AU MIT MYANMAR

UNIVERSITY FOUNDATION PROGRAM

BEC1301 Foundations of Mathematics and Logic

AU MIT Myanmar Daw Soe Ohnmar Aung

ABAC Myanmar Professional Training Center Lecturer
Yangon, Myanmar
August, 2022
1
 Set
Road Map
 Concepts of a set
 Set Operations and their Properties
 Venn Diagrams
 Solving problems by using Venn Diagrams
 Infinite set
2
 Chapter_1 Set
Set Theory:
A set is a collection of objects
It is the mathematical theory of well-determined collections, called sets, of objects that
are called members, or elements, of the set…

• A set is a collection of things..

• We can write set like this: { hat, shirt, jacket, pants,….}
• Set of whole numbers: {0, 1, 2, 3,….}

Note: Elements in the set should not be repeated.

The order in which the elements are written in the set does not matter.
3
 Define Set
• A set is well-defined if for any given object, we can objectively decide whether it is
or is not in the set.
• To be well-defined, the definition of what is or is not in a set has to be based on
facts, not opinions.

For example,
• The set “letters of the English alphabet” is well-defined since it consists of the 26
symbols we use to make up our alphabet, and no other objects.
• The set “tall people in your class” is not well-defined because who exactly belongs
to that set is open to interpretation.
• But ‘the set of all people with a height less than 5.5 feet’ is well defined.

4
 Designation of Sets
There are three common ways to designate sets:
1. The list or roster method.
2. The descriptive method.
3. Set-builder notation.

The list or roster method: the elements of the set are listed in braces and are separated
by commas. It is also known as enumeration method. E.g., B= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
The descriptive method uses a short verbal statement to describe the set.
But we have to ensure that the statement is well-defined.
e.g., B is the set of first five natural numbers.
Set-builder notation: this method uses variables.
e.g., B= {x| x is a natural number less than 6, x< 6}
A variable is a symbol (usually a letter) that can represent different elements of a set. 5
 Examples of sets
Descriptive Method
• A is the set of colors on the American flag.
B is the set of all the natural numbers less than 10.
C is the set of all even numbers.
D is the set of all integers between -10 and -15.
Roster Method
• A={white,red,blue}
B={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}
C={2,4,6,8,….}
D={-11,-12,-13,-14}
Set Builder Notation
• A={x| x is a color of the American flag }
B={y | y is a natural number less than 10, y < 10}
C={x | x is an even number}
D={m: m is an integer between -10 and -15, -10<m<-15 }

6
 Designation of Sets
• Each object in a set is called an element or a member of the set.
• One method of designating a set is called the “Roster method”, in which elements are listed
between braces, with commas between the elements.
• The order in which we list elements isn’t important: {2, 5, 7} and {5, 2, 7} are the same set.
• Often, we'll name sets by using a capital letter.
• The set of counting numbers or natural numbers N = {1, 2, 3, 4, . . .}.
• The set of even natural numbers E = {2, 4, 6, 8, . . .}
• The set of odd natural numbers O = {1, 3, 5, 7, . . .}
Note:
• The three dots, or ellipsis mean that the list of elements continues indefinitely in the same
pattern.
Example: Using the roster method, write the set containing all even natural numbers
between 99 and 201.
Solution: {100, 102, 104, . . . , 198, 200}
7
 Writing a Set Using the Roster Method
Example_2
Use the roster method to do the following:
a) Write the set of natural numbers less than 6.
b) Write the set of odd natural numbers greater than 4.
c) Can you think of another way to describe each set in words?
Solution:
a) N= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
b) N= {5, 7, 9, 11, . . .}
c) The first set could be described as the set of natural numbers less than or equal
to 5, or between 0 and 6.
The second set could be described as the set of odd natural numbers greater than 3,
or greater than or equal to 5.
8
 Writing a Set Using the Roster Method
Example_1
Write the set of months of the year that begin with the letter M. Is this set well-
defined? Why or why not?
Solution:
• The months that begin with M are March and May. So, the answer can be written in
set notation as
• M ={March, May}
• Each element in the set is separated by a comma. This is a well-defined set, because
every month either begins with M or it does not: there’s no opinions involved.

9
 Describing a Set Using the Descriptive Method
Example 1
Use the descriptive method to describe the set B containing 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12 in
two different ways.

Solution:
• All of the elements in the set B are even natural numbers, and all are less than 14,
so B is the set of even natural numbers less than 14.
• Another is the set of natural numbers between 1 and 14 that are divisible by 2.

• Try yourself: Example 2

• Use the descriptive method to describe the set A containing −3, −2,−1, 0, 1, 2, 3 in
two different ways.

10
 Describing a set using Set-builder notation
Set-builder notation uses a variable, braces, and a vertical bar | that is read as
“such that.”

• For example,
• The set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} can be written in set builder notation as
{x | x ∈ N and x < 7}
• This is read as “the set of elements x such that x is a natural number and x is less
than 7.”
• We can use any letter or symbol for the variable, but it’s common to use x.

11
 Writing a set using set builder notation
Example 1
Use set-builder notation to designate each set, then write how your answer would
be read aloud.
a) The set R contains the elements 2, 4, and 6.
b) The set W contains the elements red, yellow, and blue.

Solution:
a) R = {x | x ∈ E and x < 8}, the set of all x such that x is an even natural number
and x is less than 8.
b) W = {x | x is a primary color}, the set of all x such that x is a primary color

12
 Using different set notation
Example:
Designate the set S with elements 32, 33, 34, 35, . . . using
a) The roster method.
b) The descriptive method.
c) Set-builder notation.

Solution:
a) S = {32, 33, 34, 35, . . .}
b) The set S is the set of natural numbers greater than 31/ greater than or equal to 32
c) {x | x ∈ N and x > 31}

13
 Understanding Set Notation
∈ (Belong to) {Relation between an element and a set}
• The symbol ∈ is used to show that an object is a member or element of a set. Eg 6 ∈ {2,4,6}.
• We can’t write like this {6} ∈ {2,4,6}.
• For example, If A is the set of days of the week,
• we could write : Monday ∈ A ( i.e “Monday is an element of set A.” )

∉ (Not Belong to)

• When an object is not a member of a set, we use the symbol ∉.
• Since “cloudy day” is not a day of the week (although it probably should be),
• we can write cloudy day ∉ A, and read this as “cloudy day is not an element of A.”

Example ,
Decide whether each statement is true or false.
a) Oregon ∈ A, where A is the set of states west of the Mississippi River. (Oregon is west of the Mississippi)
b) 27 ∈ {1, 5, 9, 13, 17, . . .}
c) z ∉ {v, w, x, y, z}

14
 Identifying Empty Sets ={ } and Ø

A= {x | x is a natural number between 1 and 2}

This set is empty because there are no natural numbers between 1 and 2.
Each of { } and Ø represent the empty set.
Make sure you don’t write the empty set as {Ø}:
{Ø} is the set containing the empty set, which has one element.

15
 Cardinal Number of a Set
The cardinal number of a set is the number of elements in the set.
For a set A the symbol for the cardinality is n(A), which is read as “n of A.”

Example: Find the cardinal number of each set.

a) A = {5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30}
b) B = {x | x ∈ N and x < 16}
c) C = {16}
d) Ø

Solution:
a) n(A) = 6 since set A has 6 elements
b) B is the set {1, 2, 3, 4, . . . , 14, 15}, which has 15 elements. So n(B) = 15.
c) n(C) = 1 since set C has 1 element
d) n(Ø) = 0 since there are no elements in an empty set

16
 Infinite Sets

• The German mathematician Georg Cantor, widely regarded as the father of set theory,
is famous for his 19th-century study of infinite sets.

• A set is considered to be finite if the number of elements is either zero or a natural

number.
• Otherwise, it is considered to be an infinite set.

• For example, the set {10, 20, 30, 40} is finite because the number of elements (four) is a
natural number.
• But the set {10, 20, 30, 40, . . .} is infinite because the number of elements is unlimited,
and therefore not a natural number.

17
 Finite and Infinite Sets
A set is called finite if it has no elements, or has cardinality that is a natural
number. E.g. {p, q, r, s}
A set that is not finite is called an infinite set. E.g. A = {10, 20, 30, . . .}

Example:
Classify each set as finite or infinite.
a) {x | x ∈ N and x < 100}
b) {100, 102, 104, 106, . . .}
c) Set M is the set of people in your family.
d) Set S is the set of songs that can be written.
Try yourself.

18
 Equal and Equivalent Sets
Two sets A and B are equal (written A = B) if they have exactly the same
members or elements. Two finite sets A and B are said to be equivalent.
If they have the same number of elements: that is, n(A) = n(B). equivalent.
For example, the two sets {a, b, c} and {c, b, a} are equal.

Deciding If Sets Are Equal or Equivalent

Ques: State whether each pair of sets is equal, equivalent, or neither.
a) {p, q, r, s}; {a, b, c, d} (equivalent)
b) {8, 10, 12}; {12, 8, 10} (equal and equivalent)
c) {213}; {2, 1, 3} (neither)
d) {1, 2, 10, 20}; {2, 1, 20, 11} (equivalent)
e) {even natural numbers less than 10}; {2, 4, 6, 8} (equal and equivalent)

19
 Subsets and Set Operations
Universal Set U (any set ⊆ U)
• The universal set is the set of all objects in the universe.
• The universal set (U) for a given situation, is the set of all objects that are
reasonable to consider in that situation.
• Once we define a universal set in a given setting, we are restricted to considering
only elements from that set. If U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, then the only elements we
can use to define other sets in this setting are the integers from 1 to 8.

U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
A= the set of even natural no
A= {2,4,6,8}
A⊆U
20
 Complement of a set
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, A= {2, 4, 6, 8}, and
The elements not in A are {1,3, 5, 7}. and denote it A′.
The complement of a set A, symbolized A′, is the set of elements in the universal
set that are not in A.
Using set-builder notation, the complement of A is A′= {x | x ∈ U and x ∉ A}.

21
 Finding the Complement of a Set
(a) Let U = {v, w, x, y, z} and A = {w, y, z}. Find A′ and draw a Venn diagram that illustrates these sets.
(b) What is the complement of the universal set for a given situation?
(c) What is the complement of the empty set?
A A’

W
Solution: V
(a) U = {v, w, x, y, z} , A = {w, y, z}, A’ = U-A= {v , x} Y

Z X

U’= U\U= Ø
(b) There are no elements in a universal set, so according to the definition of complement, there are
no elements in the complement of a universal set, which means the complement is the empty set.
(c) Ø’ = U \Ø = U

22
 Subsets (⊆)
When one set is contained in a second set, we call the smaller set a subset of the larger
one.
If every element of a set A is also an element of a set B, then A is called a subset of B, The
symbol ⊆ is used to designate a subset i.e. A ⊆ B.
Every set is a subset of itself. i.e. A ⊆ A.
The empty set is a subset of every set. Ø ⊆ any set
A set with one element has two subsets—itself and the empty set. A ⊆ A. Ø ⊆ A
• If we start with the set {x, y, z}, let’s look at how many subsets we can form:

• So for a set with three elements, we can form eight subsets.

• 2𝑛 where n= number of elements 23
 Proper Subset ⊂
If a set A is a subset of a set B and is not equal to B, then we call A a proper subset of B, and write A ⊂ B.
Important Note :A ⊂ B means A ⊆ B and A ≠ B.
To indicate that a set is not a subset of another set, the symbol ⊈ is used.
e.g., {1, 3} ⊈ {0, 3, 5, 7} since 1 ∉ {0, 3, 5, 7}.
The symbol ⊄ is used to indicate that the set is not a proper subset.
e.g., {1, 3} ⊂ {1, 3, 5}, but {1, 3, 5} ⊄ {1, 3, 5}, {1, 3, 5} ⊆{1, 3, 5}.
A set with one element has two subsets—itself and the empty set.
Empty set(null set) is a subset of every set. Ø ⊆ any set
Every set is a subset of itself and not a proper subset. A ⊆ A, A ⊄ A ,Ø ⊆ Ø , Ø ⊄ Ø
The Number of Subsets for a Finite Set
If a finite set has n elements, then the set has 2n subsets and 2n - 1 proper subsets.
The set has n = 6 elements, so there are 2n , or 26 = 64, subsets. Of these, 2n - 1 , or 63, are proper.
For Q= {a, b, c}, the subsets {a,b}, {b,c}, {c,a}, {a}, {b}, {c}, { } are “Proper subsets of Q”
Complete list of subsets of Q is {a, b, c}, {a,b}, {b,c}, {c,a}, {a}, {b}, {c}, Ø (2n = 23 = 8) 24
 Proper Subset
• Set A is a proper subset of set B if there is at least one element in B not contained
in A.
• If A ≠ B, then A ⊂ B

Example
• A={h,a,b,i,t}
• B={a,b,i,t}
• C={b,i,t}
• D={i,t}
• B⊂A
• C⊂B
• D⊂C

25
Decide if each statement is true or false.
a) {1, 3, 5} ⊆ {1, 3, 5, 7}
b) {a, b} ⊂ {a, b}
c) {x | x ∈ E and x > 10} ⊂ N
d) {r, s, t} ⊄ {t, s, r}
e) Ø ⊂ {5, 10, 15}
f) {u, v, w, x} ⊆ {x, w, u}
g) { 0 } ⊆ Ø (F) , { } ⊆ Ø (T), { } ⊄ Ø (T) , { } ⊂ Ø (F)
Solution:
a) All of 1, 3, and 5 are in the second set, so {1, 3, 5} is a subset of {1, 3, 5, 7}. The statement is true.
b) Even though {a, b} is a subset of {a, b}, it is not a proper subset, so the statement is false.
c) Every element in the first set is a natural number, but not all natural numbers are in the set, so that set
is a proper subset of the natural numbers. The statement is true.
d) The two sets are identical, so {r, s, t} is not a proper subset of {t, s, r}. The statement is true.
e) True: the empty set is a proper subset of every set except itself.
f) False: v is an element of {u, v, w, x} but not {x, w, u}.
g) The set on the left has one element, 0. The empty set has no elements, so the statement is false. 26
 Intersection and Union of Sets
The intersection of two sets A and B, symbolized by A ∩ B, is the set of all elements
that are in both sets.
In set-builder notation, A ∩ B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.
E.g. A = {10, 12, 14, 15} and B = {13, 14, 15, 16, 17}, A ∩ B = {14, 15}

27
 Finding Intersections
• When the intersection of two sets is the empty set, the sets are said to be disjoint.
• For example, the set of students who stop attending class midway through a term
and the set of students earning A’s are disjoint, because you can’t be a member
of both sets.
• If the sets have no elements in common, the circles representing them don’t
overlap at all.
• The Venn diagram for a pair of disjoint sets A and B,

• Figure, A ∩ B = Ø disjoint

28
 Union
 Combining sets to form a new set is called union.
The union of two sets A and B, symbolized by A ∪ B, is the set of all elements that
are in either set A or set B (or both).
In set-builder notation, A ∪ B = {x | x є A or x є B}
A = {5, 10, 15, 20} and B = {5, 20, 30, 45}, A ∪ B = {5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 45}
The set A ∪ B is the shaded area consisting of all elements in either set.

The Venn diagram for A ∪ B

29
 The Cardinality of a Union
Formulas based on cardinality of sets are given below.
1. Let A and B be finite sets and (A⋂B) ≠ φ, then
n(A⋃B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A⋂B).
To find the cardinality of A⋃B, we subtract the number of common elements of A
and B from the sum of cardinality of A and B.

2. If the sets A and B are disjoint sets (A and B do not have any common elements),
n(A⋂B) = 0
n(A⋃B) = n(A) + n(B).

3. n(A U B U C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) - n(A ∩ B) - n(B ∩ C) - n(A ∩ C) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C).

30
 The Cardinality of a Union
• Let A, B and C be finite sets and (A⋂B⋂C) ≠ φ, then
• n(A⋃B⋃C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A⋂B) – n(B⋂C) – n(C⋂A) +n(A⋂B⋂C)

31
 The Cardinality of a Union
Q: Draw a Venn diagram illustrating the sets below, then use the diagram to find the cardinality of A, B, A ∩ B,
and A ∪ B.
• A= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, B= {6,7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12}
• Use the result to develop a formula for the cardinality of a union.
• Solution:

• n(A ∪ B) = 12, n(A) = 9, n(B)= 7, n(A ∩ B)= 4

• n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B)= 9+ 7- 4= 12
• n(A ∪ B) =12

• Formula: n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B).

Note:
 If n(A) represents the cardinal number of set A, then for any two finite sets A and B, n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) −
n(A ∩ B).
32
 The Cardinality of a Union
Example: In a survey of 100 randomly selected freshmen walking across campus, it turns
out that 42 are taking a math class, 51 are taking an English class, and 12 are taking both.
How many students are taking either a math class or an English class?

Solution:
Let A be the set of students taking a math class
Let B be the set of students taking an English class, to find n(A ∪ B).
n(A) = 42,n(B) = 51, and n(A ∩ B) = 12.

n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B)

= 42+ 51- 12
= 81
33
 Set Subtraction
The difference of sets. We also call it set subtraction and use a minus sign to represent it.
The difference of set A and set B is the set of elements in set A that are not in set B. In set-
builder notation, A − B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∉ B}.

Example :
U = {p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w}
A = {p, q, r, s, t}
B = {r, s, t, u, v}
C = {p, r, t, v}
• Find each set.
• C−B
• A−C
• B−C
• B−A
• B ∩ C′
• C ∩ A′

34
 Exercises
• U = {x | x ∈ N and x < 25}
• W = {x | x ∈ N and 5 < x < 15}
• X = {x | x ∈ even natural numbers less than 10}
• Y = {x | x ∈ N and 20 < x < 25}
• Z = {x | x ∈ odd natural numbers less than 13}
• Find each set.
• W∩Y
• X∪Z
• W∪X
• (X ∩ Y) ∩ Z
• W∩X
• (Y ∪ Z)′
• (X ∪ Y) ∩ Z
• (Z ∩ Y) ∪ W
• W′∩ X′ 35
 Using Venn Diagrams to Study Set Operations
• Clever method for visualizing sets and their relationships called a Venn diagram
(so named because it was developed by a man named John Venn in the 1800s)
• Drawing Venn diagrams that will help us to illustrate set operations.
• Notice that there are four distinct regions in a Venn diagram illustrating two sets
A and B.

• Region I represents the elements in set A that are not in set B. (A-B)
• Region II represents the elements in both sets A and B. (A ∩ B)
• Region III represents the elements in set B that are not in set A. (B – A)
• Region IV represents the elements in the universal set that are in neither set A
nor set B. (A ∪ B)′

36
 Drawing a Venn Diagram
• Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate the set (A ∪ B)′.
• From the diagram, list the regions that make up each set.
• U = {I, II, III, IV}
• A = {I, II}
• B = {II, III}
• I, II, and III are in either A or B, so A ∪ B = {I, II, III}.
• The only region not in A ∪ B is IV, so the complement is (A ∪ B)′ = {IV}.
• Shade region IV to illustrate (A ∪ B)′.

37
 Drawing a Venn Diagram
• Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate the set A′∩ B.

38
 Drawing a Venn Diagram
Region I represents the elements in set A but not in set B or set C.
A ∩ (B ∪ C) ′
Region II represents the elements in set A and set B but not in set C.
(A ∩ B) ∩ C ′
Region III represents the elements in set B but not in set A or set C.
B ∩ (A ∪ C) ′
Region IV represents the elements in sets A and C but not in set B.
(A ∩ C) ∩ B ′
Region V represents the elements in sets A, B, and C.
(A ∩ B ∩ C)
Region VI represents the elements in sets B and C but not in set A.
(B ∩ C) ∩ A ′
Region VII represents the elements in set C but not in set A or set B.
C ∩ (A ∪ B) ′
Region VIII represents the elements in the universal set U, but not in set A, B, or C.
(A ∪ B ∪ C) ′

39
 Drawing a Venn Diagram
Q: Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate the set A ∩ (B ∩ C)′.
• U = {I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII}
• A = {I, II, IV, V}
• B = {II, III, V, VI}
• C = {IV, V, VI, VII}
• Then find A ∩ (B ∩ C)′
Solution:
• B ∩ C = {V, VI}.
• The complement is (B ∩ C)′ = {I, II, III, IV, VII, VIII}.
• Regions I, II, and IV are also part of A, so A ∩ (B ∩C)′ = {I, II, IV}.
• Shade regions I, II, and IV to illustrate A ∩ (B ∩ C)′.

40
 Finding a Set Corresponding to a Venn Diagram
• Write the set illustrated by the Venn diagram in Figure.

• The shaded portion is completely inside the circle for B, so it’s definitely a subset
of B. But it doesn’t include anything in either A or C,
• Thus, either B − (A ∪ C), (or) B ∩ (A ∪ C)′ (or) B \ (A ∪ C)

41
 Finding a Set Corresponding to a Venn Diagram
• Write the set illustrated by the Venn diagram in Figure.
• Try yourself.

42
 De Morgan’s Laws
There are two very well-known formulas that are useful in simplifying some set
operations. They’re named in honor of a 19th-century mathematician named
Augustus De Morgan.

De Morgan’s Laws

For any two sets A and B,
(A ∪ B)′ = A′∩ B′
(A ∩ B)′ = A′∪ B′

43
 Using Venn Diagrams to Show Equality of Sets
Use Venn diagrams to show that (A ∪ B)′ = A′∩ B′, proving the first of De
Morgan’s laws.

Solution: U= { I, II, III, IV }. A= { I, II }, B= { II, III }

A ∪ B = {I, II, II}, so (A ∪ B)′ = {IV}.
Shade region IV to illustrate (A ∪ B)′.
Next, A′ = {III, IV} and B′ = {I, IV}, so A′∩ B′= {IV}.
Then, shade region IV to illustrate A′∩ B′.

Since the diagrams for each side of the equation are identical, we use
deductive reasoning to conclude that (A ∪ B)′ = A′∩ B′.

44
 Solving a Problem Using a Three-Set Venn Diagram
Example:
• Three of the most dangerous risk factors for heart attack are high blood pressure, high
cholesterol, and smoking. In a survey of 690 heart attack survivors, 62 had only high
cholesterol among those three risk factors; 36 had only smoking; and 93 had only high
blood pressure. There were 370 total with high cholesterol, 159 with high blood
pressure and cholesterol that didn’t smoke, and 23 that smoked and had high
cholesterol but not high blood pressure. Finally, 585 had at least one risk factor.
• Draw a Venn diagram representing this information and use it to answer the following
questions.
a) How many survivors had all three risk factors?
b) How many had exactly two of the three risk factors?
c) How many had none?
d) What percentage were smokers?

Solution:
45
Solution:
• 62 only high cholesterol (region III),
• 36 only smoking (region I),
• 93 only high blood pressure (region VII),
• 159 with high blood pressure and cholesterol but no smoking (region VI), and
• 23 with high cholesterol and smoking but not high blood pressure (region II).

46
• There were 370 total with high cholesterol, and we have 23 + 62 + 159 = 244 accounted for so
far,
• so region V must contain 370 − 244 = 126 survivors.
• The last piece of information we have is that 585 had at least one risk factor.
• This will allow us to find the remaining two regions. All of the numbers currently in the
diagram add up to 499,
• so region IV must contain 585 − 499 = 86 survivors.
• Also, if 585 patients had at least one risk factor, that leaves 690 − 585 = 105 in region VIII.

47
(a)The intersection of all three risk factors contains 126 survivors.
(b) Regions II, IV, and VI are patients that had exactly two of the risk factors;
this is 86 + 23 + 159 = 268 survivors.
(c) From region VIII we see that 105 patients had none of the risk factors.
(d) The total number inside the smoker circle is 36 + 23 + 126 + 86 = 271; this
represents 271/690, or 39.3% of the survivors.
48
49