Research 2 – Research in Psychology 2

1st Semester, AY 2021 - 2022

Module 1 (Data Collection)

I. Topics

A. Data Collection

1. Definition of Data Collection

2. Types of Data
3. Methods of Data Collection
4. Sources of Error

II. Learning Objectives

At the end of the chapter, the students should be able to:

a. determine the different aspects of data collections;

b. explain process of data collection procedure;
c. discuss the formulation of research instruments; and
d. explain the part of a research design.

III. Content

I. Definition of Data Collection

Data collection is a process of collecting information from all the relevant sources to find answers
to the research problem. It is a systematic method of obtaining, observing, measuring, and
analyzing accurate information to support research conducted by groups of professionals
regardless of the field where they belong. This is why it is regarded as a vital component of all of
the systems that make up our world today. Without data collection, research will lose its essence.

II. Types of Data

There are two types of data. Quantitative data and qualitative data. Quantitative data can be
measured using numbers. Qualitative data, on the other hand, is the classification given to a set
of data that refers to immeasurable attributes.

III. Methods of Data Collection

The following are the most common methods when collecting data for your research:

1. Surveys and Questionnaires - Surveys and questionnaires, in their most foundational sense,
are a means of obtaining data from targeted respondents with the goal of generalizing the results
to a broader public. Almost everyone involved in data collection, especially in the business and
academic sector relies on surveys and questionnaires to obtain credible data and insights from their
target audience.

2. Interviews - An interview is accurately defined as a formal meeting between two individuals in

which the interviewer asks the interviewee questions in order to gather information. An interview
not only collects personal information from the interviewees, but it is also a way to acquire insights
into people’s other skills.

3. Observation - The observation method of data collection involves seeing people in a certain
setting or place at a specific time and day. Essentially, researchers study the behavior of the
individuals or surroundings in which they are analyzing. This can be controlled, spontaneous, or
participant-based research.

When individuals are observed in their natural environment, this is known as naturalistic
observation. In participant observation, the researcher immerses himself or herself in the
environment and becomes a member of the group being observed.

4. Records and Logs - This data collection method involves analyzing an organization’s existing
records and documents to track or project substantial changes over a specific time period. The data
may include the following:
 Email logs
 Staff reports
 Call logs
 Databases
 Information logs
 Minutes of meetings

When a research study primarily uses records and logs as sources of data, the study is often a
systematic review or a historical case study. A psychological autopsy, which is an in-depth
reconstruction of an unclear suicide death, also often uses records and logs. In psychological
autopsy, the diaries of the deceased, their medical logs, and even legal records are evaluated to
create a psychological autopsy.

5. Focus Groups - A focus group is a group interview of six to twelve persons with comparable
qualities or shared interests. A moderator leads the group through a series of planned topics. The
moderator creates an atmosphere that encourages people to discuss their thoughts and opinions.
Focus groups are a type of qualitative data collection in which the information is descriptive and
cannot be quantified statistically.

While the five aforementioned methods of data collection are the most common, they are further
divided into two major classifications. In particular, they are the primary data collection method
and the secondary data collection method.

Primary data collection method entails that the investigator acquired the information firsthand.
This may be in the form of surveys, interviews, observation, and focus groups. The investigator
often times has a direct experience of the data, hence, this method is called a “primary data
collection” method.

Secondary data collection method, on the other hand, is a type of data that has already been
published in books, newspapers, magazines, journals, online portals etc. There is an abundance of
data available in these sources about your research area in psychological studies, almost regardless
of the nature of the research area.

IV. Sources of Error

Data collection is crucial, since this is where the results, discussion, and conclusion of your paper
will be based. This entails that a mistake in data collection can lead to inaccurate and valid research
findings. Listed below are common data collection errors and how to avoid them. Remember,
mistakes in data collection can’t be avoided. Minimizing the errors, however, will ensure that you
will meet the 95% confidence level required for a social science paper.

1. Population Specification - Population specification errors occur when the researcher does not
understand who they should survey or interview. This also occurs when the researcher fails to
identify particular characteristic of their participants.

How to avoid this: Establish a specific inclusion and exclusion criteria. The inclusion criteria may
include age, assigned sex, ethnicity, profession, and a particular activity or condition. Exclusion
criteria, on the other hand, may include certain limitations such as being a part of a particular age
group or being a member of one university, etc.

2. Sampling and Sample Frame Errors - Survey sampling and sample frame errors occur when
the wrong subpopulation is used to select a sample, or because of variation in the number or
representativeness of the sample that responds, but the resulting sample is not representative of the
population concern.

How to avoid this: First, identify what sampling you are going to use. Secondly, use a statistical
software such as G-power or Raosoft to identify how many participants you will need for your
paper.

3. Selection - Selection error is the sampling error for a sample selected by a non-probability
method. When respondents choose to self-participate in a study and only those interested respond,
you can end up with selection error because there may already be an inherent bias. This can also
occur when respondents who are not relevant to the study participate, or when there’s a bias in the
way participants are put into groups.

How to avoid this: Selection error can be controlled by going extra lengths to get participation. A
typical survey process includes initiating pre-survey contact requesting cooperation, actual
surveying, and post-survey follow-up. If a response is not received, a second survey request
follows, and perhaps interviews using alternate modes such as telephone or person-to-person.
4. Incomplete Answers - This may occur because either the potential respondent was not
contacted or they refused to respond. The key factor is the absence of data rather than inaccurate
data.

How to avoid this: Incomplete answers are often encountered in quantitative data collection than
in qualitative ones. This particularly happens when participants, either intentionally or not, omit
to answer certain items in the questionnaire. If your primary way of data collection if through
paper-and-pen, ensure to double check the questionnaires submitted by the participant. Should an
incomplete answer is detected, prompt the participant to answer. Meanwhile, if your primary way
of data collection is through online means, use websites or softwares that can prompt your
participants to answer items that were left blank (e.g. Google forms).

5. Measurement - Measurement error is generated by the measurement process itself, and

represents the difference between the information generated and the information wanted by the
researcher. Generally, there is always some small level of measurement error due to uncontrollable
factors.

How to avoid this: Measurement error often occurs with qualitative data, as the themes extracted
by researchers do not really represent the participants’ thoughts. Triangulation method must be
used to avoid such error.

Guide Questions

1. How is data collection planned?

2. How are data to be collected be identified?
3. How are data collected?
4. How is the appropriate method of data collection design chosen?
5. What are the sources of inaccuracies?

IV. Self-Test

1. What are the key points in the module?

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2. Based on your readings, how can you apply the content from this module to your daily life?
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3. What insights did the module provide in your course?

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4. How has class discussion influenced your thinking on this module?

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5. How can the learnings in this module improve your role in your school, family, and community?
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V. Post Test
A. Creating a Data Collection Plan

With your groupmates, answer the following question to come up with your data collection plan.

1. What type of data do you intend to collect?

2. What method of data collection are you going to use? (Identify if it is primary or secondary,
and identify if you’re going to use questionnaires, interviews, etc.)
3. Enumerate error(s) and problems that you think you’re most likely to encounter in your
data collection, given your research design.
4. Enumerate the possible solution you can utilize to prevent the possible errors you
mentioned in item #3.
5. Create a tentative timeline of your data collection
 Rubrics
Excellent Very Good Satisfactory Need for Poor
Improvement
Quality of 21-25 16-20 11-15 6-10 1-5
Output The output The output The output The output Basic
submitted is submitted is meets the submitted research skills
well-written written in quality barely the are not
and is of scientific and standards of quality evident in the
high-quality. scholarly tone, a scientific standards of a submitted
Scientific however, a paper, though scientific output.
and scholarly few details in improvement paper. Many Student may
tone are the written is evidently details are want to have
evident with output are needed to omitted, and refresher
the written missing. enhance the there is a lack courses on
output. scholarly of scholarly research
nature of the nature in the writing.
output. output.
Dutifulness 9-10 7-8 5-6 3-4 1-2
and Necessary Requirements Necessary Requirements Little to no
Punctuality requirements were passed a requirements are passed requirement
are often bit late and were passed significantly were
passed earlier most of the later than the later than the submitted or
or on time. necessary assigned assigned time, no tasks were
The student tasks were time, and and numerous accomplished.
has accomplished. several tasks things are
accomplished were not missing for
all the accomplished the assigned
assigned requirements.
tasks
dutifully.
Research 13-15 10-12 7-9 4-6 1-3
Mastery Student Student is Standard The student Little to no
display mostly quality of lacks the mastery is
excellent knowledgeable research is necessary evident with
mastery in about the manifested knowledge the student.
both the technical by the and skills The student is
technical aspects of student, and both in also evidently
aspects of research and the student research unaware of
research and their research display writing and in their paper.
in their paper per se. sufficient their paper per
research knowledge of se.
paper per se. their own
paper.