Electronic Devices

AC Quantities

Recall that AC quantities are V

indicated with a italic

subscript; rms values are rms
avg
Vce
assumed unless otherwise Vce Vce

stated. VCE Vce

The figure shows an example of vce

a specific waveform for the

collector-emitter voltage. Notice
the DC component is VCE and the 0
0
t

ac component is Vce.
Resistance is also identified with a lower case italic subscript when
analyzed from an ac standpoint.

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 Electronic Devices
Linear Amplifiers

A linear amplifier produces an replica of the input signal at

the output. +V CC

Ic
Vb ICQ
VBQ R1 RC

Vce C2
Rs VCEQ
C1 Ib
I BQ
Vs R2 RE RL

For the amplifier shown, notice that the voltage waveform is

inverted between the input and output but has the same shape.

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 Electronic Devices
AC Load Line

Operation of the linear

amplifier can be illustrated IC

using an ac load line.

Q
IB
Ib
The ac load line is different Ic

than the dc load line because ICQ

Q

a capacitor looks open to dc

but effectively acts as a short
to ac. Thus, in the previous 0 V CE

circuit, the collector resistor Vce

appears to be in parallel with VCEQ

the load resistor.

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 Electronic Devices
Transistor AC Model

The five resistance parameters (r-parameters) can be used

for detailed analysis of a BJT circuit. For most analysis
work, the simplified r-parameters give good results.
The simplified r-parameters are
C C
shown in relation to the transistor
model. βac Ib βac Ib
An important r-parameter is re'. It re′
B B
appears as a small ac resistance Ib
between the base and emitter. re′

25 mV
re' = E E
IE

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 Electronic Devices
Common-Emitter Amplifier

In the common-emitter (CE) amplifier, the input signal is

applied to the base and the inverted output is taken from the
collector. The emitter is common to ac signals.
VCC

RC
C3
R1
Vout
C1
Vin
RL
R2
RE C2

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 Electronic Devices
Common-Emitter Amplifier - Example

What is re' for the CE amplifier? Assume stiff voltage-divider bias.

VCC
 27 kΩ  +15 V
VB =  15 V = 4.26 V
 68 kΩ + 27 kΩ  RC
C3
R1 3.9 kΩ
VE = 4.26 V – 0.7 V = 3.56 V C1
68 kΩ
10 µF
VE 3.56 V
IE
= = = 1.62 mA 1.0 µF RL
3.9 kΩ
RE 2.2 kΩ R2
27 kΩ RE C2
2.2 kΩ
25 mV 25 mV 100 µF
=re' = = 15.4 Ω
IE 1.62 mA

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 Electronic Devices
Half-wave Rectifier

Notice that the ac resistance of the collector circuit is RC||RL.

What is the gain of the amplifier?
VCC
+15 V
Vout Rc RC || RL
A
=v = =
Vin re' re' R1
RC
3.9 kΩ
C3
68 kΩ
3.9 kΩ || 3.9 kΩ C1
10 µF
Av = 127
15.4 Ω 1.0 µF RL
R2 3.9 kΩ
27 kΩ
The gain will be a little lower if the RE
2.2 kΩ
C2
100 µF
input loading effect is accounted for.

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 Electronic Devices
Common-Emitter Amplifier

Greater gain stability can be achieved by adding a swamping resistor

to the emitter circuit of the CE amplifier. The gain will be lower as a
result. V CC
+15 V

What is the gain with the addition R1

RC
3.9 kΩ
C3

of the swamping resistor? (Ignore C1

68 kΩ

the small effect on re'.) 10 µF

1.0 µF
Vout Rc RC || RL RE1
Av =
= = 33 Ω
RL
3.9 kΩ
Vin re' + RE1 re' + RE1 R2
27 kΩ RE2 C2
2.2 kΩ 100 µF
Vout Rc RC || RL
=Av = = = 38.2
Vin re' + RE1 re' + RE1

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 Electronic Devices
Common-Emitter Amplifier - Multisim

Multisim is a good way to check your calculation. For an input of

10 mVpp, the output is 378 mVpp as shown on the oscilloscope
display for the swamped CE amplifier.

input

output

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 Electronic Devices
Common-Emitter Amplifier

In addition to gain stability, swamping has the advantage of increasing

the ac input resistance of the amplifier. For this amplifier, Rin(tot) is given
by Rin(tot) = R1||R2||βac(re' + RE1)
VCC
+15 V

RC
C3
What is Rin(tot) for the amplifier if R1
68 kΩ
3.9 kΩ

βac = 200? C1
10 µF

Rin(tot) = R1||R2||βac(re' + RE1) 1.0 µF

RE1
RL
33 Ω
3.9 kΩ
= 68 kΩ||27 kΩ||200(15.4 Ω + 33 Ω) R2
27 kΩ RE2 C2
= 6.45 kΩ 2.2 kΩ 100 µF

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 Electronic Devices
Common-Collector Amplifier

The common-collector amplifier (emitter-follower) has a voltage gain of

approximately 1, but can have high input resistance and current gain.
The input is applied to the base and taken from the emitter.
+VCC

R1
C1
Vin
C2
Iin
Vout
R2
RE RL

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 Electronic Devices
Common-Collector Amplifier

The power gain is the ratio of the power delivered to the input resistance
divided by the power dissipated in the load. This is approximately equal to
the current gain. That is, Ap ≈Ai.
You can also write power gain V
CC

as a ratio of resistances:
VL2 R
1

PL RL 2
Rin (tot ) 1C
A=p = 2
= Av Vin
Pin Vin RL C2
Rin (tot ) Vout
R2
 Rin (tot )  Rin (tot ) RE RL
≅ 1 =
R
 L  RL

The next slide is an example…

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 Electronic Devices
Common-Collector Amplifier - Example

Calculate the power gain to the load for the CC amplifier using a ratio of
resistances. Assume Av = 1 and βac = 200. Use re' = 2 Ω.
VCC
+15 V
Rin(tot) = R1||R2||βac(re' + RE||RL)
R1
= 39 kΩ||220 kΩ||200(2 Ω + 500 Ω) C1 39 kΩ
Vin
= 24.9 kΩ C2
0.22 µF Vout
RL = 1.0 kΩ R2
Rin (tot ) 24.9 kΩ 220 kΩ RE 3.3 µF RL
Ap =
= = 24.9 1.0 kΩ 1.0 kΩ
RL 1.0 kΩ

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 Electronic Devices
Common-Collector Amplifier

The input voltage-divider in the previous example is not “rock-solid” but

the overall power gain is good. A “rock solid” stiff voltage-divider is not
always the best design. Can you spot the problem illustrated here?
Rin(tot) = R1||R2||βac(re' + RE||RL) VCC
+10 V
= 10 kΩ||10 kΩ||200(25 Ω + 3.0 kΩ)
= 4.96 kΩ R1
C1 10 kΩ β = 200
RL = 10 kΩ Vin
C2
Rin (tot ) 4.96 kΩ Vout
=Ap = = 0.496! R2
RL 10 kΩ 10 kΩ RE RL
4.3 kΩ 10 kΩ
The problem is the power gain is
less than 1!

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 Electronic Devices
Darlington Pair

A Darlington pair is two transistors connected as shown. The two

transistors act as one “super β” transistor. Darlington transistors are
available in a single package. Notice there are two diode drops from base
to emitter.
VCC
VCC

R1
RC C1
Vin Q1
Q2
C2
Vout
R2

RE RL

CE Amplifier Darlington CC amplifier Load

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 Electronic Devices
The Sziklai Pair

Another high β pair is the Sziklai pair (sometimes called a complementary

Darlington), in which a pnp and npn transistor are connected as shown. This
configuration has the advantage of only one diode drop between base and
emitter.
+VCC

What is the relation between IE2 and IB1?

Vin βDC1
IB1
βDC2
The DC currents are: IC1
IE2
IC1 is βDC1 x IB1 and is equal to IB2
RE
IE2 is approximately equal to βDC2 x IC1
Therefore, IE2 ≈ βDC1βDC2IB1

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 Electronic Devices
Common-Base Amplifier

The common-base (CB) amplifier is used in applications where a low input

impedance is acceptable. It does not invert the signal, an advantage for
higher frequencies as you will see later when you study the Miller effect.
What is the purpose of C2?
+VCC

RC C
C2 forces the base R1 3

C2 Vout
to be at ac ground.
RL
C1
Vin
R2 RE

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 Electronic Devices
Multistage Amplifiers

To improve amplifier performance, stages are often cascaded where the

output of one drives another. This an example of a two-stage direct-coupled
amplifier in which the input and V CC
output signals are capacitively +12 V

coupled.
R1 RC RE3 C3
10 kΩ 1.0 kΩ 330 Ω Vout

Q2 10 µF RL
C1 2N3906 330 Ω
V in Q1
2N3904
VS 1.0 µF
100 mV pp R2 RE1
1.0 kHz 4.7 kΩ 100 Ω
RE2 C2
330 Ω 47 µF

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 Electronic Devices
Differential Amplifiers

A differential amplifier (diff-amp) has two inputs. It amplifies the difference

in the two input voltages. This circuit is widely used as the input stage to
operational amplifiers. Differential-mode inputs are illustrated.
+VCC

Vout 1 Vout 2
RC1 RC2
1 2

Q1 Q2
1 2
Vin1 Vin2

RE

–VEE

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 Electronic Devices
Differential Amplifiers

The same amplifier as in the last slide now is shown with common-mode
inputs. Diff-amps tend to reject common-mode signals, which are usually
due to noise. Ideally, the outputs are zero with common-mode inputs.
+VCC

Vout 1 Vout 2
RC1 RC2
1 2

Q1 Q2
1 2
Vin1 Vin2

RE

–VEE

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 Electronic Devices
Selected Key Terms-1

r-parameter One of a set of BJT characteristic parameters

that include αac, βac, re', rb', and rc'.

Common- A BJT configuration in which the emitter is

emitter the common terminal to an ac signal.

ac ground A point in a circuit that appears as a

ground to ac signals only.

Input resistance The resistance seen by an ac source

connected to the amplifier input.

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 Electronic Devices
Selected Key Terms-2

Output The ac resistance looking in at the amplifier

Resistance output.
Common A BJT configuration in which the collector is
Collector the common terminal to an ac signal.

Decibel A logarithmic measure the ratio of one power

to another or one voltage to another

Differential An amplifier in which the input is a function of

Amplifier the difference between two input voltages.

CMRR Common-mode rejection ratio: the ratio of

open-loop gain to common-mode gain.
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 Electronic Devices
Quiz Q1

1. The equation for finding the ac emitter resistance of a

BJT is
25 mV
a. re' =
IB
25 mV
b. re' =
IE
0.7 V
c.
'
r =
e
IB
0.7 V
d. re' =
IE

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 Electronic Devices
Quiz Q2

2. For a CE amplifier, a swamping resistor will

a. increase the input resistance
b. increase the gain
c. both of the above
d. none of the above

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 Electronic Devices
Quiz Q3

3. A well-designed CC amplifier has

a. voltage gain > 1
b. current gain > 1
c. both of the above
d. none of the above

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 Electronic Devices
Quiz Q4

4. In a CC amplifier, the power gain is approximately

a. one
b. equal to the voltage gain
c. equal to the current gain
d. none of the above

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 Electronic Devices
Quiz Q5

5. The amplifier shown is a

a. differential amplifier
b. CE amplifier +VCC

c. CC amplifier RC C
R1
3

C2 Vout
d. CB amplifier
RL
C1
Vin
R2 RE

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 Electronic Devices
Quiz Q6

6. An advantage to this amplifier is that it

a. has high current gain
b. has high input resistance +VCC

c. is non-inverting RC C
R1
3

C2 Vout
d. all of the above
RL
C1
Vin
R2 RE

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 Electronic Devices
Quiz Q7

7. Together, Q1 and Q2 form a

a. Swamped amplifier
b. Differential pair VCC

c. Sziklai pair
R1
C1
d. none of the above Q1
Q2
C2
Vout
R2

RE RL

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 Electronic Devices
Quiz Q8

8. A CC amplifier with a power gain less than 1 is

a. a buffer
b. an inverting amplifier
c. unstable
d. an example of poor design

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 Electronic Devices
Quiz Q9

9. An npn and a pnp transistor acting together as a single

high β transistor is a
a. Darlington pair
b. Sziklai pair
c. Differential pair
d. cascaded amplifier

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 Electronic Devices
Quiz Q10

10. If identical signals are applied to both inputs of a

differential amplifier, ideally the output will be
a. zero
b. equal to one of the signals
c. equal to the sum of the two signals
d. very large

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 Electronic Devices
Answers

Answers:
1. b 6. c
2. a 7. d
3. b 8. d
4. c 9. b
5. d 10. a

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