COURSE 1 CHILDHOOD AND GROWING UP

Module 4 -- Learner Characteristics and Roles Related to Learning

Prepared by Dr. Asha A.K.
Assistant professor, Aishabai College of Education, SNDT Women’s University, Mumbai.
Concept of personality, self-concept of learner, development of personality, self-concept and
leadership qualities of learner through various classroom activities and co-curricular programs.

Concept of adjustment causes of maladjustment, problems of adjustment in adolescents and role of

school and teachers in helping the students facing the following problems like anxiety, withdrawal,
aggression, delinquency, drug addiction, failure and low achievement.

Learner characteristics affecting learning and their implications to teaching psychological

characteristics – maturation, attention, interest, motivation (Maslow’s hierarchy of needs,
achievement motivation), aptitude.

I) Concept of personality
The word ‘personality’ has been derived from the Latin word ‘persona’ the mask worn by the actors
to change their appearance. It is used to depict outward appearance of external behaviour. It is not
equivalent to one’s character. It is purely a psychological term.

It is a totality of one's behaviour towards oneself and others as well. It includes everything about the
person – physical, emotional, social, mental and spiritual makeup.

R.B. Cattel, “Personality is that which permits a prediction of what a person will do in a given
situation.”

Stephen P. Robbins, “Personality is the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts
with others.”

Characteristics of personality

• It is unique and specific.

• It is self-consciousness.
• It includes all the behaviour patterns – conative, cognitive and affective.
• It covers conscious, semi-conscious and unconscious activities.
• It is not static but dynamic and ever in the process of change and modification.
• It is a bye-product of heredity and environment.
• It is the end product of the process of learning and acquisition.
• It includes a person’s physical, psychological, and emotional aspects.

Determinants of personality

• Heredity -- transmission of qualities from ancestor to descendant.

• Environment -- surroundings in which the individuals are brought up.
• Situation -- demands a specific behaviour.

Main stages involved in personality formation

• Primary attachment (1-- 2 years) -- attached to a person(s).

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 • Role of family (2 to 6 years) -- understands family interactions and some social norms.
• Entering of child into social world -- steps out of home, active in school life.
• Adolescence stage -- adoption of new traits.

Personality theories

Type theory -- Sheldon

People are classified into identifiable categories.

A) Based on physique -- three types

• Endomorph – short, plump person (sociable, relaxed and even tempered)
• Ectomorph -- a tall thin person (restrained, self-conscious and fond of solitude)
• Mesomorph -- of a heavy-set muscular individual (noisy, callous fond of physical activity)

The classification of personalities on a physical basis is always subjective.

i) Alfred Adler’s Psychology types

There is a single drive or motivating force behind all our behaviour and experience. He calls it as
aggression drive (reaction we have when our basic drives are not satisfied). It is also called as
assertiveness drive.

ii) Henry Murray's Psychogenic needs

He described needs as a potentiality or readiness to respond in a certain way under certain given
circumstances. “Some needs are temporary and changing, other needs are deeply seated in our
nature. Though they function mostly on the unconscious level, they play a major role in our
personality.

Murray's types of needs

a) primary needs -- based upon biological demands (need for oxygen, food and water).

b) secondary needs -- based upon psychological demands (need for nurturing, independence and
achievement).

B) Based on fluid type -- Greek physicians

Greek physicians classified people into four broad categories on the basis of emotional and
temperamental characteristics. One of Aristotle's pupils theorised that human body consists of four
fluids. The personality of an individual is typed by the dominance of one of them in the body.

Sl. Humour Temperamental Characteristics

No.
1 Blood Sanguine Active, hopeful
2 Yellow bile Choleric Irritability, quick to anger
3 Phlegm/Mucus Phlegmatic Calm, temperamentally sluggish
4 Black bile Melancholic Depressed, slow and pessimistic

C) Based on constitutional type -- Ernest Kretschmar (German psychiatrist)

Sl. Type Characteristics

No.

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 1 Pyknic Stocky, full chested (popular)

2 Asthenic/Leptosomic Weak, tall and thin (sensitive)

3 Athletic Strong
4 Dysplastic Mixed type

D) Sprangers type

The German philosopher divided human beings on the basis of interests.

Sl. Interests Characteristics

No.
1 Theoretical neglect social and political participation
2 Economic Interested in money hoarding
3 Aesthetic lover of beauty, busy in sensuous gratification
4 Social interested in social activities
5 Political dominating and desires of power
6 Religious devote themselves to religious activities

E) Jung’s typology -- a Swiss psychologist

Classify human beings into two distinct types according to their social participation and interest they
take in activities.

1. Introvert
2. Extrovert

A person may be introvert in one function but extrovert in another function – feeling, intuition,
thinking and sensation.

F) Freud's typology

Freud's anatomy of personality is built around the concepts of:

1. ID -- raw savage immoral stuff of man's personality – ambitions, desires, tendencies etc.
(consider only satisfaction of needs)
2. Ego -- acts as a policeman to check the unlawful activities of the child.
3. Superego -- ethical moral arm of the personality. It is idealistic and does not care for
realities. Perfection is its goal rather than pleasure.

Trait approach

A personality trait is understood as being an enduring attribute of a person that appears constantly
in different situations. Each individual trait differs from the other individual in a unique way.

Eysenck’s view

a. Introversion
b. Extraversion
c. Neuroticism
d. Psychoticism

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Cattell’s view – R. B. Cattell intends to give certain specific dimensions to personalities so that
human behaviour related to a particular situation can be predicted.

Opposite traits discovered by Cattell

Sl. No. Trait and opposite trait

1 emotional or easily upset versus karma stable
2 intelligent versus unintelligent
3 reserved or unfriendly versus outgoing or friendly
4 assertive or dominant versus not assertive or humble
5 sober or serious versus happy go lucky
6 conscientious versus expedient
7 shy/ timid versus venturesome
8 tender minded versus tough minded
9 suspicious versus trusting
10 practical versus imaginative
11 shrewd versus forthright
12 self-assured or placid versus apprehensive
13 conservative versus experimenting
14 group oriented versus self sufficient
15 undisciplined versus self-discipline
16 relaxed versus tense/driven

Development of personality

Man is a member of a complex society. He desires to achieve self-actualization -- the ultimate goal.
All behaviour is directed towards this goal. The present is determined not only by the past but future
expectations too. Various factors determine the development of personality in an individual. They
are called determinants of personality.

(I) a) Internal or personal factors -- physical structure, motivation, intelligence, attitudes, emotions
etc.

b) External or environmental factors – climate, cultural and social forces, home, family, school,
society etc.

(II)a) Biological determinants -- hereditary influences, nervous system, ductless glands/ endocrine
glands (thyroid parathyroid pituitary adrenal sex glands/gonads) physique, body chemistry etc.

b) Psychological determinants – intelligence, interest, attitude, aspiration, motivation, willpower,

emotional and temperamental makeup.

c)Social and cultural determinants -- home and family, parental attitude, size of family and birth
order, economic and social status of the family, school environment, other factors in social
environment like neighbourhood, religious institutions other social groups/institutions, cultural
environment etc.

There are many factors which affect the development of personality.

Self-concept -- the image we have of ourselves is called self-concept. A child’s concept of self is
based on the opinion others hold about him or her, our interaction with important people in our
lives etc. Beliefs such as ‘I'm a good friend’ or ‘I'm a fat person’ are part of an overall self-concept.

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Our self-perception is important because it affects our motivations, attitudes and behaviours. It
tends to be more valuable when we are younger and still going through the process of self-discovery
and identity formation. It answers the question ‘Who am I?’

Parts of self-concept -- Carl Rogers -- three parts

The ideal self -- the person you want to be. This person has attributes or qualities you are either
working towards or want to possess by.

Self-image -- how you see yourself at this moment. Physical characteristics, personality traits and
social roles play a role in your self-image

Self-esteem -- how much you like except and value yourself. It can be affected by factors like how
others see you, how you think you compare to others and your role in society etc.

Incongruence and congruence -- Self-concept is not always aligned with reality. When self-concept is
aligned with reality it is called incongruent. When there is a mismatch between how you see yourself
(your self-image) and who you wish you were (your ideal self), your self-concept is incongruent. This
can negatively affect self-esteem. It has early roots in childhood.

How self-concept develops -- Self-concept develops through interaction with others, stories we hear
and through media -- mass media and social media

Can self-concept be changed – It is not static. Environment plays a place. It is based on people with
whom we interact. Medical diagnosis (e.g., Autism diagnosis in later life) too can change our self-
concept.

Multiple dimension theory -- Bruce a Bracken; 6 independent traits of self-concept.

1 Academic success of failure in school

2 Affect awareness of emotional states
3 Competence ability to meet basic needs
4 Family how well you work in your family unit
5 Physical how you feel about your looks, health, physical condition and
overall appearance
6 Social ability to interact with others

Social identity theory of self-concept by Henry Tajfel

Self-concept is composed of two key parts

1) Personal identity -- traits and characteristics that make you unique

2) Social identity -- based on social class /your membership in social groups -- sports teams,
religions, political parties etc. It influences our self-concept, affects our emotions and
behaviours.

Self-concept and leadership qualities -- Leaders must have a high self-concept to lead others. Such a
leader will be a role model. A leader exhibits confidence, enthusiasm and positivity.
Transformational leadership affects three areas of self-concept.

1) Collective self-concept -- relates to the group or team we associate or belong to.

2) Individual self-concept -- individual has a high self confidence in their abilities and are not
threatened by others

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 3) Interpersonal self-concept -- having a desire to help others on a personal level, the
importance of keeping one’s commitments to significant people in their lives.

Higher self-concept results in higher retention and performance. Lower self-concept results in lower
retention and lower performance.

Self-concept and self-esteem -- Self-concept is a broad description of ourselves. (I'm a good

speaker). It answers the question ‘Who am I?’ Self-esteem is a judgement/opinion we have of
ourselves. I feel proud to be a good speaker. It answers the question ‘How do I feel about who I am?

Self-concept and leadership qualities of learner through various classroom activities

Visual activities

Self-portrait in action -- Students are small mirrors to look at themselves and they paint or sketch or
think about their physical features

Collage of me -- Encourage students to cut out pictures they associate with their identity -- their
strengths, things they love etc.

Verbal activities

I am, I'm not -- Ask students to write as many sentences as they can beginning with the prompt ‘I
am’ and later ‘I am not’

Introduction poem -- Make students draft a poem introducing themselves. The qualities they
consider unique and worthy of acknowledging.

Mental hygiene

Mental hygiene is a science which deals with the process of attaining mental health and prevent
mental illness. Mental hygiene is a means to make people conscious of mental health.

Goals of mental hygiene -- realization of potentialities, provide means and measures to develop
happiness, harmonious development of the physical, mental and spiritual capacities of the
individual, utilise abilities effectively.

Functions of mental hygiene

• training of mental health personal who can understand people’s psychological problems and
can help them to meet their needs
• development of preventive and curative programs in the home, school and community
• to preserve the mental health of those who are in sound mental health and to make the
general population conscious about mental health.

Mental health and education are closely related to each other. Learning is dependent on sound
mental health. Mental health refers to cognitive behavioural and emotional wellbeing; how people
think, feel and behave. It is absence of a mental disorder. The daily relationships, daily living,
physical health etc. can contribute or affect mental health and vice versa.

Criteria of a mentally healthy person

• adaptability and resilient mind

• socially acceptable and adaptable
• emotionally satisfied

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 • desires are in harmony with socially approved goals
• insight into his own conduct
• enthusiastic and reasonable
• good habits
• philosophy of life

II) Concept of adjustment

Human beings has the highest capacity to adapt to new situations. As a social animal, human beings
not only adapts to physical demands but also adjust to social pressures in the society. Biologists use
the term ‘adaptation’ for physical demands of the environment. Psychologists use the term
‘adjustment’ for varying conditions of social or interpersonal relations in the society. ‘Adjustment’
means reaction to the demands and pressures of social environment imposed upon the individual.
The demand may be external or internal to whom the individual has to react. ‘Adaptation’ is a
concept given by Charles Darwin for the survival of life. Adjustment is more complex when
compared to adaptation.

Adjustment is fitting oneself in the changing situation. It is a modification of behaviour for a happy
and satisfied life in a changing environment. Adjustment starts from birth and continues till death. A
continuous chain of struggle is required for the best adjustment.

James Drever (1952), “Adjustment means the modification to compensate for or meet special
condition,”

Gates & Jersild A. T. (1948), “Adjustment is a continual process by which a person varies his
behaviour to produce a more harmonious relationship between himself and his environment.”

Every individual has his or her basic needs. The society too demands something from the individual.
If an individual considers his needs alone without thinking of the norms, ethics and cultural tradition
of society, then he or she will not be well adjusted in the environment.

Hence adjustment is a condition or state in which individual’s behaviour confirms to the demands of
the culture or society to which hero she belongs. He or she should also feel that his or her basic
needs have been fulfilled.

Points of views of adjustments -- two

1) Adjustment as an achievement
2) Adjustment as a process

Adjustment as an achievement -- how efficiently an individual can perform his or her duties in
different circumstances.

Criteria for good adjustment -- no universal criteria can be set forever. The criteria involves values
and judgments which differ from culture to culture and generation to generation.

Four criteria

• Physical health -- free from physical ailments (headache, ulcers in digestion, impairment for
appetite etc.)
• Psychological comfort -- no psychological problems (obsession, anxiety, depression etc.)

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 • Work efficiency -- one who makes full of use of occupational or social capacities.
• Social acceptance -- everybody wants to be accepted socially. If a person obeys social norms,
beliefs and set of values we call him or her well-adjusted. But if he or she satisfies his or her
needs by anti-social means, then he or she is called maladjusted.

Adjustment as a process -- adjustment as a process is of major importance to psychologists,

teachers and parents. To analyse this, we should study the development of an individual from his
birth onwards. At the time of birth, the child is absolutely dependent on others for the satisfaction of
his needs. But gradually he or she learns to control his or her needs. Adjustment largely depends on
your interaction with the external environment. The nature of adjustive processes is decided by
various factors like internal needs external demands etc. When a conflict occurs between internal
needs and external demands there are three alternatives:

• Inhibit or modify his internal need or demand.

• Alter the environment and satisfy his or her demands.
• Use some mental mechanism to escape from the conflicting situation and may be able to
maintain the balance of his or her personality.

Piaget (1952) has studied the adjusted process from different angles. He used the terms
‘accommodation’ and ‘assimilation’ to represent the alternation of oneself or environment as a
means of adjustment.

A person who carries values and standards of conduct without any change and maintains these in
spite of major changes in the social climate is called assimilator. A person who considers of the
social context and changes his believes in accordance with the altered values of the society is called
accommodator. It is a difficult question to answer which process of adjustment is effective. Human
beings in order to adjust successfully in the society have to resort to both the devices.

Characteristics of a well-adjusted person

• Awareness of one's own strengths and weaknesses (accept weakness, modify it and use
strengths)
• Respecting himself and others (own self-respect or {self-concept} as well as for others)
• Adequate level of aspiration (neither too low nor too high; selects proper course)
• Satisfaction of basic needs (fulfils basic emotional and social needs without harming or
hurting others; does not suffer emotional craving or social isolation)
• Flexibility in behaviour (not rigid, easily adapt to changing circumstances)
• Capacity to deal with adverse conditions (how an individual cope with the adverse situations
makes him for her well-adjusted)
• Realistic perception of the world (realistic attitude, understands reality and changes
behaviour in accordance with it.)

Role of a teacher in adjustment -- Teacher plays a strategic role in manipulating the environment to
bring about an improved adjustment of pupils.

• Provides a healthy classroom climate that permits students to express themselves freely and
fearlessly.
• Encourage students to put for their best efforts as individuals and as members of the group.
• Boost their self-esteem and self-respect with a compliment for a work, a smile or a word of
recognition
• Dramatising various situations involving students.

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 • Accept the deviation from acceptable behaviour, acknowledge it and work along with the
student to modify it.
• Understands that every student is unique.
• Practice good mental health and motivation.

Teacher’s self-adjustment -- the democratic and receptive behaviour of the teacher leads to
better emotional rapport in the class. It helps in developing positive attitude in the students
towards the teacher and the class work. On the other hand, the dominated behaviour of the
teacher creates resistance in the children.

Role of education in adjustment -- all educational institutions play a vital role in the adjustment of
individuals. They provide basic training of adjusting with another individual, institute, infrastructure,
rules, regulations, timetable etc.

Dimensions of adjustment in school

• Adjustment to academic, co-curricular activities and school routine (overcoming learning

difficulties, getting the maximum benefit)
• Psychological adjustments (development of good memory, good temper and desirable
attitudes)
• Adjustment within the self (self-understanding, overcoming emotional difficulties,
maintenance of health etc.)
• Social adjustment (having harmonious relationships with pupils and teachers, feeling socially
acceptable)

Role of school and teacher in adjustment -- It is a responsibility of teachers as well as the school to
ensure that each student is well adjusted by providing a healthy environment. If a student is
maladjusted, then the teachers should take appropriate measures to help him or her.

Mal adjustment

An individual is maladjusted when his stress reduces his efficiency, interferes with normal functions,
leads to avoidance rather than facing problems. It leads to antisocial behaviour and disturbs the
physiological and psychological balance of the individual.

There are thought disturbances, emotional disturbances, extreme reactions, disharmony, poor
relationships, distorted self-concept, inability to deal with frustration and stress, general
dissatisfaction and disharmony in life.

Symbols of maladjustment

• Physical symptoms -- stuttering, stammering, scratching head, facial twitching, biting nails,
rocking feet, restlessness, drumming with fingers and vomiting.
• Behavioural deviations -- aggression, lying, bullying, poor school achievement, hyperactivity,
negativism and sex disturbance.
• Emotional symptoms -- excessive worry, fear, inferiority, hatred, extreme timidity, temper
tantrums, persistent anxiety, conflicts and tension.

Detection of maladjustment -- Detection of maladjustment requires professional skills of a

psychiatrist which we cannot expect from a teacher. But teacher can help in detecting
maladjustment.

i) Observation and interview

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 ii) Use of psychological tests
• Haggerty -- Olson behaviour rating schedules
• The bell adjustment inventory
• The Moony checklist
• The Rodgers test of personality adjustment
• Taylor anxiety scale

Maladjustment and conditions in schools

• inadequate training of teachers (in educational psychology and mental hygiene)

• inadequate curriculum
• lack of recreational facilities
• classroom climate
• restrained relationship between administrator-teachers, teacher-teacher and student
teacher
• examination system

Causes of maladjustment

• Physique
• Having sickness and injury
• Poverty
• Broken home
• Personal inadequacies
• Parental attitudes
• Value placed on the sex of the child
• Adoption
• Emotional shock
• Social conditions (religious beliefs, lack of clubs, playgrounds or libraries, mobility, class
differences, employment insecurity etc.)

Maladjustment leads to the following problems:

• frustration
• conflict
• anxiety
• withdrawal
• juvenile delinquency
• drug addiction
• failure
• low achievement
• aggression
1) Frustration

When an individual is not emotionally stable or balanced, then it creates frustration. There are
different causes of frustration --E external causes and Internal causes.

External causes -- includes natural calamities, financial condition, corruption, favouritism, absent of
norms and subjectivity.

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Internal causes -- includes physical abnormality or defect, conflicting and diverse aims and desires,
high ideals, morality of the individual, lack of persistence and lack of sincerity.

Role of the teacher in reducing frustration

• Teacher can guide the students to decide the goal by identification of students’ interests and
capacities.
• He or she can take efforts to develop optimistic outlook and scientific attitude.
• Teacher can involve students in group works to make them sociable which can reduce the
tension or problem.
2) Conflict

Conflict is a painful condition or state of an individual. During this stage an individual feels intense
emotional tension. Emotional tension results on account of the presence of 2 or more desires of the
individual. these desires are contradictory in nature. It is not possible to satisfy these.

Kurt Lear, “Conflict is usually a clash of motives.”

Katz Barney and associates,” Psychological conflict is a state of tension brought by the presence in
the individual of two or more opposing desires.”

Common causes or sources of conflict -- An individual faces a state of conflict; it can be from home
or family school and society.

Family – family is one of the main causes for arising conflicts because in family or home itself
individual faces a lot of problems these are overprotection, under protection, inferiority complex,
strict discipline and conflicts between parents.

School -- it includes over competition and under competition in school, over restriction in school,
teacher’s method of handling the class, co- education, children with special problems of adjustment.

Role of a teacher

• Teacher should be incredibly careful in handling the child.

• She should provide free and democratic environment in the classroom.
• Help the students to come up from different problems.
• Use interesting methods of teaching.
• Ensure that the students understood the concept clearly.
• Over restriction or under restriction should be regulated

Types of conflicts

Approach -- approach conflict -- an individual is faced with the problem of making a choice between
two or more positive goals equally motivating and important.

Avoidance -- avoidance conflict -- an individual is caught in a situation where he must choose

between two or more possible negative courses of action. He is torn between two unattractive
goals.

Approach -- avoidance conflict -- an individual is faced with a problem of choice between

approaching and avoiding tendencies at the same time. In such a conflict, an individual is both
attracted to and repelled by the same goal or course of action.

3) Anxiety

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The uncomfortable emotional state in which one perceives danger, feels powerless and experiences
tension in preparation for an expected danger. Physiologically, anxiety and fear are very identical
reactions but psychologically they differ a lot. Fear is a reaction to a known, tangible, objective
danger whereas anxiety usually refers to unknown, intangible and subjective danger. Fear is also
known as ‘realistic anxiety’. Anxiety proper may be denoted as ‘neurotic anxiety.’

Types of anxiety

Situational anxiety -- feels anxiety because of the situation. Once out of the situation, gains control.

Characterological anxiety -- anxiety becomes a component of the psychic makeup of the individual.
He/she is worried about things that have happened as well as that have not happened. Experience
anxiety as a harmless dread without identifying the reason.

Conscious anxiety -- individual is conscious of what he is anxious about. He/she knows the cause.
And is aware that he/she is anxious.

Unconscious anxiety -- experiences enduring spells of tension and restlessness without knowing the
reason. Manifestation at physiological level in the form of psychosomatic reactions. E.g., asthma,
migraine etc which involves mind and body.

Anxiety and phobia -- Anxiety may be related to generalized stimuli of a specific nature (ideas,
objects, fear of death, fear of diseases, closed areas, high places etc.) Anxiety is attached to a specific
object or phobia (agoraphobia, claustrophobia, acrophobia, hydrophobia etc.)

Psychological reactions of anxiety -- shortness of breath, rapid beating of heart, skipped heartbeats
or palpitations, dryness of mouth, sense of tightness in head, some lose their appetite, some react
by eating in excess, some develop insomnia, some react with an excessive need to sleep etc.

Anxiety coping strategies

• exercise -- body becomes strong and healthy; releases positive hormones and reduces
stress.
• relaxation treatment -- yoga, religious practices, silence, meditation, listening to music etc.
• good and sound sleep.
• learning to love yourself first -- anxiety disorders lead to low self-esteem. Use methods to
enhance the self-esteem.
• anxiety disorder therapy -- work on sessions which gives positivity and relaxation.

Role of a teacher -- be friendly, use appropriate teaching methods, facilitate understanding of the
lessons, make use of audio-visual aids, make learning interesting, active and student centered.

4) Withdrawal

When the fear of failure is high, adolescents tend to withdraw themselves from all activities which
involve them. They become passive, solitary, socially awkward and withdrawn. The intimate
behaviour is susceptible to being bullied. The common withdrawal symptoms are shyness,
behavioural inhibition, isolation, rejection, social reticence, passivity, peer neglect etc.

Causes: self-consciousness, feeling of security, identity crisis, underdeveloped social skills,

introversion, substance abuse, arguments at school, bullying, low grades etc.

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Role of parents or teachers

• Talk with them -- open up.

• Set an example, show empathy.
• Give them independence or responsibilities or freedom of expression.
• Don't label the child (example, shy).
• Set goals for the child (example, smile at a friend, ask one question every day.)
• Build their self-esteem.
• Don't push them too hard -- be relaxed.
• Provide a healthy environment.
• Teach positive self-talk.

5) Drug addiction/Substance use disorder

Marijuana, nicotine, alcohol use, cocaine, charas, hashish, heroin, smoking, chewing of tobacco. It is
a disease that affects a person’s brain and behaviour and leads to an inability to control the use of a
legal or illegal drug or medication. It can start with experimental use of recreational drugs in social
situations. Drug is any substance when consumed may modify one or more of its functions. This
problem has reached an epidemic proportion in many countries. It's more common among
adolescents.

Causes – extremely tensed, resort to drugs as a stressbuster, compulsion of peer group, extreme
wealth/extreme poverty, lack of care and affection from family, as a fashion style, lack of awareness
regarding its ill effects etc.

Psychological signs of substance abuse

Physical signs -- bloodshot eyes, flushed skin, track marks or abscesses, weight loss or gain, impaired
speech or coordination, unusual smell in breath or clothing, inability to sleep, poor hygiene etc.

Behavioural signs -- inability to focus, problems in school or with authority, lying and deceiving,
mood swings and instability, hyperactivity or lethargy, loss of inhibitions, indifference to family or
obligations, unexplained guilt, depression, decline of self-esteem, self-hatred which may lead to self-
mutilation.

Role of a teacher

• Identify students with drug use problems.

• Find out the reasons (child’s family background, status, environment, friends etc.)
• Encourage and organise activities to ensure friend’s cooperation.
• Listen to their problems with empathy.
• Give appropriate motivation and praise and improve their confidence.
• Give appropriate guidance and facilities regarding career guidance, occasional guidance etc.
• Help students to select appropriate learning styles according to their abilities, capacities and
potentialities.
• Telling them about drugs and its effects.
• Provide adequate support.
• De addiction of drugs.
• Sympathetic attitude

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 6) Juvenile delinquency

Every society has certain rules and laws, and every person of the society is bound to follow these.
But those who deviate from these norms and behave in anti-social manner are called delinquents.
Juvenile delinquency refers to the anti-social or criminal activity of the child (below 16 years for
boys and 18 years for girls) which violates the law. It is a gateway to adult crime. It has become a
major concern.

Burt, C, “A child is to be regarded as technically delinquent when his antisocial tendencies appear so
grave that he becomes or out to become the subject of official action.”

Causes of Delinquency

a) home environment -- broken homes and marital maladjustments, disability of parents, lack
of affection, partiality of parents, large families, extreme poverty or extreme wealth.
b) Hereditary -- biological and physiological. It is transmitted from parents to offspring. Many
born criminals have got a criminal history.
c) school environment -- unhealthy school surrounding, unsuitable curriculum and uninspiring
teaching methods, wrong attitude of teacher, unhealthy relationship between pupil and
teacher.
d) social environment – inequalities, class conflicts, corruption, natural calamities etc.
e) How to diagnose Juvenile delinquents -- medical examination, administering mental tests,
discovering IQ, character traits and personality traits, administering achievement tests and
findings scholastic level, preparing case history, collecting data about the child,
interpretation of data etc.

Role of school and teachers

• Observing and identifying students

• Supervise students’ activities
• Be sympathetic and friendly
• Be appreciative
• Organise creative and constructive activities to channelise their energies
• Special guidance for low achievers
• Free and democratic class environment
• Organise guidance and counselling sessions
• Seek help of clinical services if needed
• moral and religious teachings in school

7) Aggression

Aggression is an emotion that is present in all of us. Aggression in early childhood is considered
normal but as a children enter school; this behaviour is no longer accepted. Defiant or hostile
behaviour by a student like losing temper easily, constantly arguing with teachers, deliberately
engaging in activities that annoy others, blaming others, acting annoyed or chronically touchy,
always acting spiteful or vindictive are signs of aggression.

Types of aggression

• Accidental
• Expressive

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 • Instrumental
• Hostile

Causes of aggression

• Inadequate social skills

• Seeking attention
• Medical conditions (example bipolar disorder)
• Irritation and anxiety
• Quarrelsome atmosphere of family
• Lack of fulfilment of mental and physical necessities
• Substance abuse
• Involvement in poor relationships
• Hormonal changes
• Strict discipline in home
• Movies, serials violent video games etc.

Common behaviours related to student aggression

• Verbal aggression-- emotional outbursts, teasing, insulting, bossing around or demeaning

classmates, sarcasm, threats, swearing, arguing etc.
• Physical aggression -- kicking, punching, biting, spitting, throwing objects etc.
• Vandalism-- damaging property, theft etc. The intention is to elicit a reaction not damage.

Role of teacher

• Be sympathetic and understanding

• Create a positive classroom climate
• Understand the reasons behind aggression
• Avoid escalating the situation
• Creating a behaviour intention plan by (BIP)
• Research based strategies

Sl. Types Definition Example

No.
1 Indirect attempt to hurt another without spreading of rumour that the
aggression obvious face to face conflict teacher is not efficient

2 Direct behaviour intended to hurt one player punching another player

aggression someone to his or her face
3 Emotional hurtful behaviour that stems a child throws a temper tantrum
aggression from anger when his or her mother refuses a
toy
4 Instrumental hurting another to accomplish a mother spanks or slaps a child to
aggression another non-aggressive goal discourage him or her from
repeating a tantrum

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 8) Low achievement

Students who are struggling academically or performing below proficiency are called low achievers.
Mostly, children with special educational needs form a large percentage of low achievers.
Characteristics of low achievement

• Academic difficulties
• Short attention span
• Low self esteem
• Health issues
• Dependence
• Discipline issues
• Lack of interest
• Lack of social skills
• Inability to face pressure
• Fear of failure

Role of a teacher

• Motivate children and use reinforcement strategies while teaching.

• Identify low achievers.
• Make learning more meaningful for all.
• Use innovative teaching strategies to make learning interesting.
• Promote interaction among students and encourage communication.
9) Failure

When students cannot perform well in activities or examinations, they become unsuccessful or fail in
the concerned field or activity. Failure in small doses is good but when students fail completely, they
develop a fear and are unable to overcome the failure.

Causes

• Lack of a specific purpose or goal.

• Lack of self-discipline or self-control.
• Procrastination (waiting for opportunities).
• Negativity (I can't do it).
• Lack of persistence,
• Fear of failure or fear of success.
• Lack of preparation or laziness.
• Lack of motivation.

How to overcome failure

• Overcoming fear of failure is crucial.

• Accept that failure is a necessary part of life.
• Have compassion for yourself.
• Adopt a mindset of resilience (learn from failures, work towards your goals)
• Set realistic smaller goals.
• Study regularly.
• Keep track of academic deadlines.
• Know one’s own motivation

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 • Seek support from peers you admire.

Role of a teacher

• Identify reasons for failure.

• Understand the background of the child.
• Encourage students to participate in group activities.
• Praise and increase their confidence.
• Be empathetic.
• Provide ample guidance, support and facilities.
• Help students select proper learning styles in accordance with their abilities.

III) Learner’s characteristics affecting learning

1) Maturation

It is a developmental process with which persons from time-to-time manifest different traits, the
blueprints of which have been carried in our cells from the time of conception. For example, a child
learns to speak when the vocal cords are mature enough, is able to walk when nerves and the
muscles of legs are strong enough. The learning activities depend on the stages of maturity reached
by the central nervous system, cerebral cortex and the muscular system. Maturation depends on
hereditary endowment. It provides the raw materials for learning and determines the more general
patterns and sequences of an individual’s behaviour.

Boring, Lang field and Weld,” All learning depends upon maturation which fits the organism for
learning.”

Gensell, “Maturation is the net some of the gene affects operating in a self-limited life cycle.”

The phylogenetic functions which are common to human race are more due to maturation than
learning. For example, crawling, creeping, sitting, walking etc.

The ontogenetic functions are due to the individual’s learning than maturation. For example,
cycling, swimming etc.

Features of Maturation

• Maturation is necessary to learn quickly.

• It only upholds potentialities. They are made real by training and exercise.
• Both learning and maturation are interrelated. They contribute to the development of the
person
• The inter relationship between maturation and learning establishes a timetable for learning
(learner readiness).
• learning readiness is a degree of maturation necessary for a particular training to be
effective ensure it in terms of physiological maturity and psychological preparedness
• It helps parents or teachers to know what and when to begin training
• Learning has no value unless the child does not mature enough to profit from it.
• Maturation sets limits beyond which development cannot progress even with the most
favourable learning methods and motivation.

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 2) Attention

The process of concentrating the mind upon a particular activity with a view to achieve a specific
object is called attention.

J.S. Ross, “Attention is a process of getting an object of thought clearly before the mind.”

Dunville, “It (attention) is concentration of consciousness upon one object rather than others.”

Attention is always obtained or assured. If one student is not paying attention, he is concentrating
on something else. Our sensory organs have an impact upon attention the state of attention is not
always the same. Attention focuses on one object at one moment and then upon another object the
next moment.

Characteristics of attention

• Mental activity -- aim of concentration, clarity or clear goals lead to active mental process
and provides a stimulus for attention.
• Selectiveness of attention-- we select an object among a number of objects which possess
specific interest for us. (For example, in a class teachers’ attention is always directed
towards naughty or extremely dull students.)
• Shifting nature -- it is unstable or shifting in nature
• Narrow span-- Adults can concentrate upon a number of things simultaneously, children
focus their attention on single objects.
• Mobility -- does not remain fixed upon one object or period of time.
• Activeness or alertness
• Readiness -- the body and mind should be prepared for the process of attention.
• Motor adjustment -- in the class when the students sit; their eyes, ears, neck, body positions
etc adapt to the teacher.
• Inquisitiveness -- it is influenced by mobility and explored for novelty.
• Purposiveness -- focus attention only on those who would satisfy our needs.
• Cognitive, conative and effective aspects.

Thus, we can say that attention is a selective, good and continuous process which keeps on
shifting/changing. It has a narrow range. It increases the clarity of the object/clearness of the
stimulus. It is indivisible and needs motor adjustment. It has cognitive, affective and conative
aspects.

Factors which influence attention

• External factors
• Nature of the stimulus
• Definite form of the object
• Size (big size increases attention)
• Movement (train, kite, playing films, videos, cartoons etc.)
• Novelty innovative ideas or aids teaching aids
• Change or variety
• Mysteriousness
• Condition/ state/situation
• Achievements
• Contrast (strikes attention -- tall and short)

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 • Duration
• Repetition (attracts)
• Intensity

Internal factors

• Attitude (favourable and positive attitude increases attention)

• Aptitude (aptitude in a particular subject increases attention)
• Curiosity (in a particular subject increases attention)
• Past experiences (learning from known to unknown)
• Meaning (if clearly perceived, attention increases)
• Habit
• Goal (object when connected with gold increases attention)
• Necessity (needs increase attention)
• Hunger, sex, emotions etc.
• Interest
• Philosophy of life

Types of attention

1. Voluntary attention -- consciously fixes all his/her energy.

2. Non voluntary attention/spontaneous attention or habitual attention or passive attention
or effortless attention -- attention focused without our desire. Example, while studying for
examination we are diverted by song. Beautiful objects catch our attention without any
desire.
3. Unvoluntary attention -- we are forced to attend something against our wishes. (For
example, while teaching the loudspeaker starts blaring then teacher and students avoid to
pay attention to this and focus on the teaching learning process.)
4. Derived attention -- a particular stimulus may be repulsive but found attractive on account
of another stimulus (For example, no interest in Mathematics but wants to pass)
5. Immediate attention -- focused on certain objects without any effort.
6. Sensory/concrete attention -- attention on a tree or book or table. Focuses upon a stimulus
possessing a distinct form.
7. Ideational/abstract attention -- conceptualization of external values, virtues, thoughts like
sympathy, maternal love, attachment etc.

Span of attention – The extent or limit of the ability of a person to attend to or concentrate on
something. Interest and intensity affects attention. Distraction is harmful.

Educational implications of attention

• The lessons should be vivid, graphical, picturesque and appealing. It should be arranged in a
logical and psychological way.
• It should be lucid, simple, direct, clear and well-integrated through headings and
subheadings.
• The language should be forcefully and effective.
• Teachers should be active and enthusiastic with a motivating personality.
• The classroom condition should be ideal and conducive -- ventilated, lighted etc.
• Psychological methods of teaching should be used to catch the attention – audio, video,
pictures, charts, models, demonstrations etc.

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 • Care for emotions, sentiments, interests, hobbies etc.
• Try to secure the attention of students.
• Use gestures, actions, demonstrations etc. and make teaching lively.
• Give fair and impartial treatment to all students.

3) Interest

Interest is an enduring liking or disking towards an object, event or a person. It is immediately

related to attention. It is a sense of attachment or attraction towards something. For example,
watching movies or reading books.

William Dougal, “Interest is the latent attention.”

J. S. Ross, “A thing that interests us is just something that concerns us or matters to us.”

Types of interest

1) Intrinsic/Inborn/Natural interest -- the innate tendencies or instincts. The child has natural
interest due to instincts and emotions. (eat, play, laugh, curious to know, make, break etc.
2) Extrinsic/Acquired/Derived interest – interest as a result of feeling or experience. As a
result of derived interest, the individual acquires skill in the performance of a specific activity
(acquisition of skills). For example, a teacher identifies talents or problems of a child ,a
watchmaker identifies the problems of a watch.

Development of interests

Interests of children differ from those of adults. Child’s interests are in the realm of sensation (novel
sounds, sights, sensory experiences etc. The child is interested in what the teacher does; not what
the teacher says. (Bruner's enactive mode of instruction gains priority). Interest develops in due
course of time.

In adolescence, interest of girls and boys are different. Adults are interested in more complex things
related to their future – vocational/ health/ family interests etc.

Factors affecting/influencing interests

1) Personal factors – child’s physical development, exposure, health, age, gender cognitive
capacities, emotions, social interactions, ideals etc.
2) Environmental factors -- socioeconomic status, rearing practices, cultural status, education
and training opportunities in school, home, or neighbourhood to explore interests.

Measurement of interest

• Strong - Campbell Interest Inventory of 1974 (14 years and above)

• Vocational Preference Inventory (above 14 years, self-administering)
• Chatterjee's Nonverbal Preference Record
• Kuder Preference Record

Measuring the interests of students is helpful in giving vocational, educational and personal
guidance. It is also helpful in planning the academic and non-academic activities in the classroom.

Attention, interest and education

There are three main schools of thought based on these subjects.

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 • Attention is based upon interest (individual focuses on things which interest him/her.) For
example, mathematical students are interested in solving mathematical problems.
• Interest is based upon attention.
• Synthetic view -- They are two phases of a single coin. It is difficult to say which of the two is
more important.

Educational Implications

• Awakening of interest in the subject.

• Providing a peaceful atmosphere.
• Affectionate and gentle behaviour.
• Considering individual differences.
• Organise curriculum in a scientific manner.
• Changing subjects at regular intervals – timetable.
• Period of rest or interval
• Relate subjects to life
• Presentation of ideals before students

3) Motivation

Powerful learning takes place when mental activity is at its peak. Maximum mental activity results
from active powerful motivation.

Woodworth,” A motivate is a state of the individual which disposes him for certain behaviour and
for seeking certain goals.”

Johnson, “Motivation is the influence of general pattern of activities indicating directing the
behaviour of the organism.”

Features/nature and importance of motivation

• Motivation is not the end but the means; it provides the way to the end or goal.
• Motivation is not the main but the complementary part of learning.
• Motivation leads to manifestation of activity.
• Motivation is affected by physical and mental as well as internal and external conditions or
circumstances.
• The sphere of motivation depends mostly on environment.
• Motives energise and sustain our behaviour.
• Motives direct and regulate our behaviour.
• Motivation is a selective behaviour.

Related terms of motivation

• Mental set -- mental health

• Drives -- driving state, instructional behaviour, goal, relief etc.; a strong stimulus that
demands a response.
• Incentives -- have their source in the needs (needs for food- hunger)
• Interest -- interest provides motivation.
• Goal -- works hard to achieve goal.
• Needs -- individual feels the need to get anything, tries to get it and is in tension till he/she
gets it.

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Theories of motivation

1) Stimulus-Response theory – behaviour psychologists—the entire range of human behaviour

can be explained as a response to a physical stimulation.
2) The physiological theory – CMS (Central Motive State). Developed by Morgan. Various
changes occur in body and reactions take place and some motivation is inherent.
3) Self-actualization theory – Humanistic theory. Abraham Maslow developed the hierarchy of
needs model.
4) Need theory – Henry Murray. There are two types of needs – a) Primary needs/Viscerogenic
needs which are essential for survival. b) Secondary needs/Psychogenic needs which are
the outcome of primary needs.
5) Theory of instincts -- human behaviour is activated and directed by innate or inborn
instincts -- William Mc Dougal.
6) Psychoanalytic theory by Freud -- human behaviour is inspired by the desires line concealed
unconscious and subconscious mind of the individual. It is based upon sex desires.
7) Voluntaristic theory -- individuals capacity for taking a decision and acting accordingly.
8) Lewin's theory – Kurt Lewin -- motivation is an element of the highest importance in the
process of learning.

Classification of motivation

1) Thomson's classification – M.K. Thompson

a) Natural motives – hunger, thirst, need for security etc.
b) Artificial motives -- develop as a result of the environment. Desire for respect, status,
formation of social relationships etc.
2) Krach &Crutchfield’s classification – based on deficiency or abundancy of motives.
a) Deficiency -- helps in overcoming deficiencies, shortcomings and mental tensions,
characterised by needs to escape from fear, tension, threat and anxiety.
b) Motives of abundance -- aim of providing the individual with satisfaction and
encouragement. A desire to experience enjoyment, to know, to create etc.

Major motives

a) Biological/ Inborn motives – hunger, thirsty, sex etc.

b) Acquired motives – motives generated by environments.

Acquired motives are classified into two:

1) Social motives -- complex and extensive (abasement, achievement, affiliation, violence, defence,
aggression, rejection, avoidance, nurture, exhibition, sociability, combat, self-assertive etc.

2) Individual motives –habit, interest, attitude, unconscious motives etc.

Characteristics of motivated behaviour

• eagerness to learn
• energy mobilization
• consistency in performance
• achievement of goal and reduction of tension
• concentration of attention

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Factors influencing motivation

• needs
• attitude
• interest
• habit
• emotional state
• reward and punishment
• competition
• knowledge of progress
• fear of failure
• level of aspiration
• seminars and conferences
• school environment
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow developed the hierarchy of needs model. It is a humanistic theory. It is still valid
for understanding human motivation, management training and personal development. It is based
on the hierarchy of needs by Abraham Maslow. This theory depicted needs in the pyramid form. It
has five levels. The basic level is the lowest level which included the basic needs (physical
requirements). Second is the safety and security needs, third level is love and belongingness, fourth
level is esteem needs. The fifth and the final level is self-actualisation.

Aptitude

Aptitude is a characteristic or symptom in an individual which can be trained for a particular field. It
is a psychological tendency having a specified nature exhibited in a particular area. People have
aptitude towards fine arts, painting, music, medicine, engineering etc. If a person has aptitude for a
particular field, training in that field proves beneficial.

Taxler, “It is an indicative of an individual’s potentialities for future.”

English and English, “The capacity to acquire proficiency with a given amount of training.”

Ability indicates towards intelligence whereas aptitude indicates towards achievement.

Characteristics of aptitude

• It prepares for acquisition of knowledge.

• It has the capacity to acquire desired knowledge and ability.
• It is an abstract phenomenon and an integrative part of personality.
• It has predictive value.
• It is a present condition with future references.

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 • It brings excellence in job performances.
• It is fairly stable and constant.
• It is a product of heredity and environment.
• It is a combination of various traits.

Aptitudes can be measured by employing tests.

The basic aptitude tests which institutions are primarily concerned are:

• Art aptitude test

• Clerical aptitude test
• Manual aptitude test
• Mechanical aptitude test
• Medical aptitude test
• Scholastic aptitude test
• Scientific aptitude test
• Teachers’ aptitude test
• Musical aptitude test

Uses of aptitude tests -- the aptitude tests are useful for -- the selection of subjects, the selection of
candidates for admission to various training courses and the selection of candidates for various jobs.

Teacher’s observation and scholastic attitude includes:

• rapidity in comprehending study materials

• fluency and accuracy in reading
• ability in tackling new problems
• enriched vocabulary
• eagerness to answer questions
• deficiency in one or more skills (negative)

Teacher’s aptitude tests include:

• mental ability attitude towards children

• interest in profession
• attitude towards community
• skills in teaching
• interest in reading
• reading comprehension
• general knowledge

Teaching aptitude tests in India

• Jaiprakash teaching aptitude test

• M.M. Shaw's teaching aptitude test
• K. P. Pandey’s teaching aptitude test
• R. D. Srivastava's teaching aptitude test

Best of Luck! Prepared by Dr. Asha A.K

Assistant professor, Aishabai College of Education, SNDT Women’s University, Mumbai.

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