Schueller, John K. 2006. Section 4.1 Automation and Control, pp.

185-195 of Chapter 4 Mechatronics and

Applications, in CIGR Handbook of Agricultural Engineering Volume VI Information Technology. Edited by
CIGR--The International Commission of Agricultural Engineering; Volume Editor, Axel Munack. St. Joseph,
Michigan, USA: ASABE. Copyright American Society of Agricultural Engineers.

4 Mechatronics and
Applications
4.1 Automation and Control
J. K. Schueller
Abstract. Sensors, actuators, and controllers can form automation or control sys-
tems to control machines or systems in their desired tasks. Classical or modern con-
trol theory can aid design and analysis of many systems. The components and tech-
niques are discussed and some examples presented.
Keywords. Automation, Control, Sensors, Actuators.

4.1.1 Introduction
Machines or systems which have the capability to self-act or self-regulate are called
automated. Automation allows these machines and systems to perform their tasks in a
productive, efficient, reliable, and accurate manner without great amounts of human
intervention. Control is the exercise of regulation, whether by machine or human in-
tervention. Automation allows machines to control themselves. The development of
information technologies has brought more capabilities to automation and control.
Although there have long been some automatic controls, such as the float regulators
on ancient Greek water clocks, control theory and an engineering understanding of
automation have been rather recent developments. James Watt’s centrifugal fly ball
governor for steam engines was an early development and a vital contributor to the
Industrial Revolution. While some fundamental theory was developed in the 1800s by
Maxwell, Lyapunov, and others, most control theory was developed in the 1900s in
response to the needs of long-distance telephony, World War II military, and the aero-
space industry.
Agricultural and biological engineers have used automatic controls and control the-
ory in their efforts to get their machines and systems to respond properly within the
complex biological/chemical/physical environments in which they must operate. The
most famous early agricultural control example is the Ferguson System, developed by
Harry S. Ferguson in the 1920s, which allowed tractors to vary implement soil work-
ing depth to maintain a constant load on the tractor. There are now many examples of
successful agricultural and biological automatic control implementations. Fertilizer
applicators mix and apply the right fertilizer mixture according to a variable rate map
and GPS position location. Environmental controls of livestock buildings keep ani-
mals healthy and productive. Automated irrigation systems apply the correct amount
of water when and where it is needed. These are some examples of how automatic
controls are widely applied in agricultural engineering.
186 Chapter 4 Mechatronics and Applications

4.1.2 Control Theory

One way control systems are classified is by whether they are open-loop or closed-
loop. In open-loop systems a command is given to a system and it is assumed the sys-
tem performs properly. Closed-loop systems compare the results or output of the sys-
tem to the desired output and take appropriate corrective actions. Closed-loop systems
generally exhibit more accurate performance, but cost more and may tend to be more
unstable. Most systems to which control theory is applied are closed-loop.
Figure 1 shows an example of a closed-loop system. The input, which indicates the
desired output, is compared to the sensed output and the error between those two is
used to generate a command by the controller. The actuator then generates a control
action, which causes the plant (the machine or system being controlled) to behave in
the desired manner. An open-loop system will not have the sensor, which allows feed-
back of the output. Open-loop systems are therefore more sensitive to disturbances and
system parameter variations because the resulting changes in the output are not sensed.
Another way control systems can be classified is as to whether they are sequential,
continuous, or discrete.
Sequential control systems cause a machine or system to go through a set series of
operations. They generally do not exercise much regulation within the operations. For
example, a sequential control system may remove the milking machine when a cow is
finished in a milking parlor, open the gate to let the cow out, close the gate after the
cow is out and then let the next cow in. Sequential control analysis and design often
makes use of ladder logic. Complex sequential control systems can be analyzed with
Boolean algebra, truth tables, flowcharts, or state diagrams. Contemporary sequential
control systems may use programmable logic controllers (PLCs) to allow the sequence
of control to be easily modified in software rather than requiring hardware or connec-
tion changes.
Continuous control systems are the usual subject of control theory analysis [1-3].
Such systems are physical systems in which the input-output behavior of the system
can be described by ordinary differential equations in time. Many of the components
have a relationship that can be modeled as a constitutive equation of the relationship
of a through variable to an across variable. For example, the current through an elec-
trical component or the fluid flow through an orifice can be related to the voltage
across or the pressure across that component.

CONTROLLER

INPUT ERROR CONTROL CONTROL OUTPUT

ACTUATOR CONTROL
ALGORITHM COMMAND ACTION PLANT
(DESIRED
OUTPUT)

SENSOR

Figure 1. Closed-loop control system.

4.1 Automation and Control 187

Physical systems can be modeled by writing the differential equations for the vari-
ous components, be they electrical, mechanical, fluid, heat transfer, electromechanical,
hydraulic, or some other system. The equations can then be transformed to the Laplace
domain to get a transfer function which describes the dynamic input-output relation-
ship.
A block diagram, such as Figure 2, with mathematical transfer functions replacing
the component names can be generated to combine the various components into a
complete system. Block diagram algebra can then be used to simplify the representa-
tion and calculate the overall transfer function. Blocks indicate multiplication or divi-
sion and summers indicate addition or subtraction.

T P T
Valve
q=KvXv
Xv

Linkage
Xv=(X-Xc)/2
Cylinder
dXc/dt = (1/A)q

Xc

Linkage

Valve Cylinder
Xv q Xc
X
Kv 1/As

Xc/X = (12)Kv (1/As)/(1+(12)(Kv)(1/As)1) = 1/((2A/Kv)s+1)

Figure 2. Block diagram and transfer function of a hydromechanical servo.

188 Chapter 4 Mechatronics and Applications

Most practical control theory, including all of it discussed here, is only applicable
to linear systems, those that have a linear relationship between the input and the out-
put. However, nonlinear systems can often be approximated by linearizing them at the
points of normal operation. Although agricultural and biological systems may also be
very complex, many times there are dominant behavioral characteristics. Many such
systems can be modeled as approximately being a gain, delay, integrator, first-order,
or second-order system. The output responses of such systems can be approximated by
modeling the inputs as being impulses, steps, or ramps.
The types of systems studied by agricultural and biological engineers are often so
complex or unknown that they cannot be modeled analytically. However, their re-
sponse behavior can be determined experimentally. Such systems can be subjected to
known inputs, such as steps, sinusoids, or random excitations, to find their behavioral
characteristics. The transient, frequency, or stochastic responses allow a dynamic
model to be developed. Care must be taken to avoid overfitting, exciting nonlinearities
(especially saturations and dead zones), and exceeding dynamic and frequency ranges
of the system or the instrumentation. But such step, swept-sine, and stochastic model-
ing can be very powerful.
Many contemporary systems are controlled by computers. If the computer control
system is dynamically very fast compared to the system being controlled, it may be
modeled as a continuous controller. However, many times the theory of discrete, or
digital, control is used. This type of control recognizes that the computer only inter-
faces with the system at fixed instances in time. Most often, z-transforms are used in
place of Laplace transforms as the classical discrete analytical tool.
Modern control theory is replacing classical control theory in many situations.
Modern control theory uses state-space techniques in which the state of the system is
modeled by equations which describe how the state variables change. Computers and
the refinement of linear algebra have made modern control analyses tractable. Section
3.2 (Control and Optimization) of this handbook has more details on modern control
theory as well as some of the contemporary advances in the areas of robust control and
fuzzy control. Modern, robust, fuzzy, and other recently developed control techniques
are areas of much current research, development, and application to practice. They
have much promise in improving the performance and reliability of automated ma-
chines and systems.
4.1.3 Control and Automation Implementation
Automatic control was historically implemented by mechanical components. For
example, Watt’s governor used centrifugal force on rotating masses to move a linkage,
which actuated a steam valve. In a similar manner, Ferguson’s tractor draft control
system used the force against a spring to cause a mechanical displacement, which con-
trolled a hydraulic valve, in turn causing the draft-causing implement to be raised or
lowered. Many systems still use mechanical elements in the control system. But the
development of electronics and computers has widened the use of automatic controls
and improved performance.
4.1 Automation and Control 189

Desired Command Error Oil Shaft Fluid Fluid

Pressure Voltage Voltage Flow Speed Flow Pressure

Operator + Amplifier Hydraulic Hydraulic Fluid Piping

Interface Valve Motor Pump Network
−

Sensed
Pressure
Voltage
Pressure
Sensor

Figure 3. Pressure control system.

An example of the evolution of controls can be seen in the thermostatic temperature

controls of buildings. Early fans, heaters, and air conditioning systems often used me-
chanical bimetallic strips with mercury switches to keep the temperature of buildings
housing plants, animals, or humans at the desired temperature. The differential thermal
expansion of the bimetallic strips repositioned a bubble of mercury in a curved tube,
thereby activating an electrical circuit supplying power to the climate control equip-
ment until the temperature changed to the desired setting and the bimetallic strips
caused the circuit to be unpowered. Contemporary climate control systems may use
computers, sensors, and actuators to achieve better and more sophisticated control.
The principle of sensing the output, comparing it to the desired output, and taking cor-
rective action remains whether the control system is mechanical or electronic.
In Figure 1, the plant is the object that is to be controlled. The machine or system
must have an output, which can be measured, and a means for the behavior of the
plant to be affected by the control action. The other components of Figure 1 are added
to the system to complete the closed-loop control system. As an example, Figure 3
shows a pressure control system of the type used in liquid pesticide or fertilizer appli-
cations. The valve, motor, pump and piping networks form the plant to be controlled.
Sensors must accurately measure the output of the machine or system; otherwise
the controller will take wrong actions and the output of the system will be accordingly
wrong. Besides accuracy, sensors must have adequate resolution and range. In addition,
the sensors should have fast dynamic response compared to the plant and the controller.
Analog sensors provide a voltage or current proportional to the plant’s output. Sen-
sors are commonly used to measure displacement (potentiometers, linear variable dif-
ferential transformers, resolvers, capacitive sensors), acceleration (accelerometers),
temperature (thermocouples, resistance thermometers, thermistors), strain (strain
gauges), and many other quantities. Sensors can be used with mechanical components
to measure another quantity. For example, strain gauges measure strain, but put on a
diaphragm, a strain gauge can measure pressure.
As computers and digital electronics are used more in automatic controls, there is
increased use of digital sensors. These may be analog sensors, which have integrated
electronics to supply a digital output, or they may be inherently digital. For example,
the speeds of shafts on many agricultural machines are determined by counting pulses
over short time periods from variable reluctance sensors near the teeth of rotating
190 Chapter 4 Mechatronics and Applications

gears. Recent advances have produced new kinds of sensors. The global positioning
system (GPS) can be used for large-scale displacements. Machine vision and optical
sensors are becoming more powerful and more commonly used as sensors.
The output feedback from the sensor is compared to the desired output (input) in
the controller. Based upon the error between the desired output and the actual output
feedback, and often the time history of that error, the controller issues a command.
Determining what command the controller should issue for different errors and error
histories is a task for the engineer designing the control system.
Control systems may be implemented in electronic components without the use of
computers. Many such systems use operational amplifiers to compare the input and
output feedback and then generate a command proportional to the error. It is possible
to add circuitry to make the command also partially proportional to the integral of the
error or the derivative of the error. This common type of control is known as PID-
proportional, integral, and derivative. Increasing the proportional gain (the amount of
command generated per unit of error) will cause the system to respond faster and have
less steady-state error, but it may also decrease stability and lead to more overshoot of
the desired output. Adding integral control may remove the steady-state error, but de-
crease stability. Adding derivative control may stabilize the system, but make it more
susceptible to noise and saturation. Tuning the controller to the best control settings
may improve the system’s performance without adding hardware.
Small computers are often used as controllers. Microprocessors, microcontrollers,
and digital signal processors (DSPs) can quickly and efficiently implement simple or
complex software control routines. Often the computers run simple programs which
input the desired output and the actual output, calculate the appropriate control com-
mand, and then output the command in a continuous loop. The reliance on computers
is often not obvious to the users of these embedded controllers. The software may be
either interrupt-driven or program-driven.
Personal computers and larger computers can also be used for control applications.
Depending upon the needs of the control system, the computers may either run con-
ventional operating systems or operating systems specifically designed for real-time
control. When such general-purpose computers are used, control interfacing becomes
an issue. Analog sensor signals and actuators requiring analog commands imply that
the control systems have analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters to interface
the computers with the analog hardware. Digital sensors or actuators don’t require
such converters, but the communications connections or buses must be compatible.
Many controllers provide an output which can be immediately input into the plant.
However, in many other cases the controller output is the not appropriate physical
quantity (for example, current instead of force), does not have enough power, or is of
inappropriate scale for the plant input. Actuators are often used to convert the control
command into a control action that can influence the behavior of the plant. It is impor-
tant that the actuator provide the proper control action when commanded. In addition,
it must have significantly better dynamic response than the plant to avoid degrading
closed-loop control system performance. Although actuators are seldom discussed in
control theory, they are important in the types of systems encountered by agricultural
4.1 Automation and Control 191

and biological engineers.

The most common type of actuator is electromechanical. A voltage or current input
provides electrical power to a solenoid or motor. The actuator output is a force, torque,
or displacement. Electromechanical actuators may be either linear or rotary. Due to the
high forces or torques involved in many agricultural applications, electrohydraulic
actuators are also common. The final component of the electrohydraulic actuator, ei-
ther a hydraulic motor or a cylinder depending upon whether rotary or linear output is
needed, follows an electrohydraulic valve in most applications. The performance of
the valves in such systems is obviously important. It must also be remembered that the
displacement of a hydraulic motor or cylinder is proportional to the integral of flow.
The control action from the actuator affects the plant and hopefully changes the
plant’s output to achieve the desired performance. As mentioned above, the plant is
the object being controlled. The control system is designed according to the character-
istics of the plant and the performance required or desired. The control systems are
easier to design, and usually perform better, if the plant is time invariant, meaning its
parameters do not change, and linear.
A wide variety of mathematical techniques are now available to aid the design of
control systems. Common classical techniques are described in most control engineer-
ing textbooks and include root locus, pole placement, compensator, and frequency
domain techniques. Modern control theory techniques often use optimization method-
ologies. Commercial software is available to perform most common analyses. When the
system is significantly complex, nonlinear, or time variant, the difficulty of obtaining
closed-form solutions usually leads to the use of commercial system simulation soft-
ware to find the time-domain responses of various candidate systems to typical inputs.
4.1.4 Automation and Control in Agriculture and Related Fields
The wide variety of agricultural systems and the diversity throughout the world
makes it difficult to generalize about the application of automation and control [4-6].
However, in many such applications of automation and control, the situation is diffi-
cult. The systems to be controlled may be a complex combination of physical, chemi-
cal, and biological components. Even the example of pH control system in Figure 4
has electrical, mechanical, and chemical components. Many agricultural and biologi-
cal automation systems are located outdoors or in agricultural buildings where they
may be subject to a wide range of atmospheric and other environmental conditions,
such as temperatures, humidity, and vibrations. The systems are often installed in re-
mote or rural locations where the maintenance and service infrastructure is sparse. The
systems must be cheap, reliable, and easy for relatively unskilled human operators. It
is a demanding task.
The use of automation and control can be controversial. Whether the local eco-
nomic, social, and technical situation supports automation must be determined. This
can be a special concern in developing countries where the reduction of labor usage by
automation may not be desired. But where it fits, automation and control can often
increase the quantity and quality of the food and fiber produced, while helping to pro-
tect the environment.
192 Chapter 4 Mechatronics and Applications

TANK

RECIRCULATING
PUMP
ACID
PUMP

pH
SENSOR

ACID

CONTROLLER DESIRED
pH
Figure 4. Example of a pH control system.

There are very many examples of automation and control being applied to agricul-
ture and related fields. Some are simple and some are sophisticated. Table 1 lists some
of the examples which can be found in other volumes of this Handbook. Many others
can be found in books, papers, conference proceedings, and other literature.
The early control systems used on agricultural equipment were mechanical or hy-
dromechanical, such as the Ferguson system and the self-leveling system for hillside
combines. Now, electronic and computer controls dominate new designs. The integra-
tion of mechanical, electronic, and software elements used in most automation system
is often known as mechatronics, especially in Europe and East Asia [7, 8].
Mechatronic systems depend on goals or commands entered into their control com-
puters to guide their actions. Sensors also provide inputs on the state of the system and

Table 1. Some control systems in other volumes of the CIGR Handbook series.
Volume Page Controlled System
I 362 Irrigation
498 Irrigation water delivery
II 304 Aquaculture
III 45 Diesel engine injection
171 Ferguson system hitch
309 Direct injection pesticide sprayer
477 Greenhouse climate
610 Precision agriculture application
IV 42 Grain dryer
345 Cold storage refrigeration
4.1 Automation and Control 193

its environment. The mechatronic systems then use software to decide on the appro-
priate signals to be output to the actuators. Such systems are very flexible in that sim-
ple software changes can change the system behavior. They also allow more compli-
cated and sophisticated control algorithms.
One area in which mechatronics is achieving greater usage is the movement to X-
by-wire in vehicles. X-by-wire systems replace mechanical or hydromechanical func-
tions in a vehicle with a combination of mechanical, electronic, and software compo-
nents. For example, conventional vehicle brakes may be replaced with a system in
which there is no direct connection between the brake pedal and the brakes. Such sys-
tems require high reliability of the components and the overall system for safety.
Figure 5 shows a simplified schematic example of a system for steering a vehicle.
The driver’s positioning of the steering wheel is sensed and transmitted to a computer
that then determines and communicates a command to another computer that controls
the steering actuator. The actuator’s position is closed-loop controlled by the second
computer’s sensing of the position of the vehicle wheels. Feedback can be supplied to
the driver by the first computer through an actuator’s effects on the steering wheel.

Sensor Actuator

Feedback
Actuator

Steered
Wheels
Steering
Wheel

Computer Computer

Sensor

Data Bus
Figure 5. Simplified schematic of a vehicle steering-by-wire system.
194 Chapter 4 Mechatronics and Applications

Such a system is very flexible, due to the wide variety of algorithms which may be
implemented in the computers and the other information which may be accessed from
the data bus. For example, the steering system may have a variable ratio between the
steering wheel and the angle of the vehicle wheels, which in turn changes with vehicle
speed.
Since agricultural equipment operates in complex environments with weather,
fields, plants, or animals that can vary widely, there is a great advantage to equipment
with control systems that can respond to such variations. Historically, operating pa-
rameters of agricultural equipment, such as speeds and geometric clearances, were
either fixed or adjusted infrequently by human operators. Automation and control sys-
tems now allow the operating parameters to be adjusted automatically in response to
changing conditions to improve productivity, efficiency, and quality. In order for such
control systems to be used, the machine must be capable of being adjusted. For exam-
ple, fixed-ratio mechanical (such as belt, chain, or gear) drives might need to be re-
placed with variable-speed hydraulic or electrical drives with appropriate valving or
drivers.
Agricultural equipment has evolved to accommodate such control systems [9,10].
A contemporary grain combine harvester is a good example. It may have automatic
control of such items as header height, reel speed, travel speed, rotor speed, concave
opening, and sieve opening. The harvester has to be designed with drives and actuators
to permit control systems to do their jobs. The components of the control systems of-
ten allow more flexibility in the design and layout of agricultural equipment since
electrical, and to a lesser extent hydraulic, power and signals can be transferred more
easily from one part of the equipment to another than mechanical power and adjust-
ments. For example, a rotating shaft goes straight from one component to another, but
a hydraulic hose or electrical wire can bend along a convoluted path. Returning to the
grain combine harvester example, the operator can now control the many functions
from the operator station and the engine can be located far from power-consuming
components.
Due to the demands of increased performance from agricultural equipment and the
improvements in automation and control systems, especially sensors, actuators, and
algorithms, automation and control systems will continue to become more prevalent in
agricultural systems. The trend of networking control systems together under stan-
dards such as SAE J1939, DIN 9684, and ISO 11783 will continue to accelerate.
More, better, and coordinated automation and control will contribute to better agricul-
tural equipment.

References
1. Dorf, R. C., and R. H. Bishop. 2005. Modern Control Systems, 10th ed. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
2. Ogata, K. 2002. Modern Control Engineering, 4th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
4.2 Positioning and Navigation 195

3. Wells, R. L., J. K. Schueller, and J. Tlusty. 1990. Feedforward and feedback

control of a flexible robotics arm. IEEE Control Systems 10(1): 9-15.
4. Cox, S. W. R. 1997. Measurement and Control in Agriculture. Oxford, UK:
Blackwell Science.
5. Schueller, J. K. 1992. A review and integrating analysis of spatially-variable
control of crop production. Fertilizer Research 33: 1-34.
6. Searcy, S. W., ed. 1991. Automated Agriculture for the 21st Century. St. Joseph,
MI: ASAE.
7. De Silva, C. W. 2005. Mechatronics: An Integrated Approach. Boca Raton, FL:
CRC Press.
8. Histand, M. B., and D. G. Alciatore. 1999. Introduction to Mechatronics and
Measurement Systems. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
9. Klenin, N. I., I. F. Popov, and V. A. Sakun. 1970. Sel’skokhozyaistvennye
Mashiney (Agricultural Machines). Moscow, Russia: Kolos Publishers.
10. Srivastava, A. K., C. E. Goering, and R. P. Rohrbach. 1993. Engineering
Principles of Agricultural Machines. St. Joseph, MI: ASAE.

4.2 Positioning and Navigation

H. W. Griepentrog, B. S. Blackmore,
and S. G. Vougioukas
Abstract. This chapter covers some of the recent developments in positioning and
navigation of agricultural vehicles. Reliable absolute or relative positioning of a vehi-
cle is the basic requirement for manual and automated steering and essential for
navigation of autonomous systems. Furthermore, an agricultural vehicle has to be
able to perform several navigation modes within a field in order to succeed in per-
forming a field operation.
Keywords. Positioning, Absolute positioning, Relative positioning, Sensor fusion,
Navigation, Navigation modes.

4.2.1 Introduction
In the agricultural environment special characteristics appear for the navigation
process of vehicles. This environment offers a very different set of circumstances to
those encountered by a laboratory or indoor vehicle. A number of additional complica-
tions are raised [1]:
• Operating areas can be large and geographically separated;
• Ground surfaces are often uneven with varying tractive conditions;
• Depending on the operation, wheel slippage may be far from negligible;
• Environmental conditions (rain, fog, dust, etc.) may affect sensor observations;
• Low cost systems are required.
Fortunately, agricultural operations are carried out in semi-natural environments; a
farm can generally be described by fields with known boundaries and crop plants