parametric solution to a

linear system?
Linear Independence

A set of vectors {~v1 , . . . , ~vk } in Rn are linearly independent if

c1~v1 + c2~v2 + · · · + ck~vk = ~0
has only the trivial solution. It is linearly dependent otherwise.

In other words, {~v1 , . . . , ~vk } are linearly dependent if there are real numbers
c1 , c2 , . . . , ck not all zero so that
c1~v1 + c2~v2 + · · · + ck~vk = ~0
How to Establish Linear Independence

Consider the vectors:

~v1 , ~v2 , . . . ~vk
To determine whether the vectors are linearly independent, we can set the
linear combination to the zero vector:
c1
 

 c2  ?? ~
c1~v1 + c2~v2 + · · · + ck~vk = ~v1 ~v2 · · · ~vk  ...  = V ~c = 0


cn

Linear independence: there is NO non-zero solution ~c

Linear dependence: there is a non-zero solution ~c.

Example: Determine Whether Set is Independent

For what values of h, if any, is the set of vectors linearly independent?

     
1 1 h
 1  , h ,  1 
h 1 1
Summary

We explored the following concepts in this video.

• characterizing a set of vectors using the concept of linear independence
Linear Algebra
Linear Equations

Greg Mayer, Ph.D.

Academic Professional
School of Mathematics

Linear Independence Theorems

Topics and Learning Objectives

Topics
We will explore the following concepts in this video.
• linear independence
• geometric interpretation of linearly independent vectors

Learning Objectives
Students should be able to do the following after watching this video and
completing the assigned homework.
• characterize a set of vectors and linear systems using the concept of linear
independence
• construct dependence relations between linearly dependent vectors
A Motivating Question

What is the smallest number of vectors needed in a parametric solution to a

linear system?
Recall: Linear Independence

A set of vectors {~v1 , . . . , ~vk } in Rn are linearly independent if

c1~v1 + c2~v2 + · · · + ck~vk = ~0
has only the trivial solution. It is linearly dependent otherwise.

In other words, {~v1 , . . . , ~vk } are linearly dependent if there are real numbers
c1 , c2 , . . . , ck not all zero so that
c1~v1 + c2~v2 + · · · + ck~vk = ~0
Example: Two Dependent Vectors

Suppose ~v1 , ~v2 ∈ Rn . When is the set {~v1 , ~v2 } linearly dependent? Provide a
geometric interpretation.

Solution
From our definition of linear dependence, if ~v1 , ~v2 are dependent, then there
exists a c1 and a c2 , not both zero, so that
c1~v1 + c2~v2 = ~0
Example: Two Dependent Vectors

We consider two cases:

1) If ~v1 and/or ~v2 is the zero vector, then the vectors are dependent. If for
example ~v1 = ~0, then c1~v1 + c2~v2 = ~0 is satisfied for c2 = 0 and any c1 .
2) If ~v1 6= ~0 and ~v2 6= ~0, then ~v2 = − cc21 ~v1 , so ~v1 and ~v2 are multiples of each
other. The vectors are parallel (one vector is in the span of the other).
Example: Two Dependent Vectors (continued)

Thus, two vectors in Rn are dependent when either or both of the following
occur.
• One or both vectors are the zero vector.
• One vector is a multiple of the other.
Linear Independence Theorems

1) More Vectors Than Elements: Suppose ~v1 , . . . , ~vk are vectors in Rn . If

k > n, then {~v1 , . . . , ~vk } is linearly dependent.

Wny? Every column of the matrix

A = (~v1 , . . . , ~vk )
would have to be pivotal for the vectors to be independent. But A has
more columns than rows, so every column cannot be pivotal. The
vectors must be linearly dependent.
Linear Independence Theorems

2) Set Contains Zero Vector: If any one or more of ~v1 , . . . , ~vk is ~0, then
{~v1 , . . . , ~vk } is linearly dependent.

Wny? Every column of the matrix

A = (~v1 , . . . , ~vk )
would have to be pivotal for the vectors to be independent. But A has a
zero column, so every column cannot be pivotal. The vectors must be
linearly dependent.
Application of our Linear Independence Theorems

By inspection, which matrices have linearly independent columns?

 
1 0
1. A = zero column ⇒ dependent
2 0
 
1 0 1
2. B = more columns than rows ⇒ dependent
0 1 1
 
1 0 1
3. C =  2 1 3  last column is the sum of the first two ⇒ dependent
3 1 4
 
1 0 1
4. D =  0 1 1  every column is pivotal ⇒ linearly independent
0 0 1
Summary

We explored the following concepts in this video.

• characterizing a set of vectors and linear systems using the concept of
linear independence
• constructing dependence relations between linearly dependent vectors
Linear Algebra
Linear Equations

Greg Mayer, Ph.D.

Academic Professional
School of Mathematics

Domain, Codomain, Range

Topics and Learning Objectives

Topics
We will explore the following concepts in this video.
• the definition of a linear transformation
• domain, codomain, image, and range
• the interpretation of matrix multiplication as a linear transformation

Learning Objectives
Students should be able to do the following after watching this video and
completing the assigned homework.
• characterize linear transforms using the concepts of domain, codomain,
image, and range
From Matrices to Functions

Let A be an m × n matrix. We define a function

T : Rn → Rm , T (~v ) = A~x
This is called a matrix transformation.
• The domain of T is Rn .
• The codomain of T is Rm .
• The vector T (~x) is the image of ~x under T .
• The set of all possible images T (~x) is the range.
Functions from Calculus

Many of the functions we know have domain and codomain R. We can

express the rule that defines the function sin this way:

f: R→R f (x) = sin(x)

In calculus we often think of a function in terms of its graph. The horizontal
axis is the domain, the vertical axis is the codomain.
y
1
sin(x)

0 π x
−π 2π
Example: A Matrix Transformation
 
1 1  
3
Let A = 0 1 , ~u = , T (~x) = A~x
4
1 1

a) What is the domain and codomain of T ?

b) Compute the image of ~u under T .

c) What is the range of T ?

From Matrices to Functions

The function
T : Rn → Rm , T (~v ) = A~x

gives us another interpretation of A~x = ~b. We now have five ways of

representing A~x = ~b:
• set of linear equations
• augmented matrix
• matrix equation
• vector equation
• linear transformation equation
Example: A Matrix Transformation as a System
 
1 1
Consider again the matrix A = 0 1, and associated transform
1 1
T (~x) = A~x.
 
7
2 ~
a) Calculate ~v ∈ R so that T (~v ) = b = 5
7

b) Give a ~c ∈ R3 so there is no ~v with T (~v ) = ~c.

or: Give a ~c that is not in the range of T .
or: Give a ~c that is not in the span of the columns of A.
Summary

We explored the following concepts in this video.

• Characterized linear transforms using the concepts of domain, codomain,
image, and range.
• The interpretation of matrix multiplication as a linear transformation.
Linear Algebra
Linear Equations

Greg Mayer, Ph.D.

Academic Professional
School of Mathematics

Geometric Interpretations of Linear Transforms

Topics and Learning Objectives

Topics
We will explore the following concepts in this video.
• geometric interpretations of a linear transform

Learning Objectives
Students should be able to do the following after watching this video and
completing the assigned homework.
• construct and interpret linear transformations in Rn (for example, interpret
a linear transform as a projection, or as a shear)
Linear Transformations

A function T : Rn → Rm is linear if
• T (~u + ~v ) = T (~u) + T (~v ) for all ~u, ~v in Rn .
• T (c~v ) = cT (~v ) for all ~v ∈ Rn , and c in R.
So if T is linear, then
T (c1~v1 + · · · + ck~vk ) = c1 T (~v1 ) + · · · + ck T (~vk )
This is called the principle of superposition.

Fact: Every matrix transformation TA is linear.

Geometric Interpretations of Transforms in R2

Suppose T is the linear transformation T (~x) = A~x. Give a short geometric

2
interpretation
 of
 what T (~x) does to vectors in R .
0 1
1) A =
1 0

 
1 0
2) A =
0 0

 
k 0
3) A = for k ∈ R
0 k
Geometric Interpretations of Transforms in R3

What does TA do to vectors in R3 ?

 
1 0 0
a) A = 0 1 0
0 0 0

 
1 0 0
b) A = 0 −1 0
0 0 1
Constructing the Matrix of the Transformation

A linear transformation T : R2 7→ R3 satisfies

   
  5   −3
1 0
T = −7 ,
  T =  8
0 1
2 0
What is the matrix, A, so that T = Ax?
Summary

We explored the following concepts in this video.

• constructing linear transformations in R2 and R3 and geometric
interpretations for them
We will need to go into more detail on linear transformations and their
relationships to linear systems.
Linear Algebra
Linear Equations

Greg Mayer, Ph.D.

Academic Professional
School of Mathematics

The Standard Vectors

Topics and Learning Objectives

Topics
We will explore the following concepts in this video.
• the standard vectors and the standard matrix

Learning Objectives
Students should be able to do the following after watching this video and
completing the assigned homework.
• identify and construct linear transformations of a matrix
Definition: The Standard Vectors

The standard vectors in Rn are the vectors ~e1 , ~e2 , . . . , ~en , where:

~e1 = ~e2 = ~en =

For example, in R3 ,

~e1 = ~e2 = ~e3 =

A Property of the Standard Vectors

Note: if A is an m × n matrix with columns ~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vn , then

A~ei = ~vi , for i = 1, 2, . . . , n
So multiplying a matrix by ~ei gives column i of A.
Example
 
1 2 3
 4 5 6  ~e2 =
7 8 9
The Standard Matrix

Theorem
Let T : Rn 7→ Rm be a linear transformation. Then there is a
unique matrix A such that
T (~x) = A~x, ~x ∈ Rn .
In fact, A is a m × n, and its j th column is the vector T (~ej ).


A = T (~e1 ) T (~e2 ) · · · T (~en )

The matrix A is the standard matrix for a linear transformation.

Standard Matrix for a Counterclockwise Rotation

What is the linear transform T : R2 → R2 defined by:

T (~x) = ~x rotated counterclockwise by angle θ?
Standard Matrix for a Clockwise Rotation

https://xkcd.com/184
Example: Constructing a Standard Matrix

Define a linear transformation by

T (x1 , x2 ) = (3x1 + x2 , 5x1 + 7x2 , x1 + 3x2 )
Is T one-to-one? Is T onto?
Summary

We explored the following concepts in this video.

• constructing linear transformations and standard matrices in R2
• constructing the standard matrix for a rotation matrix
The rotation matrix was just one of the standard matrices that are defined in
the textbook. There are other standard matrices for transformations that we
will explore.
Linear Algebra
Linear Equations

Greg Mayer, Ph.D.

Academic Professional
School of Mathematics

Standard Matrices of Linear Transforms

Topics and Learning Objectives

Topics
We will explore the following concepts in this video.
• the standard vectors and the standard matrix
• two dimensional transformations in more detail

Learning Objectives
Students should be able to do the following after watching this video and
completing the assigned homework.
• identify and construct linear transformations of a matrix
Standard Matrices in R2

• There is a long list of geometric transformations of R2 in our textbook, as

well as on the next few slides (reflections, rotations, contractions and
expansions, shears, projections, . . . ).
• Please familiarize yourself with them: you are expected to memorize them,
or be able to derive them.
Two Dimensional Examples: Reflections
transformation image of unit square standard matrix
 
reflection through x1 −axis x2 1 0
0 −1
~e2

~e1 x1

 
reflection through x2 −axis x2 −1 0
0 1
~e2
x1
~e1
Two Dimensional Examples: Reflections
transformation image of unit square standard matrix
 
reflection through x2 = x1 x2 0 1
x2 = x1
1 0
~e2
x1
~e1

 
reflection through x2 = −x1 x2 0 −1
x2 = −x1 −1 0
~e2
x1
~e1
Two Dimensional Examples: Contractions and Expansions
transformation image of unit square standard matrix
 
horizontal contraction x2 k 0
. |k| < 1
0 1
~e2
x1
~e1
 
horizontal expansion x2 k 0
,k>1
0 1
~e2
x1
~e1
Two Dimensional Examples: Contractions and Expansions
transformation image of unit square standard matrix
 
vertical contraction x2 1 0
, |k| < 1
0 k
~e2
x1
~e1
 
vertical expansion x2 1 0
,k>1
0 k
~e2
x1
~e1
Two Dimensional Examples: Shears

transformation image of unit square standard matrix

 
horizontal shear (left) x2 1 k
,k<0
0 1

x1
k<0
 
horizontal shear (right) x2 1 k
,k>0
0 1

x1
k>0
Two Dimensional Examples: Shears

transformation image of unit square standard matrix

 
vertical shear (down) x2 1 0
,k<0
k 1
~e2
x1
~e1
 
vertical shear (up) x2 1 0
,k>0
k 1
~e2
x1
~e1
Two Dimensional Examples: Projections

transformation image of unit square standard matrix

 
projection onto the x1 -axis x2 1 0
0 0
~e2
x1
~e1
 
projection onto the x2 -axis x2 0 0
0 1
~e2
x1
~e1
Example: Composite Transform

Construct a matrix A ∈ R2×2 , such that T (~x) = A~x, where T is a linear

transformation that rotates vectors in R2 counterclockwise by π/2 radians
about the origin, then reflects them through the line x1 = x2 .
Summary

We explored the following concepts in this video.

• constructing linear transformations in R2 and gave geometric
interpretations for them
• constructing composite transform that involve two ore more linear
transforms
Linear Algebra
Linear Equations

Greg Mayer, Ph.D.

Academic Professional
School of Mathematics

Onto and One-to-One

Topics and Learning Objectives

Topics
We will explore the following concepts in this video.
• onto and one-to-one transformations

Learning Objectives
Students should be able to do the following after watching this video and
completing the assigned homework.
• characterize and construct linear transformations that are onto and/or
one-to-one
Onto

Definition
A linear transformation T : Rn → Rm is onto if for all ~b ∈ Rm
there is a ~x ∈ Rn so that T (~x) = A~x = ~b.

Implications
• Onto is an existence property: for any ~b ∈ Rm , A~x = ~b has a solution.
• T is onto if and only if its standard matrix has a pivot in every row.
One-to-One

Definition
A linear transformation T : Rn → Rm is one-to-one if for all ~b ∈ Rm
there is at most one (possibly no) ~x ∈ Rn so that T (~x) = A~x = ~b.

Implications
• One-to-one is a uniqueness property, it does not assert existence for all ~b.
• T is one-to-one if and only if the only solution to T (~x) = ~0 is the zero
vector, ~x = ~0.
• T is one-to-one if and only if every column of A is pivotal.
Example: Matrix Completion, One-to-one and Onto

Complete the matrices by entering numbers into the missing entries so that
the properties are satisfied. If it isn’t possible to do so, state why.
a) A is a 2 × 3 standard matrix for a one-to-one transform.
 
1 0
A=
0 1
b) B is a 3 × 3 standard matrix for a transform that is one-to-one and onto.
 
1 1 1
 
B= 


Theorem for Onto Transforms

Theorem
For a linear transformation T : Rn → Rm with standard
matrix A, these are equivalent statements.
1. T is onto.
2. A has columns that span Rm .
3. Every row of A is pivotal.
Theorem for One-to-one Transforms

Theorem
For a linear transformation T : Rn → Rm with standard
matrix A, these are equivalent statements.
1. T is one-to-one.
2. The unique solution to T (~x) = ~0 is the trivial one.
3. A has linearly independent columns.
4. Each column of A is pivotal.
Example: Constructing a Standard Matrix, One-to-one
and Onto

Define a linear transformation by

T (x1 , x2 ) = (3x1 + x2 , 5x1 + 7x2 , x1 + 3x2 )
Construct the standard matrix for the transformation. Is T one-to-one? Is T
onto?
Example: Linear Transform Review

Suppose A is an m × n standard matrix for transform T , and there are some

vectors ~b ∈ Rm that are not in the range of T (~x) = A~x.
True or false:
1. A~x = ~b could be inconsistent
2. there cannot be a pivot in every column of A
3. T could be one-to-one
Summary

We explored the following concepts in this video.

• constructing linear transformations of a matrix that are one-to-one and/or
onto
• characterizing transforms that are one-to-one/onto