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1. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE

1.1 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NDT)

1.1.1 Definition and nature of NDT

Non-destructive testing is the use of physical methods which will test materials, components
and assemblies for flaws in their structure without damaging their future usefulness. NDT is
concerned with revealing flaws in the structure of a product. It, however, cannot predict
where flaws will develop due to the design itself.

All NDT methods have the following common characteristics:

i) The application of a testing medium to the product to be tested.

ii) The changes in the testing medium due to the defects in the structure of the product.
iii) A means by which it detects these changes.
iv) Interpretation of these changes to obtain information about the flaws in the structure
of the product.

1.1.2 Importance of NDT

NDT plays an important role in the quality control of a product. It is used during all the
stages of manufacturing of a product. It is used to monitor the quality of the:

i) Raw materials which are used in the construction of the product.

ii) Fabrication processes which are used to manufacture the product.
iii) Finished product before it is put into service.

Use of NDT during all stages of manufacturing results in the following benefits:

i) It increases the safety and reliability of the product during operation.

ii) It decreases the cost of the product by reducing scrap and conserving materials,
labour and energy.
iii) It enhances the reputation of the manufacturer as producer of quality goods.

All of the above factors boost the sales of the product which bring more economic benefits
to the manufacturer.

NDT is also used widely for routine or periodic determination of quality of the plants and
structures during service. This not only increases the safety of operation but also eliminates
any forced shut down of the plants.

1.2 TYPES OF NDT METHODS

The methods of NDT range from the simple to the complicated. Visual inspection is the
simplest of all. Surface imperfections invisible to the eye may be revealed by penetrant or
magnetic methods. If really serious surface defects are found, there is often little point in
proceeding to more complicated examinations of the interior by ultrasonics or radiography.
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NDT methods may be divided into groups for the purposes of these notes: conventional and
non-conventional. To the first group may belong the methods which are commonly used
and include Visual or Optical Inspection, Dye Penetrant Testing, Magnetic Particle Testing,
Eddy Current Testing, Radiographic Testing and Ultrasonic Testing. The second group of
NDT methods are those used only for specialized applications and consequently are limited
in use. Some of these methods which are being mentioned here merely as a curiosity for the
reader include Neutron Radiography, Acoustic Emission, Thermal and Infrared Testing,
Strain Sensing, Microwave Techniques, Leak Testing, Holography etc. It must also be
remembered that no one of these methods can give us solutions to all the possible problems,
i.e. they are not optional alternatives but rather complementary to each other. The basic
principles, typical applications, advantages and limitations of the methods of group one will
now be briefly described.

1.2.1 Visual Testing (VT)

Often overlooked in any listing of NDT methods, visual inspection is one of the most
common and most powerful means of non-destructive testing. Visual testing requires
adequate illumination of the test surface and proper eye-sight of the tester. To be most
effective visual inspection does however, merit special attention because it requires training
(knowledge of product and process, anticipated service conditions, acceptance criteria,
record keeping, for example) and it has its own range of equipment and instrumentation. It
is also a fact that all defects found by other NDT methods ultimately must be substantiated
by visual inspection. Visual testing can be classified as direct visual testing, remote visual
testing and translucent visual testing. The most common NDT methods MT and PT are
indeed simply scientific ways of enhancing the indication to make it more visible. Often the
equipment needed is simple (Figure 1.1): a portable light, a mirror on stem, a 2 x or 4 x
hand lens, one illuminated magnifier with magnification 5x or 10x. For internal inspection,
light lens systems such as borescopes allow remote surfaces to be examined . More
sophisticated devices of this nature using fibre optics permit the introduction of the device
into very small access holes and channels. Most of these systems provide for the attachment
of a camera to permit permanent recording.

Figure 1.1 : Various Optical Aids used in Visual Inspection.

A Mirror on stem: may be flat for normal view or concave for limited magnification.

B Hand magnifying glass (magnification usually 2-3x).

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C Illuminated magnifier; field of view more restricted than D (magnification 5-10x).

D Inspection glass, usually fitted with a scale for measurement; the front surface is
placed in contact with the work (magnification 5-10x).

E Borescope or intrascope with built-in illumination (magnification 2-3x).

The applications of visual testing include:

1) Checking of the surface condition of the test specimen.

2) Checking of alignment of matting surfaces.

3) Checking of shape of the component.

4) Checking for evidence of leaking.

5) Checking for internal defects.

1.2.2 Liquid penetrant testing (PT)

This is a method which can be employed for the detection of open-to-surface discontinuities
in any industrial product which is made from a non-porous material. This method is widely
used for testing of non-magnetic materials. In this method a liquid penetrant is applied to the
surface of the product for a certain predetermined time, after which the excess penetrant is
removed from the surface. The surface is then dried and a developer is applied to it. The
penetrant which remains in the discontinuity is absorbed by the developer to indicate the
presence as well as the location, size and nature of the discontinuity. The process is
illustrated in Figure 1.2.

Penetrants used in liquid penetrant are either visible dye penetrant or fluorescent dye
penetrant. The inspection of the presence of indications dye visible by penetrant is made
under white light while inspection of presence of indications by fluorescent dye penetrant is
made under ultraviolet (or black) light under darkened conditions. The liquid penetrant
processes are further sub-divided according to the method of washing of the specimen. The
penetrants can be: (i) water-washable, (ii) post-emulsifiable, i.e. an emulsifier is added to
the excess penetrant on surface of the specimen to make it water-washable, and (iii) solvent
removable, i.e. the excess penetrant is needed to be dissolved in a solvent to remove it from
the test specimen surface. In order of decreasing sensitivity and decreasing cost, the liquid
penetrant processes can be listed as:

1. Post emulsifiable fluorescent dye penetrant.

2. Solvent removable fluorescent dye penetrant.

3. Water washable fluorescent dye penetrant.

4. Post emulsifiable visible dye penetrant.

5. Solvent removable visible dye penetrant.

6. Water washable visible dye penetrant.

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Figure 1.2 : Different stages of liquid penetrant process.

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1.2.3 Magnetic particle testing (MT)

Magnetic particle testing is used for the testing of materials which can be easily magnetized.
This method is capable of detecting open to surface and just below the surface flaws. In this
method the test specimen is first magnetized either by using a permanent or an
electromagnet or by passing electric current through or around the specimen. The magnetic
field thus introduced into the specimen is composed of magnetic lines of force. Whenever
there is a flaw which interrupts the flow of magnetic lines of force, some of these lines must
exit and re-enter the specimen. These points of exit and re-entry form opposite magnetic
poles. Whenever minute magnetic particles are sprinkled onto the surface of such a
specimen, these particles are attracted by these magnetic poles to create a visual indication
approximating the size and shape of the flaw. Figure 1.3 illustrates the basic principles of
this method.

Figure 1.3 : Basic principle of magnetic particle testing.

Depending on the application, there are different magnetization techniques used in magnetic
particle testing. These techniques can be grouped into the following two categories:

a) Direct current techniques: These are the techniques in which the current flows
through the test specimen and the magnetic field produced by this flow of
current is used for the detection of defects. These techniques are shown in
Figure 1-4 (a, b & c).

b) Magnetic Flux Flow Techniques: In these technique magnetic flux is induced into
the specimen either by the use of a permanent magnet or by flowing current through
a coil or a conductor. These techniques are shown in Figure 1.4 (d, g).
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Figure 1.4 : Different magnetizations used in magnetic particle testing.

1.2.4 Eddy current testing (ET)

This method is widely used to detect surface flaws, to sort materials, to measure thin walls
from one surface only, to measure thin coatings and in some applications to measure case
depth. This method is applicable to electrically conductive materials only. In the method
eddy currents are produced in the product by bringing it close to an alternating current
carrying coil. The alternating magnetic field of the coil is modified by the magnetic fields of
the eddy currents. This modification, which depends on the condition of the part near to the
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coil, is then shown as a meter reading or cathode ray tube presentation. Figure 1.5 gives the
basic principles of eddy current testing.

(a)

(b)

Figure 1.5 : (a) Generation of eddy currents in the test specimen, (b) Distortion eddy
currents due to defect.

There are three types of probes (Figure 1.6) used in eddy current testing. Internal probes are
usually used for the inservice testing of heat exchanger tubes. Encircling probes are
commonly used for the testing of rods and tubes during manufacturing. The uses of surface
probes include the location of cracks, sorting of materials, measurement of wall and coating
thickness, and case depth measurement.
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Figure 1.6 : Types of probes used in eddy current testing.

This method is used:

1) For the detection of defects in tubings

2) For sorting materials

3) For measurement of thin wall thicknesses from one surface only

4) For measuring thin coatings and

5) For measuring case depth

1.2.5 Radiographic testing method (RT)

The radiographic testing method is used for the detection of internal flaws in many different
materials and configurations. An appropriate radiographic film is placed behind the test
specimen (Figure 1.7) and is exposed by passing either X-rays or gamma rays through it.
The intensity of the X-rays or gamma rays while passing through the product is modified
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according to the internal structure of the specimen and thus the exposed film, after
processing, reveals the shadow picture, known as a radiograph, of the product. It is then
interpreted to obtain data about the flaws present in the specimen. This method is used on
wide variety of products such as forgings, castings and weldments.

Figure 1.7: Arrangement for radiographic testing method.

1.2.5.1 Radiation Protection

X-rays and gamma rays are ionizing radiation and as such they are harmful to human
beings. If received in higher doses these radiation can be lethal. The most dangerous thing
about X-rays and gamma rays is that their presence cannot be felt even if being received in
large doses and causing damage to the human body. For example, a lethal dose of radiation
will cause a 0.002 °C rise in temperature of human body which cannot be perceived by the
human senses. The effects of ionizing radiation on human beings can be classified as
somatic effects and genetic effects.

a) Somatic effects:
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The damage caused by the ionizing radiation to the exposed individual is known as
somatic effect. These effects can be further divided into immediate and delayed
somatic effects. Immediate somatic effects are the effects which are apparent in the
exposed individual within hours or a few days. The effects include vomiting, nausea,
fatigue, paleness, loss of hair, loss of appetite, etc. The delayed somatic effects may
appear in the exposed individual years after the exposure. These effects may include:

1) Cataract of the lenses of the eyes which may cause partial or total blindness,

2) Cancer such as bone and lung cancer and leukaemia,

3) A plastic anemia caused by radiation damage to bone marrow, and

4) Shortening of life span and premature ageing.

b) Genetic effects

Genetic effects, which are caused by the damage to the genes of the exposed
individual, affect the off-spring of the exposed individual. This is the most important
of long term effects of low level radiation exposure. Genetic effects are significant
only if gonads receive radiation exposure.

1.2.5.2 Maximum permissible dose

As per recommendations of International Commission on Radiological Protection, (ICRP),

the permissible dose is a dose of ionizing radiation that, in the light of present knowledge
and in the opinion of competent medical authority is not expected to cause appreciable
bodily injury to a person at any time during his lifetime and carries negligible probability of
genetic malformations. Moreover the ensuing effects must be acceptable to the individual
exposed and to the society of which he is a part. Maximum permissible dose levels in case
of external exposures for occupational and non-occupational workers are discussed below:

a) Occupational workers

i) The maximum permissible occupational dose of whole body exposure in the forty
years of working lifetime of an individual is 200 rems which includes all
occupational exposures but does not include medical and dental exposures. The
maximum accumulated dose or dose commitment in rems of a radiation worker of
age N years is given by (N-18) x 5. This restricts that no person of age less than 18
years be employed for radiation work. Taking 40 hours a week and fifty weeks a
year, the permissible levels can be easily derived to be 5 rems/years, 100
mrem/week and 2.5 mrem/hour and this is the dose rate to be applied to all areas
surrounding radiographic installations which are accessible to only classified
workers.

ii) Doses up to 3 rems may be incurred in any quarter (13 weeks) of a year provided it
happens only once a year and the condition of 5 rems/year is maintained.
Recommendations (i) and (ii) apply to gonads, bone marrow and whole body
exposures. For other parts of the body values given in Table 1.1 must be used:

Table 1.1 : Maximum permissible dose for various parts of the body.

S. No. Organ Rems/year Rems/quarter

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1. Skin 30 15
2. Bone 30 15
3. Thyroid 30 15
4. Hands & feet 75 37.5
5. Fore arms & ankles 75 37.5
6. Other organs 15 7.5

b) Non-occupational workers

For all non-occupational workers and members of the public being exposed to
external radiation, the above mentioned permissible doses and dose rates must be
reduced by a factor of 10.

1.2.5.3 Radiation monitoring

Radiation workers such as radiographers are subjected to ionizing radiation while

performing their work. The amount of radiation dose received depends on various
parameters and conditions such as time, distance, shielding and working procedure. Thus, to
ensure the safety of radiographers, it is important for the higher level personnel to
continuously observe and record the amount of radiation received by each radiographer
working under him. Such an activity is called personal monitoring.

In general, the main purposes of the personal monitoring are:

i) To ensure that the maximum permissible dose is not exceeded.

ii) To assist the medical authority in making analysis in the case of accidental over
exposure.

iii) To provide information about work practices and personal dose history.

The three types of personal monitoring devices commonly used by industrial radiographers
are:

i) Film badge dosimeter.

ii) Pocket dosimeter.

iii) Thermoluminescence dosimeter (TLD).

Apart from personal monitoring, there is another type of monitoring called area monitoring.
Area monitoring is an assessment of the radiation situation in the working environment to
ensure safe working conditions. Such monitoring is normally conducted with the help of
devices known as field survey meters.

1.2.6 Ultrasonic testing (UT)

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Ultrasonic inspection is a non-destructive method in which high frequency sound waves are
introduced into the material being inspected. Most ultrasonic inspection is done at
frequencies between 0.5 and 20 MHz, well above the range of human hearing which is
about 20 Hz to 20 kHz. The sound waves travel through the material with some loss of
energy (attenuation) due to material characteristics. The intensity of sound waves is either
measured, after reflection (Pulse echo) at interfaces (or flaw) or is measured at the opposite
surface of the specimen (Pulse transmission). The reflected beam is detected and analyzed
to define the presence and location of flaws. The degree of reflection depends largely on the
physical state of matter on the opposite side of the interface, and to a lesser extent on
specific physical properties of that matter, for instance, sound waves are almost completely
reflected at metal-gas interfaces. Partial reflection occurs at metal-liquid or metal-solid
interfaces. Ultrasonic testing has a superior penetrating power than radiography and can
detect flaws deep in the test specimen (say up to about 6 to 7 metre of steel). It is quite
sensitive to small flaws and allows the precise determination of the location and size of the
flaws. The basic principle of ultrasonic testing is illustrated in Figure 1.8.

(a) Pulse echo method.

(b) Through transmission method.

Figure 1.8 : Basic components of a pulse echo ultrasonic flaw detector.

1.2.6.1 Applications of ultrasonic testing

Ultrasonic testing method is:

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1) Mostly used for detection of flaws in materials.

2) Widely used for thickness measurement.

3) Used for the determination of mechanical properties and grain structure of materials.

4) Used for the evaluation of processing variables on materials.

1.2.6.2 Advantages of ultrasonic testing

Some of the advantages of ultrasonic testing are:

1) It has high sensitivity which permits detection of minute defects.

2) It has high penetrating power (of the order of 6 to 7 metres in steel) which allows
examination of extremely thick sections.

3) It has a high accuracy of measurement of flaw position and size.

4) It has fast response which permits rapid and automatic inspection.

5) It needs access to only one surface of the specimen.

1.2.6.3 Limitations of ultrasonic testing

Some of the limitations of this method are:

1) Unfavourable geometry of the test specimen causes problems during inspection.

2) Inspection of materials having undesirable internal structure is difficult.

3) It requires the use of a couplant.

4) The probe must be properly coupled during scanning.

5) Defect orientation affects defect detectability.

6) Equipment is quite expensive.

7) Very highly skilled manpower is required.

1.2.7 Leak testing (LT)

Since many structures are designed to be pressurized or pressure tight, defect is often a leak.
There are several methods (Table 1.2) for locating leaks ranging from simple liquid seepage
onto a dry surface, perhaps mixed with a dye, to highly precise measurement of the escape
of helium or radioactive gas. The level of sensitivity depends upon the methods used and is
chosen in relation to the severity of the application.

Table 1.2 : Comparison of leak testing methods.

Method Detector Relative sensitivity

Air/soap solution Visual bubbles 1x
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Air/water
Air/water Sound of escaping gas 10 x
(Ultrasonic detector)
Hydrogen/Methanol Visual bubbles 100 x
Hydrogen Pirani gauge 100 x
Halogen gas Heated anode 700 x
(Electron capture gauge)
Hydrogen/helium Mass spectrometer 800 x
Radioactive gas (Krypton-85) Counter 800 x

1.3 COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT NDT METHODS

Frequently it may be necessary to use one method of NDT to confirm the findings of
another. Therefore, various methods must be considered complementary and not
competitive, or as optional alternatives. Each method has its particular merits and
limitations and these must be taken into account when any testing programme is planned.
Table 1.3 gives a summary of the most frequently used NDT methods.
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Table 1.3 : Comparison of various NDT methods.

Access Equipment Inspection

Technique Remarks
requirements cost cost
Optical methods Can be used to B/D D Very versatile; Little skill
view the interior required; Repays
of complex consideration at design
equipment. One stage.
point of access
may be enough.
Radiography Must be able to A B/C Despite high cost, large
reach both sides. area can be inspected at
one time. Considerable
skill required in
interpretation.
Ultrasonics One or both B B/C Requires point-by-point
sides (or ends) search hence extensive
must be work needed on large
accessible. structures; Skilled
personnel required.

Magnetic Requires a clean C C/D Only useful on magnetic

particle and reasonably materials such as steel;
smooth surface. Little skill required; Only
detects surface breaking or
near surface cracks.
Penetrant flaw Requires flaw to D C/D For all materials; Some
detection be accessible to skill required; Only detects
the penetrant surface-breaking defects;
(i.e. clean and at Rather messy.
the surface).
Eddy current Surface must B/C C/D For electrically conductive
(usually) be materials only; For surface
reasonably breaking flaws; Variations
smooth and in thickness of coatings, or
clean comparison of materials;
For other than simple
comparison considerable
skill is usually required.

A : Highest cost
D : Lowest cost

1.4 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

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1.4.1 Physical properties

1.4.1.1 Specific gravity

Specific gravity is a unit of measurement based on the mass of a volume of material

compared with the mass of an equal volume of water. Aluminum has a specific gravity of
2.70. Thus it is almost 2 times heavier than water. When two molten metals are mixed
together the metal with the lower specific gravity will be forced to the top. The metal with
the higher specific gravity will sink to the bottom.

1.4.1.2 Density

A metal is said to be dense when it is compact and does not contain defects such as slag
inclusions and gas pockets. Density is expressed as the quantity per unit volume. The
density of low carbon steel, for example, is 0.238 pounds per cubic inch. The density of
aluminum, a much lighter metal, is only 0.096 pounds per cubic inch.

1.4.1.3 Porosity

Porosity is the opposite of density. Some materials are porous by their nature and allow
liquids under pressure to leak through them. Materials that are porous have an internal
structure that lacks compactness or has other defects that leave voids in the metal.

1.4.1.4 Melting point

The melting point is the temperature at which a substance passes from a solid to a liquid
condition. For water this is 32 °F (0 °C). Steel has a melting point around 2700 °F.
{1482 °C}, depending upon the carbon range. Higher the melting point, greater the amount
of heat needed to melt a given volume of metal.

1.4.1.5 Fusibility

Fusibility is the ease with which a metal may be melted. In general soft metals are easily
fusible, whereas harder metals melt at higher temperatures. For example tin lead, and zinc
are more easily fused than iron, chromium, and molybdenum.

1.4.1.6 Volatility

Volatility is the ease with which a substance may be vaporized. A metal which has a low
melting point is more volatile than a metal with a high melting point. Volatility is measured
by the temperature at which a metal boils under atmospheric pressure.

1.4.1.7 Weldability

Weldability is the capacity of a metal substance to form a strong bond of adherence while
under pressure or during solidification from a liquid state.

1.4.1.8 Electrical conductivity

The electrical conductivity of a substance is the ability of the substance to conduct electrical
current.

1.4.1.9 Electrical resistance

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The opposition to electric current as it flows through a wire is termed as the resistance of the
wire. Resistance is measured by a unit called the "ohm".

1.4.1.10 Thermal conductivity

The thermal conductivity of a substance is the ability of substance to carry heat. The heat
that travels to both sides of the scarves during the welding of a bevel butt join is a proof that
metals conduct heat. The heat is rapidly conducted away from the scarves in a good thermal
conductor, but slowly in a poor one.

1.4.1.11 Coefficient of thermal expansion

The coefficient of thermal expansion is the amount of expansion a metal undergoes when it
is heated and the amount of contraction that occurs when it is cooled. The higher the
coefficient, the greater the amount of expansion and therefore, greater the contraction upon
cooling.

1.4.1.12 Hot shortness

Hot shortness is the brittleness in a metal when hot.

1.4.1.13 Overheating

A metal is said to be overheated when the temperature exceeds its critical range, that is,
when the metal is heated to such a degree that its properties are impaired.

1.4.2 Mechanical properties

1.4.2.1 Plasticity

The ability of a material to deform without breaking is its plasticity. Strength combined
with plasticity is the most important combination of properties a metal can have. Metals
having these properties can be used in structural fabrication. For example, if a part of a
bridge is overloaded, plasticity permits the load to be shared by other parts of the bridge.

1.4.2.2 Strength

Strength is the ability of a material to resist deformation. It is usually expressed as the

ultimate tensile strength in pounds per square inch. The ultimate tensile strength of a
material is its resistance to breaking. Cast iron has an approximate tensile strength of 15,000
p.s.i. One type of stainless steel, on the other hand, has reached a strength of 400,000 p.s.i.

1.4.2.3 Hardness

The ability of one material to penetrate another material without fracture of either is known
as hardness. The greater the hardness, the greater the resistance to marking or deformation.
A hard material is also a strong material, but it is not very ductile. The opposite of hardness
is softness.

1.4.2.4 Elastic limit

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Loading a material will cause it to change its shape. The ability of the material to return to
its original shape after the load has been removed is known as elasticity. The elastic limit is
the greatest load that may be applied after which the material will return to its original
condition.

1.4.2.5 Modulus of elasticity

To stretch, some materials require higher stresses than others. To compare the stiffness of
one metal with that of another, we must determine what is known as the modulus of
elasticity for each of them. The modulus of elasticity is the ratio of the stress to the strain. It
is a measure of relative stiffness. If the modulus is high the material is more likely to resist
movement or distortion. A material that stretches easily has a low modulus.

1.4.2.6 Yield point

When a sample of low or medium carbon steel is subjected to a tension test, a curious thing
happens. As the load on the test specimen is increased slowly, a point is found at which a
definite increase in the length of the specimen occurs with no increase in the load. The load
at this point, expressed as pounds per square inch is called yield point of the material. Non
ferrous metals and types of steel other than low and medium carbon steels do not have a
yield point.

1.4.2.7 Resilience

Resilience (springiness) is the energy stored in a material under strain (within its elastic
limit) that causes it to resume its original shape when the load is removed. Resilience is a
property of all spring steels.

1.4.2.8 Toughness

A material may be assumed to be tough if it has high tensile strength and the ability to
deform permanently without breaking. Toughness may be thought of as the opposite of
failure through deformation whereas a brittle material breaks without any warning. Copper
and nodular iron and steel are tough materials.

1.4.2.9 Shock (impact) resistance

Shock resistance may be defined as the ability of a material to withstand a maximum load
applied suddenly. The shock resistance of a material is often taken as an indication of its
toughness.

1.4.2.10 Brittleness

Brittle materials fail without any warning through deformation, elongation, or a change of
shape. It may be said that a brittle material lacks plasticity and toughness. A piece of chalk
is very brittle.

1.4.2.11 Ductility

Ductility is the ability of materials to be permanently deformed (stretched) by loading, and

yet resist fracture. When this happens, both elongation and reduction in area take place in
the material. The amount of stretching is expressed as the percent of elongation. Metals with
high ductility may be stretched, formed, or drawn without tearing or cracking. Gold, silver,
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copper and iron are metals with good ductility. A ductile metal is not necessarily a soft
metal. A metal may be ductile and also possess hardness.

1.4.2.12 Malleability

The ability a material possesses to deform permanently under compression without breaking
or fracturing is known as the malleability of the metal, or its ability to bend. Metals that
possess this characteristic can be rolled or hammered into thinner form. Metals must have
malleability in order to be forged.

1.4.2.13 Fatigue failure

Failure of metals under repeated or alternating stresses is known as fatigue failure. When a
metal is broken in a tensile machine, it is found that a certain load is required to break it.
The same material, however, will fail when a much smaller load has been applied and
removed many times. The fatigue limit is that load, usually expressed in pounds per square
inch, which may be applied for an indefinite number of cycles without causing fatigue
failure.

1.4.3 Chemical properties

1.4.3.1 Resistance to corrosion

Corrosion is the gradual wearing away or disintegration of material by a chemical process.

The ability of metals to resist atmospheric corrosion and corrosion by liquids or gases is
often very important. The action of oxygen on steel to form rust is a form of slow corrosion.

1.4.3.2 Oxidation

Oxidation is caused by the formation of metal oxides that occur when oxygen combines
with a metal. Oxides caused by excess oxygen and nitride caused by excess nitrogen cause
porosity, reduced strength, and reduced ductility in the metal.

1.5 DISCONTINUITY AND DEFECT

The term 'Discontinuity' is used to describe any breakage in the normal physical structure of
a material. A discontinuity in a product may or may not be harmful to the safe operation of
the product.

A discontinuity is called a defect when it is of such size, shape and location that it creates a
substantial chance of failure of the product in service.

A discontinuity may grow into a defect due to the cyclic loading (fatigue) of the product or
due to the corrosive environment in which the product is working. A small discontinuity
started by corrosion, a slight scratch, or a discontinuity that is inherent in the material, may
develop into a crack from the stress concentration that, under varying loads, propagates with
time until there is no longer sufficient solid material to carry the load. Sudden total failure
by fracture then occurs.

1.6 CLASSIFICATION OF DEFECTS

Defects may be classified as follows:

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1.6.1 Inherent defects

These defects are usually formed when the metal is in a molten state. These can be further
classified into categories of (a) inherent wrought discontinuities, and (b) inherent cast
defects. Inherent wrought defects are those defects which occur during the melting and
solidification of the original ingot, while the inherent cast defects are those defects which
occur during melting, casting and solidification of a cast article.

1.6.2 Processing defects

These are defects which occur during various manufacturing processes such as welding,
forging, casting, rolling, machining, heat treatment etc.

1.6.3 Service defects

These are defects which occur due to various service conditions such as corrosion, stress,
fatigue etc.

1.7 INHERENT WROUGHT DEFECTS

Typical defects found in an ingot (Figure 1.9) are non metallic inclusions, porosity and pipe.

Figure 1.9 : Typical defects in an ingot.

1.7.1 Non-metallic inclusion

These are inclusions due to the entrapment of impurities formed during the refining process
of the metal. Because the impurities are lighter than the metal, they rise to the surface during
solidification of the ingot, and thus the non-metallic inclusions are usually found in the
upper portion of the ingot. Some of the non metallic inclusions might be found in the
interior of the ingot due to the fact that some impurities did not have time to reach the
surface before the metal hardened above. The non metallic inclusions are of irregular
shapes.

1.7.2 Porosity

When a metal is melted in a furnace, gases are formed. These gases form bubbles inside the
molten metal. These bubbles, because of their lightness, rise to the surface of the metal as
 1 - 21

the ingot hardens. Most of these bubbles reach the surface but some of them are trapped by
the hardening metal. An entrapped gas bubble in the ingot is called a pore and a collection
of such pores in the ingot is called porosity. Pores usually have round shapes.

1.7.3 Pipe

Metals shrink as they solidify, therefore, usually a shrinkage cavity in top portion of the
ingot is formed. This shrinkage cavity is called a pipe. Most of these defects in the ingot are
in the upper portion and can be easily eliminated by cropping off the top of the ingot
(Figure 1.10).

Figure 1.10 : Ingot with a cropped head.

The ingot after the hot top is cropped off is called a bloom. The blooms then can be further
processed to form slabs and billets. The slab or billet is normally the starting point for actual
forming of articles or materials.

1.8 INHERENT CASTING DEFECTS

A variety of defects may occur in castings. These may be classified in five groups, namely
voids, cracks, cold shut, segregation and inclusions. All these are described below in some
detail.

1.8.1 Voids

Void is defined as a cavity produced by (a) entrapped gas evolved from the metal, (b)
entrapped air, (c) entrapped gas evolved from the mould (d) shrinkage of metal. Voids have
been classified depending on their shape and size. These classes are described below:

1.8.1.1 Microporosity

A fine form of the defect due to shrinkage, or gas or both in which a number of cavities
occur either around the grain boundaries (intercrystalline) or between the dendrite arms
(interdendritic). In non-ferrous alloys these fine cavities may occur in layers (layer
porosity).

1.8.1.2 Sponginess

A system of intercrystalline or interdendritic cavities of a coarse and usually localized form.

1.8.1.3 Pinhole porosity

Small cavities of less than about 1.6 mm (1/16 inch) diameter occurring throughout the
casting or localized within a particular area. This defect occasionally arises from the
injection of air during pressure die casting.
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1.8.1.4 Gas hole

A discrete cavity greater than about 1.6 mm (1/16 inch) diameter due to gas evolved from
the metal, mould or core. A particular form called wormhole, occurs as a tube like cavity
usually normal to and almost reaching the surface of the casting.

1.8.1.5 Airlock

A cavity formed by air which has been entrapped in the mould by the metal during pouring.

1.8.1.6 Shrinkage cavity

A discrete cavity caused by contraction during solidification.

1.8.1.7 Filamentary shrinkage

A coarse form of shrinkage defect in which the cavities are branching, interconnected and
extensive.

1.8.2 Cracks

A crack is a discontinuity due to the fracture of the metal during or after solidification.
Depending upon the cause, cracks have been classified as under:

1.8.2.1 Hot tear

This type of crack develops near solidification temperature when the metal is weak. The
defect occurs mainly at, or near to, a change of section and may not be continuous.

1.8.2.2 Stress cracks

A well defined and approximately straight crack, formed due to large stresses after the metal
has become completely solid.

1.8.3 Cold shut

It is a discontinuity caused by the failure of a stream of molten metal to unite with confluent
stream or solid metal, such as a chaplet, internal chill or pouring splash. This may often be
caused if the pouring is interrupted.

1.8.4 Segregation

Segregation is a condition resulting from the local concentration of any of the constituents
of an alloy.

1.8.4.1 General segregation

It extends over a considerable part of a casting.

1.8.4.2 Local segregation

When the shrinkage voids or hot tears are wholly or partially filled with a constituent of low
melting point.
 1 - 23

1.8.4.3 Banded segregation

This is mainly associated with centrifugal castings but can occasionally occur in static
castings also.

1.8.5 Inclusions

An inclusion is a foreign matter entrapped in the casting. This may be of different types i.e.
sand, slag, flux or dross.

1.9 WELD DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES

A variety of defects occur in welds. Some of these are discussed below:

1.9.1 Gas inclusions

Gas may develop during welding due to many factors like the quality of the parent metal,
the electrodes used, poor regulation of the arc current, etc. The gas may get entrapped and
take various forms.

1.9.1.1 Gas pore

It is a small bubble of gas entrapped within the molten metal. It has a diameter usually less
than 1.6 mm (1/16 inch). A group of gas pores is termed as porosity. The type of porosity
within a weld is usually designated by the amount and distribution of the pores. Some of the
types are classified as follows:

a) Uniformly Scattered Porosity: It is characterized by pores scattered uniformly

throughout the weld.

b) Cluster porosity: It is characterized by cluster of pores that are separated by porosity

free areas.

c) Linear Porosity: It is characterized by pores that are linearly distributed and which
generally occurs in the root pass and is associated with lack of penetration.

1.9.1.2 Blow hole

It is similar to a gas pore except that it is a little larger in dimension.

1.9.1.3 Pipe or wormhole

Some gas inclusions have an elongated form known as wormholes or pipes. They are
usually almost perpendicular to the weld surface. They can result from the use of wet
powdered flux or from inadequate regulation of the welding current. Another typical form
of pipe has the appearance of a branch of a tree. These can be caused by use of wet welding
electrodes.

1.9.2 Slag inclusions

Most weld inclusions contain slag that has been trapped in the deposited metal during
solidification. The slag may come from the electrode coating or flux employed. The purpose
of the flux is to remove impurities from the metal. If the metal fails to remain molten for a
period sufficient to allow the slag to rise to the surface some slag may be trapped within the
 1 - 24

metal. In multipass welding insufficient cleaning and brushing of the bead between passes
may not remove all the slag coating. This may then be trapped in the metal by a subsequent
pass. Dirty and irregular surfaces, ripple and undercut will contribute to slag entrapment.
Slag inclusions are frequently associated with lack of penetration, poor fusion, oversize root
faces, too narrow a groove and faulty electrode manipulation.

1.9.3 Lack of penetration

Frequently the root of a weld will not be adequately filled with weld metal and a void is left.
This inadequate penetration may be caused by too small a root opening, too large an
electrode, insufficient weld current, excessive welding speed, improper groove preparation
etc. In joints requiring complete penetration this type of defect is generally not acceptable
and requires complete removal and rewelding.

1.9.4 Lack of fusion

This is due to the lack of union in a weld between the weld metal and parent metal or
between parent metal and parent metal or between weld metal and weld metal.
Consequently the lack of fusion can be of three types namely lack of side fusion, lack of
root fusion and lack of inter-run fusion.

1.9.5 Tungsten inclusions

Tungsten inclusions are characteristic of the inert atmosphere welding methods. If the
tungsten electrode which supports the electric arc comes into contact with the weld metal,
some tungsten particles are trapped in the deposited metal. These may be in the form of
small splinters or even as pieces of the tungsten wire.

1.9.6 Cracks

A crack is a discontinuity due to the fracture of the metal during or after solidification.
Depending upon the cause, cracks have been classified as under:

1.9.6.1 Hot tear

This type of crack develops near solidification temperature when the metal is weak. The
defect occurs mainly at, or near to a change of section and may not be continuous.

1.9.6.2 Stress cracks

A well defined and approximately straight crack, formed due to large stresses after the metal
has become completely solid.

1.9.7 Burn through

A burn through area is that portion of the weld bead where excessive penetration has caused
the weld pool to be blown into the pipe or vessel. It is caused by factors, such as high
current, slow rod speed, incorrect rod manipulation etc., that produce excessive heat in one
area. It is often accompanied by excessive drop through of the metal on the inside of the
weld.

1.9.8 Root pass oxidation

 1 - 25

Oxidation is the result of insufficient protection of the weld and heat affected zone from the
atmosphere. Severe oxidation will occur on stainless steels, for example, reducing corrosion
resistance if the joint is not purged with an inert gas.

1.9.9 Root concavity

Root concavity is commonly produced by the FCAW process. This is a groove created in
the root of a butt weld welded from one side only. In overhead welding the molten metal
sinks into the weld preparation due to the force of gravity while in the flat weld position the
molten metal may be pulled up by surface tension into the weld preparation to create such a
cavity.

1.9.10 Undercut

During welding of the final or cover pass, the exposed upper edges of the bevelled weld
preparation tend to melt and run down into the deposited metal in the weld groove.
Undercutting occurs when insufficient filler metal is deposited to fill the resultant grooves at
the edge of the weld bead. The result is a groove that may be intermittent or continuous and
parallel to the weld bead. Undercutting may be caused by excessive welding current,
incorrect arc length, high speed, incorrect electrode manipulation etc.

1.9.11 Change of electrode

At points where the electrodes are changed while making the cover pass an unskilled welder
may choose the wrong position for starting the new electrode. Sometimes slag inclusions
occur at the point at which electrodes were changed.

1.9.12 Excessive penetration

In welds, sometimes, molten metal runs through the root of the weld groove producing an
excessive reinforcement at the back side of the weld. In general this is not continuous but
has an irregular shape with characteristic hanging drops of the excess metal.

1.9.13 Electrode spatter

If improper electrodes or long arcs are used, droplets of molten metal are spattered about the
weld region. These drops stick to the metal surface near the weld seam.

1.9.14 Grinding marks

When weld reinforcements are not ground out smoothly, the resultant thickness varies
above and below that of the base metal.

1.10 DEFECTS IN FORGINGS AND ROLLINGS

Discontinuities in forgings may originate in the slab or billet modified by the rolling and
forging of the material or may result from the forging process itself (Figure 1.11). The more
common discontinuities are described below:
 1 - 26

Figure 1.11 : Rolling & forging and their defects.

1.10.1 Laminations

Large porosity, pipes and non-metallic inclusions in slabs or billets are flattened and spread
out during the rolling and forging processes. These flattened discontinuities are known as
laminations.

1.10.2 Stringer

Non-metallic inclusions in slabs or billets that are thinned and lengthened in the direction of
rolling by the rolling process, are called stringers.
 1 - 27

1.10.3 Seams

Surface irregularities such as cracks in the slab or billet are stretched out and lengthened
during rolling and are then called seams. Seams may also be caused by folding of the metal
due to improper rolling. Seams are surface discontinuities and on finished bars will appear
as either continuous or broken straight lines. On round bar stock they will appear as straight
or slightly spiral lines either continuous or broken.

1.10.4 Forging laps

Forging laps are the discontinuities caused by the folding of metal in a thin plate on the
surface of the forging. They are irregular in contour.

1.10.5 Forging burst

Forging bursts or cracks are ruptures caused by forging at too low a temperature. They may
be internal or may occur at the surface.

1.11 OTHER PROCESSING DEFECTS

1.11.1 Machine tears

Machine tears are caused by dull machine tools. They will show up as short irregular lines at
right angles to the direction of machining. They are the result of the tool removing the metal
more through a tearing action than through a cutting action.

1.11.2 Heat treatment cracks

These cracks will be found on a part that has been heat treated and are probably due to too
rapid quenching of parts with a nonuniform cross-section. Large cross-sections will cool
more slowly than thin cross sections. If the two are present in the same piece of material the
different cooling rates will set up internal stresses which may cause cracking.

1.11.3 Grinding cracks

Grinding the surface of a part may cause the surface to heat up. If a coolant is not used,
excessive heating and cooling of the surface may result in fine sharp cracks which occur at
right angles to the direction of grinding.

1.11.4 Plating cracks

These cracks may occur if, during the preplating cleaning process, the surface of the part is
disturbed sufficiently to cause the release of internal stresses. The result is a fine pattern of
cracks.

1.12 SERVICE DEFECTS

In this general group of defects we will deal with those which result from the load placed
upon a component and the environment in which it is used.
 1 - 28

1.12.1 Overstress

It may happen that a part is accidentally exposed to a load which is much greater than its
design load. When this occurs the component should be checked for plastic deformation or
fracture, both of which may have occurred to relieve the high stress within the part.

1.12.2 Fatigue

Repeated or fluctuating stresses, well under the tensile strength of a material, may lead to
fatigue cracks. Such cracks tend to form as microscopic cracks, then to grow progressively.
Current maintenance practice is to use non-destructive testing frequently enough to monitor
fatigue crack growth, thus enabling the component to be removed from service before
failure occurs. The rate of crack propagation is the factor which determines the inspection
frequency.

1.12.3 Corrosion

A metal may interact chemically with its environment, producing a deterioration of the
metal. This deterioration can either be uniform or localized. Corrosion can reduce the load
bearing area of a part and can cause the creation of pits which act as stress raisers.

1.12.4 Stress Corrosion

Another serious problem occurs in situations where a component is under stress in a hostile
or corrosive environment. Both factors contribute to the rapid corrosion and growth of
cracks.

1.12.5 Intergranular corrosion

Corrosion occurring preferentially at the grain boundaries.