Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M .

Mallikarjuna

Gas Power Cycles

4.0 Introduction:
An important application of thermodynamics is the analysis of power cycles through

which the energy absorbed as heat can be continuously converted into mechanical

work. A thermodynamic analysis of the heat engine cycles provides valuable information

regarding the design of new cycles or for improving the existing cycles.

Classification of Cycles:
The purpose of a thermodynamic cycle is either to produce power, or to produce

refrigeration/pumping of heat. Therefore, the cycles are broadly classified as follows:

(a) Heat engine or power cycles.

(b) Refrigeration/heat pump cycles.

Any thermodynamic cycle is essentially a closed cycle in which, the working substance

undergoes a series of processes and is always brought back to the initial state.

However, some of the power cycles operate on open cycle. It means that the working

substance is taken into the unit from the atmosphere at one end and is discharged into

the atmosphere after undergoing a series of processes at the other end. The following

are illustrations of heat engines operating on open cycle:

(i) Petrol and diesel engines in which the air and fuel are taken into the engine
from a fuel tank and products of combustion are exhausted into the
atmosphere.
(ii) Steam locomotives in which the water is taken in the boiler from a tank and
steam is exhausted into the atmosphere.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

Essentially, such devices do not form a cycle. However, they can be analyzed by adding

an imaginary processes to bring the state of the working substance, thus completing a

cyclic. Note that the terms closed cycle and open cycle used here do not mean closed

system cycle and open system cycle. In fact, the processes both in closed and open

cycles could either be closed or open system processes.

Different types of working fluids are employed in the power plants. The nature of the

working fluids can be classified into two groups: vapours and gases. The power cycles

are accordingly classified into two groups as:

(1) Vapour power cycles in which the working fluid undergoes a phase change
during the cyclic process.
(2) Gas power cycles in which the working fluid does not undergo any phase
change.

In the thermodynamic analysis of power cycles, our chief interest lies in estimating the

energy conversion efficiency or the thermal efficiency. The thermal efficiency of a heat

engine is defined as the ratio of the network delivered to the energy absorbed as heat.

Analysis of Cycles:
In air standard analysis, air is considered as the working medium. The analysis is

carried out with the following assumptions.

Assumptions:

(i) The working substance consists of a fixed mass of air and behaves as a
perfect gas. The closed system is considered which under goes a cycle
process. Therefore, there are no intake or exhaust process.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

(ii) The combustion process is replaced by an equivalent heat addition process

form an external source. Thus there is no change in the chemical equilibrium
of the working fluid and also composition.
(iii) There is no exhaust process; this is replaced by an equivalent heat rejection
process.
(iv) Compression and expansion processes in the cycle are considered as
reversible adiabatic process.
(v) The specific heats Cp and Cv of air do not vary with temperature.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

4.1 Carnot Cycle :

A Carnot gas cycle operating in a given temperature range is shown in the T-s diagram

in Fig. 4.1(a). One way to carry out the processes of this cycle is through the use of

steady-state, steady-flow devices as shown in Fig. 4.1(b). The isentropic expansion

process 2-3 and the isentropic compression process 4-1 can be simulated quite well by

a well-designed turbine and compressor respectively, but the isothermal expansion

process 1-2 and the isothermal compression process 3-4 are most difficult to achieve.

Because of these difficulties, a steady-flow Carnot gas cycle is not practical.

The Carnot gas cycle could also be achieved in a cylinder-piston apparatus (a

reciprocating engine) as shown in Fig. 4.2(b). The Carnot cycle on the p-v diagram is as

shown in Fig. 4.2(a), in which processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isothermal while processes 2-3

and 4-1 are isentropic. We know that the Carnot cycle efficiency is given by the

expression.

TL T T
ηth = 1 - =1- 4 =1- 3
TH T1 T2

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

T
1 2
TH

TL
4 3
(a)

heat in Isentropic
isothermal Turbine
Turbine Work
Work out
out
1 2

3 4

Work Work
in in
Isothermal heat out Isentropic
Compressor compressor

Fig.4.1. Steady flow Carnot engine

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Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

Process 1 2: isothermal
p 1 Process 2 3: isentropic
Process 3 4: isothermal
Process 4 1: isentropic
2

4
3

(a)

Piston
displacement
(b)

Fig.4.2. Reciprocating Carnot engine

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Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

Volume

3 4
T3=T4

T2=T1
2 1

Entropy

Fig.4.3. Carnot cycle on p-v and T-s diagrams

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

High temperature Perfectly insulated walls

Source

T3 K Piston

T1 K

Low temperature Perfect insulator cum

Sink Perfet conductor

Fig.4.4. Working of Carnot engine

Since the working fluid is an ideal gas with constant specific heats, we have, for the

isentropic process,
γ−1 γ−1
T1 ⎛ V4 ⎞ T ⎛V ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ ; 2 = ⎜ 3⎟
T4 ⎝ V1 ⎠ T3 ⎝ V3 ⎠

Now, T1 = T2 and T4 = T3, therefore

v4 v
= 3 = r = compression or expansion ratio
v1 v2

Carnot cycle efficiency may be written as,

1
ηth = 1 -
rγ - 1

From the above equation, it can be observed that the Carnot cycle efficiency increases

as ‘r’ increases. This implies that the high thermal efficiency of a Carnot cycle is

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

obtained at the expense of large piston displacement. Also, for isentropic processes we

have,
γ−1 γ−1
T1 ⎛p ⎞ γ T ⎛p ⎞ γ
=⎜ 1⎟ and 2 = ⎜ 2 ⎟
T4 ⎝ p4 ⎠ T3 ⎝ p3 ⎠

Since, T1 = T2 and T4 = T3, we have

p1 p
= 2 = rp = pressure ratio
p4 p3

Therefore, Carnot cycle efficiency may be written as,

1
ηth = 1 - γ −1
γ
rp

From the above equation, it can be observed that, the Carnot cycle efficiency can be

increased by increasing the pressure ratio. This means that Carnot cycle should be

operated at high peak pressure to obtain large efficiency.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

4.2 Stirling Cycle (Regenerative Cycle) :

The Carnot cycle has a low mean effective pressure because of its very low work

output. Hence, one of the modified forms of the cycle to produce higher mean effective

pressure whilst theoretically achieving full Carnot cycle efficiency is the Stirling cycle. It

consists of two isothermal and two constant volume processes. The heat rejection and

addition take place at constant temperature. The p-v and T-s diagrams for the Stirling

cycle are shown in Fig.4.2.

Volume

Temperature

3 4
T3=T4

T2=T1
2 1

Entropy

Fig.4.2. Stirling cycle processes on p-v and T-s diagrams

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

Stirling Cycle Processes:

(a) The air is compressed isothermally from state 1 to 2 (TL to TH).
(b) The air at state-2 is passed into the regenerator from the top at a temperature
T1. The air passing through the regenerator matrix gets heated from TL to TH.
(c) The air at state-3 expands isothermally in the cylinder until it reaches state-4.
(d) The air coming out of the engine at temperature TH (condition 4) enters into
regenerator from the bottom and gets cooled while passing through the
regenerator matrix at constant volume and it comes out at a temperature TL,
at condition 1 and the cycle is repeated.
(e) It can be shown that the heat absorbed by the air from the regenerator matrix
during the process 2-3 is equal to the heat given by the air to the regenerator
matrix during the process 4-1, then the exchange of heat with external source
will be only during the isothermal processes.

Now we can write, Net work done = W = Qs - QR

Heat supplied = QS = heat supplied during the isothermal process 3-4.

⎛V ⎞ v
= P3 V3 ln ⎜ 4 ⎟ ; r = 4 = CR
⎝ V3 ⎠ v3

= mRTH ln ( r )

Heat rejected = QR = Heat rejected during the isothermal compression process, 1-2.

⎛v ⎞
= P1V1 ln ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎝ v2 ⎠
= mR TL ln ( r )

Wnet = m R ln ( r ) [ TH - TL ]

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

Now,
Wnet m R ln ( r )( TH - TL ) TH - TL
ηth = =
Qs m R ln ( r ) TH TH

and

TL
ηth = 1 -
TH

Thus the efficiency of Stirling cycle is equal to that of Carnot cycle efficiency when both

are working with the same temperature limits. It is not possible to obtain 100% efficient

regenerator and hence there will be always 10 to 20 % loss of heat in the regenerator,

which decreases the cycle efficiency. Considering regenerator efficiency, the efficiency

of the cycle can be written as,

R ln ( r )( TH - TL )
ηth =
R TH ln ( r ) + (1 - ηR ) CV ( TH - TL )

Where, ηR is the regenerator efficiency.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

4.3 Ericsson Cycle:

The Ericsson cycle consists of two isothermal and two constant pressure processes.

The processes are:

Process 1-2: Reversible isothermal compression.

Process 2-3: Constant pressure heat addition.

Process 3-4: Reversible isothermal expansion.

Process 4-1: Constant pressure heat rejection.

The heat addition and rejection take place at constant pressure as well as isothermal

processes. Since the process 2-3 and 3-4 are parallel to each other on the T-s diagram,

the net effect is that the heat need to be added only at constant temperature T3=T4 and

rejected at the constant temperature T1=T2. The cycle is shown on p-v and T-s

diagrams in Fig.4.3. The advantage of the Ericsson cycle over the Carnot and Stirling

cycles is its smaller pressure ratio for a given ratio of maximum to minimum specific

volume with higher mean effective pressure.

2 3

1 4

Volume

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Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

Temperature

3 4
T3=T4

T2=T1
2 1

Entropy

Fig.4.3. Ericsson cycle on p-v and T-s diagrams

The thermal efficiency of Ericsson cycle is given by, (derivation is same as that of
Stirling cycle),

TH - TL ⎡ T ⎤
ηth = = ⎢1 - L ⎥
TH ⎣ TH ⎦

The Ericsson cycle does not find practical application in piston engines but is

approached by a gas turbine employing a large number of stages with heat exchangers,

insulators and reheaters.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

4.4 Air Standard Otto Cycle:

The air-standard-Otto cycle is the idealized cycle for the spark-ignition internal

combustion engines. This cycle is shown above on p-v and T-s diagrams. The Otto

cycle 1-2-3-4 consists of following four process:

Process 1-2: Reversible adiabatic compression of air.

Process 2-3: Heat addition at constant volume.

Process 3-4: Reversible adiabatic expansion of air.

Process 4-1: Heat rejection at constant volume.

2
4

Volume

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

2
4
1

Entropy

Fig.4.4. Otto cycle on p-v and T-s diagrams

Air Standard Efficiency:

Net workdone
ηth =
Net heat added

Since processes 1-2 and 3-4 are adiabatic processes, the heat transfer during the cycle

takes place only during processes 2-3 and 4-1 respectively. Therefore, thermal

efficiency can be written as,

Heat added - Heat rejected

ηth =
Heat added

Consider ‘m’ kg of working fluid,

Heat added = mCV ( T3 - T2 )

Heat Rejected = mCV ( T4 - T1 )

mCV ( T3 - T2 ) - mCV ( T4 - T1 ) T4 - T1
ηth = =1-
mCV ( T3 - T2 ) T3 - T2

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

For the reversible adiabatic processes 3-4 and 1-2, we can write,

γ -1 γ -1
T4 ⎛v ⎞ T ⎛V ⎞
=⎜ 3⎟ and 1 = ⎜ 2 ⎟
T3 ⎝ v4 ⎠ T2 ⎝ V1 ⎠
v 2 = v3 and v 4 = v1
γ−1
T4 T T -T ⎛V ⎞
= 1 = 4 1 =⎜ 2⎟
T3 T2 T3 - T2 ⎝ V1 ⎠
γ -1
T1 ⎛V ⎞
η th = 1 - = 1- ⎜ 2 ⎟
T2 ⎝ V1 ⎠
V1
The ratio is called as compression ratio, r.
V2

γ -1
⎛1⎞
ηth =1- ⎜ ⎟
⎝r⎠

From the above equation, it can be observed that the efficiency of the Otto cycle is

mainly the function of compression ratio for the given ratio of Cp and Cv. If we plot the

variations of the thermal efficiency with increase in compression ratio for different

gases, the curves are obtained as shown in Fig.4.4.1. Beyond certain values of

compression ratios, the increase in the thermal efficiency is very small, because the

curve tends to be asymptotic. However, practically the compression ratio of petrol

engines is restricted to maximum of 9 or 10 due to the phenomenon of knocking at high

compression ratios.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

γ=1.67

γ=1.40

γ=1.30

Compression ratio,r

Effect of CR and γ on efficiency for Otto cycle.

Fig.4.4.1. Variation of thermal efficiency with compression ratio

Mean Effective Pressure:

Generally, it is defined as the ratio of the net workdone to the displacement volume of

the piston.

Let us consider ‘m’ kg of working substance.

Net work done = m Cv {( T3 - T2 ) - ( T4 - T1 )}

Displacement Volume = ( V1 - V2 )

⎛ 1⎞ m R T1 ⎛ r - 1 ⎞
= V1 ⎜1 - ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ r ⎠ P1 ⎝ r ⎠

m C v ( γ- 1) T1 ⎧ r - 1 ⎫
= ⎨ ⎬
P1 ⎩ r ⎭
since, R = Cv ( γ - 1)

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Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

m C v ⎡⎣( T3 - T2 ) - ( T4 - T1 ) ⎤⎦
mep =
m C v ( γ -1) T1 ⎧⎛ r - 1 ⎞ ⎫
⎨⎜ ⎟⎬
P1 ⎩⎝ r ⎠ ⎭

⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ p1 ⎞ ⎛ r ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ {( T3 - T2 ) - ( T4 - T1 )}
⎝ γ - 1 ⎠ ⎝ T1 ⎠ ⎝ r - 1 ⎠

γ -1
Now, T2 = T1 ( r )

P3 T3
Let, rp = = = Pressure ratio
P2 T2

P3
T3 = T2 = rp T2 = rp r γ -1 T1 (for V = C)
P2

γ -1 γ -1
⎛1⎞ γ -1 ⎛1⎞
So, T4 = T3 ⎜ ⎟ = rp r T1 ⎜ ⎟ = rp T1
⎝r⎠ ⎝r⎠

mep =
P1 r
( r - 1) ( γ - 1) {( rp r γ -1 - r γ -1 ) - ( rp - 1)}

⎪
= P1 r ⎨⎜
p (
⎧⎛ r γ -1 r - 1 - r - 1 ⎞ ⎫
p
⎟ ⎪⎬
) ( )
⎪⎩⎜⎝ ( γ - 1) ( r - 1) ⎟⎪
⎠⎭

⎪
mep = P1 r ⎨
p(
⎧ r γ -1 - 1 r - 1 ⎫
⎪ )( )
⎬
⎪⎩ ( r - 1) ( γ - 1) ⎭⎪

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Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

4.6 Limited Pressure Cycle (or Dual Cycle):

This cycle is also called as the dual cycle, which is shown in Fig.4.6. Here the heat

addition occurs partly at constant volume and partly at constant pressure. This cycle is a

closer approximation to the behavior of the actual Otto and Diesel engines because in

the actual engines, the combustion process does not occur exactly at constant volume

or at constant pressure but rather as in the dual cycle.

Process 1-2: Reversible adiabatic compression.

Process 2-3: Constant volume heat addition.

Process 3-4: Constant pressure heat addition.

Process 4-5: Reversible adiabatic expansion.

Process 5-1: Constant volume heat rejection.

3 4

Volume

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Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

Constant Volume
Constant Pressure
4

2
5

Entropy
Fig.4.6. Dual cycle on p-v and T-s diagrams

Air Standard Efficiency:

Heat sup plied = m C v ( T3 - T2 ) + m Cp ( T4 - T3 )

Heat rejected = m C v ( T5 - T1 )

Net work done = m C v ( T3 - T2 ) + m Cp ( T4 - T3 ) - m CV ( T5 - T1 )

m C v ( T3 - T2 ) + m Cp ( T4 - T3 ) - m C v ( T5 - T1 )
ηth =
m C v ( T3 - T2 ) + m Cp ( T4 - T3 )

T5 - T1
ηth = 1 -
( T3 - T2 ) + γ ( T4 - T3 )
P3 v v
Let, = rp ; 4 = rc ; 1 = r
P2 v3 v2

T2 = T1 r γ - 1
T3 = T2 rp = T1 r γ - 1 rp
T4 = T3 rc = T1 r γ - 1 rp rc

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

γ -1 γ -1 γ -1
T5 ⎛v ⎞ ⎛v v ⎞ ⎛r ⎞
=⎜ 4⎟ = ⎜ 4. 2⎟ =⎜ c⎟
T4 ⎝ v5 ⎠ ⎝ v 2 v5 ⎠ ⎝r⎠

γ -1
⎛r ⎞
T5 = T4 ⎜ c ⎟ = T1 rp rcγ
⎝r⎠

T1 rp rcγ - T1
ηth = 1 -
{( T r
1
γ -1
) (
rp - T1 r γ - 1 + γ T1 r γ - 1 rp rc - T1 r γ - 1 rp )}

= 1-
( rp rcγ - 1)

{( rp r γ - 1 - r γ - 1 ) + γ ( rp rc r γ - 1 - rp r γ - 1 )}
1 ⎧⎪ rp rcγ - 1 ⎫⎪
ηth 1 - γ -1 ⎨ ⎬
r ( )
⎪⎩ rp - 1 + γrp ( rc - 1) ⎪⎭

From the above equation, it is observed that, a value of rp > 1 results in an increased

efficiency for a given value of rc and γ. Thus the efficiency of the dual cycle lies between

that of the Otto cycle and the Diesel cycle having the same compression ratio.

Mean Effective Pressure:

Workdone
mep =
Displacement volume

m C v ( T3 - T2 ) + m Cp ( T4 - T3 ) - m C v ( T5 - T1 )
=
v1 - v 2

m C v ( γ - 1) T1 ⎛ r - 1 ⎞
v1 - v 2 = ⎜ ⎟
p1 ⎝ r ⎠

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

p1 r ⎧⎪ T3 - T2 γ ( T4 - T3 ) T5 - T1 ⎫⎪
mep = ⎨ + - ⎬
( r -1)( γ - 1) ⎪⎩ T1 T1 T1 ⎪⎭

=
p1 r
( )( )
r - 1 γ - 1
{ ( ) (
r γ - 1 rp - 1 + γ r γ - 1 rp ( rc - 1) - rp rcγ - 1 )}

=
p1 r
( )( )
r - 1 γ - 1
{ {( ) } (
r γ - 1 rp - 1 + γ rp ( rc - 1) - rp rcγ - 1 )}

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

4.7 Comparison of Otto, Diesel and Dual Cycles:

The important variable factors which are used as the basis for comparison of the cycles

are compression ratio, peak pressure, heat addition, heat rejection and the net work. In

order to compare the performance of the Otto, Diesel and Dual combustion cycles,

some of the variable factors must be fixed. In this section, a comparison of these three

cycles is made for the same compression ratio, same heat addition, constant maximum

pressure and temperature, same heat rejection and net work output. This analysis will

show which cycle is more efficient for a given set of operating conditions.

Case 1: Same Compression Ratio and Heat Addition:

The Otto cycle 1-2-3-4-1, the Diesel cycle 1-2-3'-4'-1 and the Dual cycle 1-2-2”-3”-4”-1

are shown in p-V and T-θ diagram in Fig.4.7.1 (a) and (b) respectively for the same

compression ratio and heat input.

2' 3"

2 3'
4'
4"
4
1
Isentropic Process

Volume
(a)

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Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

Constant Pressure 3
2' 3"
2 3'

4'
4 4"
1
constant Volume

5 Entropy 6 6"6'
(b)

Fig.4.7.1. Same compression ratio and heat addition

From the T-s diagram, it can be seen that Area 5-2-3-6 = Area 5-2-3'-6’ = Area 5-2-2"-

3"-6" as this area represents the heat input which is the same for all cycles. All the

cycles start from the same initial state point 1 and the air is compressed from state 1 to

2 as the compression ratio is same. It is seen from the T-s diagram for the same heat

input, the heat rejection in Otto cycle (area 5-1-4-6) is minimum and heat rejection in

Diesel cycle (5-1-4'-6') is maximum.. Consequently, Otto cycle has the highest work

output and efficiency. Diesel cycle has the least efficiency and Dual cycle having the

efficiency between the two.

One more observation can be made i.e., Otto cycle allows the working medium to

expand more whereas Diesel cycle is least in this respect. The reason is heat is added

before expansion in the case of Otto cycle and the last portion of heat supplied to the

fluid has a relatively short expansion in case of the Diesel cycle.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

Case 2: Same Compression Ratio and Heat Rejection:

2 3'

Isentropic Process 1

Volume
(a)

3'

2
4
1

Entropy
(b)

Fig.4.7.2. Same compression ratio and heat rejection

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

Efficiency of Otto cycle is given by [Figs.4.7.2 (a) and (b)],

QR
ηotto = 1 -
QS

Where, Qs is the heat supplied in the Otto cycle and is equal to the area under the curve

2-3 on the T-s diagram [Fig.4.7.2 (b)]. The efficiency of the Diesel cycle is given by,

QR
ηDiesel = 1 -
Qs′

Where Q’s is heat supplied in the Diesel cycle and is equal to the area under the curve

2-3' on the T-s diagram [Fig.4.7.2. (b)]. From the T-s diagram in Fig.4.7.2, it is clear that

Qs > Q’s i.e., heat supplied in the Otto cycle is more than that of the Diesel cycle. Hence,

it is evident that, the efficiency of the Otto cycle is greater than the efficiency of the

Diesel cycle for a given compression ratio and heat rejection.

Case 3: Same Peak Pressure, Peak Temperature and Heat Rejection:

Figures 4.7.3 (a) and (b) show the Otto cycle 1-2-3-4 and Diesel cycle 1-2'-3-4 on p-V

and T-s coordinates, where the peak pressure and temperature and the amount of heat

rejected are the same.

The efficiency of the Otto cycle,

QR
ηotto = 1 -
QS

Where, Qs in the area under the curve 2-3 in Fig.4.7.3 (b). The efficiency of the Diesel cycle, 1-

2-3'-3-4 is,

QR
ηDiesel = 1 -
Qs′

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Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

2' 3

2
4
1

Volume
(a)

2'
2 4

5 Entropy 6
(b)

Fig.4.7.3. Same peak pressure and temperature

It is evident from Fig.4.7.3 that Qs > Q’s. Therefore, the Diesel cycle efficiency is greater

than the Otto cycle efficiency when both engines are built to withstand the same thermal

and mechanical stresses.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

Case 4: Same Maximum Pressure and Heat Input:

2' 3' 3

2 4
4'
1

Volume
(a)

3
3'
2'

2 4
4'
1

5 Entropy 6' 6
(b)

Fig.4.7.4. Same maximum pressure and heat input.

For same maximum pressure and heat input, the Otto cycle (1-2-3-4-1) and Diesel cycle

(1-2'-3'-4'-1) are shown on p-V and T-s diagrams in Fig.4.7.4 (a) and (b) respectively. It

is evident from the figure that the heat rejection for Otto cycle (area 1-5-6-4 on T-s

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

diagram) is more than the heat rejected in Diesel cycle (1-5-6'-4'). Hence Diesel cycle is

more efficient than Otto cycle for the condition of same maximum pressure and heat

input. One can make a note that with these conditions, the Diesel cycle has higher

compression ratio than that of Otto cycle. One should also note that the cycle which is

having higher efficiency allows maximum expansion. The Dual cycle efficiency will be

between these two.

Case 5: Same Maximum Pressure and Work Output:

The efficiency, η can be written as

Work done Work done

η = =
Heat sup plied Work done + Heat rejected

Refer to T-s diagram in Fig.4.7.4 (b). For same work output the area 1-2-3-4 (work

output of Otto cycle) and area 1-2'-3'-4' (work output of Diesel cycle) are same. To

achieve this, the entropy at 3 should be greater than entropy at 3' .It is clear that the

heat rejection for Otto cycle is more than that of diesel cycle. Hence, for these

conditions, the Diesel cycle is more efficient than the Otto cycle. The efficiency of Dual

cycle lies between the two cycles.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

4.8. Atkinson Cycle:

Atkinson cycle is an ideal cycle for Otto engine exhausting to a gas turbine. In this cycle

the isentropic expansion (3-4) of an Otto cycle (1-2-3-4) is further allowed to proceed to

the lowest cycle pressure so as to increase the work output. With this modification the

cycle is known as Atkinson cycle. The cycle is shown on p-v and T-s diagrams in

Fig.4.8. Processes involved are:

Process 1-2: Reversible adiabatic compression (v1 to v2).

Process 2-3: Constant volume heat addition.

Process 3-4: Reversible adiabatic expansion (v3 to v4).

Process 4-1: Constant pressure heat rejection.

2
4'
1 4

Volume
(a)

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

4'
2
4

Entropy
(b)

Fig.4.8. Atkinson cycle on p-v and T-s diagrams

Thermal Efficiency:
Heat supplied = C v ( T3 - T2 )
Heat rejected = Cp ( T4 - T1 )
Net workdone = C v ( T3 - T2 ) - Cp ( T4 - T1 )

C v ( T3 - T2 ) - Cp ( T4 - T1 )
ηth =
C v ( T3 - T2 )

γ ( T4 - T1 )
= 1-
( T3 - T2 )
v1
Let, r = = CR
v2

T2 = T1 r γ - 1

T3 P
= 3 = rp = Pressure ratio
T2 P2

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

T3 = T2 rp = T1 r γ - 1 rp

γ -1 γ -1 γ -1 γ -1 γ -1
T3 ⎛P ⎞ γ ⎛P ⎞ γ ⎛P P ⎞ γ ⎛ P ⎞ γ
=⎜ 3⎟ = ⎜ 3⎟ = ⎜ 3. 2⎟ = ⎜ rp . 2 ⎟ = rp γ . r γ−1
T4 ⎝ P4 ⎠ ⎝ P1 ⎠ ⎝ P2 P1 ⎠ ⎝ P1 ⎠

since,

γ
P2 ⎛v ⎞
= ⎜ 1 ⎟ = rγ
P1 ⎝ v2 ⎠

and

T1 rp r γ - 1
1
T3
T4 = γ -1
= γ -1
= T1 rpγ
rp γ rγ - 1 rp γ rγ - 1

⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ rγ - 1 ⎥
=1-γ ⎢ ⎥
p
ηth
(
⎢ rp - 1 r γ - 1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
)
⎣ ⎦

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

4.9 Lenoir Cycle:

1 3

Volume
(a)

Entropy
(b)
Fig.4.9. Lenoir cycle on p-v and T-s diagrams

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

The Lenoir cycle consists of the following processes:

• Process 1-2: Constant volume heat addition

• Process 2-3: Reversible adiabatic expansion

• Process 3-4: Constant pressure heat rejection.

• No compression process.

The thermal efficiency can be derived as follows:

Heat added - Heat rejected C v ( T2 - T1 ) - Cp ( T3 - T1 )

ηth = =
Heat added C v ( T2 - T1 )

⎛T -T ⎞
ηth = 1 - γ ⎜ 3 1 ⎟
⎝ T2 - T1 ⎠

P2
Let, = rp = Pressure ratio
P1
T2 = rp T1
γ -1 γ -1 γ -1
1
⎛P ⎞ ⎛P ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
( rp )
T3 γ γ γ -1
=⎜ 3⎟ =⎜ 1⎟ =⎜ ⎟ = γ
T2 ⎝ P2 ⎠ ⎝ P2 ⎠ ⎝ α1 ⎠

1 1 1
( ) ( ) ( )
-1 -1
T3 = T2 rp γ = T1 rp rp γ = T1 rp γ

⎛ 1 ⎞
γ rp - 1⎟
⎜ γ
⎜ ⎟
ηth =1- ⎝ ⎠
(
rp - 1 )

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

4.10 Brayton Cycle (Simple Gas Turbine Cycle):

2 3

4'

1 4

Volume
(a)

4'
2 4

Entropy
(b)
Fig.4.10. Brayton cycle on p-v and T-s diagram

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

The Brayton cycle is a theoretical cycle for simple gas turbine. This cycle consists of two

isentropic and two constant pressure processes. Figure.4.10 shows the Brayton cycle

on p-v and T-s coordinates. The cycle is similar to the Diesel cycle in compression and

heat addition. The isentropic expansion of the Diesel cycle is further extended followed

by constant pressure heat rejection. The thermal efficiency is given by,

Heat added - Heat rejected

ηth =
Heat added

mCp ( T3 - T2 ) - mCp ( T4 - T1 ) T4 - T1
ηth = =1-
mCp ( T3 - T2 ) T3 - T2

For isentropic processes, we have,

γ -1 γ -1
T2 ⎛p ⎞ γ T3 ⎛p ⎞ γ
= ⎜ 2⎟ and = ⎜ 3⎟
T1 ⎝ p1 ⎠ T4 ⎝ p4 ⎠

But, p2 = p3 and p1 = p4, thus,

T2 T
= 3
T1 T4

and we can write,

T4 T
ηth = 1 - =1- 1
T3 T2

T4 T v 1
= 1 = 2 = γ -1
T3 T2 v1 r

1 ⎫γ - 1
γ -1⎧ γ -1
⎛v ⎞ ⎪⎛ p 2 ⎞ γ ⎪
1
rγ - 1
=⎜ 2⎟ ⎨⎜ ⎟ ⎬ ( )
= rp γ
⎝ v1 ⎠ ⎪⎝ p1 ⎠ ⎪
⎩ ⎭

1
ηth = 1 - γ -1
rp γ

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

Deviation of Actual Cycles from Air Standard Cycles:

The actual Otto and Diesel engines show marked deviations form the air-standard

cycles described above. Above fig shows p-v-diagram for a high-speed diesel engine

would be very similar in appearance. The main differences between the actual and

theoretical cycles are as follows.

(a) Compression and expansion are not friction less adiabatic processes. A Certain amount
of friction is always present and there is considerable heat transfer between the gases
and cylinder wall.
(b) Combustion does not occur either at constant volume or at constant pressure.
(c) The thermodynamics properties of the gases after combustion are different than those of
the fuel-air mixture before combustion..
(d) The combustion may be incomplete.
(e) The specific heats of the working fluid are not constant but increases with temperature.
(f) The cylinder pressure during exhaust process is higher than the atmosphere. As a
result, more work has to be done by the piston on the gases to expel them out of the
cylinder, than work done by the gases on the piston during the intake stroke. This
difference in work, called pumping work, is represented by the pumping loop shown by
hatched area. Note that this work is negative and represents loss of work called pumping
loss.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Vapour Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

Vapor Power Cycles

5.1 Carnot Vapor Power Cycle:

3
BOILER

TURBINE

CONDENSER

PUMP 1
Fig.5.1(a). Carnot vapour cycle

2 3
TH

T
TL
1 4

s
Fig.5.1 (b)T-s diagram

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Vapour Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

Process 1-2: Reversible adiabatic compression process from P1 to P2.

Process 2-3: Reversible isothermal heat addition process at constant

temperature TH.

Process 3-4: Reversible adiabatic expansion process from P3 to P4.

Process 4-1: Reversible isothermal heat rejection process at constant

temperature TL.

Saturated vapor leaves the boiler at state 3, enters the turbine and expands to state 4.

The fluid then enters the condenser, where it is cooled to state 1 and then it is

compressed to state 2 in the pump. The efficiency of the cycle is as follows:

TH - TL ⎡ T ⎤
ηcarnot = = ⎢1 - L ⎥
TH ⎣ TH ⎦

Practically, it is very difficult to add or reject heat to or from the working fluid at constant

temperature. But, it is comparatively easy to add or reject heat to or from the working

fluid at constant pressure. Therefore, Carnot cycle is not used as an idealized cycle for

steam power plants. However, ideal cycle for steam power plant is Rankine cycle in

which heat addition and rejection takes place at constant pressure process.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Vapour Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

5.2 Rankine Cycle:

Rankine cycle is the idealized cycle for steam power plants. This cycle is shown on p-v,

T-v, h-s, diagram in the above figures. It consists of following processes:

3
BOILER

TURBINE

CONDENSER

PUMP 1
Fig.5.2(a). Rankine vapour power cycle

3''
2' 3' 3 5

2
1 1' 4' 4 4''

a b s

Fig.5.2(b). T-s diagram Rankine power cycle

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Vapour Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

2 2' 3' 3 3''

1 4' 4 4''

Fig.5.2(c). p-v diagram Rankine power cycle

3''

3
3'
h
2 2'

4''
4' 4
1

s
Fig.5.2(d). h-s diagram Rankine power cycle

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Vapour Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

Process 1-2: Water from the condenser at low pressure is pumped into the boiler at

high pressure. This process is reversible adiabatic.

Process 2-3: Water is converted into steam at constant pressure by the addition of heat

in the boiler.

Process 3-4: Reversible adiabatic expansion of steam in the steam turbine.

Process 4-1: Constant pressure heat rejection in the condenser to convert condensate

into water.

The steam leaving the boiler may be dry and saturated, wet or superheated. The

corresponding T-s diagrams are 1-2-3-4-1; 1-2-3’-4’-1 or 1-2-3”-4”-1.

Thermal Efficiency of Rankine Cycle:

Consider one kg of working fluid, and applying first law to flow system to various

processes with the assumption of neglecting changes in potential and kinetic energy,

we can write,

δq - δw = dh

For process 2-3, δw = 0 (heat addition process), we can write,

( δq )boiler = ( dh )boiler = ( h3 - h2 )

For process 3-4; δq = 0 (adiabatic process)

( δw )turbine = - ( dh )turbine = ( h 3 - h4 )

Similarly,

( δq )cond = ( h1 - h 4 )
( δw )pump = ( h1 - h 2 )
( δw )net = ( δw )turbine + ( δw )pump = (h 3 - h 4 ) + (h1 - h 2 ) = (h 3 - h 4 ) - (h 2 - h1 )

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Vapour Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

Net work ( δw )net

Now, Thermal efficiency = ηth = =
heat sup plied ( δq )boiler
( h3 - h 4 ) - (h 2 - h1 ) area 122 '341
ηrankine = ηth = =
(h 3 - h 2 ) area a22 '3ba

The pump work ( δw )pump is negligible, because specific volume of water is very small.

Therefore,

h3 - h 4 area 12 '341
ηrankine = = (Neglecting pump work)
h3 - h 2 area a12 '3ba

Note that the rankine cycle has a lower efficiency compared to corresponding Carnot

cycle 2’-3-4-1’ with the same maximum and minimum temperatures. The reason is that

the average temperature at which heat is added in the rankine cycle lies between T2

and T12 and is thus less than the constant temperature T12 at which heat is added to the

Carnot cycle.

Reasons for Considering Rankine Cycle as an Ideal Cycle For Steam

Power Plants:
1) It is very difficult to build a pump that will handle a mixture of liquid and vapor
at state 1’ (refer T-s diagram) and deliver saturated liquid at state 2’. It is
much easier to completely condense the vapor and handle only liquid in the
pump.
2) In the rankine cycle, the vapor may be superheated at constant pressure from
3 to 3” without difficulty. In a Carnot cycle using superheated steam, the
superheating will have to be done at constant temperature along path 3-5.
During this process, the pressure has to be dropped. This means that heat is
transferred to the vapor as it undergoes expansion doing work. This is difficult
to achieve in practice.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Vapour Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

5.3 Mean Temperature of Heat Addition:

Tmax

5 Tmean
T 6

2
Tmin
1 4

Fig.5.3. Mean temperature of heat addition

If Tm is the mean temperature of heat addition as shown in the above figure, so that the

area under curve 2-3 is equal to area under curve 5-6, then heat added.

Q1 = H.A = (h 3 - h 2 ) = Tm (s3 - s 2 )

(h 3 - h 2 )
Tm =
(s3 - s 2 )

If Q2 = heat rejected = ( h 4 - h1 ) = Tmin ( s 4 - s1 ) = Tmin ( s3 - s 2 )

Q2 T (s - s 2 )
ηrankine = 1 - = 1 - min 3
Q1 Tm (s3 - s 2 )
Tmin
ηrankine = 1 -
Tm

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Vapour Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

5.4 Capacity of Steam Power Plant:

Steam rate: It is defined as the rate of steam flow (kg/hr) required for producing unit
shaft output (1 kW), therefore,

3600
Steam rate = ( kg/kWh )
w net

Heat rate: It is rate of heat input (Q1) required for producing unit work output (1 kW).

3600
Heat rate = . Q1 ( kJ/kWh )
w net

where, Q1 is heat added per kg of steam

Effect of Varying the Operating Conditions on the Efficiency of the

Simple Rankine Cycle:

(a) Effect of Superheat:

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Vapour Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

3'

2' 3

2
1
4 4'

A B C s

Fig.5.4(a). Effect of superheating

In the above figure two Rankine cycles are compared, cycle 1-2-3-4-1 using dry

saturated steam at the exit of the boiler and cycle 1-2-3’-4’-1 using superheated steam

at the exit of the boiler. The superheat steam cycle delivers more work and this excess

work is represented by area 3-3’-4’-4, and also it takes in more amount of heat and this

excess is represented by area 3-3’-C-B. The net effect is to increase the thermal

efficiency of the cycle. This increase could have been anticipated from second law,

because superheating increases the average temperature of heat addition to the cycle.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Vapour Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

(b) Effect of Maximum Pressure:

3'
3
p'
p
T

2'
2
1 4' 4

A B C s

Fig.5.4(b). Effect of maximum pressure on Rankine cycle

The two cycles are shown above 1-2-3-4-1 and 1-2’-3’-4’-1 have the same minimum

pressure but different maximum pressures. As the result of increasing the maximum

pressure from p to p’, the net work output has increased by the area shown by

horizontal hatching and decreased by the area shown by vertical hatching. Since, these

two areas are nearly equal, the network is nearly the same, but the net heat rejected

decreases by the area 4’-4-C-B. Hence, the thermal efficiency increases.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Vapour Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

(c) Effect of Condenser Pressure:

T 2
P4
2'
1 P4' 4
1'
4'

A B C S
Fig.5.4(c). Effect of condenser pressure on Rankine cycle

If the condenser pressure is reduced from p4 to p14, the net work is increased by area 1-

4-4’-1’-2’-2-1. And the heat supplied to steam increases by the area A-2’-2-B. These

two areas are nearly equal; however, the net effect is to increase the thermal efficiency.

This could be expected because the average temperature of heat rejection of the cycle

decreases with decrease in condenser pressure.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Vapour Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

5.5 Modified Rankine Cycle:

1 2

4 3
6

Fig.5.5(a). p-v diagram of modified Rankine cycle

2
T

1 5
4 6 3

s
Fig.5.5(b). T-s diagram of modified Rankine cycle

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Vapour Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

Process 1-2 represents the admission of high pressure steam into the engine cylinder,

process 2-3 is the reversible adiabatic expansion of steam in the cylinder and process

3-4 is the exhaust of steam into condenser. Net work done is represented by the area 1-

2-3-4-1.

Observe that the area 3-6-5 is very small and in order to obtain this small work, the

cylinder volume must be increased from v6 to v3.This makes cylinder very bulky. For this

reason, the expansion process is terminated at point 5. So that indicator diagram

becomes 1-2-5-6-4. The work lost is small but there is large saving in cylinder volume.

Process 5-6 represents the release of steam into the condenser, thus causing the

cylinder pressure to drop from P5 to P6. Process 6-4 is the exhaust of steam at constant

pressure. Cycle 1-2-5-6-4 is called as the “modified Rankine cycle”.

Thermal Efficiency:
Considering the unit mass of working fluid,

Heat supplied = h 2 - h1

Net workdone = {w 2-5 + w 5-6 + w 4-1 }

6
= ( h 2 - h 5 ) - ∫ vdp + ( h 4 - h1 )
5

= ( h 2 - h 5 ) + v5 ( p5 - p6 ) + ( h 4 - h1 )

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Vapour Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

v5 = specific volume of steam at state 5.

Net workdone (h 2 - h 5 ) + v5 (p5 - p6 ) + (h 4 - h1 )

ηth = =
Heat sup plied (h 2 - h1 )

If pump work is neglected, then h 4 ≈ h1

(h 2 - h 5 ) + v5 (p5 - p6 )
ηth =
(h 2 - h 4 )

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Vapour Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

5.6 Deviation of Actual Cycle from Ideal Cycle:

The actual cycle deviates from the ideal cycle for the following reasons.

3
T 2'
2

1 4 4'

s
Fig.5.6. T-s diagram of actual and ideal cycle

1) Turbine Losses:
During the expansion of steam in the turbine there will be heat transfer to the

surroundings and the expansion instead of being isentropic will be polytropic as shown

in the figure.

3 − 4 → Isentropic expansion
3 − 4 ' → Acutal expansion
h 3 - h ′4
Turbine efficiency = η t =
h3 - h 4

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Vapour Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

2) Pump Losses:
There are losses in the pump due to irreversibility and the process of compression is

polytropic instead of isentropic as shown above.

h 2 - h1
Pump efficiency = ηp =
h ′2 - h1

3) Condenser Losses:
Due to pressure loss in the condenser, fluid cools below the saturation temperature,

which requires additional heat energy to bring the liquid to the saturation temperature.

Methods of Increasing the Efficiency of Simple Rankine Cycle:

1) Rankine Cycle With Reheat:

3
BOILER
TURBINE

I II
4
5 6
2

PUMP 1
CONDENSER
(a)

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Vapour Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

5
T 4
2
1
6

s
(b)
Fig.5.6.1(a & b). Rankine cycle with reheat

In reheat Rankine cycle, the expansion of steam is carried out in several stages and the

steam is reheated by addition of heat between the stages of turbine. Thus excessive

moisture in the low-pressure stages of the turbine is avoided.

Above figure shows schematic and corresponding T-s, p-v diagrams of a reheat

Rankine cycle with two turbine stages. Steam is expanded from the boiler pressure P3

to some intermediate pressure P4 in the first stage of the turbine. It is then reheated in

the boiler from state 4 to state 5 and finally expanded from P4 = P5 to the exhaust

pressure P1 = P6, in the second stage of the turbine. Note that we can employ any

number of turbine stages.

Reheating does not result in any appreciable gain in thermal efficiency, because the

average temperature of heat addition is not changed. The main advantage is that the

moisture content of steam is reduced to a safe value.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Vapour Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

Thermal efficiency of Reheat cycle:

Net workdone
ηreheat =
Heat sup plied

( h3 - h4 ) + ( h5 - h6 ) - (h2 - h1 )
=
( h3 - h 2 ) + ( h5 - h4 )

Neglecting pump work,

(h 3 - h 4 ) + (h 5 - h 6 )
ηreheat =
(h 3 - h1 ) + (h 5 - h 4 )

Optimum Intermediate Pressure and Temperature for Reheat Cycle:

The reheat Rankine cycle will perform efficiently when intermediate pressure for

reheating is optimized. First, the intermediate temperature is determined as follows:

h3 - h 2
T4 =
s3 - s 2

And then, the intermediate pressure will be equal to saturation pressure corresponding

to the above temperature.

2) Regenerative Feed Heating Cycles:

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Vapour Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

3
2'
x
T
2

1 4

a b s

Fig.5.6.1(c). T-s diagram

The object of regenerative feed heating cycle is to supply the working fluid to the boiler

at some state between 2 and 2’, thereby increasing the average temperature of heat

addition to the cycle.

(a) Single stage regenerative cycle

(i) Open feed water heater
(ii) Closed feed water heater
(b) Multiple stage regenerative cycle.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Vapour Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

5.7 Open Feed Water Heater:

5
BOILER
1 kg

TURBINE

(1-m1) kg
6
7
4 m1 kg
CONDENSER
HEATER

3
2
PUMP (1-m1) kg

PUMP
1
(a)

1 kg
5
4 m1 kg
T
3 6
2 (1-m1) kg
1 7

s
(b)

Fig.5.7. Open feed water heater cycle

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Vapour Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

A regenerative cycle having a single stage of feed water heating is shown above. Steam

enters the turbine at state 5. After expansion to state 6, part of this steam is extracted

and supplied to the feed water heater while the remainder continues to expand to state

7. Other processes are as shown above. The above T-s diagram is not the exact one,

(because the mass flow rate is changing at all the state points) but, it simply shows

various states of the working fluid.

Let m1 = mass of steam extracted at state 6 then, heat balance for heater gives,

m1h 6 + (1 - m1 ) h 2 = h 3
m1h 6 + h 2 - m1h 2 = h 3
m1 (h 6 - h 2 ) = (h 3 - h 2 )
(h 3 - h 2 )
m1 =
(h 6 - h 2 )
if, h 2 ≈ h1

(h 3 - h1 )
m1 =
(h 6 - h1 )

The amount is so adjusted that the liquid leaving the feed water heater at state 3 is

saturated.

Thermal Efficiency:

Turbine work = (h 5 - h 6 ) + (1 - m1 )(h 6 - h 7 )

Heat supplied = (h 5 - h 4 ) ≈ (h 5 - h 3 )

(h 5 - h 6 ) + (1 - m1 )(h 6 - h 7 )
Therefore, ηth =
(h 5 - h 3 )
(h 5 - h 7 ) - m1 (h 6 - h 7 )
=
(h 5 - h 3 )

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Vapour Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

5.8 Closed Feed Water Heater:

TURBINE
5 (1-m1)
I II
1 kg

6 m1 kg 7
BOILER PUMP
3

CONDE
4
NSER

x 2
m1
3 1

DRAINCOOLER 2

1 kg
PUMP
(a)

1 kg 5

4 m1 kg
3
T 6

2 (1-m1) kg
1 7

s
(b)

Fig.5.8. Closed feed water heater

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Vapour Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

Regeneration here is single stage, while turbine is of two stages. The extracted steam

of mass m1 kg is completely condensed in the heater and this liquid is first passed

through a drain cooler and then enters the condenser where it mixes with the main

condensate of mass (1-m1) kg. This liquid from the condenser is first heated from state

2 to state x in the drain cooler and then from state x to state 3 in heater. If we assume

perfect heat exchange in water heater, then the feed water as well as the condensate of

the extracted steam will leave the feed water heater at state 3. Similarly in the drain

cooler, the liquid coming from heater will get cooled to the temperature t2 of the

condensate from the pump.

Let, m1 = mass of extracted steam per kg steam supplied to the turbine.

Heat balance for drain cooler gives,

m1 (h 3 - h 2 ) = 1(h x - h 2 )

h x = h 2 + m1 (h 3 - h 2 )

Heat balance for feed heater gives,

m1 (h 6 - h 3 ) = (h 3 - h x ) = h 3 - h 2 - m1 (h 3 - h 2 )

m1 {(h 6 - h 3 ) + (h 3 - h 2 )} = (h 3 - h 2 )

h3 - h 2
m1 =
h6 - h2

Since, h 2 ≈ h1

h 3 - h1
m1 =
h 6 - h1
(h 5 - h 7 ) - m1 (h 6 - h 7 )
ηth = (neglecting pump work)
(h 5 - h 3 )

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Vapour Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

5.9 Multi–Stage Regenerative Cycles:

TURBINE

10
I II III IV
(1-m1-m2-m3)
BOILER 11 m1 12 m2 13 m3 14
PUMP 7 5 3

8 6 4
9
7 5
(m1+m2) x 2 1
m1
(m1+m2+m3) 3

PUMP

2
Fig.5.9(a). Three stage regenerative cycle

1 kg
9 10
8 m1
(1-m1)
7 11
T 6 m1+m2
(1-m1-m2)
5 12
4 (m1+m2+m3) (1-m1-m2-m3)
3 13
2
1 (1-m1-m2-m3)
kg 1 14

Fig.5.9(b). T-s diagram

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Vapour Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

Above figure shows an arrangement in which there are 3 stages of feed water heating

employing closed heaters. Steam to the 1st, 2nd and 3rd heaters is supplied at states 11,

12 and 13 respectively. The feed water leaving each heater is at the saturation

temperature corresponding to the pressure of bled steam supplied to that heater. The

corresponding T-s diagram for the cycle is shown above.

Considering one kg of steam leaving the boiler and entering the turbine at state 10.

Let, m1 = mass of steam supplied to 1st heater.

m2 = mass of steam supplied to 2nd heater.

m3 = mass of steam supplied to 3rd heater.

Heat balance for 1st heater gives,

m1 (h11 - h 7 ) = (h 7 - h 6 ) ≈ (h 7 - h 5 )

(h 7 - h 5 )
m1 =
(h11 - h 7 )

Heat balance for 2nd heater gives,

h 4 + m 2 h12 + m1h 7 = h 5 + h 5 (m1 + m 2 )

m 2 (h12 - h 5 ) = (h 5 - h 4 ) + m1 (h 5 - h 7 )

(h 5 - h 3 ) - m1 (h 7 - h 5 )
m2 = ; Q (h 4 ≈ h 3 )
(h12 - h 5 )

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Vapour Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

Also, heat balance for 3rd heater + drain cooler, gives,

m3 h13 + (m1 + m 2 )h 5 + h 2 = (m1 + m 2 + m3 ) h 2 + h 3

m3 h13 + (m1 + m 2 )h 5 + (1 - m1 - m 2 - m3 )h 2 = h 3

m3 (h13 - h 2 ) = (h 3 - h 2 ) - (m1 + m 2 )(h 5 - h 2 )

m3 (h13 - h1 ) ≈ (h 3 - h1 ) - (m1 + m 2 )(h 5 - h1 )

(h 3 - h1 ) - (m1 + m 2 )(h 5 - h1 )
m3 =
(h13 - h1 )

⎧⎪( h10 - h11 ) + (1 - m1 ) (h11 - h12 ) + (1 - m1 - m 2 )(h12 - h13 ) ⎫⎪

Turbine work = ⎨ ⎬
⎩⎪+ (1 - m1 - m 2 - m3 )(h13 - h14 ) ⎭⎪

= (h10 - h14 ) - m1 (h11 - h14 ) - m 2 (h12 - h14 ) - m3 (h13 - h14 )

Heat sup plied = (h10 - h 7 )

work done
η =
Heat sup plied

⎪⎧( h10 - h11 ) + (1 - m1 ) (h11 - h12 ) + (1 - m1 - m 2 )(h12 - h13 ) ⎪⎫

⎨ ⎬
⎪+ (1 - m1 - m 2 - m3 )(h13 - h14 )
⎩ ⎭⎪
η =
(h10 - h 7 )

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Vapour Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

5.10 Binary Vapor Power Cycle:

Thermal efficiency of Rankine cycle can be increased by:

1) Increasing the average temperature of heat addition.

2) Decreasing the average temperature of heat rejection.

Maximum temperature of the cycle is limited by practical considerations. For steam as a

working fluid, the following difficulties arise at maximum temperature.

1) Critical temperature of steam is equal to 3740C and critical pressure is 221.2

bar. It is not possible to work at this pressure.
2) Latent heat of vaporization decreases as the pressure increases.
3) If high pressure steam is expanded, high degree of moisture content will be
present at the end of process.

The minimum temperature of the cycle is usually limited to natural water temperature of

250C. At this temperature, the saturation pressure of water will be 0.0318 bar. It means

that the condenser has to work at vacuum. This is very difficult. So, ideal working fluid

for Rankine cycle should fulfill the following requirements.

1) Reasonable saturation pressure at maximum temperature.

2) Steep saturated vapor line to minimize moisture problem.
3) Saturation pressure higher than atmospheric at minimum temperature.
4) Low liquid specific heat so that most of the heat is added at maximum
temperature.
5) Non-toxic and non-corrosive.

All the above requirements are not met by any single working fluid. In binary cycle two

working fluids are used in order to obtain good results. Mercury and steam are most

commonly used working fluids. Saturation pressure and saturation temperature of

mercury is 20.6 bar and 5400C at critical point.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Vapour Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

5.11 Mercury-Steam Binary Vapor Cycle:

STEAM SUPER HEATER

AND MERCURY BOILER 4
3 STEAM
TURBINE
C MERCURY 5
TURBINE
D CONDE
NSER

A 1
B 2
PUMP PUMP
(a)

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Vapour Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

T
4
B
A D
3
2
1 5
s
(b)

Fig.5.11. Binary vapour power cycle

Above figure shows the schematic diagram of a mercury-steam binary cycle. The

corresponding T-s diagram is also shown. There are two distinct circuits, one for

mercury and the other for steam. Saturated mercury vapor from the mercury boiler at

state C enters the mercury turbine, expands to state D, and is condensed at state A.

The condensate is pumped back to the boiler by the mercury pump.

The heat rejected in the mercury condenser is used to vaporize water into steam at

state 3. Thus, the mercury condenser also acts as the steam boiler. Note that there is a

considerable temperature differential between condensing mercury and boiling water.

Saturated steam is then superheated to state 4 as shown, expanded in the steam

turbine to state 5 and then condensed. The mercury cycle is represented by A-B-C-D-A

and the steam cycle by 1-2-3-4-5-1 on the T-s diagram.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Vapour Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet , Prof. T. Sundararajan and Prof. J.M . Mallikarjuna

Let x = mass of mercury per kg of steam.

Then,

x ( h D - h A ) = 1(h 3 - h 2 ) ≈ (h 3 - h1 )

(h 3 - h1 )
x =
(h D - h A )

⎧Hg turbine work + steam turbine work ⎫

Net work done = ⎨ ⎬
⎩ + Hg pump work + steam pump work ⎭
w net = x(h C - h D ) + x(h A - h B ) + (h 4 - h 5 ) + (h1 - h 2 )

Neglecting pump work:

w net = x(h C - h D ) + (h 4 - h 5 )

Heat supplied per kg of steam = x(h C - h B ) + (h 4 - h 3 ) ≈ x(h C - h A ) + (h 4 - h 3 )

⎧ x(h C - h D ) + (h 4 - h 5 ) ⎫
ηth = ⎨ ⎬
⎩ x(h C - h 4 ) + (h 4 - h 3 ) ⎭

Indian Institute of Technology Madras