DESIGN OF AN PELTON TURBINE BUCKET USING

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

ABSTRACT

The present research work describes the development of pelton turbine blades on the Pro-
engineering software. Finite element simulation (Ansys) has been used for analysis of stress and
total deformation produced inside the pelton turbine. Finite element simulation is effective when
it is used to analyse the strain and stress distribution. It has been observed during analysis that
the maximum stress occurs at the root of blade suction side.

In this project, a Pelton turbine with blades are designed and modeled in 3D modeling software
Pro/Engineer. Coupled Field analysis (Structural + Thermal) is done on the turbine blade by
changing the materials of the turbine blade while running at higher speeds. Analysis is done in
Ansys.

The present used material for blade is Steel. In this we are replacing with Titanium alloy and
Nickel alloy. Coupled field analysis is done on two blades.

CFD analysis is done on the turbine blades, 10 and 11 by applying inlet velocity of 90m/s and on
the compressor by applying 80m/s.
 INTRODUCTION TO PELTON TURBINE

The Pelton Wheel is the only form of impulse turbine in common industrial use. It is a robust and
simple machine which is ideal for the production of power from low volume water flows at a
high head with reasonable efficiency.

Cussons P6240 Pelton Wheel, although a model, reproduces all the characteristics of full size
machines and allows an experimental program to determine both the performance of the turbine
and to verify design theory.

DESCRIPTION
Cussons P6240 Pelton Wheel consists of a Degener 4717 model Pelton Wheel mounted on a
base plate and fitted with a friction dynamometer as illustrated in Figure 2 overleaf. The design
of the Degener Pelton Wheel follows typical industrial practice with a horizontal shaft, single
horizontal jets produced by a single nozzle fitted with a needle or spear regulator, and a wheel
fitted with multiple (16) elliptical ridged buckets at a mean diameter of 100mm.

The nozzle is positioned in the same plane as the wheel and arranged so that the jet of water
impinges tangentially on to the buckets. The nozzle and a single bucket are illustrated in Figure 1
below. Each "bucket" is divided by a "splitter" ridge which divides the jet into two equal parts.
The buckets are shaped so as to prevent the jet to the preceding bucket being intercepted too
soon. After flowing round the inner surface of the bucket, the fluid leaves with a relative velocity
almost opposite in direction to the original jet. The desired maximum deflection of the jet (180°)
cannot be achieved without the fluid leaving one bucket striking the following one, and so in
practice the deflection is limited to approximately 155° (i.e. see Figure 1 below 180-25). The
bottom of the casing is open to allow the water leaving the buckets to drain away. The front face
of the casing is transparent Perspex allowing easy observation of the behaviour of the water jet
and assessment of exit angles.

The nozzle is controlled by movement of the spear regulator along the axis of the nozzle which
alters the annular space between the spear and the housing, the spear being shaped so as to
induce the fluid to coalesce into a circular jet of varying diameter according to the position of the
spear. A static pressure tapping is provided to allow measurement of the inlet water pressure.

The friction dynamometer consists of a 60mm diameter brake wheel fitted with a fabric brake
band. The brake band is tensioned by a weight hanger and masses with the fixed end being
secured via a spring balance to the support frame.

The speed of the turbine can be measured using Cussons P4740 Optical Tachometer which is
available as an optional accessory.
 

Figure 1. Details of Pelton Wheel Buckets.

 
Figure 2 General Arrangement of Cussons Pelton Wheel note that our setup does not have the
friction brake.
THE BASIC WORKING PRINCIPLE
Working principle of Pelton turbine is simple. When a high speed water jet injected through a
nozzle hits buckets of Pelton wheel; it induces an impulsive force. This force makes the turbine
rotate. The rotating shaft runs a generator and produces electricity.

Fig.1 Pelton wheel derives rotation from impulse force produced by the water jet

GOVERNING IN PELTON WHEEL

Demand of power may fluctuate over time. A governing mechanism which controls position of
the spear head meets this requirement. With lowering power demand the spear head at water inlet
nozzle is moved in. So that water flow rate is reduced. If power demand increases spear head is
moved out this will increase the flow rate. Following figure illustrates this mechanism. The first
position of the spear head produces a low flow rate, while the second position produces a high
flow rate.

Fig.2 Water flow rate control in Pelton wheel by monitoring position of spear head
So in Pelton turbine synchronization between power demand and power supply is met by controlling the
water flow rate. The same technique is used in other types hydroelectric turbines. If the power supply is
more than the demand, then the turbine will run over speed otherwise in under speed. But such a
governing mechanism in turn will balance the power supply and demand and will make sure that the
turbine rotates at a constant specified RPM. This speed should also conforms to the power supply
frequency. So this mechanism acts as a speed governing mechanism of Pelton wheel.

In short, Pelton turbine transforms kinetic energy of water jet to rotational energy.

INTRODUCTION OF PELTON TURBINE

The Pelton type turbine is usually the preferred turbine for hydropower, when the available water
source has relatively high hydraulic head at low flow rates, where the Pelton wheel is most
efficient. They have the advantages such as compact structure, small size, high efficiency, low
operation maintenance cost, low cost because of less excavation and less investments, etc. and
disadvantages like inadequate energy recovery and lower efficiency than other types of turbines.
COMPOSITION OF PELTON TURBINE
Nozzle, runner, support parts and deflector parts.
Major components: rotating parts (runner, main shaft etc), nozzle parts (nozzle and related
control), seat parts (seat, cover, spiral casing etc), pipeline parts (distributing pipe, brake piping,
expansion joint etc), bearing parts and others. Core part is the runner and nozzle for structure.

STRUCTURE OF PELTON TURBINE

Runner, spray pipe, baffle plate, runner, spiral casing, tail water tank.

Blade rotation operator

Runner
Component: turbine disc, bucket (uniformly distributed along turbine disc).
Connection type: bolt, integrally cast, weld.
Spray pipe
Component: nozzle, nozzle body, needle valve, spray beam, operating mechanism.
Needle valve: control the water flow of turbine showed as stroke.
Baffle plate
Slowly close the needle valve and reduce the water hammer pressure to deviated water
flow out from water scoop and avoid the speed increase.
Spiral casing
Guide the water drainage from the scoop into the tail water tank. Generally the spiral
casing is steel casting.
Water diversion plate
Prevent the water flow to splash into the above along the runner that cause additional
losses.
Velocity Analysis
Consider a Pelton Wheel rotating in an anti-clockwise direction with an angular velocity w due
to the combined action of an incident water jet of velocity V1 and a clockwise resisting torque t
as shown in Figure 3a. The velocity analysis will use a bucket on the Pelton Wheel as a reference
as shown in Figure 3b.

a) Absolute Velocities

b) Velocities Relative to Bucket

Figure 3. Velocity Analysis

The velocity of the incident jet relative to the bucket is given by

Since the incident and emergent jets are both exposed to atmospheric pressure the magnitude of
the emergent jet velocity will be only slightly less than the incident jet velocity due to frictional
resistance which can be allowed for by introducing a frictional resistance coefficient k1 so that
The jet will be deflected so that the emergent jet is at an acute angle q to the incident jet. The
change in the component of velocity in the plane of the wheel (i.e. in the line of the incident jet)
will be

Which can be written as

3.3 Nozzle Flow Coefficient

The discharge through the nozzle form the inlet head H is given by

3.4 Power Output

The force exerted on the bucket by the water jet is obtained from Newton's second law as the rate
of change of momentum between the incident and emergent jets in the plane of the wheel.

The torque acting on the shaft of the Pelton Wheel is then

And the power output is

Substituting for and

3.5 Variation of Power Output with Speed

For a given head and nozzle area the power output will be a maximum if Cv and k1 have their
highest obtainable values, if cos q = 1 and if U (V1 – U) is a maximum.

U (V1 – U) will be a maximum when V1 = 2U, that is, when the incident jet velocity is twice the
Pelton Wheel bucket speed. For cos q =1 then q = 0 and relative to the buckets the incident jet is
deflected through 180°, furthermore if k1 = 1 then Vr1 = Vr2.

With V1 = 2U the Vr1 = U (and ignoring friction across the buckets Vr2 = U) the absolute velocity
of the emergent jet in the plane of the wheel will then be zero, the whole of the velocity head of
the incident jet will have been converted into useful work and the water will effectively fall off
the trailing edge of the buckets. The maximum power output is given by

If resisting torque is reduced then wheel will accelerate, D V will reduce and the limiting case
which would not be obtainable in practice would be when U = V1, for this condition the torque
and power output would both be zero. If the resisting torque is increased the wheel can become
stalled so that U = 0 and the stall torque will be

3.6 Efficiency

The input hydraulic power to the Pelton Wheel is the product of the inlet pressure and flow rate.

And the efficiency of the Pelton Wheel is

Since the input hydraulic power depends only on the head and the nozzle area and is independent
of the Pelton Wheel speed then the efficiency is directly proportional to the power output and
thus maximum power and maximum efficiency occur at the same conditions

Substituting for D V

For maximum power V1 = 2U

Substituting for

In an ideal situation, Cv, k1 and cos q are all equal to 1.0 and hence the ideal maximum efficiency
is unity.

The Turbine

The turbine wheel is responsible for converting heat and pressure into rotational force. To
understand how this process occurs, we would need to delve into some of the basic laws of
thermodynamics, but within the scope of this article, understand that high pressure (from the
exhaust manifold) will always seek low pressure and, within this process, the turbine wheel
converts kinetic energy into rotation. As the turbine wheel rotates, it spins the turbine shaft,
which in turn spins the compressor wheel. Often overlooked, turbine wheel selection is critical to
a properly built system, as having too small of a turbine wheel will induce excessive
backpressure and can choke the engine, making it lose power. On the other hand, selecting too
large of a turbine will result in increased lag and can make it difficult to achieve specific target
boost numbers. Of course, the turbine wheel doesn’t act alone. It is part of the turbine housing,
which is that giant, sometimes rusty looking piece of iron or steel you always see bolted to an
exhaust manifold or merge collector on a car. Because of the tremendous heat involved in
collecting and moving pressurized exhaust gasses, the turbine housing is constructed from thick
iron or steel and always consists of a turbine foot (the flange which connects to the exhaust
manifold piping), an outlet connection (the large opening that connects to the downpipe), and a
volute, which is the path the hot exhaust travels to get across the turbine wheel, from the turbine
foot to the outlet. When someone calls a a "T4," they are talking about this flange. Exhaust enters
from the flange, rotates around the wheel inside the volute, and exits across the outlet
connection, into a piece of exhaust that enthusiasts call the downpipe.

INTRODUCTION TO CAD
Computer-aided design (CAD), also known as computer-aided design and drafting (CADD),
is the use of computer technology for the process of design and design-documentation. Computer
Aided Drafting describes the process of drafting with a computer. CADD software, or
environments, provide the user with input-tools for the purpose of streamlining design processes;
drafting, documentation, and manufacturing processes. CADD output is often in the form of
electronic files for print or machining operations. The development of CADD-based software is
in direct correlation with the processes it seeks to economize; industry-based software
(construction, manufacturing, etc.) typically uses vector-based (linear) environments whereas
graphic-based software utilizes raster-based (pixelated) environments.

CADD environments often involve more than just shapes. As in the manual drafting of technical
and engineering drawings, the output of CAD must convey information, such as materials,
processes, dimensions, and tolerances, according to application-specific conventions.

CAD may be used to design curves and figures in two-dimensional (2D) space; or curves,
surfaces, and solids in three-dimensional (3D) objects.

CAD is an important industrial art extensively used in many applications, including automotive,
shipbuilding, and aerospace industries, industrial and architectural design, prosthetics, and many
more. CAD is also widely used to produce computer animation for special effects in movies,
advertising and technical manuals. The modern ubiquity and power of computers means that
even perfume bottles and shampoo dispensers are designed using techniques unheard of by
engineers of the 1960s. Because of its enormous economic importance, CAD has been a major
driving force for research in computational geometry, computer graphics (both hardware and
software), and discrete differential geometry.
The design of geometric models for object shapes, in particular, is often called computer-aided
geometric design (CAGD).

Current computer-aided design software packages range from 2D vector-based drafting systems
to 3D solid and surface modellers. Modern CAD packages can also frequently allow rotations in
three dimensions, allowing viewing of a designed object from any desired angle, even from the
inside looking out. Some CAD software is capable of dynamic mathematic modeling, in which
case it may be marketed as CADD — computer-aided design and drafting.

CAD is used in the design of tools and machinery and in the drafting and design of all types of
buildings, from small residential types (houses) to the largest commercial and industrial
structures (hospitals and factories).

CAD is mainly used for detailed engineering of 3D models and/or 2D drawings of physical
components, but it is also used throughout the engineering process from conceptual design and
layout of products, through strength and dynamic analysis of assemblies to definition of
manufacturing methods of components. It can also be used to design objects.

CAD has become an especially important technology within the scope of computer-aided
technologies, with benefits such as lower product development costs and a greatly shortened
design cycle. CAD enables designers to lay out and develop work on screen, print it out and save
it for future editing, saving time on their drawings.

Types of CAD Software

2D CAD

Two-dimensional, or 2D, CAD is used to create flat drawings of products and structures. Objects
created in 2D CAD are made up of lines, circles, ovals, slots and curves. 2D CAD programs
usually include a library of geometric images; the ability to create Bezier curves, splines and
polylines; the ability to define hatching patterns; and the ability to provide a bill of materials
generation. Among the most popular 2D CAD programs are AutoCAD, CADkey, CADDS 5,
and Medusa.

3D CAD

Three-dimensional (3D) CAD programs come in a wide variety of types, intended for different
applications and levels of detail. Overall, 3D CAD programs create a realistic model of what the
design object will look like, allowing designers to solve potential problems earlier and with
lower production costs. Some 3D CAD programs include Autodesk Inventor, CoCreate Solid
Designer, Pro/Engineer SolidEdge, SolidWorks, Unigraphics NX and VX CAD, CATIA V5.

3D Wireframe and Surface Modeling

CAD programs that feature 3D wireframe and surface modeling create a skeleton-like inner
structure of the object being modeled. A surface is added on later. These types of CAD models
are difficult to translate into other software and are therefore rarely used anymore.

Solid Modeling

Solid modeling in general is useful because the program is often able to calculate the
dimensionsof the object it is creating. Many sub-types of this exist. Constructive Solid Geometry
(CSG) CAD uses the same basic logic as 2D CAD, that is, it uses prepared solid geometric
objects to create an object. However, these types of CAD software often cannot be adjusted once
they are created. Boundary Representation (Brep) solid modeling takes CSG images and links
them together. Hybrid systems mix CSG and Brep to achieve desired designs.

INTRODUCTION TO PRO/ENGINEER

Pro/ENGINEER Wildfire is the standard in 3D product design, featuring industry-leading

productivity tools that promote best practices in design while ensuring compliance with your
industry and company standards. Integrated Pro/ENGINEER CAD/CAM/CAE solutions allow
you to design faster than ever, while maximizing innovation and quality to ultimately create
exceptional products.

Customer requirements may change and time pressures may continue to mount, but your product
design needs remain the same - regardless of your project's scope, you need the powerful, easy-
to-use, affordable solution that Pro/ENGINEER provides.

Pro/ENGINEER Wildfire Benefits:

•Unsurpassed geometry creation capabilities allow superior product differentiation and

manufacturability

•Fully integrated applications allow you to develop everything from concept to manufacturing
within one application

•Automatic propagation of design changes to all downstream deliverables allows you to design
with confidence

•Complete virtual simulation capabilities enable you to improve product performance and exceed
product quality goals
•Automated generation of associative tooling design, assembly instructions, and machine code
allow for maximum production efficiency

Pro ENGINEER can be packaged in different versions to suit your needs, from Pro/ENGINEER
Foundation XE, to Advanced XE Package and Enterprise XE Package, Pro/ENGINEER
Foundation XE Package brings together a broad base of functionality. From robust part
modelling to advanced surfacing, powerful assembly modelling and simulation, your needs will
be met with this scaleable solution. Flex3C and Flex Advantage Build on this base offering
extended functionality of your choosing.

The main modules are

Part Design

Assembly

Drawing

Sheet Metal

Manufacturing

MODELS OF PELTON TURBINE WHEEL

Shaft

Cone shape
COMPRESSOR BLADES

TURBINE - 10 blades
TURBINE - 11 blades

Casing
Turbine inlet
Assembly
 2D DRAWINGS OF PELTON TURBINE WHEEL

Shaft

Cone shape
10 blades

11 blades
Casing

Inlet
ASSEMBLY
 MATERIAL PROPERTIES OF BLADES
TITANIUM ALLOY TI-6AL-4V (GRADE 5)

Physical Properties Metric

Density  4.43 g/cc

Mechanical Properties Metric

Hardness, Brinell  334

Hardness, Knoop  363

Hardness, Rockwell C  36

Hardness, Vickers  349

Tensile Strength, Ultimate  950 MPa

Tensile Strength, Yield  880 MPa

Elongation at Break  14 %

Reduction of Area  36 %

Modulus of Elasticity  113.8 GPa

Compressive Yield Strength  970 MPa

Notched Tensile Strength  1450 MPa

Ultimate Bearing Strength  1860 MPa

Bearing Yield Strength  1480 MPa

Poissons Ratio  0.342

Fatigue Strength   240 MPa

@# of Cycles 1.00e+7

  510 MPa
@# of Cycles 1.00e+7

Fracture Toughness  75.0 MPa-m½

Shear Modulus  44.0 GPa

Shear Strength  550 MPa

Charpy Impact  17.0 J

Electrical Properties Metric

Electrical Resistivity  0.000178 ohm-cm

Magnetic Permeability  1.00005

Magnetic Susceptibility  0.0000033

Thermal Properties Metric

CTE, linear   8.60 µm/m-°C

@Temperature 20.0 - 100 °C

  9.20 µm/m-°C
@Temperature 20.0 - 315 °C

  9.70 µm/m-°C
@Temperature 20.0 - 650 °C

Specific Heat Capacity  0.5263 J/g-°C

Thermal Conductivity  6.70 W/m-K

Melting Point  1604 - 1660 °C

Solidus  1604 °C

Liquidus  1660 °C

Beta Transus  980 °C

Component Elements Properties Metric

Aluminum, Al  5.5 - 6.75 %

Carbon, C  <= 0.080 %

Hydrogen, H  <= 0.015 %

Iron, Fe  <= 0.40 %

Nitrogen, N  <= 0.030 %

Other, each  <= 0.050 %

Other, total  <= 0.30 %

Oxygen, O  <= 0.20 %

Titanium, Ti  87.725 - 91 %

Vanadium, V  3.5 - 4.5 %

SUPER ALLOY INCONEL 718

Physical Properties Metric

Density  8.19 g/cc

Mechanical Properties Metric

Tensile Strength, Ultimate  1375 MPa

  1100 MPa
@Temperature 650 °C

Tensile Strength, Yield  1100 MPa

@Strain 0.200 %

  980 MPa
@Strain 0.200 %,
Temperature 650 °C

Elongation at Break  25 %

  18 %
@Temperature 650 °C

Electrical Properties Metric

Electrical Resistivity  0.000125 ohm-cm

Magnetic Permeability  1.0011

Curie Temperature  -112 °C

Thermal Properties Metric

CTE, linear  13.0 µm/m-°C

@Temperature 20.0 - 100 °C

Specific Heat Capacity  0.435 J/g-°C

Thermal Conductivity  11.4 W/m-K

Melting Point  1260 - 1336 °C

Solidus  1260 °C

Liquidus  1336 °C

Component Elements Properties Metric

Aluminum, Al  0.20 - 0.80 %

Boron, B  <= 0.0060 %

Carbon, C  <= 0.080 %

Chromium, Cr  17 - 21 %

Cobalt, Co  <= 1.0 %

Copper, Cu  <= 0.30 %

Iron, Fe  17 %

Manganese, Mn  <= 0.35 %

Molybdenum, Mo  2.8 - 3.3 %

Nickel, Ni  50 - 55 %

Niobium, Nb (Columbium, Cb)  4.75 - 5.5 %

Phosphorous, P  <= 0.015 %

Silicon, Si  <= 0.35 %

Sulfur, S  <= 0.015 %

Titanium, Ti  0.65 - 1.15 %

INTRODUCTION TO FEA
Finite Element Analysis (FEA) was first developed in 1943 by R. Courant, who utilized the Ritz
method of numerical analysis and minimization of variational calculus to obtain approximate
solutions to vibration systems. Shortly thereafter, a paper published in 1956 by M. J. Turner, R.
W. Clough, H. C. Martin, and L. J. Topp established a broader definition of numerical analysis.
The paper centered on the "stiffness and deflection of complex structures".

FEA consists of a computer model of a material or design that is stressed and analyzed for
specific results. It is used in new product design, and existing product refinement. A company is
able to verify a proposed design will be able to perform to the client's specifications prior to
manufacturing or construction. Modifying an existing product or structure is utilized to qualify
the product or structure for a new service condition. In case of structural failure, FEA may be
used to help determine the design modifications to meet the new condition.

There are generally two types of analysis that are used in industry: 2-D modeling, and 3-D
modeling. While 2-D modeling conserves simplicity and allows the analysis to be run on a
relatively normal computer, it tends to yield less accurate results. 3-D modeling, however,
produces more accurate results while sacrificing the ability to run on all but the fastest computers
effectively. Within each of these modeling schemes, the programmer can insert numerous
algorithms (functions) which may make the system behave linearly or non-linearly. Linear
systems are far less complex and generally do not take into account plastic deformation. Non-
linear systems do account for plastic deformation, and many also are capable of testing a material
all the way to fracture.

FEA uses a complex system of points called nodes which make a grid called a mesh. This mesh
is programmed to contain the material and structural properties which define how the structure
will react to certain loading conditions. Nodes are assigned at a certain density throughout the
material depending on the anticipated stress levels of a particular area. Regions which will
receive large amounts of stress usually have a higher node density than those which experience
little or no stress. Points of interest may consist of: fracture point of previously tested material,
fillets, corners, complex detail, and high stress areas. The mesh acts like a spider web in that
from each node, there extends a mesh element to each of the adjacent nodes. This web of vectors
is what carries the material properties to the object, creating many elements.

A wide range of objective functions (variables within the system) are available for minimization
or maximization:

 Mass, volume, temperature

 Strain energy, stress strain
 Force, displacement, velocity, acceleration
 Synthetic (User defined)
There are multiple loading conditions which may be applied to a system. Some examples are
shown:

 Point, pressure, thermal, gravity, and centrifugal static loads

 Thermal loads from solution of heat transfer analysis
 Enforced displacements
 Heat flux and convection
 Point, pressure and gravity dynamic loads

Each FEA program may come with an element library, or one is constructed over time. Some
sample elements are:

 Rod elements
 Beam elements
 Plate/Shell/Composite elements
 Shear panel
 Solid elements
 Spring elements
 Mass elements
 Rigid elements
 Viscous damping elements

Many FEA programs also are equipped with the capability to use multiple materials within the
structure such as:

 Isotropic, identical throughout

 Orthotropic, identical at 90 degrees
 General anisotropic, different throughout

TYPES OF ENGINEERING ANALYSIS

Structural analysis consists of linear and non-linear models. Linear models use simple
parameters and assume that the material is not plastically deformed. Non-linear models consist of
stressing the material past its elastic capabilities. The stresses in the material then vary with the
amount of deformation as in.

Vibrational analysis is used to test a material against random vibrations, shock, and impact.
Each of these incidences may act on the natural vibrational frequency of the material which, in
turn, may cause resonance and subsequent failure.

Fatigue analysis helps designers to predict the life of a material or structure by showing the
effects of cyclic loading on the specimen. Such analysis can show the areas where crack
propagation is most likely to occur. Failure due to fatigue may also show the damage tolerance
of the material.
Heat Transfer analysis models the conductivity or thermal fluid dynamics of the material or
structure. This may consist of a steady-state or transient transfer. Steady-state transfer refers to
constant thermo properties in the material that yield linear heat diffusion.

RESULTS OF FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

FEA has become a solution to the task of predicting failure due to unknown stresses by showing
problem areas in a material and allowing designers to see all of the theoretical stresses within.
This method of product design and testing is far superior to the manufacturing costs which would
accrue if each sample was actually built and tested.
In practice, a finite element analysis usually consists of three principal steps:

1. Preprocessing: The user constructs a model of the part to be analyzed in which the
geometry is divided into a number of discrete sub regions, or elements," connected at
discrete points called nodes." Certain of these nodes will have fixed displacements, and
others will have prescribed loads. These models can be extremely time consuming to
prepare, and commercial codes vie with one another to have the most user-friendly
graphical “preprocessor" to assist in this rather tedious chore. Some of these
preprocessors can overlay a mesh on a preexisting CAD file, so that finite element
analysis can be done conveniently as part of the computerized drafting-and-design
process.

2. Analysis: The dataset prepared by the preprocessor is used as input to the finite element
code itself, which constructs and solves a system of linear or nonlinear algebraic
equations

Kijuj = fi

where u and f are the displacements and externally applied forces at the nodal points. The
formation of the K matrix is dependent on the type of problem being attacked, and this
module will outline the approach for truss and linear elastic stress analyses. Commercial
codes may have very large element libraries, with elements appropriate to a wide range of
problem types. One of FEA's principal advantages is that many problem types can be
addressed with the same code, merely by specifying the appropriate element types from
the library.

3. Postprocessing: In the earlier days of finite element analysis, the user would pore
through reams of numbers generated by the code, listing displacements and stresses at
discrete positions within the model. It is easy to miss important trends and hot spots this
way, and modern codes use graphical displays to assist in visualizing the results. A
 typical postprocessor display overlays colored contours representing stress levels on the
model, showing a full field picture similar to that of photo elastic or moiré experimental
results.

INTRODUCTION TO ANSYS
ANSYS is general-purpose finite element analysis (FEA) software package.  Finite Element
Analysis is a numerical method of deconstructing a complex system into very small pieces (of
user-designated size) called elements. The software implements equations that govern the
behaviour of these elements and solves them all; creating a comprehensive explanation of how
the system acts as a whole. These results then can be presented in tabulated, or graphical forms. 
This type of analysis is typically used for the design and optimization of a system far too
complex to analyze by hand.  Systems that may fit into this category are too complex due to their
geometry, scale, or governing equations. 

ANSYS is the standard FEA teaching tool within the Mechanical Engineering Department at
many colleges. ANSYS is also used in Civil and Electrical Engineering, as well as the Physics
and Chemistry departments. 

ANSYS provides a cost-effective way to explore the performance of products or processes in a

virtual environment. This type of product development is termed virtual prototyping.  

With virtual prototyping techniques, users can iterate various scenarios to optimize the product
long before the manufacturing is started. This enables a reduction in the level of risk, and in the
cost of ineffective designs. The multifaceted nature of ANSYS also provides a means to ensure
that users are able to see the effect of a design on the whole behavior of the product, be it
electromagnetic, thermal, mechanical etc.

GENERIC STEPS TO SOLVING ANY PROBLEM IN ANSYS 

Like solving any problem analytically, you need to define (1) your solution domain, (2)
the physical model, (3) boundary conditions and (4) the physical properties. You then
solve the problem and present the results. In numerical methods, the main difference is an
extra step called mesh generation. This is the step that divides the complex model into
small elements that become solvable in an otherwise too complex situation. Below
describes the processes in terminology slightly more attune to the software.

Build Geometry
 Construct a two or three dimensional representation of the object to be modeled
and tested using the work plane coordinate system within ANSYS. 

Define Material Properties

Now that the part exists, define a library of the necessary materials that compose
the object (or project) being modeled.  This includes thermal and mechanical
properties.

Generate Mesh

At this point ANSYS understands the makeup of the part.  Now define how the
modeled system should be broken down into finite pieces.   

Apply Loads

Once the system is fully designed, the last task is to burden the system with
constraints, such as physical loadings or boundary conditions.           

Obtain Solution

This is actually a step, because ANSYS needs to understand within what state
(steady state, transient… etc.) the problem must be solved. 

Present the Results

After the solution has been obtained, there are many ways to present ANSYS’
results, choose from many options such as tables, graphs, and contour plots. 

SPECIFIC CAPABILITIES OF ANSYS 

STRUCTURAL 

Structural analysis is probably the most common application of the finite element method as it
implies bridges and buildings, naval, aeronautical, and mechanical structures such as ship hulls,
aircraft bodies, and machine housings, as well as mechanical components such as pistons,
machine parts, and tools. 

·         Static Analysis - Used to determine displacements, stresses, etc. under static loading
conditions. ANSYS can compute both linear and nonlinear static analyses. Nonlinearities
can include plasticity, stress stiffening, large deflection, large strain, hyper elasticity,
contact surfaces, and creep. 

·         Transient Dynamic Analysis - Used to determine the response of a structure to

arbitrarily time-varying loads. All nonlinearities mentioned under Static Analysis above
are allowed. 
 ·         Buckling Analysis - Used to calculate the buckling loads and determine the buckling
mode shape. Both linear (eigenvalue) buckling and nonlinear buckling analyses are
possible.  

In addition to the above analysis types, several special-purpose features are available such as
Fracture mechanics, Composite material analysis, Fatigue, and both p-Method and Beam
analyses.  

THERMAL

ANSYS is capable of both steady state and transient analysis of any solid with thermal boundary
conditions. 

Steady-state thermal analyses calculate the effects of steady thermal loads on a system or
component. Users often perform a steady-state analysis before doing a transient thermal analysis,
to help establish initial conditions. A steady-state analysis also can be the last step of a transient
thermal analysis; performed after all transient effects have diminished. ANSYS can be used to
determine temperatures, thermal gradients, heat flow rates, and heat fluxes in an object that are
caused by thermal loads that do not vary over time. Such loads include the following:

·         Convection

·         Radiation

·         Heat flow rates

·         Heat fluxes (heat flow per unit area)

·         Heat generation rates (heat flow per unit volume)

·         Constant temperature boundaries

A steady-state thermal analysis may be either linear, with constant material properties; or
nonlinear, with material properties that depend on temperature. The thermal properties of most
material vary with temperature. This temperature dependency being appreciable, the analysis
becomes nonlinear. Radiation boundary conditions also make the analysis nonlinear. Transient
calculations are time dependent and ANSYS can both solve distributions as well as create video
for time incremental displays of models.

FLUID FLOW 
The ANSYS/FLOTRAN CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) offers comprehensive tools for
analyzing two-dimensional and three-dimensional fluid flow fields.  ANSYS is capable of
modeling a vast range of analysis types such as: airfoils for pressure analysis of airplane wings
(lift and drag), flow in supersonic nozzles, and complex, three-dimensional flow patterns in a
pipe bend.  In addition, ANSYS/FLOTRAN could be used to perform tasks including:

·         Calculating the gas pressure and temperature distributions in an engine exhaust
manifold

·         Studying the thermal stratification and breakup in piping systems

·         Using flow mixing studies to evaluate potential for thermal shock

·         Doing natural convection analyses to evaluate the thermal performance of chips in
electronic enclosures

·         Conducting heat exchanger studies involving different fluids separated by solid
regions 

 COUPLED FIELDS 

A coupled-field analysis is an analysis that takes into account the interaction (coupling) between
two or more disciplines (fields) of engineering. A piezoelectric analysis, for example, handles the
interaction between the structural and electric fields: it solves for the voltage distribution due to
applied displacements, or vice versa. Other examples of coupled-field analysis are thermal-stress
analysis, thermal-electric analysis, and fluid-structure analysis.

Some of the applications in which coupled-field analysis may be required are pressure vessels
(thermal-stress analysis), fluid flow constrictions (fluid-structure analysis), induction heating
(magnetic-thermal analysis), ultrasonic transducers (piezoelectric analysis), magnetic forming
(magneto-structural analysis), and micro-electro mechanical systems (MEMS).

MODAL ANALYSIS

A modal analysis is typically used to determine the vibration characteristics (natural frequencies
and mode shapes) of a structure or a machine component while it is being designed. It can also
serve as a starting point for another, more detailed, dynamic analysis, such as a harmonic
response or full transient dynamic analysis.

Modal analyses, while being one of the most basic dynamic analysis types available in ANSYS,
can also be more computationally time consuming than a typical static analysis.  A reduced
solver, utilizing automatically or manually selected master degrees of freedom is used to
drastically reduce the problem size and solution time.

HARMONIC ANALYSIS

Used extensively by companies who produce rotating machinery, ANSYS Harmonic analysis is
used to predict the sustained dynamic behavior of structures to consistent cyclic loading. 
Examples of rotating machines which produced or are subjected to harmonic loading are:

 Turbines
o Gas Turbines for Aircraft and Power Generation
o Steam Turbines
o Wind Turbine
o Water Turbines
o Turbopumps
 Internal Combustion engines
 Electric motors and generators
 Gas and fluid pumps
 Disc drives

A harmonic analysis can be used to verify whether or not a machine design will successfully
overcome resonance, fatigue, and other harmful effects of forced vibrations.

COUPLE FLIED ANALYSIS OF TURBINE

 10 BLADES

TITANIUM ALLOY
Set Units - /units,si,mm,kg,sec,k

File- change Directory-select working folder

File-Change job name-Enter job name

Preferences – thermal

Select element-Solid20 Node 95

MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Specific Heat Capacity  0.5263 J/g-°C

Thermal Conductivity  6.7 W/m-K

Density – 4.43 g/cc

MESHED MODEL

Select Mesh Tool Icon – Select Smart Size –On

Select Mesh Tool Window –Select All Areas –pick all-close

Physics-Environment- Write-Thermal –Ok

Again Preferences- structural-ok

Preprocessor-element Type Switch element type-thermal to structural-ok

Material Properties

Element Type: Solid 20 node 95

Material Properties: Density – 0.00000443Kg/mm3

Young’s Modulus – 113800Mpa

Poisson’s ratio - 0.342

Physics Environment Write- Structural-ok

Read Thermal-ok
LOADS

Define Loads -Apply Thermal-Temperature- on Area=623K

Convections – on Area-Film Co-efficient – 25 W/mmK

Bulk Temperature –303 K

Solution – Solve - Current LS file – Ok

RESULTS
General post processer- contour plot- nodal solution- Nodal Temperature

General post processer- contour plot- Thermal Gradient-Thermal Gradient Vector Sum

General post processer- contour plot-Thermal Flux –Thermal Flux Vector Sum
Again Preferences

Physics --Read -Structural -ok

Preprocessor Loads Define Loads Apply Structural displacement On Areas

Select Areas ok

Pressure On areas select areas-ok

Solution solve current L.S-ok

General post processer- contour plot- nodal solution- Displacement vector sum

General post processer- contour plot-Stress-Von Misses Stress

General post processer- contour plot-Strain- Total Strain Intensity
 NICKEL ALLOY
Set Units - /units,si,mm,kg,sec,k

File- change Directory-select working folder

File-Change job name-Enter job name

Preferences – thermal

Select element-Solid20 Node 95

MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Specific Heat Capacity  0.435 J/g-°C

Thermal Conductivity  11.40 W/m-K

Density – 8.19 g/cc

MESHED MODEL

Select Mesh Tool Icon – Select Smart Size –On

Select Mesh Tool Window –Select All Areas –pick all-close

Physics-Environment- Write-Thermal –Ok

Again Preferences- structural-ok

Preprocessor-element Type Switch element type-thermal to structural-ok

Material Properties

Element Type: Solid 20 node 95

Material Properties: Density – 0.00000819Kg/mm3

Young’s Modulus – 205000Mpa

Poisson’s ratio - 0.284

Physics Environment Write- Structural-ok

Read Thermal-ok
LOADS

Define Loads -Apply Thermal-Temperature- on Area=623K

Convections – on Area-Film Co-efficient – 25 W/mmK

Bulk Temperature –303 K

Solution – Solve - Current LS file – Ok

RESULTS
General post processer- contour plot- nodal solution- Nodal Temperature

General post processer- contour plot- Thermal Gradient-Thermal Gradient Vector Sum
 General post processer- contour plot-Thermal Flux –Thermal Flux Vector Sum

Again Preferences

Physics --Read -Structural -ok

Preprocessor Loads Define Loads Apply Structural displacement On Areas

Select Areas ok

Pressure On areas select areas-ok

Solution solve current L.S-ok

General post processer- contour plot- nodal solution- Displacement vector sum

General post processer- contour plot-Stress-Von Misses Stress

General post processer- contour plot-Strain- Total Strain Intensity
 11 BLADES

TITANIUM ALLOY
RESULTS

General post processer- contour plot- nodal solution- Nodal Temperature

General post processer- contour plot- Thermal Gradient-Thermal Gradient Vector Sum
General post processer- contour plot-Thermal Flux –Thermal Flux Vector Sum

Again Preferences

Physics --Read -Structural -ok

Preprocessor Loads Define Loads Apply Structural displacement On Areas

Select Areas ok

Pressure On areas select areas-ok

Solution solve current L.S-ok

General post processer- contour plot- nodal solution- Displacement vector sum

General post processer- contour plot-Stress-Von Misses Stress

General post processer- contour plot-Strain- Total Strain Intensity
 NICKEL ALLOY
General post processer- contour plot- nodal solution- Nodal Temperature

General post processer- contour plot- Thermal Gradient-Thermal Gradient Vector Sum
General post processer- contour plot-Thermal Flux –Thermal Flux Vector Sum

General post processer- contour plot- nodal solution- Displacement vector sum
General post processer- contour plot-Stress-Von Misses Stress

Total Strain Intensity

 RESULTS TABLE

10 BLADES
TITANIUM NICKEL ALLOY
ALLOY
Temperature (K) 621 623
Thermal Gradient 79571 727504
(K/mm)
Heat Flux (W/mm2) 533.125 8294

Displacement (mm) 0.00107 0.024851

Stress (N/mm2) 1821 8346
Strain 0.022563 0.04076

11 BLADES
TITANIUM ALLOY NICKEL ALLOY
Temperature (K) 629.38 623
Thermal Gradient (K/mm) 42083 922186
Heat Flux (W/mm2) 10513 28195

Displacement (mm) 0.000362 0.02464

Stress (N/mm2) 129.265 8956
Strain 0.00171 0.04272
 INTRODUCTION TO CFD

Computational fluid dynamics, usually abbreviated as CFD, is a branch of fluid mechanics that
uses numerical methods and algorithms to solve and analyze problems that involve fluid flows.
Computers are used to perform the calculations required to simulate the interaction of liquids and
gases with surfaces defined by boundary conditions. With high-speed supercomputers, better
solutions can be achieved. Ongoing research yields software that improves the accuracy and
speed of complex simulation scenarios such as transonic or turbulent flows. Initial experimental
validation of such software is performed using a wind tunnel with the final validation coming in
full-scale testing, e.g. flight tests.

BACKGROUND AND HISTORY

A computer simulation of high velocity air flow around the Space Shuttle during re-entry.

A simulation of the Hyper-X scramjet vehicle in operation at Mach-7

The fundamental basis of almost all CFD problems are the Navier–Stokes equations, which
define any single-phase (gas or liquid, but not both) fluid flow. These equations can be
simplified by removing terms describing viscous actions to yield the Euler equations. Further
simplification, by removing terms describing vorticity yields the full potential equations. Finally,
for small perturbations in subsonic and supersonic flows (not transonic or hypersonic) these
equations can be linearized to yield the linearized potential equations.

Historically, methods were first developed to solve the linearized potential equations. Two-
dimensional (2D) methods, using conformal transformations of the flow about a cylinder to the
flow about an airfoil were developed in the 1930s.

One of the earliest type of calculations resembling modern CFD are those by Lewis Fry
Richardson, in the sense that these calculations used finite differences and divided the physical
space in cells. Although they failed dramatically, these calculations, together with Richardson's
book "Weather prediction by numerical process", set the basis for modern CFD and numerical
meteorology. In fact, early CFD calculations during the 1940s using ENIAC used methods close
to those in Richardson's 1922 book.

The computer power available paced development of three-dimensional methods. Probably the
first work using computers to model fluid flow, as governed by the Navier-Stokes equations, was
performed at Los Alamos National Labs, in the T3 group. This group was led by Francis H.
Harlow, who is widely considered as one of the pioneers of CFD. From 1957 to late 1960s, this
group developed a variety of numerical methods to simulate transient two-dimensional fluid
flows, such as Particle-in-cell method (Harlow, 1957), Fluid-in-cell method (Gentry, Martin and
Daly, 1966), Vorticity stream function method (Jake Fromm, 1963),[8] and Marker-and-cell
method (Harlow and Welch, 1965). Fromm's vorticity-stream-function method for 2D, transient,
incompressible flow was the first treatment of strongly contorting incompressible flows in the
world.

The first paper with three-dimensional model was published by John Hess and A.M.O. Smith of
Douglas Aircraft in 1967. This method discretized the surface of the geometry with panels,
giving rise to this class of programs being called Panel Methods. Their method itself was
simplified, in that it did not include lifting flows and hence was mainly applied to ship hulls and
aircraft fuselages. The first lifting Panel Code (A230) was described in a paper written by Paul
Rubbert and Gary Saaris of Boeing Aircraft in 1968. In time, more advanced three-dimensional
Panel Codes were developed at Boeing (PANAIR, A502), Lockheed (Quadpan), Douglas
(HESS), McDonnell Aircraft (MACAERO), NASA (PMARC) and Analytical Methods
(WBAERO, USAERO and VSAERO. Some (PANAIR, HESS and MACAERO) were higher
order codes, using higher order distributions of surface singularities, while others (Quadpan,
PMARC, USAERO and VSAERO) used single singularities on each surface panel. The
advantage of the lower order codes was that they ran much faster on the computers of the time.
Today, VSAERO has grown to be a multi-order code and is the most widely used program of
this class. It has been used in the development of many submarines, surface ships, automobiles,
helicopters, aircraft, and more recently wind turbines. Its sister code, USAERO is an unsteady
panel method that has also been used for modeling such things as high speed trains and racing
yachts. The NASA PMARC code from an early version of VSAERO and a derivative of
PMARC, named CMARC, is also commercially available.

In the two-dimensional realm, a number of Panel Codes have been developed for airfoil analysis
and design. The codes typically have a boundary layer analysis included, so that viscous effects
can be modeled. Professor Richard Eppler of the University of Stuttgart developed the PROFILE
code, partly with NASA funding, which became available in the early 1980s. This was soon
followed by MIT Professor Mark Drela's XFOIL code. Both PROFILE and XFOIL incorporate
two-dimensional panel codes, with coupled boundary layer codes for airfoil analysis work.
PROFILE uses a conformal transformation method for inverse airfoil design, while XFOIL has
both a conformal transformation and an inverse panel method for airfoil design.

An intermediate step between Panel Codes and Full Potential codes were codes that used the
Transonic Small Disturbance equations. In particular, the three-dimensional WIBCO code,
developed by Charlie Boppe of Grumman Aircraft in the early 1980s has seen heavy use.

Developers turned to Full Potential codes, as panel methods could not calculate the non-linear
flow present at transonic speeds. The first description of a means of using the Full Potential
equations was published by Earll Murman and Julian Cole of Boeing in 1970. Frances Bauer,
Paul Garabedian and David Korn of the Courant Institute at New York University (NYU) wrote
a series of two-dimensional Full Potential airfoil codes that were widely used, the most important
being named Program H. A further growth of Program H was developed by Bob Melnik and his
group at Grumman Aerospace as Grumfoil. Antony Jameson, originally at Grumman Aircraft
and the Courant Institute of NYU, worked with David Caughey to develop the important three-
dimensional Full Potential code FLO22 in 1975. Many Full Potential codes emerged after this,
culminating in Boeing's Tranair (A633) code, which still sees heavy use.

The next step was the Euler equations, which promised to provide more accurate solutions of
transonic flows. The methodology used by Jameson in his three-dimensional FLO57 code (1981)
was used by others to produce such programs as Lockheed's TEAM program and IAI/Analytical
Methods' MGAERO program. MGAERO is unique in being a structured cartesian mesh code,
while most other such codes use structured body-fitted grids (with the exception of NASA's
highly successful CART3D code, Lockheed's SPLITFLOW code[34] and Georgia Tech's
NASCART-GT). Antony Jameson also developed the three-dimensional AIRPLANE code
which made use of unstructured tetrahedral grids.

In the two-dimensional realm, Mark Drela and Michael Giles, then graduate students at MIT,
developed the ISES Euler program (actually a suite of programs) for airfoil design and analysis.
This code first became available in 1986 and has been further developed to design, analyze and
optimize single or multi-element airfoils, as the MSES program. MSES sees wide use throughout
the world. A derivative of MSES, for the design and analysis of airfoils in a cascade, is
MISES,developed by Harold "Guppy" Youngren while he was a graduate student at MIT.

The Navier–Stokes equations were the ultimate target of developers. Two-dimensional codes,
such as NASA Ames' ARC2D code first emerged. A number of three-dimensional codes were
developed (ARC3D, OVERFLOW, CFL3D are three successful NASA contributions), leading to
numerous commercial packages.

METHODOLOGY
In all of these approaches the same basic procedure is followed.

 During preprocessing
 The geometry (physical bounds) of the problem is defined.
 The volume occupied by the fluid is divided into discrete cells (the mesh). The mesh
may be uniform or non-uniform.
 The physical modeling is defined – for example, the equations of motion + enthalpy +
radiation + species conservation
  Boundary conditions are defined. This involves specifying the fluid behaviour and
properties at the boundaries of the problem. For transient problems, the initial conditions
are also defined.
 The simulation is started and the equations are solved iteratively as a steady-state or
transient.
 Finally a postprocessor is used for the analysis and visualization of the resulting solution.

Discretization methods
The stability of the selected discretisation is generally established numerically rather than
analytically as with simple linear problems. Special care must also be taken to ensure that the
discretisation handles discontinuous solutions gracefully. The Euler equations and Navier–Stokes
equations both admit shocks, and contact surfaces.
Some of the discretisation methods being used are:

Finite volume method

The finite volume method (FVM) is a common approach used in CFD codes, as it has an
advantage in memory usage and solution speed, especially for large problems, high Reynolds
numberturbulent flows, and source term dominated flows (like combustion).[40]
In the finite volume method, the governing partial differential equations (typically the Navier-
Stokes equations, the mass and energy conservation equations, and the turbulence equations) are
recast in a conservative form, and then solved over discrete control volumes.
This discretisation guarantees the conservation of fluxes through a particular control volume.
The finite volume equation yields governing equations in the form,

where   is the vector of conserved variables,   is the vector of fluxes (see Euler
equations or Navier–Stokes equations),   is the volume of the control volume element,
and   is the surface area of the control volume element.

Finite element method

The finite element method (FEM) is used in structural analysis of solids, but is also
applicable to fluids. However, the FEM formulation requires special care to ensure a
conservative solution. The FEM formulation has been adapted for use with fluid dynamics
governing equations.[citation needed] Although FEM must be carefully formulated to be
conservative, it is much more stable than the finite volume approach.[41] However, FEM can
require more memory and has slower solution times than the FVM.[42]
In this method, a weighted residual equation is formed:
where   is the equation residual at an element vertex  ,   is the conservation equation
expressed on an element basis,   is the weight factor, and   is the volume of the
element.
Finite difference method
The finite difference method (FDM) has historical importance and is simple to program.
It is currently only used in few specialized codes, which handle complex geometry with
high accuracy and efficiency by using embedded boundaries or overlapping grids (with
the solution interpolated across each grid).

where   is the vector of conserved variables, and  ,  , and   are the fluxes in
the  ,  , and   directions respectively.
Spectral element method
Spectral element method is a finite element type method. It requires the
mathematical problem (the partial differential equation) to be cast in a weak
formulation. This is typically done by multiplying the differential equation by an
arbitrary test function and integrating over the whole domain. Purely mathematically,
the test functions are completely arbitrary - they belong to an infinitely dimensional
function space. Clearly an infinitely dimensional function space cannot be
represented on a discrete spectral element mesh. And this is where the spectral
element discretization begins. The most crucial thing is the choice of interpolating
and testing functions. In a standard, low order FEM in 2D, for quadrilateral elements
the most typical choice is the bilinear test or interpolating function of the
form  . In a spectral element method however,
the interpolating and test functions are chosen to be polynomials of a very high order
(typically e.g. of the 10th order in CFD applications). This guarantees the rapid
convergence of the method. Furthermore, very efficient integration procedures must
be used, since the number of integrations to be performed in a numerical codes is
big. Thus, high order Gauss integration quadratures are employed, since they achieve
the highest accuracy with the smallest number of computations to be carried out. At
the time there are some academic CFD codes based on the spectral element method
and some more are currently under development, since the new time-stepping
schemes arise in the scientific world. You can refer to the C-CFD website to see
movies of incompressible flows in channels simulated with a spectral element solver
or to the Numerical Mechanics (see bottom of the page) website to see a movie of
the lid-driven cavity flow obtained with a compeletely novel unconditionally stable
time-stepping scheme combined with a spectral element solver.
Boundary element method
In the boundary element method, the boundary occupied by the fluid is divided into a
surface mesh.
High-resolution discretization schemes
High-resolution schemes are used where shocks or discontinuities are present.
Capturing sharp changes in the solution requires the use of second or higher-order
numerical schemes that do not introduce spurious oscillations. This usually
necessitates the application of flux limiters to ensure that the solution is total
variation diminishing.

Turbulence models

This section
requires expansion with:

 Models should be
listed in some order
(increasing cost,
increasing accuracy,
alphabetically...)
 Add the One-
dimensional
turbulence model (and
its predecessor Linear
eddy model).
(November 2010)
In computational modeling of turbulent flows, one common objective is to obtain a
model that can predict quantities of interest, such as fluid velocity, for use in
engineering designs of the system being modeled. For turbulent flows, the range of
length scales and complexity of phenomena involved in turbulence make most
modeling approaches prohibitively expensive; the resolution required to resolve all
scales involved in turbulence is beyond what is computationally possible. The
primary approach in such cases is to create numerical models to approximate
unresolved phenomena. This section lists some commonly-used computational
models for turbulent flows.
Turbulence models can be classified based on computational expense, which
corresponds to the range of scales that are modeled versus resolved (the more
turbulent scales that are resolved, the finer the resolution of the simulation, and
therefore the higher the computational cost). If a majority or all of the turbulent
 scales are modeled, the computational cost is very low, but the tradeoff comes in the
form of decreased accuracy.
In addition to the wide range of length and time scales and the associated
computational cost, the governing equations of fluid dynamics contain a non-
linear convection term and a non-linear and non-local pressure gradient term. These
nonlinear equations must be solved numerically with the appropriate boundary and
initial conditions.

Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes
Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations are the oldest approach to
turbulence modeling. An ensemble version of the governing equations is solved,
which introduces new apparent stresses known as Reynolds stresses. This adds a
second order tensor of unknowns for which various models can provide different
levels of closure. It is a common misconception that the RANS equations do not
apply to flows with a time-varying mean flow because these equations are 'time-
averaged'. In fact, statistically unsteady (or non-stationary) flows can equally be
treated. This is sometimes referred to as URANS. There is nothing inherent in
Reynolds averaging to preclude this, but the turbulence models used to close the
equations are valid only as long as the time over which these changes in the mean
occur is large compared to the time scales of the turbulent motion containing most of
the energy.

RANS models can be divided into two broad approaches:

Boussinesq hypothesis

This method involves using an algebraic equation for the Reynolds stresses which include
determining the turbulent viscosity, and depending on the level of sophistication of the
model, solving transport equations for determining the turbulent kinetic energy and
dissipation. Models include k-ε (Launder and Spalding),[43] Mixing Length Model
(Prandtl),[44] and Zero Equation Model (Cebeci and Smith).[44] The models available in
this approach are often referred to by the number of transport equations associated with
the method. For example, the Mixing Length model is a "Zero Equation" model because
no transport equations are solved; the   is a "Two Equation" model because two
transport equations (one for   and one for  ) are solved.
 Reynolds stress model (RSM)
This approach attempts to actually solve transport equations for the Reynolds stresses.
This means introduction of several transport equations for all the Reynolds stresses and
hence this approach is much more costly in CPU effort.

Large eddy simulation

Volume rendering of a non-premixed swirl flame as simulated by LES.

Large eddy simulation (LES) is a technique in which the smallest scales of the flow are removed
through a filtering operation, and their effect modeled using subgrid scale models. This allows
the largest and most important scales of the turbulence to be resolved, while greatly reducing the
computational cost incurred by the smallest scales. This method requires greater computational
resources than RANS methods, but is far cheaper than DNS.
Detached eddy simulation
Detached eddy simulations (DES) is a modification of a RANS model in which the model
switches to a subgrid scale formulation in regions fine enough for LES calculations. Regions
near solid boundaries and where the turbulent length scale is less than the maximum grid
dimension are assigned the RANS mode of solution. As the turbulent length scale exceeds the
grid dimension, the regions are solved using the LES mode. Therefore the grid resolution for
DES is not as demanding as pure LES, thereby considerably cutting down the cost of the
computation. Though DES was initially formulated for the Spalart-Allmaras model (Spalart et
al., 1997), it can be implemented with other RANS models (Strelets, 2001), by appropriately
modifying the length scale which is explicitly or implicitly involved in the RANS model. So
while Spalart-Allmaras model based DES acts as LES with a wall model, DES based on other
models (like two equation models) behave as a hybrid RANS-LES model. Grid generation is
more complicated than for a simple RANS or LES case due to the RANS-LES switch. DES is a
non-zonal approach and provides a single smooth velocity field across the RANS and the LES
regions of the solutions.
Direct numerical simulation
Direct numerical simulation (DNS) resolves the entire range of turbulent length scales. This
marginalizes the effect of models, but is extremely expensive. The computational cost is
proportional to .[45] DNS is intractable for flows with complex geometries or flow
configurations.
Coherent vortex simulation
The coherent vortex simulation approach decomposes the turbulent flow field into a coherent
part, consisting of organized vortical motion, and the incoherent part, which is the random
background flow.[46] This decomposition is done using wavelet filtering. The approach has much
in common with LES, since it uses decomposition and resolves only the filtered portion, but
different in that it does not use a linear, low-pass filter. Instead, the filtering operation is based on
wavelets, and the filter can be adapted as the flow field evolves. Farge and Schneider tested the
CVS method with two flow configurations and showed that the coherent portion of the flow

exhibited the   energy spectrum exhibited by the total flow, and corresponded to coherent
structures (vortex tubes), while the incoherent parts of the flow composed homogeneous
background noise, which exhibited no organized structures. Goldstein and Oleg[47] applied the
FDV model to large eddy simulation, but did not assume that the wavelet filter completely
eliminated all coherent motions from the subfilter scales. By employing both LES and CVS
filtering, they showed that the SFS dissipation was dominated by the SFS flow field's coherent
portion.
PDF methods
Probability density function (PDF) methods for turbulence, first introduced by Lundgren,[48] are
based on tracking the one-point PDF of the velocity,  , which gives the
probability of the velocity at point   being between   and  . This approach is analogous
to the kinetic theory of gases, in which the macroscopic properties of a gas are described by a
large number of particles. PDF methods are unique in that they can be applied in the framework
of a number of different turbulence models; the main differences occur in the form of the PDF
transport equation. For example, in the context of large eddy simulation, the PDF becomes the
filtered PDF.[49] PDF methods can also be used to describe chemical reactions,[50][51] and are
particularly useful for simulating chemically reacting flows because the chemical source term is
closed and does not require a model. The PDF is commonly tracked by using Lagrangian particle
methods; when combined with large eddy simulation, this leads to a Langevin equation for
subfilter particle evolution.
Vortex method
The vortex method is a grid-free technique for the simulation of turbulent flows. It uses vortices
as the computational elements, mimicking the physical structures in turbulence. Vortex methods
were developed as a grid-free methodology that would not be limited by the fundamental
smoothing effects associated with grid-based methods. To be practical, however, vortex methods
require means for rapidly computing velocities from the vortex elements – in other words they
require the solution to a particular form of the N-body problem (in which the motion of N objects
is tied to their mutual influences). A breakthrough came in the late 1980s with the development
of the fast multipole method (FMM), an algorithm by V. Rokhlin (Yale) and L. Greengard
(Courant Institute). This breakthrough paved the way to practical computation of the velocities
from the vortex elements and is the basis of successful algorithms. They are especially well-
suited to simulating filamentary motion, such as wisps of smoke, in real-time simulations such as
video games, because of the fine detail achieved using minimal computation.[52]
Software based on the vortex method offer a new means for solving tough fluid dynamics
problems with minimal user intervention.[citation needed] All that is required is specification of
problem geometry and setting of boundary and initial conditions. Among the significant
advantages of this modern technology;

It is practically grid-free, thus eliminating numerous iterations associated

with RANS and LES.

All problems are treated identically. No modeling or calibration inputs


are required.
 Time-series simulations, which are crucial for correct analysis of
acoustics, are possible.
 The small scale and large scale are accurately simulated at the same time.
Vorticity confinement method
The vorticity confinement (VC) method is an Eulerian technique used in the simulation of
turbulent wakes. It uses a solitary-wave like approach to produce a stable solution with no
numerical spreading. VC can capture the small scale features to within as few as 2 grid cells.
Within these features, a nonlinear difference equation is solved as opposed to the finite
difference equation. VC is similar to shock capturing methods, where conservation laws are
satisfied, so that the essential integral quantities are accurately computed.
Linear eddy model
The Linear eddy model is a technique used to simulate the convective mixing that takes place in
turbulent flow.[53] Specifically, it provides a mathematical way to describe the interactions of a
scalar variable within the vector flow field. It is primarily used in one-dimensional
representations of turbulent flow, since it can be applied across a wide range of length scales and
Reynolds numbers. This model is generally used as a building block for more complicated flow
representations, as it provides high resolution predictions that hold across a large range of flow
conditions.
Two-phase flow
The modeling of two-phase flow is still under development. Different methods have been
proposed lately. The Volume of fluid method has received a lot of attention lately for problems
that do not have dispersed particles but the Level set method and front tracking are also valuable
approaches. Most of these methods are either good in maintaining a sharp interface or at
conserving mass [according to whom?]. This is crucial since the evaluation of the density, viscosity and
surface tension is based on the values averaged over the interface. Lagrangian multiphase
models, which are used for dispersed media, are based on solving the Lagrangian equation of
motion for the dispersed phase.
Solution algorithms
Discretization in space produces a system of ordinary differential equations for unsteady
problems and algebraic equations for steady problems. Implicit or semi-implicit methods are
generally used to integrate the ordinary differential equations, producing a system of (usually)
nonlinear algebraic equations. Applying a Newton or Picard iteration produces a system of linear
equations which is nonsymmetric in the presence of advection and indefinite in the presence of
incompressibility. Such systems, particularly in 3D, are frequently too large for direct solvers, so
iterative methods are used, either stationary methods such as successive overrelaxation or Krylov
subspace methods. Krylov methods such as GMRES, typically used with preconditioning,
operate by minimizing the residual over successive subspaces generated by the preconditioned
operator.
Multigrid has the advantage of asymptotically optimal performance on many problems.
Traditional solvers and preconditioners are effective at reducing high-frequency components of
the residual, but low-frequency components typically require many iterations to reduce. By
operating on multiple scales, multigrid reduces all components of the residual by similar factors,
leading to a mesh-independent number of iterations.
For indefinite systems, preconditioners such as incomplete LU factorization, additive Schwarz,
and multigrid perform poorly or fail entirely, so the problem structure must be used for effective
preconditioning. Methods commonly used in CFD are the SIMPLE and Uzawa algorithms which
exhibit mesh-dependent convergence rates, but recent advances based on block LU factorization
combined with multigrid for the resulting definite systems have led to preconditioners that
deliver mesh-independent convergence rates.
Unsteady Aerodynamics
CFD made a major break through in late 70s with the introduction of LTRAN2, a 2-D code to
model oscillating airfoils based on transonic small perturbation theory by Ballhaus and
associates. It uses a Murman-Cole switch algorithm for modeling the moving shock-waves. Later
it was extended to 3-D with use of a rotated difference scheme by AFWAL/Boeing that resulted
in LTRAN3.

CFD ANALYSIS OF BLADES

10 BLADES
→→Ansys → workbench→ select analysis system → fluid flow fluent → double click

→→Select geometry → right click → import geometry → select browse →open part → ok

→→ select mesh on work bench → right click →edit → select mesh on left side part tree →
right click → generate mesh →

Select faces → right click → create named section → enter name → air inlet

Select faces → right click → create named section → enter name → air outlet
File export → fluent →input file(mesh) → save required name → save.

→→ ansys → fluid dynamics → fluent → select working directory → ok

→→file → read → mesh → select file → ok.

General →Pressure based

Model → energy equation → on.

Viscous → laminar

Materials → new → create or edit → specify fluid material or specify properties → ok

Select air Boundary conditions → select air inlet → Edit → Enter Inlet Velocity → 9071m/s and
Inlet Temperature – 550K

Solution → Solution Initialization → Hybrid Initialization →done

Run calculations → no of iterations = 10 → calculate → calculation complete

→→ Results → graphics and animations → contours → setup

Static Pressure
Static Temperature

Velocity
REPORTS

Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

-------------------------------- --------------------

inlet 5.2866869

interior-_trm_srf 0.26553464

outlet -5.2863617

wall-_trm_srf 0

---------------- --------------------

Net 0.00032520294

Total Heat Transfer Rate (w)

-------------------------------- --------------------

inlet 1340013.1

outlet -1339930.5

wall-_trm_srf 0

---------------- --------------------

Net 82.625
 11 BLADES
→→Ansys → workbench→ select analysis system → fluid flow fluent → double click

→→Select geometry → right click → import geometry → select browse →open part → ok

→→ select mesh on work bench → right click →edit → select mesh on left side part tree →
right click → generate mesh →

Select faces → right click → create named section → enter name → air inlet

Select faces → right click → create named section → enter name → air outlet

File export → fluent →input file(mesh) → save required name → save.

→→ ansys → fluid dynamics → fluent → select working directory → ok

→→file → read → mesh → select file → ok.

General →Pressure based

Model → energy equation → on.

Viscous → Laminar

Materials → new → create or edit → specify fluid material or specify properties → ok

Select air and water

Boundary conditions → select air inlet → Edit → Enter Inlet Velocity → 901m/s and Inlet
Temperature – 550K

Solution → Solution Initialization → Hybrid Initialization →done

Run calculations → no of iterations = 10 → calculate → calculation complete

→→ Results → graphics and animations → contours → setup

Static Pressure

Static Temperature
Velocity

REPORTS
Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

-------------------------------- --------------------

inlet 0.0046750177

interior-_trm_srf -0.003762414

outlet -0.0046738544

wall-_trm_srf 0

---------------- --------------------

Net 1.1632219e-06
 Total Heat Transfer Rate (w)

-------------------------------- --------------------

inlet 1184.9739

outlet -1091.3739

wall-_trm_srf 0

---------------- --------------------

Net 93.6

CFD ANALYSIS ON COMPRESSOR BLADE

→→Ansys → workbench→ select analysis system → fluid flow fluent → double click

→→Select geometry → right click → import geometry → select browse →open part → ok

→→ select mesh on work bench → right click →edit → select mesh on left side part tree →
right click → generate mesh →

Select faces → right click → create named section → enter name → air inlet

Select faces → right click → create named section → enter name → air outlet

File export → fluent →input file(mesh) → save required name → save.

→→ ansys → fluid dynamics → fluent → select working directory → ok

→→file → read → mesh → select file → ok.

General →Pressure based

Model → energy equation → on.

Viscous → Laminar

Materials → new → create or edit → specify fluid material or specify properties → ok

Select air

Boundary conditions → select air inlet → Edit → Enter Inlet Velocity → 80m/s and Inlet
Temperature – 400K

Solution → Solution Initialization → Hybrid Initialization →done

Run calculations → no of iterations = 50 → calculate → calculation complete

→→ Results → graphics and animations → contours → setup

Static Pressure
Temperature

VELOCITY
 Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

-------------------------------- --------------------

inlet 4.6992769

interior-_trm_srf 0.23373835

outlet -4.6989942

wall-_trm_srf 0

---------------- --------------------

Net 0.00028276443

"Flux Report"

Total Heat Transfer Rate (w)

-------------------------------- --------------------

inlet 481698.97

outlet -481669.91

wall-_trm_srf 0

---------------- --------------------

Net 29.0625

10 Blades 11 Blades Compressor

Pressure (Pa) 1.20e+04 1.67e+04 9.48e+03
Temperature
5.50e+02 5.50e+02 4.000e+02
(K)
Velocity (m/s) 2.94e+02 3.00e+02 2.62e+02
Mass flow rate
0.00032520294 1.1632219e-06 0.00028276443
(kg/s)
Heat Transfer
82.625 93.6 29.0625
rate (w)
 COUPLED FIELD ANALYSIS RESULTS TABLE

10 BLADES
TITANIUM NICKEL ALLOY
ALLOY
Temperature (K) 621 623
Thermal Gradient 79571 727504
(K/mm)
Heat Flux (W/mm2) 533.125 8294

Displacement (mm) 0.00107 0.024851

Stress (N/mm2) 1821 8346
Strain 0.022563 0.04076

11 BLADES
TITANIUM ALLOY NICKEL ALLOY
Temperature (K) 629.38 623
Thermal Gradient (K/mm) 42083 922186
Heat Flux (W/mm2) 10513 28195

Displacement (mm) 0.000362 0.02464

Stress (N/mm2) 129.265 8956
Strain 0.00171 0.04373
 CONCLUSION
In this project, we have designed a pelton turbine bucket modeled in 3D modeling software
Pro/Engineer.

Coupled Field analysis (Structural + Thermal) is done on the turbine by changing the materials
of the turbine blade while running at higher speeds. Analysis is done in Ansys.

The present used material for blade is Steel. In this we are replacing with Titanium alloy and
Nickel ally. Coupled field analysis is done on two blades.

By comparing the thermal analysis results, the heat transfer rate is more for Nickel Alloy than
Titanium alloy. But by considering structural analysis results, the stresses are less for Titanium
alloy than Nickel alloy. And also by using Nickel alloy, the weight is more.

CFD analysis is done on the turbine blades, 10 and 11 by applying inlet velocity of 90m/s and on
the compressor by applying 80m/s.