REVIEWER - WORLD HISTORY 1 history the Stone Age.

- The earliest part of the period is the

THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS AND THE RISE OF Paleolithic or Old Stone Age.
EMPIRES
• Paleolithic:
Civilization -means "old stone" in the Greek language it
- refers to complex societies, but the specific began roughly 25 million years ago Lasted
definition is contested. until around 8000 B.C.
- The advent of civilization depended on the Who Were the Hunter-Gatherers?
ability of some agricultural settlements to
consistently produce surplus food, which • The world during the Stone Age had no roadways,
allowed some people to specialize in non- farms, or villages.
agricultural work, which in turn allowed for • Early humans spent most of their time searching
increased production, trade, population, for food.
and social stratification.
- The first civilizations appeared in locations They hunted animals, caught fish, ate insects, and
where the geography was favorable to gathered nuts, berries, fruits, grains and plants.
intensive agriculture. Men & women did different jobs within the group.
- Governments and states emerged as rulers
gained control over larger areas and more Women:
resources, often using writing and religion - Stayed close to the campsite, which was
to maintain social hierarchies and usually near a water source
consolidate power over larger areas and - Looked after the children
populations. - Searched nearby woods & meadows for
- Writing allowed for the codification of laws, berries, nuts and grains
better methods of record-keeping, and the Because they hunted and gathered, Paleolithic
birth of literature, which fostered the people were always on the move.
spread of shared cultural practices among
larger population. • They were called nomads.
• They traveled in bands of 30 or more people
A civilization is a complex society that creates
because it was safer and easier to find food.
agricultural surpluses, allowing for specialized
labor, social hierarchy, and the establishment of Men:
cities. Developments such as writing, complex
- Hunted animals.
religious systems, monumental architecture, and
- They had to learn animal habits
centralized political power have been suggested as
- Make tools for the kill
identifying markers of civilization, as well.
First used clubs or drove animals off a cliff
Paleolithic people invented spears, traps, and bows
When historians or anthropologists use the term
& arrows
civilization, they mean a society has many different,
interconnected parts. So, rather than thinking Adapting to the Environment
about different forms of social organization as
completely separate models, it’s helpful to think in • The way the Paleolithic people lived depended on
terms of a spectrum of complexity. On one end, we where they lived.
have hunter-forager societies—which have little Paleolithic people created new kinds of shelter
complexity—and on the other end, we have made of animal skins held up by wooden poles.
civilizations—which are highly complex.
• They also made a life-changing discovery when
EARLY HUMANS AND FIRST CIVILIZATION (PPT) they learned to tame fire.

Early Humans Fire:

- History is the story of humans in the past. - Gave warmth

- Historians are people who study & write - Lit the darkness
about the human past - Scared away wild animals
- The story of people really begins before - Could now cook food
people developed writing. - Started fires by rubbing two pieces of wood
Tools of Discovery together
What Were the Ice Ages?
- Historians call the early period of human
 - Fire was the key to survival during the Ice - Asia: wheat, barley & rice
Ages. - Mexico: corn, squash & potatoes
- The last Ice Age was between 100,000 B.C. The Growth of Villages
& 8000 B.C.
- Now, people who farmed could settle in
- Thick ice sheets covered parts of Europe,
one place.
Asia & North America.
- Farmers had to stay close to their fields to
- The Ice Age was a threat to human life.
water the plants, keep hungry animals away
- People risked death from the cold & also
and harvest their crops.
from hunger.
- They began to live in villages where they
- Humans had to adapt their diet and
built permanent homes.
shelters.
Neolithic early villages
Language, Art & Religion
The Growth of Villages
- Another advance in Paleolithic times was
the development of spoken language. - During the Neolithic Age, villages were
- Language made it easier to work together & started in Europe, India, Egypt and China.
pass on knowledge. - The earliest known communities have been
- People also expressed themselves through found in the Middle East.
art. - One of the oldest is Jericho, which is in the
- They crushed black, yellow & red rocks to West Bank, between what is now Israel &
make powders for paint. Jordan.
- They dabbed the paint on cave walls - Jericho dates back to 8000 B.C.
creating different scenes. - Another well-known community is Catal
Historians are not sure why the cave paintings were Huyuk in present-day Turkey.
created. They must have had religious meaning. - Had 6,000 people between 6700 B.C. &
5700 B.C. - Lived in mud-brick houses
The Invention of Tools
- Used other buildings as other places of
- Paleolithic people were the first to use worship - They farmed, hunted, raised
technology. sheep & goats and ate fish
- People often used a hard stone called flint The Benefits of a Settled Life
to make tools.
Having a settled life brought Neolithic people
- People often used a hard stone called flint
greater security than they had ever known.
to make tools.
- Over time, people grew more skilled at - Steady food supplies meant healthy,
making tools. growing populations
- They crafted smaller tools, such as - With a bigger population, there were more
fishhooks & needles made from animal workers to produce a bigger crop.
bones. - Because villagers produced more than
Neolithic Times enough to eat, they began to trade their
extra.
After the last Ice Age, people began to domesticate
- People began to practice specialization -
animals & plants for human use.
Pottery
- Animals provided meat, milk & wool; - Weave mats & cloth
carried goods & pulled carts - In the late Neolithic times, people
- People also learned how to grow food continued to make advances.
which allowed them to stay in one place. - People began to work with metal
- Gradually, farming began to replace hunting - At first used copper
& gathering. After 4000 B.C. people in western Asia began to
This change in the way people lived marked the mix copper & tin to form bronze (which lasted
beginning of the Neolithic Age, or New Stone Age. longer) - It became widely used between B.C. &
1200 B.C. and this period became known as the
- It lasted until about 4000 B.C.
Bronze Age.
Why Was Farming Important?
With a surplus of food and increased population
• Historians call the changes in the Neolithic Age
people began to specialize in jobs
the farming revolution.
- Some of these jobs included farmer,
• Some consider the farming revolution the most
artesian, priest, rulers, and warriors
important event in human history.
- These small villages grew into the first
• Farming did not begin in one region & spread. civilizations
Growth of Civilizations Writing appeared in Mesopotamia over 5,000 years
ago. This invention I was so important that it marks
Civilization is defined as: highly organized society
the end of the Prehistory, and the beginning of
marked by advanced knowledge of trade,
History
government, arts, science and often time written
language As villages grew into towns, writing was a way of
storing information about taxes, trade and
Features of Civilization
population
1. Cities - As farmers settled in river valleys,
Four early River Valley Civilizations
the began to grow surplus or extra food;
this extra food increased the population of
the settlements; in time, the settlements
1. Mesopotamian Civilization - Tigris &
grew into cities (e.g. Ur and Babylon).
Euphrates Rivers
2. Organized Central Government - As cities
2. Egyptian Civilization - Nile River
expanded, the food supply and irrigation
3. Indian Civilization Indus River -
system needed to maintained governments
4. Ancient China - Huang He (Yellow) River
such as councils religious or leaders, began
Mesopotamia
to the oversee business and of the
existence cities - means: land between rivers
3. Organized Religions - Religious leaders - was a very dry area. However, irrigation
would conduct apps to the gods and ensure canals allowed agriculture to develop.
a bountiful harvest floods and draughts Cuneiform writing was essential, it
were blamed on the gods anger so rituals consisted of signs drawn on clay tablets.
were conducted in the temples. City-States in Mesopotamia
4. Job Specialization - Artisans and were
craftsmen needed to maintain specific items Although all the cities shared the same culture
and tasks; Now, some concentrated on Each city had its own government, rulers, warriors,
teaching, scribing. stone cutting and so it's own patron god, and functioned like an
forth. specialized so didrespected than an independent country
unskilled
5. Social Classes - As jobs became the status Mesopotamian cities were Ur, Uruk, Kish, Lagesh At
and needs of certain individuals; the need center of each city was the temple: a ziggurat (a
for an educated religious leader was more massive, tiered, pyramid-shaped structure).
worker; were herders needed for the food, - Civilization Begins in Mesopotamia
while masons were needed for building; the Mesopotamian religion
slave was on the lowest rank of the social
ladder; warriors and kings were on top. - They believed in many gods- polytheism
6. Writing System - Records were needed to Mesopotamian Society
keep accounts on trade goods and food 1. King and nobility
storage: E writing was needed because the 2. Priests
information became too great; in addition, 3. Scribes
one needed to express more complex ideas 4. Craftsmen and Peasants
such as "belief" and "social order” where 5. Slaves
pictures and words simply would not Three social classes
suffice.
7. Art and Architecture - This expressed the a. Priests and aristocracy (kings)
beliefs and values of a civilization; often the b. Civil servants: scribes
art was used to impress visitors and people c. Ordinary workers: Craftmens, Merchants
about the beauty and power of a king or and Peasants
community. Slaves: were not free citizens Women had more
8. Public Works - The government would rights than in many later civilizations, but not
order these, although costly, to aid and allowed to attend schools (could not read or write)
benefit the community; such things as a
Mesopotamian culture One of the first writing
wall to protect from attack or a canal to aid
systems - Cuneiform
in irrigation would help insure the survival
of a people. It's one of the most important civilizations in
Ancient Mesopotamia History. It emerged more than 5,000 years ago,
along the River Nile in the north-east of Africa
Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egyptians lived near the River Nile, because The Artifacts: Crafts and the Arts
the land was fertile there. Each year, water from
- Crafts of the Indus valley included pottery
the Nile rose and flooded the area. When the water
making, dye metal working in bronze, and
went back, it left mud which made the fields fertile.
bead making.
- Egyptians called their king a pharaoh. The Bead materials included:
pharaoh was all powerful:
1. jade from the Himalayas,
a. He passed laws,
2. lapis lazuli from Afghanistan
b. He ruled the country .
3. turquoise from Persia,
c. He owned most of the land,
4. amethyst from Mewar in India, • and
d. He controlled trade and led the
steatite, which was found locally.
armies
Small sculptures in stone,
Egyptians believed that the pharaohs were gods.
- Small sculptures in stone, terra cotta, and
Ancient Egyptian society
bronze appear to represent priestly or
A EGYPTIAN SOCIAL PYRAMID governmental officials, dancing girls, and
perhaps mother goddesses.
1. Pharaoh
- Since there are no surviving texts to explain
2. Government officials Vian Priest Noble
identities, these can only be guesses.
3. Soldiers
Dice and small
4. Scribes
5. Merchants - sculptures of bullock carts were probably as
6. Craftsmen toys and games.
7. Peasants - The first known use of cotton as a fiber for
8. Staves weaving textiles occurred in the Indus
Egyptian religion Valley.
Carefully Planned Cities
Egyptians were polytheistic: they worshipped
many gods - Originating around 2500 B.C.E. the thriving
civilizations survived for around 500 years.
Egyptians believed there was an afterlife, as long as
Both Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, two of
the body was preserved. Consequently, a dead
the largest among 500 sites, were three
body was dried to make a mummy, which was put
circumference with miles in around 40,000
in a sarcophagus. A wealthy person's tomb
people.
contained the things which were necessary in the
Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa
afterlife, such as food, jewels or statues of
servants. - To the north is a citadel or raised area.
- In Mohenjo-Daro, the citadel is built on an
The biggest tombs were the spectacular pyramids
architectural platform about 45 feet above
which were built for the pharaohs
the plain.
- On the summit was a huge communal bath.
- Next to the large bath was a huge open
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION space-a granary where food was stored
The Indus valley civilization was one of the world's from possible floods.
first great urban civilizations. It flourished in the - Fortified walls mark the southeast corner.
vast Indus river plains and adjacent regions, in what - The lower city was laid out in a gridiron with
are now parts of Afghanistan, Pakistan and north the main streets about 45 feet wide.
western India. - Private houses, almost every one with its
own well, bathing space, and toilet
Roots of Indus Valley Civilization consisting of a brick seat over a drainage
- Roots of Indus Valley began as early as 7000 area.
B.C.E. - Brick-lined drains flushed by water carried
- Possibly began as herders who moved into liquid and solid waste to sumps, where it
the river valley during colder months. - Over was carted away, probably to fertilize
time, they may have decided to farm-river nearby fields.....
watered lands of the valley. - The town plan was regular.
- They began trading by boat along the Indus - Even fire-baked bricks were uniform in size
down into the Arabian Sea, into the Persian and shape
Gulf, and up the Tigris and Euphrates into - The regularity of plan and construction
Mesopotamia. suggests a government with organization
and bureaucratic capacity.
 - No monumental architecture clearly marks - B/C of this, China's first farming villages
the presence of a palace or temple. developed along these rivers.
- There is little sign of social stratification in The Huang He (Yellow River)
the plan or buildings.
- Begins in the highlands of Tibet, it flows for
Indus Valley Burial Sites
more than 3,000 miles and empties into the
- Heads pointing to the north Yellow Sea.
- Some grave goods, such as pots of food and - Muddiest river in the world! Loess: yellow-
water, small amounts of jewelry, simple brown soil.
mirrors, and some cosmetics. - After countless floods, the Huang He has
- Not extravagant like royal burials of Egypt carpeted the N. China plain with a thick
or even of Mesopotamia. layer of soil.
Enter: The Aryans - (perfect for farming!)
- Approximately 1500 B.C.E. a nomadic and
pastoral people who spoke the Indo- China's Sorrow
European language passed through the
- The other name the Huang He goes by is
Hindu Kush mountains.
"China's Sorrow."
- They called themselves "Aryans" or "noble
- The river was unpredictable and sometimes
people."
dangerous, but it also provided life..
- They established small herding and
- Sometimes one flood would drown
agricultural communities throughout
thousands of people!
northern India.
- The Chinese attempted to protect
- Their migrations took place over several
themselves with terraces and dikes..
centuries.
- Despite the dangers, the early Chinese
Aryan Influence on Harappan Society
people continued to settle along the banks
- Aryan migrations took place over several of the Huang He.
centuries. During the Neolithic Period...
- Their arrival was not an invasion or
1. Yangshao culture existed around 5000 to
organized military campaign.
1500 B.C.E.
- It is likely that Indo-European migrants
2. Longshan culture existed around 3000 to
clashed with Dravidians (people settled in
2000 B.C.E.
the Harappan area.)
Yangshao Culture
- By the time Aryans entered India, internal
problems had already brought Harappan - Farming and agriculture, hunting andfishing
society to the point of collapse. - Nomadic
- During the centuries after 1500 B.C.E., - Houses called dug-pits were arranged in a
Dravidian and Indo European peoples circle
intermarried and laid social and cultural - Painted Pottery Culture
foundations that influenced Indian society - red and black geometrical designs, human
to present day. facial and animal designs
Ancient China - Pottery were coiled or molded
- Produced silk, cloth weaving
What was the oldest civilization in China?
Longshan or Lungshan Culture
- The Shang Civilization happened in the
- Similar to Yangshao except they are not
Huang Ho Valley
nomadic
- Yellow River - Originates from western
- Bigger dug-pit houses - Invention of the
China and flows through 9 provinces It is 4,640
potter's wheel led to better pottery,
kilometres long Loess-yellow soil that served as
thinner, goblet s with handles
fertilizer - To capture the loess, the people started
- Pottery were baked in kiln
to plant vegetation that can control the waters that
- Black Pottery Culture
rose and created dikes.
Shang Civilization
China's Rivers...
- High earthen walls
- Like rivers in other parts of the world, - Palace and temple are at the center
China's rivers overflowed their banks each surrounded by public buildings and house of
spring. government officials-inner zone
- Flooding brought fresh, fertile topsoil to the - Artisans, farmers and other citizens lived in
land. the outer zone
» Ruled by priest-kings = Led armies with chariots Peloponnesus – location of Sparta and Olympia
and bronze weaponry
Attica (Attic Peninsula) – the home of Athens
Xia or Hsia Dynasty
Boeotia (Thebes-chief city) – located northwest of
- Known to be the first dynasty in China (2070 Attica
1600 B.C.E.)
Thessaly – contained the largest plains; great
- Known to be the first dynasty in China (2070
produces of grains and horses
1600 B.C.E.)
- However, this is still under debate due to Macedonia – located North of Thessaly; was not
lack of evidence important in Greek history until…
- Ruled for about 400 years
- Yangcheng-capital city 385 B.C.E – Macedonian King Philip II conquered
Shang or Yin Dynasty the Greeks.

- Succeeded the Xia dynasty (1600-1046 MINOAN CRETE

B.C.E.) CRETE is the large island where the earliest
- Ruled for about 600 years Anyang-capital civilization in Aegean region emerged.
city
- Evidence of bronze-ware and human - By 2800 B.C.E, Bronze Age Civilization that
sacrifice were found in excavated tombs of used metals in making weapons had been
emperors Shang Zhou, the last Shang king, established.
committed suicide after his army was - 2ooo B.C.E to 1450 B.C.E, it has reached its
defeated by the Zhou people. Legends say height.
that his army and his equipped slaves - 1450 B.C.E – Minoan civilization suffered a
betrayed him by joining the Zhou rebels. sudden catastrophic collapse.
Zhou Dynasty Arthur Evans – named the island “Minoan” after
Minos, a legendary king of Crete.
- Succeeded the Shang dynasty (1046-256
B.C.E.) Palace at Knossus – the royal seats of the kings; an
- Ruled for about 800 years elaborate structure that included living rooms,
- Haojing-capital city workshops, ivory figurines and jewelry
- King Wu-first emperor - Iron was introduced Mycenaeans – mainland Greeks.
during this period
- Bronze-ware was at its peak as well MYCENAE: THE FIRST GREEK STATE
Pyro-osteomancy MYCENAEANS:
- Oracle bones - part of the Indo-European family of peoples
- Bones were used to communicate with who spread from their original location into
dead ancestors, fortune telling southern and western Europe, India and
- A question was writtenon an animal bone Persia.
and thrown into a fire - were above all a warrior people who prided
- The cracks on the bones are interpreted by themselves on their heroic deeds.
priest kings - developed an extensive commercial
- Ancestral worship - wisdom and guidance network like Mycenaean pottery found
Manner of Writing throughout Mediterranean basin.
- System of writing symbols, early form of Mycenaean – derived from Mycenae; a remarkable
calligraphy fortified site excavated by the amateur German
- System of writing symbols, early form of archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann.
calligraphy Mycenae – one center in a Mycenaean Greek
- Written in vertical order civilization flourished between 1600 and 1100
- Found on oracle bones B.C.E.
- These characters symbolized things, ideas
or sounds Mycenaean Civilization – flourished between 1400
- It unified China and 1200 B.C.E
- Certain characters were memorized by
- By the late 13th century, Mycenaean
people especially the aristocrats
Greece was showing signs of serious
THE CIVILIZATION OF GREEKS (PPT)
trouble.
- GREECE occupied a 45, 000 miles territory - Mycenae itself was burned around 1190
of a mountainous peninsula. B.C.E.
 - Other Mycenaean centers show a similar befitting a hero; is won in a struggle or
pattern of destruction. contest.
- By 1100 B.C.E., the Mycenaean culture has
coming to an end, and the Greek world was
THE CIVILIZATION OF GREEKS THE GREEK CITY–
entering a new period of considerable
STATES
insecurity.
A Mycenaean Death Mask. ARCHAIC AGE OF GREECE:
- This death mask of thin gold was one of Two major development stand out in this era;
several found by Heinrich Schliemann in his
excavation of Grave Circle A at Mycenae. 1. The evolution of the city – state (Polis) as a
The se masks are similar to the gold central institution in Greek life.
mummy masks used in Egyptian royal 2. The Greeks’ colonization of the
tombs. Mediterranean and Black Seas.
THE GREEKS IN A DARK AGE (C. 1100 – 750 B.C.E THE POLIS

Large numbers of Greeks left the mainland and - A small but autonomous political unit in
migrated across the Aegean Sea to various islands which all major political, social, and
and to the southern shore of Asia Minor (a strip of religious activities were carried out at one
land called Ionia). central location.
- Consisted of a city, town, or village was the
Two Major Groups of Greeks: focus (a central point where the citizens of
the polis could assemble for political, social
1. Aeolian Greeks of northern and central
and religious activities.
Greece colonized the large island of Lesbos
- Central meeting point: a hill (ex. Acropolis
and the adjacent territory of the mainland.
of Athens) – a place of refuge during an
2. Dorians established themselves in
attack; religious center and others.
southwestern Greece, especially in
Agora – an open space that served both as a
Peloponnesus, as well as on some of south
market and as a place where citizens could
Aegean islands, including Crete.
assemble.
Iron replaced bronze in making weapons which
were more affordable for more people. Adult Males
- 8th century, the Greeks adopted Phoenician - citizens with political rights
alphabet to give themselves a new system Women and Children
of writing.
Homer’s work appeared near the very end of Dark - citizens without political rights
Age. Noncitizens

THE GREEKS IN A DARK AGE: HOMER AND - slaves and resident aliens
HOMERIC GREECE All citizens

Iliad and Odysse - possessed fundamental rights

- the first great epic poems of early Greece;

based on stories that had been passed A NEW MILITARY SYSTEM: THE GREEK WAY OF
down from generation to generation. WAR
Iliad - 8th century: a new military order came into
- Homer’s epic poem of the Trojan War; a being that was based on hoplites.
tale of the Greek hero Achilles and how the HOPLITES – heavily armed infantrymen who wore
“wrath of Achilles” led to disaster. bronze or leather helmets, breastplates, and
Odyssey greaves (shin guards); carried a round shield, a
short sword and thrusting spear about 9 feet long.
- an epic romance that recounts the journeys
of one of the Greek heroes, Odysseus, from Phalanx – a rectangular formation hoplites made
the fall of Troy until his eventual return to when they advance into battle, usually eight ranks
his wife, Penelope, twenty years later. deep.
The Greeks regarded Iliad and Odyssey as authentic THE GREEK WAY OF WAR
history.
WAR: “Always existing by nature between every
Arete Greek city-state.” -Plato
- importance of striving for the excellence
Greeks possessed excellent weapons and body Ephors – a group of five men who were responsible
armor, making effective use of technological for supervising the education of youth and the
improvements. conduct of all citizens.
- They included a wide number of citizen- Discouragements:
soldiers in their armies.
- Foreigners; travel abroad; studying
- Greeks displayed a willingness to engage
philosophy, literature or the arts.
the enemy head-on, thus, deciding a battle
500 B.C.E, Spartans had organized a powerful
quickly and with as few casualties as
military state that maintained order and stability in
possible.
the Peloponnesus.
TYRANNY IN THE GREEK POLIS
Tyrants
ATHENS
- rise in the 7th and 6th century B.C.E.
- Rulers who came to power in an - 700 BCE, they established a unified polis on
unconstitutional way; a tyrant was not the peninsula of Attica.
subject to the law. - 7th century, monarchy had fallen under the
Aristocratic Oligarchies (rule the few) opposed control of aristocrats.
tyrants and aristocrats. Archons – a board of nine officials
- Tyranny was largely extinguished by the end Solon – reform-minded aristocrat, sole archon in
of the 6th century B.C.E. 594 BCE.
- Greeks believed in the rule of law, and
tyranny made a mockery of that ideal. REFORMS OF SOLON:
- Yet, tyranny ended the rule of aristocratic - cancelled all debts
oligarchies. - outlawed new loans based on humans as
SPARTA AND ATHENS collateral freed people who had fallen into
SPARTA slavery for debts
- Opened new doors to the participation of
- Located in the southeastern of new people
Peloponnesus. Pisistrus – an aristocrat; siezed power in 560 B.C.E.
- Captured Laconians and Messenians (c. 730
BCE) Cleisthenes – another aristocrat reformer; opposed
Messenia – has larger population and possessed a the reestablishment attempt of aristocrat
large and fertile land. oligarchy.

Helots – derived from a Greek word for “capture” - REFORMS OF CLEISTHENES:

and made to work for the Spartans. - Created Council of Five Hundred (reponsible
NEW SPARTA: Reforms were made associated with for the administration of both foreign and
the name Lycurgus – Spartans became rigidly financial affairs and prepare the business
organized and rightly controlled. that would be handled by the assembly.
- All male citizens had final authority in the
Male Spartan at 7: Taken from their mothers to passing of laws after free and open debate
live in military-style barracks, educate, train, and - The reforms created the foundations for
discipline. Athenian democracy
Male Spartan at 20: Enrolled in military service
CHAPTER 1
Male Spartan at 30: Allowed to vote; at 60, EARLY HUMANS AND THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS
retirement. (module)
Spartan Oligarchy: Prehistory - events that occurred before the
Two Kings – for military affairs; leaders of the existence of written records in a given culture or
Spartan army on its campaign. society.
History - refers to the time period after the
Gerousia – a council of elders; 28 citizens over the invention of written records in a given culture or
age of 60; elected for life. society.
Apella – an assembly of all male citizens.
Archaeologists have discovered written records in
Egypt from as early as 3200 BCE, which is the
accepted date at which history "begins" there.
Written records give historians resources to deal Homo sapiens and early human migration
with that are more detailed in some ways than
other records, such as archaeological or biological Homo sapiens
remains. - evolved from their early hominid
predecessors between 200,000 and 300,000
The scope of history years ago and developed a capacity for
Think about the scope of what must have language about 50,000 years ago.
happened during that time: - the first modern humans, evolved from
1. adventures, their early hominid predecessors between
2. sorrows, 200,000 and 300,000 years ago. They
3. environmental change, and developed a capacity for language about
4. the rise and fall of civilizations. 50,000 years ago.
- The first modern humans began moving
Written records outside of Africa starting about 70,000-
100,000 years ago.
Our main tool as historians is what has been
written by those who came before us. In fact, this is Humans are the only known species to have
what formally defines history and sometimes sets successfully populated, adapted to, and
it apart from archaeology and anthropology. For significantly altered a wide variety of land regions
example, the oldest written records archaeologists across the world, resulting in profound historical
have discovered in Egypt are from over 5,000 years and environmental impacts.
ago; the date when they were created is the
currently accepted date at which formal history (as Where do we begin?
opposed to "prehistory") begins in that part of the
world. Of course, we might one day find older Homo sapiens is part of a group called hominids,
records! which were the earliest humanlike creatures. Based
on archaeological and anthropological evidence,
TOOLS we think that hominids diverged from other
- Archaeologists can excavate ancient primates somewhere between 2.5 and 4 million
structures and burial sites and begin to infer years ago in eastern and southern Africa. Though
how the people lived from fossils (like there was a degree of diversity among the hominid
human remains) and artifacts (human- family, they all shared the trait of bipedalism, or
made items). the ability to walk upright on two legs
- Archaeologists can estimate the age of Evolution
fossils and artifacts through several
techniques. One, the aridity hypothesis, suggests that early
- Carbon dating measures the amount of hominids were more suited to dry climates and
radioactive carbon in fossils to place them evolved as Africa's dry savannah regions expanded.
in time.
- Age can also be determined by identifying According to the savannah hypothesis, early tree-
the age of the layer of rock that the artifacts dwelling hominids may have been pushed out of
are buried in. This is called stratigraphic their homes as environmental changes caused the
dating, from the Latin word stratum, forest regions to shrink and the size of the
meaning "layer."Linguists can often piece savannah expand. These changes, according to the
together possible human migrations and savannah hypothesis, may have caused them to
connections based on similarities in adapt to living on the ground and walking upright
modern, living languages. instead of climbing.
- Similarly, geneticists can piece together
how humanity may have spread and Hominids continued to evolve and develop unique
intermingled based on genetic similarities characteristics. Their brain capacities increased,
and differences in populations today. and approximately 2.3 million years ago, a
hominid known as Homo habilis began to make
Uncertainty remains and use simple tools. By a million years ago, some
hominid species, particularly Homo erectus, began
Photograph of skeletons at an archaeological dig in to migrate out of Africa and into Eurasia, where
Whithorn Priory, Scotland. The skeletal remains of they began to make other advances like controlling
about five humans are visible in a wide expanse of fire.
hilly dirt.
Though there were once many kinds of hominids, Semi-permanent settlements would be the
only one remains: Homo sapiens. building-blocks of established communities and the
Extinction is a normal part of evolution, and development of agricultural practices.
scientists continue to theorize why other hominid Paleolithic Societies
species didn’t survive. We do have some clues as to
why some species were less successful at surviving Paleolithic societies were largely dependent on
than others, such as an inability to cope with foraging and hunting.
competition for food, changes in climate, and While hominid species evolved through natural
volcanic eruptions. selection for millions of years, cultural evolution
accounts for most of the significant changes in the
Migration and the Peopling of the World history of Homo sapiens.
Small bands of hunter-gatherers lived, worked, and
Between 70,000 and 100,000 years ago, Homo migrated together before the advent of agriculture.
sapiens began migrating from the African
continent and populating parts of Europe and Asia. Sociocultural Evolution
They reached the Australian continent in canoes
sometime between 35,000 and 65,000 years ago. Paleolithic
- literally means “Old Stone [Age],”
Scientists studying land masses and climate know - refers to a time in human history when
that the Pleistocene Ice Age created a land bridge foraging, hunting, and fishing were the
that connected Asia and North America (Alaska) primary means of obtaining food. Humans
over 13,000 years ago. A widely accepted had yet to experiment with domesticating
migration theory is that people crossed this land animals and growing plants. Since hunter-
bridge and eventually migrated into North and gatherers could not rely on agricultural
South America. methods to produce food intentionally,
their diets were dependent on the
The development of language around 50,000 years fluctuations of natural ecosystems. They
ago allowed people to make plans, solve had to worry about whether overfishing a
problems, and organize effectively. We can’t be lake would deplete a crucial food source or
sure of the exact reasons humans first migrated off whether a drought would wither up
of the African continent, but it was likely correlated important plants. In order to ensure enough
with a depletion of resources (like food) in their food production for their communities,
regions and competition for those resources. - They worked to manipulate those systems
Once humans were able to communicate these in certain ways, such as rotational hunting
concerns and make plans, they could assess and gathering.
together whether the pressures in their current
home outweighed the risk of leaving to find a new This was the case for much of human history; it was
one. not until about 11,000 years ago that these hunter-
gatherer systems began to transform. As humans
Adaptation and Effects on Nature began migrating and adapting to new
environments, they began developing tools and
When humans migrated from Africa to colder methods that equipped them to make the best of
climates, they made clothing out of animal skins their respective environmental constraints.
and constructed fires to keep themselves warm;
often, they burned fires continuously through the The study of early humans often focuses on
winter. biological evolution and natural selection.
Sophisticated weapons, such as spears and bows However, it is also equally important to focus on
and arrows, allowed them to kill large mammals sociocultural evolution, or the ways in which early
efficiently. Along with changing climates, these human societies created culture.
hunting methods contributed to the extinction of Paleolithic humans were not simply cavemen who
giant land mammals such as mammoths, giant were concerned only with conquering their next
kangaroos, and mastodons. Fewer giant mammals, meal. Archaeological evidence shows that the
in turn, limited hunters’ available prey. Neanderthals in Europe and Southwest Asia had a
In addition to hunting animals and killing them out system of religious beliefs and performed rituals
of self-defense, humans began to use the earth’s such as funerals. A burial site in Shanidar Cave in
resources in new ways when they constructed modern-day northeastern Iraq suggests that a
semi-permanent settlements. Neanderthal’s family covered his body with
Humans started shifting from nomadic lifestyles to flowers, which indicates a belief in something
fixed homes, using the natural resources there. beyond death and a deep sense of spirituality.
They also constructed shelter and tools. who typically have around 500 members, and
based on theoretical mathematical models of
Cultures evolved and developed in specific group process, Paleolithic bands of people were
environmental contexts, enabling their likely around twenty-five members each, and
communities to not only survive but to flourish in typically about twenty bands constituted a tribe.
unique and dynamic ways.
Culture is a broad term which encompasses the full Anthropologists have estimated that the
range of learned human behavior patterns, technology available to Paleolithic humans who
behaviors which are often linked to survival. lived between 150,000 and 12,000 years ago would
have required over seventy miles of relatively
Homo sapiens has not changed much anatomically unproductive land, with a low density of
over the last 120,000 years, but it has undergone a resources, or over seven miles of fertile land to
massive cultural evolution. Accordingly, cultural meet the basic needs of each small community.
creativity rather than physical transformation However, considering how limited these
became the central way humans coped with the communities were, this land requirement is
demands of nature. extremely inefficient compared to modern
productivity levels. At such densities, the area of
Cultural evolution cannot be divorced from the modern-day United States could sustain no
biological evolution, as the evolution of a more more than 600,000 people, and the entire planet
highly developed and advanced human brain, more only 10 million. For comparison, the current
highly attuned to social structures, enabled cultural population of the United States is well over 300
growth. million, and there are 7 billion people on the
In fact, the very large size of a human brain itself planet!
necessitated certain cultural adaptations: many
scientists have theorized that more difficult births, Division of Labor
due to larger skulls, longer gestation periods, and
longer periods of infant dependency, required Before the advent of agriculture, Paleolithic
more advanced social organization and humans had little control of the environment, so
communication, which played a big role in the they focused on staking out territory and
cultural evolution of humans. negotiating relationships with nearby
communities. Eventually, groups created small,
Homo sapiens’ unique aptitude for creativity temporary settlements, often near bodies of water.
allowed for symbolic expression, particularly in These settlements allowed for division of labor,
cultural and spiritual contexts, such as artwork and and labor was often divided along gender lines,
burial rituals. This creative activity is the hallmark with women doing much of the gathering, cooking,
of the subspecies Homo sapiens sapiens (wise, wise and child-rearing and men doing much of the
human), which is what we are today, a subspecies hunting, though this was certainly not the case
that is distinctive for its intellectual abilities. across all Paleolithic societies. For example, some
archaeological evidence suggests that Middle
Small Communities Paleolithic cultures in Eurasia split work fairly
equally between men and women.
The expansion of the human population, the
density of human groups also increased. This often However, it is important to note that gender
resulted in conflict and competition over the best dynamics in Paleolithic times were likely drastically
land and resources, but it also necessitated different from our own, and as such, the division of
cooperation. Due to the constraints of available labor between men and women does not
natural resources, these early communities were necessarily indicate differences in equality or
not very large, but they included enough members power. There are competing theories about
to facilitate some degree of division of labor, whether hunting or gathering contributed more to
security, and exogamous reproduction patterns, group nutrition, but both seemed to have played
which means marrying or reproducing outside of an important role.
one’s group.
Paleolithic Technology, Art and Culture
Anthropologists were able to draw these
conclusions about Paleolithic people by Paleolithic groups developed increasingly complex
extrapolating from the experiences of modern tools and objects made of stone and natural
hunter-gatherer communities, such as the Khoisan fibers.Language, art, scientific inquiry, and spiritual
of the African Kalahari Desert. Based on the life were some of the most important innovations
experiences of modern hunter-gatherer societies, of the Paleolithic era.
 been impossible.
Technological Innovation
Examinations of the craniums of archaic Homo
Stone tools are perhaps the first cultural artifacts sapiens suggest large brains with indentations that
which historians can use to reconstruct the worlds imply the development of brain areas associated
of Paleolithic peoples. In fact, stone tools were so with speech. Exactly how humans developed a
important in the Paleolithic age that the names of capacity for language is a matter of considerable
Paleolithic periods are based on the progression of debate.
tools: Lower Paleolithic, Upper Paleolithic, However, the historical record shows that
Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age), and Neolithic (New language allowed for increasingly complex social
Stone Age). structures, with an enhanced capacity for
deliberation, morality, spirituality, and meaning-
Stone tools also give us insight into the making.
development of culture. Anthropologists think
Paleolithic people likely hunted, foraged, and Artwork such as cave painting and portable art
employed a communal system for dividing labor demonstrates creativity and group structures as
and resources. Anthropologists have inferred this well. They show an interest in sharing knowledge,
by drawing analogies to modern hunter-gatherer expressing feelings, and transmitting cultural
groups and by interpreting cave art which depicts information to later generations. Though artwork
group hunting. from over 35,000 years ago is rare, there is ample
- Seven tools which appear to be made of evidence of cave paintings and statuettes from
stone displayed against a grey backdrop. later periods.
- Four tools are in the top row and appear to
be sharpened to a point. A bison figure painted with red pigment on a
- Three relatively smaller tools are in the smooth tan-colored surface with somevisible
bottom row and are not as sharp. cracks. The painter also utilized black strokes to
add detail.
By approximately 40,000 years ago, narrow stone Reproduction of a bison illustration nearly 14,000
blades and tools made of bone, ivory, and antler years old, from the Cave of Altamira located near
appeared, along with simple wood instruments. Santillana del Mar in Cantabria, Spain. The cave
Closer to 20,000 years ago, the first known needles was first rediscovered in 1868
were produced. Eventually, between 17,000 and
8,000 years ago, humans produced more In addition to cave art, portable figurines dated to
complicated instruments like barbed harpoons and Paleolithic times have been found. Many of these
spear-throwers. include finely carved facial features, while others
accentuate sexual organs and buttocks, such as the
It is likely that many tools made out of materials 25,000 year old figurine found at Dolni Vestonice in
besides stone were prevalent but simply did not the modern-day Czech Republic. Such an object
survive to the present day for scientists to observe. shows a desire to create beautiful figurines, but
One exception is the Neolithic “Ice Man”, found by some also suggest that objects like this are tied to
two hikers in the Ötztal Alps, who was preserved an interest in human fertility.
in ice for 5,000 years! He was found with a robust
set of stone and natural-fiber tools, including a six- A statue made of polished dark stone representing
foot longbow, deerskin case, fourteen arrows, a a female figure with exaggerated breasts and hips.
stick with an antler tip for sharpening flint blades, There are no defined facial features and distinct
a small flint dagger in a woven sheath, a copper arms are not visible.
axe, and a medicine bag.
Venus of Dolní Věstonice, a Venus figurine, a
Language, Culture and Art ceramic statuette of a nude female figure dated to
29,000–25,000 BCE. It was found at the Paleolithic
Language site Dolní Věstonice in the Moravian basin south of
- the most important innovation of the Brno, in the base of Děvín Mountain. Image
Paleolithic era. courtesy Wikimedia Commons.
- Scientists can infer the early use of language
from the fact that humans traversed large The Dawn of Agriculture
swaths of land, established settlements,
created tools, traded, and instituted social Agriculture
hierarchies and cultures. Without the aid of - began during the Neolithic Era before
language, these things would likely have roughly 9000 BCE when polished stone
 tools were developed and the last ice age Neolithic Revolution since it seems to coincide
ended. with the Neolithic period—or new stone age. The
- Historians have several theories about why Neolithic period’s name stems from the fact that
many societies switched from hunting and stone artifacts were more smooth and refined than
foraging to settled agriculture. those of the Paleolithic period, or old stone age.
- One of these theories is that a surplus in Many of these tools facilitated early agriculture.
production led to greater population. Not
everyone needed to be focused on food Five agricultural tools found in the Iberian
production, which led to specialization of settlement Bastida of Alcusses, ca. late 5th century
labor and complex societies. B.C.E. to the 4th century B.C.E. Tools are textured
and brown.
The World Before the Agriculture
The first agriculture was likely cultivation of wild
Based on current archeological evidence, species of plants and basic herding of livestock. As
anatomically modern humans have existed roughly time went on, humans became more and more
200,000-300,000 years. However, before roughly sophisticated at breeding the plants and livestock
15,000-20,000 years ago, we have no evidence that that best meet our needs.
our ancestors had agriculture. Instead, we believe The corn you see in the grocery store and the pigs,
they strictly hunted or foraged for food. cows, and sheep you see at a farm did not evolve
- There were times when they had a big kill independently in the wild. They are the product of
and had more food than they knew what to thousands of years of human selection and
do with. breeding from original, wild forms.
- There were other times when they
overforaged or hunted and they didn’t Why did Agriculture emerge when and where it
know how many days it would be until their did?
next meal.
- If they didn’t find food, they or their The simple answer is that we’re not sure. We do,
families would starve. Even when there was however, have several theories—can you think of
food, it might take miles of walking to find more?End of a glacial period: The last glacial period
it. For many of these preagricultural ended 10,000 to 15,000 years ago. This seems to
societies, a good bit of their energy went coincide with the emergence of agriculture. After
into just getting more energy—in other the glacial period ended, there was more moisture
words, food—to keep going and reproduce. in the air, less frozen soil, and better conditions
- There also couldn’t be too many humans overall for more plant and animal life.
living in one area since there was only so These conditions would have also been more
much food to be found or killed. suitable for agriculture. This theory still has several
open questions:
Because of this, a tribe of 100 hunter-foragers
would have needed to be the only humans on 50 to Why have we not found evidence of
500 square kilometers to survive—places lush with agriculture during the last
life, like tropical rain forests, could support a higher interglacial—warmer—period over 100,000 years
density. With only hunting and foraging to support ago? Have we just not found it yet?
human populations, it is estimated that the Earth Even during the glacial period, weren’t there some
could only support about 10 million people. places on Earth in the tropics that would have still
Historians estimate the world population was been suitable for agriculture?
around six to ten million 10,000 years ago. Continued human development: Even though
anatomically modern humans have been around
The Birth of Agriculture for roughly 200,000 years, our brains, language,
and culture may have continued to develop and
About 10,000 to 15,000 years ago, humans began change—including through natural selection. It is
to mold nature to their needs and agriculture possible that only 10,000 to 20,000 years ago did
emerged in multiple places around the planet. We we first have the right mix of environmental,
believe that it emerged independently and spread mental, and cultural development to implement
from places as varied as Mesopotamia, China, agriculture. This theory is bolstered by the fact that
South America and sub-Saharan Africa. the dawn of agriculture seems to coincide with
As we explore more, it is likely that scientists will humans being able to make the more sophisticated
find more places where agriculture may have stone objects which define the Neolithic period.
emerged even earlier.
The birth of agriculture is often referred to as the Pastoralism: A branch of Agriculture
 cleared forests using the slash and burn technique;
A branch of agriculture—called pastoralism— they would remove a ring of bark from the trees,
began around the same time as cultivation of drying out the trees and allowing them to burn
plants. more quickly. The ash from the trees acted as a
fertilizer for the soil.
Pastoralism Pastoralism also brought challenges to the
- is the domestication and herding of animals environment and people. Herds of animals
such as goats, sheep, and cattle. In regions concentrated in one area could overgraze the land,
where plant cultivation proved difficult due ultimately rendering it unusable or subject to
to rocky terrain or climates that were erosion. In addition, with a closer proximity to
inhospitable to plants, pastoralists herded animals, came a higher likelihood that diseases
animals. could be transmitted from animals to humans.

While many pastoralists were nomadic, their By actively managing their food supplies,
lifestyle differed fundamentally from that of agricultural societies were able to produce more
hunter-foragers in that they did not rely exclusively food than hunter-foragers and support denser
on naturally occurring resources. They milked populations. Having a large population nearby
animals for dairy products and used their wool to made it worthwhile for farmers to grow more food
weave textiles, which they could trade with than they needed for themselves, as they could
agricultural societies if they lived in close enough trade this surplus for other goods.
proximity to them. For non-farmers, this meant that they could focus
A mix of cooperation and conflict resulted from the on making other goods and trading these goods for
relationship between pastoralists and farmers. food and other things. People could specialize—
Pastoralists’ military-related artifacts suggest that focus on doing one thing—which led to increased
they may have come into conflict with farming productivity.
societies; however, in other cases, pastoralists Increased productivity led to the creation of better
traded goods with farmers in a cooperative buildings, tools, weapons, and also to the rise of
relationship. governments to oversee this activity and military
forces to protect people and resources.
Impact of Agriculture
Many population centers evolved into the first
The impact of agriculture has been profound on wave of city-states that emerged within a few
humanity, most clearly in terms of population. This thousand years of the agricultural revolution.
is because breeding plants and animals has Eventually those states began to have complex
significantly increased the availability of human bureaucracies to tax and administer their people, a
consumable calories per square kilometer. significant catalyst for the birth of writing, which
One way to think about it is that we replaced things was transformational for civilization.
that weren’t consumable by humans with things
that were. Through techniques like irrigation, we First civilizations
were also able to make things grow where they
might not have before. The first civilizations appeared in major river
valleys, where floodplains contained rich soil and
To put this in perspective, before the agricultural the rivers provided irrigation for crops and a
revolution experts estimate that there were six to means of transportation.
ten million people, which is about how many Foundational civilizations developed urbanization
hunter-foragers the Earth could sustain. By the and complexity without outside influence and
time of the Roman Empire, about 10,000 years without building on a pre-existing civilization,
later, the world population had grown over 25-fold though they did not all develop simultaneously.
to 250 million. Fast forward 2000 years to the Many later civilizations either borrowed elements
present, and the population has grown another 28- of, built on, or incorporated—through conquest—
fold to seven billion. In roughly 10,000 to 15,000 other civilizations.
years, advances in agriculture have allowed the
human population to become roughly 1000 times Because foundational civilizations arose
larger! independently, they are particularly useful to
historians and archaeologists who want to
Agriculture also has had environmental impacts. understand how civilization first developed.
Farmers used complex tools to cultivate and
irrigate their fields and to build settlements. To Gray world map showing probable areas of
expand their amount of usable land, agriculturalists independent development of agriculture, in green,
in the Middle East, sub-Saharan Africa, China, Peru, example, the kings—later called pharaohs—
Mexico, and North America. Possible routes of practiced divine kingship, claiming to be
diffusion across the globe are drawn in blue. representatives, or even human incarnations, of
gods.
Geography alone cannot explain the rise of the first
civilizations. The process of agricultural Both political and religious organization helped to
intensification had been going on for thousands of create and reinforce social hierarchies, which are
years before the first civilizations appeared, and it clear distinctions in status between individual
is important to remember that while agricultural people and between different groups. Political
surpluses were necessary for civilization, their leaders could make decisions that impacted entire
existence in a given place did not guarantee that a societies, such as whether to go to war.
civilization would develop.As civilizations grew, Religious leaders gained special status since they
they required increased intensification of alone could communicate between a society and
agriculture to maintain themselves. its god or gods.

What do civilizations have in common? In addition to these leaders, there were also
artisans who provided goods and services, and
Cities were at the center of all early civilizations. merchants who engaged in the trade of these
People from surrounding areas came to cities to goods. There were also lower classes of laborers
live, work, and trade. This meant that large who performed less specialized work, and in some
populations of individuals who did not know each cases there were slaves. All of these classes added
other lived and interacted with one another. So, to the complexity and economic production of a
shared institutions, such as government, religion, city.
and language helped create a sense of unity and
also led to more specialized roles, such as Writing emerged in many early civilizations as a
bureaucrats, priests, and scribes. way to keep records and better manage complex
institutions. Cuneiform writing in early
Cities concentrated political, religious, and social Mesopotamia was first used to keep track of
institutions that were previously spread across economic exchanges. Oracle bone inscriptions in
many smaller, separate communities, which Ancient China seem to have been tied to efforts to
contributed to the development of states. predict the future and may have had spiritual
State associations. Quipu—knotted strings used to keep
- is an organized community that lives under records and perform calculations—appeared in
a single political structure. South America. In all the places where writing
- A present-day country is a state in this developed—no matter its form or purpose—
sense, for example. Many civilizations either literacy, or the ability to read and write, was
grew alongside a state or included several limited to small groups of highly educated elites,
states. The political structures that states such as scribes and priests.
provided were an important factor in the
rise of civilizations because they made it Black-and-white drawing of quipu. Fifteen vertical
possible to mobilize large amounts of pieces of string are attached to one horizontal rope
resources and labor and also tied larger of string. Each string has one or more knots placed
communities together by connecting them at different junctures along its length.
under a common political system.
Is it writing? A quipu was a system of knotted
Early civilizations were often unified by religion—a strings that could be used to perform calculations
system of beliefs and behaviors that deal with the and to record transactions. Evidence for the use of
meaning of existence. As more and more people quipu has been found in many Andean cultures
shared the same set of beliefs and practices, over the past several millenia. Image courtesy
people who did not know each other could find Wikimedia Commons.
common ground and build mutual trust and
respect. Writing offered new methods for maintaining law
and order, as well. The first legal codes, or written
It was typical for politics and religion to be collections of laws, were the Code of Ur-Nammu
strongly connected. In some cases, political leaders from Sumer, written around 2100 to 2050 BCE and
also acted as religious leaders. In other cases, the Code of Hammurabi from Babylon, written
religious leaders were different from the political around 1760 BCE. The benefit of written laws was
rulers but still worked to justify and support the that they created consistency in the legal system.
power of the political leaders. In Ancient Egypt, for
Law Code of Hammurabi inscribed on a black stone on two sides into a large, rectangular brick-lined
slab, rounded at the top and rectangular at the pit. Wooden stakes and wire encircle the perimeter,
bottom. At the rounded top of the slab, taking up preventing entry by modern-day tourists.
about a quarter of the space on the front, is a relief
sculpture of two people, one sitting in a throne and Characteristics of Early Civilizations
wearing an elaborate gown, the other standing
with their arms crossed. The lower portion of the The growth of agriculture resulted in
slab has law codes written on it in cuneiform. intensification, which had important consequences
for social organization.Larger groups gave rise to
Law Code of Hammurabi inscribed on basalt stele. new challenges and required more sophisticated
systems of social administration.
This shift toward writing down more information Complex societies took the forms of larger
might not seem like a significant development, agricultural villages, cities, city-states, and states,
especially since most people were unable to read which shared many features.
or write. However, having consistent, shared
records, laws, and literature helped to strengthen - Specialized labor gave rise to distinct social
ties between increasingly large groups. classes and enabled creative and innovative
developments.
Another notable feature of many civilizations was - Systems of record-keeping and symbolic
monumental architecture. This type of expression grew more complex, and many
architecture was often created for political reasons, societies had systems of writing.
religious purposes, or for the public good. The
pyramids of Egypt, for example, were monuments Larger Social Group Formation
to deceased rulers. The ziggurats of Mesopotamia
and the pyramids of early American societies were - In various parts of the world, including the
platforms for temples. Defensive walls and sewer valleys of the Tigris-Euphrates, Nile, Indus,
systems provided defense and sanitation, and Huang rivers, larger and denser
respectively. Although a few examples of settlements began to emerge.
monumental architecture from pre-agricultural - These large concentrations of people are
societies exist, the greater organization and referred to as complex societies or
resources that came with civilization made it much civilizations, which share many features,
easier to build large structures. including having a dense population, an
agriculture-based economy, a social
There were many features that early civilizations hierarchy, a division of labor and
had in common. Most civilizations developed from specialization, a centralized government,
agrarian communities that provided enough food monuments, record-keeping and writing,
to support cities. and complex systems of belief.
Cities intensified social hierarchies based on
gender, wealth, and division of labor. These complex societies most often took the shape
Some developed powerful states and armies, which of cities or city-states like Uruk and Ur. These first
could only be maintained through taxes. cities were nexuses of power, production, culture,
and innovation. Sustaining these cities was not
Civilization is a tricky concept for many reasons. easy, however. It required extensive and often
For one thing, it can be difficult to define what irreversible manipulation of the surrounding
counts as a civilization and what does not, since environment in order to extract energy in the form
experts don’t all agree which conditions make up of firewood, materials for building like stone, and
a civilization. For example, people living in the resources like food and water. Because of this,
Niger River Valley in West Africa achieved these cities were very sensitive to fluctuations in
agricultural surplus, urbanization, and some weather and climate.
specialization of labor, but they never developed - A flood could destroy the entire supply of
strong social hierarchies, political structures, or barley, for example, and a drought could
written language—so scholars disagree on whether make water supplies worryingly scarce.
to classify it as a civilization. Also, due to extensive - Because these societies were densely
cultural exchange and diffusion of technology, it populated, disease, conflict, and shortages
can be difficult to draw a line where one civilization were felt even more dramatically. An
ends and another begins. outbreak of a disease could quickly become
an epidemic. In response to these
The Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro: Amid the brick vulnerabilities, these communities
ruins of a 3rd-millennium BCE city, stairs descend developed ways to anticipate the changes in
 their natural environments, such as storing shows extensive use of technology, literature,
food and water. legal codes, philosophy, religion, and architecture
in these societies.

Formation of Governments and Social Classes Civilization Born Along Rivers

Civilizations evoke images of stone walls, By roughly 6000 to 8000 years ago, agriculture was
monuments, and roads, but they are more than well under way in several regions including Ancient
robust physical infrastructure. Egypt, around the Nile River; the Indus Valley
civilization; Mesopotamia, between the Tigris and
To facilitate the organization and administration of Euphrates rivers; and Ancient China, along the
these large, dense communities, people began to Yellow and Yangtze rivers. This is because the
create social infrastructures: economic, political, regular river floods made for fertile soil around the
and religious institutions that created new social banks and the rivers could also supply fresh water
hierarchies. to irrigate crops. It’s no coincidence that as
agriculture allowed for denser and denser
These hierarchies were populated with people populations along with more specialized societies,
playing specialized roles, such as professional some of the world’s first civilizations developed in
administrators, farmers, artisans, traders, these areas as well.
merchants, and spiritual leaders. Additionally, due
to increased trade and conflict with external Ancient Mesopotamia
civilizations, cities required diplomats, armies, and
centralized rulers. Mesopotamia—mainly modern-day Iraq and
Kuwait—in particular is often referred to as the
In the foreground, low walls built with tan-colored cradle of civilization because some of the most
brick and stone, forming the perimeter of influential early city-states and empires first
rectangular rooms. In the background, a tall emerged there—although it’s not the only place!
copper-colored stone structure, with a wide base Its modern name comes from the Greek for middle
and a tapering top. —mesos—and river—potamos—and literally
means a “country between two rivers.” Those two
Most cities grew out of villages, and some rivers are the Tigris and Euphrates. Not only was
ultimately became city-states, which are self- Mesopotamia one of the first places to develop
governing urban centers and the agricultural agriculture, it was also at the crossroads of the
territories under their control. The surplus food Egyptian and the Indus Valley civilizations. This
production generated by villages in the vicinity made it a melting pot of languages and cultures
allowed for some residents not to participate in that stimulated a lasting impact on writing,
food production, which led to the development of technology, language, trade, religion, and law.
distinct specialized roles and associated classes.
Associated with Mesopotamia are ancient cultures
In order to facilitate cooperation between these like the
many different classes and to organize large 1. Sumerians,
numbers of people to work together for the large- 2. Assyrians,
scale construction of irrigation systems, 3. Akkadians, and
monuments, and other projects, leaders were 4. Babylonians.
required, comprising a new social class.
Political leadership would take many different Learning about this time period can be a little
forms in the first civilizations, though powerful confusing because these cultures interacted with
states, centralized systems of government and and ruled over each other over the course of
command, were the norm. several thousand years. These terms can also be
associated with city-states, languages, religions, or
Ancient Mesopotamian Civilization empires—depending on the time and context we
are looking at.
Overview.Mesopotamian civilizations formed on
the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in what 1. Sumerians
is today Iraq and Kuwait. Early civilizations began to
form around the time of the Neolithic Revolution— - first took form in southern Mesopotamia
12000 BCE. Some of the major Mesopotamian around 4000 BCE—or 6000 years ago—
civilizations include the Sumerian, Assyrian, which would make it the first urban
Akkadian, and Babylonian civilizations.Evidence civilization in the region.
 3. Assyrian Empire
Mesopotamians are noted for developing one of
the first written scripts around 3000 BCE: wedge- Assyria
shaped marks pressed into clay tablets. This - named for its original capital, the ancient
cuneiform—another way to say wedge-shaped— city of Ašur—also known as Ashur—in
script was also adapted by surrounding peoples to northern Mesopotamia. Ashur was
write their own languages for roughly 2000 years, originally one of a number of Akkadian-
until Phoenician, which the letters you are reading speaking city states ruled by Sargon and his
now are based on, began to become the dominant descendents during the Akkadian Empire.
script in the first millennium BCE. Within several hundred years of the
collapse of the Akkadian Empire, Assyria
Cuneiform is also the script that one of the world’s had become a major empire.
first great works of literature, The Epic of
Gilgamesh, was written in. Mesopotamians used Akkadian-speaking Assyrians were the dominant
writing to record sales and purchases, to write power in Mesopotamia, especially in the north.
letters to one another, and to tell stories.
The incredibly important invention of the wheel is The empire reached its peak near the end of this
also credited to the Sumerians; the earliest period in the seventh century. At that time, the
discovered wheel dates to 3500 BCE in Assyrian Empire stretched from Egypt and Cyprus
Mesopotamia. in the west to the borders of Persia—modern-day
Iran—in the east.
Sumerians built ships that allowed them to travel
into the Persian Gulf and trade with other early The major exceptions to Assyrian dominance were
civilizations, such as the Harappans in northern the Babylonian Empire established by Hammurabi
India. They traded textiles, leather goods, and and some more chaotic dark ages where there
jewelry for Harappan semi-precious stones, copper, wasn’t a dominant power.
pearls, and ivory.
4. Babylon
Sumerian religion was polytheistic—or worshipped
multiple gods—many of which were Babylon
anthropomorphic—they took human-like form. - minor city-state in central Mesopotamia for
Temples to these gods were constructed atop a century after it was founded in 1894 BCE.
massive ziggurats which were in the centers of Things changed with the reign of
most cities. These structures would have taken Hammurabi, from 1792 to 1750 BCE.
thousands of people many years to construct. - He was an efficient ruler, establishing a
centralized bureaucracy with taxation.
2. Akkadian Empire Hammurabi freed Babylon from foreign rule
and then conquered the whole of southern
AkkadianS Mesopotamia, bringing stability and the
- named after the city-state of Akkad. The name of Babylonia to the region.
Akkadian language is related to the modern
languages of Hebrew and Arabic. These One of the most important works of this First
languages are known as Semitic languages. Dynasty of Babylon was the compilation in about
- The term Semitic comes from the biblical 1754 BCE of a code of laws, called the Code of
character Shem, a son of Noah, the Hammurabi, which echoed and improved upon the
purported progenitor of Abraham and, earlier written laws of Sumer, Akkad, and Assyria.
accordingly, the Jewish and Arab people. It’s similar to the Sumerian king Ur-Nammu of Ur’s
code, written from 2100 to 2050 BCE.
Around 2334 BCE, Sargon of Akkad came to power
and established what might have been the world’s Hammurabi’s code is one of the oldest deciphered
first dynastic empire. writings of significant length in the world. Written
in about 1754 BCE by the sixth king of Babylon,
The Akkadian Empire ruled over both the Akkadian Hammurabi, the Code was written on stone stele—
and Sumerian speakers in Mesopotamia and the slabs—and clay tablets.
Levant—modern day Syria and Lebanon.
The Code consists of 282 laws with scaled
The Empire of Akkad collapsed in 2154 BCE, within punishments depending on social status, adjusting
180 years of its founding. "an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth".
For example, if a person from a noble class broke This annual flooding was vital to agriculture
an enslaved person’s arm, they would have to pay because it deposited a new layer of nutrient-rich
a fine, whereas if a noble person broke another soil each year.
noble person's arm, the offending noble would
have their arm broken. Some have seen the Code In years when the Nile did not flood, the nutrient
as an early form of constitutional government, the level in the soil was seriously depleted, and the
presumption of innocence, and the ability to chance of food shortages increased greatly. Food
present evidence in one's case. supplies had political effects, as well, and periods
of drought probably contributed to the decline of
The Babylonian Empire established by Hammurabi Egyptian political unity at the ends of both the Old
lasted for 260 years until Babylon got sacked by and Middle Kingdoms.
invaders in 1531 BCE. In the period between 626
BCE and 539 BCE, A leader named either Narmer or Menes—sources
are unclear on whether these were the same
Babylon asserted itself again over the region with person!—united Egypt politically when he gained
the Neo-Babylonian Empire. This new empire was control of both Upper and Lower Egypt.
overthrown in 539 BCE by the Persians who then
ruled over the region until the time of Alexander Map of Ancient Egypt and the Mediterranean and
the Great, 335 BCE. Red seas. Land is beige and the habitable regions of
Egypt are highlighted in Green (all along the Nile
Ancient Egyptian Civilization River and the delta that opens out to the
Mediterranean Sea in the north).
Early Egypt
Lower Egypt is the northern region and Upper
- Egypt is divided into three “kingdom” Egypt is the southern region of this map.
periods—Old, Middle, and New—with
shorter intermediate periods separating the Lower Egypt is the delta region in the north, and
kingdoms. Upper Egypt refers to the southern portion of the
country, which is upriver from the delta. You may
- The term "intermediate" here refers to the encounter this terminology when reading about
fact that during these times Egypt was not a rivers in history, so a good trick is to remember
unified political power, and thus was in that rivers flow downhill, so the river is lower
between powerful kingdoms. toward its end at the sea and higher closer to its
- Even before the Old Kingdom period, the source!
foundations of Egyptian civilization were
being laid for thousands of years, as people After political unification, divine kingship, or the
living near the Nile increasingly focused on idea that a political ruler held his power by favor of
sedentary agriculture, which led to a god or gods—or that he was a living incarnation
urbanization and specialized, non- of a god—became firmly established in Egypt.
agricultural economic activity. - For example, in the mythology that
developed around unification, Narmer was
Around this time, the Sahara Desert expanded. portrayed as Horus, a god of Lower Egypt,
Some scientists think this expansion was caused by where Narmer originally ruled. He
a slight shift in the tilt of the Earth. Others have conquered Set, a god of Upper Egypt. This
explored changing rainfall patterns, but the specific mythologized version of actual political
causes are not entirely clear. The most important events added legitimacy to the king’s rule.
result of this expansion of the Sahara for human
civilization was that it pushed humans closer to the The use of hieroglyphics—a form of writing that
Nile River in search of reliable water sources. used images to express sounds and meanings—
likely began in this period.
Apart from the delta region, where the river
spreads out as it flows into the sea, most As the Egyptian state grew in power and influence,
settlements in the Nile Valley were confined to it was better able to mobilize resources for large-
within a few miles of the river itself. The Nile River scale projects and required better methods of
flooded annually; this flooding was so regular that record-keeping to organize and manage an
the ancient Egyptians set their three seasons— increasingly large state.
Inundation, or flooding, Growth, and Harvest— During the Middle Kingdom, Egyptians began to
around it. write literature, as well. Some writing was
preserved on stone or clay, and some was
preserved on papyrus, a paper-like product made The builders of the pyramids were not enslaved
from reed fiber. Papyrus is very fragile, but due to people but peasants, working on the pyramids
the hot and dry climate of Egypt, a few papyrus during the farming off-season. These peasants
documents have survived. Hieroglyphic writing also worked alongside specialists like stone cutters,
became an important tool for historians studying mathematicians, and priests. As a form of taxation,
ancient Egypt once it was translated in the early each household was required to provide a worker
1800s. for these projects, although the wealthy could pay
for a substitute. This demonstrates both the power
An example of New Kingdom hieroglyphics from of the state to force people to provide labor and
the thirteenth century BCE. Four vertical columns also the advantages enjoyed by elites, who could
of colorfully painted hieroglyphics on a white buy their way out of providing labor.
background depict birds, eyes, a crab, and pottery,
among other images. Egyptians also began to build ships, constructed of
wooden planks tied together with rope and stuffed
As rulers became more powerful, they were better with reeds, to trade goods such as ebony, incense,
able to coordinate labor and resources to construct gold, copper, and Lebanese cedar—which was
major projects, and more people required larger particularly important for construction projects—
supplies of food. Projects to improve agricultural along maritime routes.
production, such as levees and canals became
more important. Irrigation practices consisted of New Kingdom Around 1550 BCE
building mud levees—which were walls of
compacted dirt that directed the annual flooding - New Kingdom period of Egyptian history
onto farmland and kept it away from living areas— began with the expulsion of the Hyksos
and of digging canals to direct water to fields as from Egypt and the restoration of
crops were growing. centralized political control.
- This period was Egypt's most prosperous
Elites, those individuals who were wealthy and time and marked the peak of its power.
powerful, began building larger tombs which were
precursors to the pyramids. These tombs Hatshepsut- Egypt’s most famous female ruler.
represented a growing divide between the elite and - established trade networks that helped
common people in Egyptian society. Only the build the wealth of Egypt and
wealthy and important could afford and be
commissioned hundreds of construction
considered as deserving of such elaborate burials.
projects and pieces of statuary, as well as
an impressive mortuary temple at Deir el-
A mastaba, which was the typical grave marker for
early Egyptian elites. Looks like a pyramid except Bahri.
lower to the ground and with a flat top instead of a - Ordered the repairs to temples that had
pointed one. been neglected or damaged during the
period of Hyksos rule.
Hatshepsut's Temple- is a rectangular with three
Old Kingdom Egypt
tiers and a wide ramp in the center. At the top tier,
During the Old Kingdom period, Egypt was largely set furthest back into the rock formation, there are
unified as a single state; it gained in complexity and statues placed in front of columns. All the columns
expanded militarily. and doorways are long and rectangular.
- Old Kingdom rulers built the first pyramids,
Pharaoh- A term originally referred to the king's
which were both tombs and monuments for
palace and became a form of address for the king
the kings who had them built. Building
monumental architecture—such as the during this period. It further emphasizing the idea
Great Pyramid and the Sphinx in Giza, and of divine kingship.
temples for different gods—required a - Pharaohs is associated with the god Amun-
centralized government that could Ra.
command vast resources.
mid-1300s BCE- one pharaoh attempted to alter
Great Sphinx of Giza (mythical creature with a this tradition when he chose to worship Aten
human head and a lion's body) and the pyramid of exclusively and even changed his name to
Khafre. The tourists in the photo look like specks Akhenaten in honor of that god. Some scholars
compared to these structures.
interpret this as the first instance of monotheism, civilizations in the region, also assisted pastoralists
or the belief in a single god. and agrarian civilizations.
Pharaohs Seti I and Ramesses- New Kingdom Egypt Culture
reached the height of its power under their role.
Language of Hittite- was a member of Indo-
- They fought to expand Egyptian power European, a family of related languages that today
against the Libyans to the west and the are widely spoken in the Americas, Europe, and
Hittites to the north. Western and Southern Asia.
City of Kadesh- located on the border between the Hittites- named because of their initial
two empires was a source of conflict between the identification with the Biblical Hittites, according to
Egyptians and the Hittites, after several battles, nineteenth-century archaeology. Hittites are
they ultimately agreeing to the world’s first known usually referred to as a people living among the
peace treaty. Israelites.
Third Intermediate Period: 1069-664 BCE 3000BCE- the Hittites were pioneers of the Iron Age
and began manufacturing iron artifacts around
The costs of war, increased droughts, famine,
1400 BCE. The use of iron and steel created tools
civil unrest, and official corruption ultimately
and weapons that were more efficient than those
fragmented Egypt into a collection of locally
made of bronze.
governed city-states. Taking advantage of this
political division, a military force from the Nubian - Some scholars believe the Hittites had been
kingdom of Kushin the south conquered and united experimenting with metalworking for years,
Lower Egypt, Upper Egypt, and Kush. The Kushites eventually leading them to discover a
were then driven out of Egypt in 670 BCE by the smelting process that would melt iron,
Assyrians, who established client state (a political which melts at a higher temperature than
entity that is self-governing but pays tribute to a other metals like copper or tin.
more powerful state) in Egypt. - It’s also possible that the Hittites learned
some of this technology from peoples in the
In 656 BCE- Egypt was again reunited and broke
Zagros Mountains in western Iran. The
away from Assyrian control. The country
Hittites’ trading partners in Assyria and
experienced a period of peace and prosperity until
parts of the Egyptian empire had a high
525 BCE.
demand for iron products.
Persian king Cambyses- defeated the Egyptian
After 1180 BCE- amid general turmoil in the Levant
rulers and took the title of Pharaoh for himself,
with the sudden arrival of the Sea Peoples—people
along with his title as king of Persia.
of unknown nationality who used ships to raid
The Hittites and Ancient Anatolia Mediterranean and Egyptian cities—the kingdom
scattered into several independent Neo-Hittite city-
The Hittites were an ancient group of Indo-
states.
Europeans who moved into Asian Minor and
formed an empire at Hattusa in Anatolia (modern Cuneiform texts- The history of the Hittite
Turkey) around 1600 BCE. civilization is known mostly from cuneiform texts
found in their former kingdom and from diplomatic
mid-1300s BCE- The Hittite Empire reached great
and commercial mail found in archives in Egypt and
heights when it spread across Asia Minor, into the
the Middle East. Mesopotamians’ writing
northern Levant and Upper Mesopotamia.
technology was transferred to the Hittites
about 1180 BCE- the empire ended and splintered
Government
into several independent Neo-Hittite—new Hittite
—city-states, some of which survived until the King- The head of the Hittite state, followed by the
eighth century BCE. heir-apparent—one of the king’s offspring born
into the position of succeeding him.
Domestication of horses- Like many Indo-
Europeans, the Hittites were able to travel long - Some officials, however, exercised
distances and migrate to other lands. The spread of independent authority over various
technologies like the wheel and wagon, which were branches of the government, so the king did
also used in ancient Mesopotamia and other early not control all aspects of the kingdom.
 - Hittites wrote using Akkadian script but in technology was some of the most
their own Indo-European language and sophisticated of its time.
used cylinder seals to sign documents and
Indus Valley Civilization
mark property as people did throughout
Mesopotamia, suggesting a link between - The Indus River Valley Civilization, 3300-
the two cultures. 1300 BCE, also known as the Harappan
Civilization, extended from modern-day
Religion
northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and
Storm gods- were prominent in the Hittite northwest India.
pantheon—the set of all the gods in a polytheistic - The civilization likely ended due to climate
religion. Tarhunt- was referred to as The change and migration
Conqueror. The King of Kummiya, King of Heaven, - population of over five million people
and Lord of the land of Hatti. He was the god of - The Indus cities are noted for their urban
battle and victory, especially against foreign planning, a technical and political process
powers. This might indicate that the Hittites placed concerned with the use of land and design
value on military might. of the urban environment. They are also
noted for their baked brick houses,
The Battle of Kadesh
elaborate drainage systems, water supply
- One military engagement the Hittites are systems, and clusters of large,
famous for against the Egyptian pharaoh nonresidential buildings.
Ramesses II’s army in 1274 BCE.
Important innovations/Contributions
- Ramesses claimed a great victory for Egypt:
he had defeated his enemy in battle. - standardized weights and measures
Muwatalli also claimed victory because he - seal carving, and metallurgy with copper,
didn’t lose Kadesh. bronze, lead, and tin.
- This battle led to the first known peace
In 1856, British colonial officials in India were
treaty in the history of the world, in 1258
busy monitoring the construction of railway
BCE.
connecting the cities of Lahore and Karachi in
Conflict between Hittites and Egyptians modern-day Pakistan along the Indus River valley.
some of the laborers discovered many fire-baked
The Hittites had been making headway into
bricks lodged in the dry terrain and used some of
the Egyptian empire and had caused trouble for the
them to construct the roadbed. Among the bricks
Pharaoh Tutmoses III.
stone artifacts made of soapstone, featuring
Pharaoh Ramesses II- resolved to drive the Hittites intricate artistic markings.
from his borders. He hoped to gain an advantage
1920s- First major excavation takes place on the
by capturing of the city of Kadesh, a center of
upon the remnants of the Indus Valley Civilization,
commerce which the Hittites held. Ramesses
also known as the Harappan Civilization where
marched from Egypt at the head of over 20,000
archeologist thought that it was Maurya Empire.
soldiers in four divisions to fight against the troops
of Hittites. - Before the excavation of these Harappan
cities, scholars thought that Indian
Muwatalli- the king of the Hittites.
civilization had begun in the Ganges valley
Battle as Aryan immigrants from Persia and
central Asia populated the region around
- The Egyptian and Hittite both claimed
1250 BCE.
victory because their armies were evenly
matched. Mehrgarh- origin of settlements in the foothills of a
- The Egyptian chariots were faster because mountain pass in modern-day Balochistan in
they only had two people aboard them, western Pakistan. There is evidence of settlement
while the Hittite chariots accommodated an in this area as early as 7000 BCE.
extra person, allowing more spears to be
The Indus Valley Civilization is often separated
thrown from each chariot.
into three phases:
- The combination of chariots and iron tools,
which were stronger than bronze ones, 1. Early Harappa Phase from 3300 to 2600 BCE
meant that the Egyptian and Hittite military
 2. Mature Harappan Phase from 2600 to - Capital cities
1900BCE • Chang’an- 206 BCE-9 CE (all of the Former or
3. Late Harappan Phase from 1900 to 1300 Western Han) and 190-195 CE (Later or Eastern
BCE. Han)
around 1800 BCE- Indus Valley Civilization began to Luoyang -25-190 CE and 196 CE (most of the Later
decline. or Eastern Han)
- trade with Mesopotamia, located largely in • Xuchang- 196-220 CE (very end of the Later or
modern Iraq, seemed to have ended. Eastern Han)
- advanced drainage systems and baths of
• Lowered taxes
the great cities were built over or blocked.
- Writing began to disappear, and • Less harsh punishments
- the standardized weights and measures
Empress Lu
used for trade and taxation fell out of use.
- One of Liu Bang’s widows
The Han Dynasty of China: A Chinese Golden Age
- Retained power by naming various
(206 BCE-220 CE) - Children as emperor in turn
- Example of power gained through the
Historical Setting of the Han
manipulation of court politics
• Followed the Qin dynasty - Families vied for power
- Alliances among powerful and influential
221-206 BCE- Qin ended in rebellion and civil war
people
due to weak ruler and unrest (206-202 BCE)
Wudi – The Martial Emperor (lived 141-87 BCE).
• Han dynasty was China’s second Imperial dynasty
- Used warfare to expand the Chinese empire
- 206 (or 202) BCE-220 CE • Over 400 years Northern steppes
• Followed by the Three Kingdoms -220-265 CE
• Xiongnu-steppe nomads from the north and
Liu Bang – Emperor Gaozu of Han west.

Civil war - Commonly raided Chinese villages

- Traditionally kept at bay through bribery
- Two strong leaders
- Wudi made allies of the Xiongnu’s enemies
• Xiang Yu (aristocratic general)
and sent in 100,000 soldiers
• Liu Bang (peasant-class general under Xiang Yu) - Pushed the Xiongnu back
- Settled soldiers on former Xiongnu lands
202 BCE- Liu Bang beat Xiang Yu for good
- But the nomads of the steppes provided
- Liu Bang declared start of Han dynasty ongoing conflict
Liu Bang reigned 202 BCE-195 BCE. Modern-day Korea, Manchuria, Vietnam, etc.

Two Periods of the Han Dynasty - Conquered and colonized

- Borders under Wudi nearly what they are
• Former Han
today
- Also called the Western Han Social Classes under the Han
- 206 BCE-9 CE
Emperor
Interrupted by the Xin dynasty
Governors and Kings
- Under Wang Mang
-9-23 CE Nobles, Scholars, And State Officials

Later Han Peasants (Farmers)

- Also called the Eastern Han Artisans and Merchants

-25-220 CE
Soldiers
Government under the Han
Slaves
• Centralized government
Bureaucracy under the Han
 • Taxes supported the government and Military Shang Dynasty Civilization
• Merchants- Paid taxes Religious practices of Shang Dynasty.
• Peasants- Gave the government a portion of - veneration of dead ancestors.
their annual crops and each year gave a month - Shang people made sacrifices to and asked
of labor (for public works projects) or of questions of their ancestors.
military service - Ancient Chinese nobles sought to tell the
future by writing on bone fragments or
Civil Service under the Han
pieces of turtle shell and throwing those
- Over 130,000 employees bones into a fire; the fortune seekers saw
- 18 ranks of employees Civil service exams messages about the future in the cracks
- Confucian principles described the qualities that formed (Pyro-osteomancy)
that emperors wanted in civil servants
Shang dynasty craftspeople mastered bronze,
- Wudi set up a Confucian-themed school
an alloy of copper and tin; bronze weapons gave
- Formal examinations in Confucianism,
Shang foot soldiers and charioteers a tactical
history, law, and literature for civil service
advantage in combat.
positions
- Theoretically a merit-based system but poor The very earliest period in traditional Chinese
could not afford to educate their children history is called the Mythical Period, when—
- In effect until the downfall of China’s last according to legend—the Xia dynasty ruled China.
dynasty in 1912 The Shang dynasty, the first historically confirmed
Technology under the Han dynasty, supposedly began when the Shang
overthrew the Xia sometime around 1760 BCE.
Paper
The Shang dynasty- is the oldest Chinese dynasty
- Invented in 105 CE
whose existence is supported by archaeological
- Books became inexpensive to produce;
finds. It’s estimated that the Shang ruled the Yellow
expanded education
River Valley of China for most of the second
- Bureaucracy grew and became more
millennium BCE—so about 1766 to 1046 BCE.
efficient
Collar harness dragon bones—bones and shells with mysterious
inscriptions—in many parts of China. These
- Horses could carry heavier loads
artifacts contained records dating back to the
- Best harness available at the time
Shang dynasty, allowing scholars to learn much
worldwide
about Shang life, such as their agricultural
Plow
methods, medical treatments, legal system, and
• The Chinese made one with two blades craft making styles.

• Much more efficient The Shang built cities

Wheelbarrow - strong social class divisions

- expanded earlier irrigation systems
- Invented independently (Greeks had
- excelled in the use of bronze
invented as well)
- developed a writing system.
- Central wheel and axle let Chinese
- Shang kings fulfilled a sacred, not political,
wheelbarrows carry very heavy weights
role, while a council of chosen advisers and
Waterwheel
bureaucrats—official administrators—
- Used to power things such as the bellows organized and ran the government.
for smelting iron
Loess- a fertile sediment that allowed Shang-era
Agriculture under the Han
farmers to grow large surplus of food, found in
- Population of 60,000,000 to be fed massive amount in the banks of Yellow River. This
- Farming thought to be a pivotal and supported specialization and allowed a class of
honored occupation Shang artisans and crafts people to develop
But in reality, small farmers were burdened by sophisticated technology and culture.
government taxes and became heavily indebted to
Zhou- overthrown Shang dynasty in 1046 BCE, a
the rich.
subject people—a people who lived under imperial
rule—living in the western part of the kingdom, but - functioned as a sacred capital, where the
their cultural contributions carried on through most sacred temples and religious objects
future dynasties. were housed. This city also had palaces,
workshops, and city walls.
Writing and Culture
Shang, along with other ancient Chinese cities, had
Oracle bones- The oldest surviving form of Chinese
two city walls—one inner and one outer wall. It is
writing is found as inscriptions of divination records
designed to separate different social classes.
on the bones or shells of animals.
Inner wall- which enclosed a temple area,
- Oracle bones are pieces of bone or turtle
cemetery sites, bronze foundries, bronze casting
shell that were used by the ancient Chinese,
areas, and bone workshops. The inner walls thus
especially Chinese kings, in attempts to
encircled an area of political elite and craft
predict the future.
specialists, who together were the engineers of the
- The ancient kings would inscribe their name
important ritual performances.
and the date on the bone along with a
question. They would then heat the bone Outer wall- where the common residents live.
until it cracked and then interpret the shape
KING- where the power of Shan dynasty was
of the crack, which was believed to provide
concentrated, whose political authority was
an answer to their question
reinforced by the Shang religion. To consolidate
Technological Innovation and Exchange their authority further, kings often went on
excursions and military expeditions to walled towns
Bronze- an alloy of copper and tin, was a hugely
outside the capitals where aristocrats had a lot of
important metal during the Shang period.
influence.
- Shang metal workers developed a highly
- Consolidating power in these areas was
sophisticated method for casting bronze
crucial, as control of peasant-farmed
and used it to make ceremonial objects and
agricultural territories ensured sufficient
weapons.
resources for the inhabitants of the walled
- Bronze swords and spearheads were
towns.
stronger than other available metals, giving
Shang soldiers an advantage in battle. CHAPTER 2: The Civilization of the Greeks
- A Shang dynasty bronze vessel, often
The ancient Greeks lived in many lands
ceremonial objects, used to make offerings
around the Mediterranean Sea, from Turkey to the
to ancestors.
south of France. They had close contacts with other
Chariot- a two-wheeled war cart pulled by horses, people such as the Egyptians, Syrians, and Persians.
allowed Shang soldiers to move vast distances at The Greeks lived in separate city-states but shared
great speeds and acted as a mobile archery the same language and religious beliefs.
platform.
Bronze Age Greece
- Members of the royal household were often
During the Bronze Age (around 3200 – 1100
buried with a chariot, horses, and a
B.C.E.)- a number of cultures flourished on the
charioteer.
islands of the Cyclades, in Crete and on the Greek
- Shang archers also had composite bow
mainland. They were mainly farmers, but trade
made by combining animal sinew and horn
across the sea, particularly in raw materials such as
or bone with wood.
obsidian (volcanic glass) and metals, was growing.
"barbarians"- were a constant threat to the safety
about 1600 to 1100 B.C.E- Mycenaean culture
and stability of the kingdom as shown by the oracle
flourished on the Greek mainland in the Late
bone, thus the military need to constantly fight
Bronze Age.
them.
- The name comes from the site of Mycenae,
Power and Social Hierarchy
where the culture was first recognized after
Shang- near modern-day Zhengzhou, it is where the excavations in 1876 of Heinrich
the first Shang ruler supposedly founded a new Schliemann.
capital for his dynasty.
 - Pottery stemmed bowl decorated with a 479 B.C.E., mainland Greece and Athens entered a
procession of riders in chariots, Mycenaean, golden age.
about 1400-1300 B.C.E.
- In drama and philosophy, literature, art and
"Age of heroes"- what Greeks view the Mycenaean architecture, Athens was second to none.
period of the later Greek Bronze Age. The city’s empire stretched from the
western Mediterranean to the Black Sea,
- provides the historical background to many
creating enormous wealth.
of the stories told in later Greek mythology,
including Homer's epics. Parthenon- included in one of the biggest public
- Objects and artworks from this time are building projects ever seen in Greece.
found throughout mainland Greece and the
History of coinage- Ancient Greece also played a
Greek islands.
vital role in the early history of coinage. They made
- These show the beginnings of Greek
some of the world’s earliest coins, the ancient
mythology being used to decorate works of
Greeks were the first to use them extensively in
art. They come from about the same time
trade.
that the epics of Homer were reaching the
form in which we inherit them, as the Hellenistic period
earliest Greek literature.
Following the death of Alexander and the
around 1100 B.C.E- The collapse of Mycenaean division of his empire, the Hellenistic period (323-
civilization brought about a period of isolation 31 B.C.E.) saw Greek power and culture extended
known as the Dark Age. across the Middle East and as far as the Indus
Valley. When Rome absorbed the Greek world into
around 800 B.C.E- the revival had begun as trade
its vast empire, Greek ideas, art, and culture greatly
with the wider world increased, arts, crafts and
influenced the Romans.
writing re-emerged and city-states (poleis)
developed. Alexander- was always shown clean-shaven, which
was an innovation: all previous portraits of Greek
Archaic period
statesmen or rulers had beards.
Two of the most distinctive forms of free-
- This royal fashion lasted for almost five
standing sculpture to emerge during the Archaic
hundred years and almost all the Hellenistic
period of Greek art (about 600-480 B.C.E.) were
kings and Roman emperors until Hadrian
statues of youths (kouroi) and maidens (korai).
were portrayed beardless.
- Kouros (the singular form) is a term used to
THE CIVILIZATION OF GREEKS EARLY GREECE
describe a type of statue of a male figure
produced in marble during the Archaic EARLY GREECE
period of Greek art.
- The mouth is invariably fixed in a smile,
which is probably a symbolic expression of - GREECE occupied a 45,000 miles territory of
the arete ("excellence") of the person a mountainous Peninsula.
represented. It used to be thought that all - -location of Sparta and Olympia
kouroi were intended as representations of - Attica (Attic Peninsula)-the home of Athens
the god Apollo but some use to represent - Boeotia (Thebes-chief city) – located
God or heroes and at times grave markers. northwest of Attica
- The kouros was not intended as a realistic - Thessaly-contained the largest plains; great
portrait of the deceased, but an idealized produces of grains and horses
representation of values and virtues to - Macedonia-located North of Thessaly, was
which the dead laid claim: youthful beauty, not important in Greek history until…
athleticism, and aristocratic bearing, among 385 B.C.E-Macedonian King Philip Il conquered the
others. Greeks.
Classical period MINOAN CRETE
around 500 B.C.E- "rule by the people," or CRETE is the large island where the earliest
democracy, had emerged in the city of Athens. civilization in Aegean region emerged.
Following the defeat of a Persian invasion in 480-
By 28oo B.C.E. Bronze Age Civilization that used - Two Major Groups of Greeks: Aeolian
metals in making weapons had been established. Greeks of northern and central Greece
Land called lonia) Dorians established
2000 B.C.E to 1450 B.C.E, it has reached its height.
themselves in southwestern Greece,
1450 B.C.E-Minoan civilization collapse. especially in Peloponnesus, as well as on
some of south Aegean islands, including
Arthur Evans-named the island "Mincan" after
Crete colonized the large island of Lesbos
Minos, a legendary king of Crete.
and the adjacent territory of the mainland.
Palace at Knossus-the royal seats of the kings; an - Iron replaced bronze in making weapons
elaborate structure that included living rooms, which were more affordable for more
workshops, ivory figurines and suffered a sudden people.
catastrophic jewelry - The century, the Greeks adopted
Phoenician alphabet to give themselves a
Mycenaeans-mainland Greeks.
new system of Writing.
MYCENAE: THE FIRST GREEK STATE - Homer’s work appeared near the very end
of Dark Age.
- Part of the Indo-European family of peoples
THE GREEKS IN A DARK AGE: HOMER AND
who spread from their original location into
HOMERIC GREECE
southern and western Europe, India and
Persia. Iliad and Odyssey- the first great epic poems of
- were above all a warrior people who prided early Greece, based on stories that had been
themselves on their heroic deeds. passed down from generation to generation.
- -developed an extensive commercial
Iliad. Homer's epic poem of the Trojan War, a tale
network like Mycenaean pottery found
of the Greek hero Achilles and how the "wrath of
throughout Mediterranean basin.
Achilles" led to disaster.
Mycenaean-derived from Mycenae; a remarkable
fortified site excavated by the amateur German Odyssey- an epic romance that recounts the
archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann. journeys of one of the Greek heroes, Odysseus,
from the fall of Troy until his eventual return, to his
Mycenae-one center in a Mycenaean Greek
wife, Penelope, twenty years later.
civilization. Flourished between 1600 and 1100
B.C.E. Mycenaean Civilization-flourished between The Greeks regarded liad and Odyssey as
1400 and 1200 B.C.E authentic history.

A Mycenaean Death Mask. This death mask of thin Arete-importance of striving for the excellence
gold was one of several found by Heinrich befitting a hero, is won in a struggle or contest.
Schliemann in his excavation of Grave Circle A at
THE CIVILIZATION OF GREEKS THE GREEK CITY-
Mycenae. The se masks are similar to the gold
STATES
mummy masks used in Egyptian royal tombs.
THE GREEK CITY-STATES (C. 750-500 BCE)
MYCENAE: THE FIRST GREEK STATE
ARCHAIC AGE OF GREECE:
- By the late 13 century, Mycenaean Greece
was showing signs of serious trouble. Two maior development stand out in this era,
Mycenae itself was burned around 1190
- The evolution of the city-state (Polis) as a
B.C.E.
central institution in Greek life.
- Other Mycenaean centers show a similar
- The Greeks’ colonization of the
pattern of destruction.
Mediterranean and Black Seas.
- By 1100 B.C.E., the Mycenaean culture has
Adult Males: citizens with political rights
coming to an end, and the Greek world was
entering a new period of considerable Women and Children: citizens without political
insecurity. rights.
THE GREEKS IN A DARK AGE (C. 1100-750 B.C.E)
THE POLIS- A small but autonomous political unit in
- Large numbers of Greeks left the mainland which all major Political, social, and religious
and migrated across the Aegean Sea to activities were carried out at one central location,
various islands and to the southern shore of
Asia Minor (a strip of
 - Consisted of a city, town, or village was the discipline. Male Spartan at 20: Enrolled in military
focus point where the citizens of the polis service.
could assemble for political, social and
Male Spartan at 30 Allowed to vote; at 60,
religious activities.
retirement.
- Central meeting point a hill (ex. Acropolis of
Athens) A place of refuge during an attack, Spartan Oligarchy:
religious center and others.
- Two Kings-for military affairs; leaders of the
Agora- an open space that served both as a market
Spartan army on its campaign.
and as a place where citizens could assemble.
- Gerousia- a council of elders; 28 citizens
Noncitizens- slaves and resident aliens over the age of 60; elected for life.
- Apella – an assembly of all male citizens.
All citizens- possessed fundamental rights
- Ephors- a group of five men who were
A NEW MILITARY SYSTEM: THE GREEK WAY OF responsible for supervising the education of
WAR youth and the conduct of all citizens.
Discouragements:
- 8th century: a new military order came into
being that was based on hoplites. - Foreigners, travel abroad, studying
HOPLITES- heavily armed infantrymen who wore philosophy, literature or the arts.
bronze or leather helmets, breastplates, and - 500 B.C.E, Spartans had organized a
greaves (shin guards); carried a round shield, a powerful military state that maintained
short sword and thrusting spear about 9 feet long. order and stability in the Peloponnesus.
ATHENS
Phalanx- rectangular formation hoplites made
when they advance into battle, usually eight ranks - 700 BCE, they established a unified polis on
deep. the peninsula of Attica.
- 7th century, monarchy had fallen under the
TYRANNY IN THE GREEK POLIS
control of aristocrats.
Tyrants rise in the 7th and 6th century B.C.E. Archons – a board of nine officials

Tyrants: Rulers who came to power in an Solon-reform-minded aristocrat, sole archon in 594
unconstitutional way; a tyrant was not subject to BCE.
the law.
REFORMS OF SOLON:
- Aristocratic Oligarchies (rule the few)
- cancelled all debts
opposed tyrants and aristocrats.
- outlawed new loans based on humans as
- Tyranny was largely extinguished by the end
collateral
of the 6th century B.C.E.
- Freed people who had fallen into slavery for
- Greeks believed in the rule of law, and
debts
tyranny made a mockery of that ideal.
- Opened new doors to the participation of
SPARTA AND ATHENS
new people
SPARTA- Located in the southeastern of Pisistrus-an aristocrat, siezed power in 560 B.C.E.
Peloponnesus.
Cleisthenes-another aristocrat reformer opposed
- Captured Laconians and Messenians (c. 730 the reestablishment attempt of aristocrat
BCE) oligarchy.
Messenia-has larger population and possessed
REFORMS OF CLEISTHENES:
large and ferile land.
- Created Council of Five Hundred
Helots-derived from a Greek word for “capture” -
(responsible for the administration of both
and made to work for the Spartans.
foreign and financial affairs and prepare the
NEW SPARTA: Reforms were made associated with business that would be handled by the
the name Lycurgus-Spartans became rigidly assembly.
organized and rightly controlled. - All male citizens had final authority in the
passing of laws after free and open debate
Male Spartan at 2: Taken from their mothers to
- The reforms created the foundations for
live in military-style barracks, educate, train, and
Athenian democracy.
 The Athenians, now threatened by the
onslaught of the Persian forces, abandoned their
city.
THE CHALLENGE IN PERSIA
THE HIGHPOINT OF GREEK CIVILIZATION:
- The Greek fleet remained offshore near the
CLASSICAL GREECE
island of Salamis.
- Classical Greece is the name given to the - A few months later, early in 479 B.C.E., the
period of Greek history from around 500 Greeks formed the largest army seen up to
B.C.E. to the conquest of Greece by the that time and decisively defeated the
Macedonian king Philip II in 338 B.C.E. Persian army at Plataea, northwest of
THE CHALLENGE IN PERSIA Attica.
- The Greeks had won the war and now free
- In his play The Persians, Aeschylus reflected
to pursue their own destiny.
what some Greeks perceived to be the
THE GROWTH OF AN ATHENIAN EMPIRE IN THE
difference between themselves and the
AGE OF PERICLES
Persians.
- Persian queen: “Who commands them? - After the defeat of the Persians, Athens
Who is the shepherd of their host?” took over the leadership of the Greek world
- “They are slaves to none, nor are they by forming a defensive alliance against the
subject.” Persians called Delian League.
The lonian Greek cities in Western Asia Minor Island of Delos: Main headquarters
had aready fallen subject to the Persian Empire by
- Pursued the attack against the Persian
the mid-sixth century B.C.E.
Empire.
THE CHALLENGE IN PERSIA - By controlling the Delian League, Athens
had created an empire.
- An unsuccessful revolt by the Ionian cities
 At home, Athenians favored the new
led the Persian ruler Darius to seek revenge
imperial policy, when politics came to be
by attacking the mainland Greeks.
dominated led by Pericles.
- The Persians landed an army on the plain of
 Athens embarked on a policy of expanding
Marathon, 26 miles from Athens.
democracy at home and its new empire
Xerxes- the new Persian monarch after the death
abroad.
of Darius in 486 B.C.E., vowed revenge and planned
 Age of Pericles: witnessed the height of
to invade.
Athenian power and the culmination of its
- They formed a defensive league under brilliant civilization.
Spartan leadership.  Became deeply attached to their
- The Athenians, in the meantime, had democratic system.
acquired a new leader, Themistocles who  The sovereignty of the people was
persuaded his fellow citizens to pursue a embodied in the assembly.
new military policy namely, the THE GROWTH OF AN ATHENIAN EMPIRE IN THE
development of a navy. AGE OF PERICLES
- led a massive invasion force into Greece
- Routine administration of public affairs was
close to 150,000 troops, almost seven
handled by a large body of city magistrate.
hundred naval ships and hundreds of supply
- Male citizens held public office at some
ships to keep the large army fed.
time in their lives.
THE CHALLENGE IN PERSIA
- A board of 10 officials known as generals
A Greek force numbering close to nine was elected by public vote.
thousand, under the leadership of the Spartan king, - Pericles expanded the Athenians
and his contingent of three hundred Spartans, held involvement in democracy.
off the Persian army for 2 days. Unfortunately, a - Power was in the hands of the people.
traitor told the Persians how to use a mountain - Under Pericles, Athens became the leading
path to outflank the Greek force. center of Greek culture.
THE GROWTH OF AN ATHENIAN EMPIRE IN THE
AGE OF PERICLES
 - Persians had destroyed much o of the city - nature of good and evil
during the Persian wars, but Pericles used
- rights of individual
the treasury money of the Delian League to
set in motion a massive program. - nature of divine forces
THE GREAT PELOPONNESIAN WAR AND THE
- nature of human beings
DECLINE OF THE GREEK STATES
The plays of Aristophanes who used both
- During the 40 years after the defeat of the
grotesque masks and obscene jokes to entertain
Persians, the Greek world came to be
the Athenian audience are examples of Old
divided into 2 major camps: Sparta and its
Comedy.
supporters and the Athenian maritime
empire. THE ARTS: THE CLASSICAL IDEAL
- The Athenians planned to remain behind
Greek art was concerned with expressing:
the protective walls of Athens while the
oversears empire and the navy would keep - Eternally true ideals
them supplied. - Human being
- In the second year of the war, however, - Classical style: meant to civilize the emotion
plague devastated the crowded city of architecture, the most important form was the
Athens and wiped out possibly 1/3 of the temple dedicated to a god or goddess.
population Pericles himself the following
Parthenon: most famous building.
year.
- Athens was besieged and surrendered in Greek - developed a Classical style that differed
404. Its walls were torn down, the navy was significantly from the artificial stiffness of the
disbanded, and the Athenian empire was no figures of earlier times.
more. The great war was finally over.
Polyclitus- wrote a treatise on a canon of
CULTURE OF CLASSICAL GREECE
proportions that he illustrated in a work known as
THE WRITING OF HISTORY the Doryphoros.
Herodotus- wrote History of the Persian wars THE GREEK LOVE OFWISDOM
which was commonly regarded as the first real
PHILOSOPHY: “ love of wisdom”
history in Western Civilization.
Thales- postulated the unity of universe.
Thucydides- was considered the greatest historian
of the ancient world. Pythagoras - taught that the essence of the
universe could be found in music and numbers.
- an Athenian and a participant of Peloponnesian
War Sophists- were a group of philosophical teachers in
the 15th century B. C. E. who rejected such
- not concerned with underlying divine forces or
speculation as foolish.
gods
- They stressed the importance of rhetoric in
GREEK DRAMA
winning debates and swaying an audience
- The first Greek dramas were tragedies, Socrates- left no writings, but we know about him
plays based on the suffering of a hero and from his pupils. His approach,
usually ending in disaster.
Socratic method, employs a question-and-answer
Aeschylus- is the first tragedian whose plays are
technique to lead pupils to see things for
known to us.
themselves using their own reason.
Oresteia :only complete trilogy
- questioned authority and criticized some
Sophocles- whose famous work was Oedipus the traditional Athenian values.
King. Plato - considered by many as the greatest
philosopher of Western civilization. His ideas of
Euripides- moved beyond his predecessors by
government were set out in his dialogue entitled
creating more realistic characters.
The Republic.
Greek tragedies dealt with universal themes still
The population was divided into 3 basic groups:
relevant to our day.
 a. Ruling elite Formation of Roman Republic
b. Warriors
- For more than 200 years, kings ruled Rome.
c. Made up the masses
Plato established a school at Athens known as In 509 B.C. Rome became a republic.
Academy. One of his pupils, Aristotle did not accept
- The Roman Senate was an assembly of
Plato’s theory of ideal forms.
elected representatives. It was the single
- He examined the constitutions of 158 states most powerful ruling body of the Roman
and identified 3 good forms of government: Republic.
monarchy, aristocracy, and constitutional
Patricians & Plebeians
government.
GREEK RELIGION - In the beginning most of the people elected
to the Senate were patricians.
- Served specific functions Citizens had to
- Patricians controlled the law since they
have a proper attitude toward the gods.
were the only citizens allowed to be judges.
- Temples dedicated to a God or goddess
- Plebeians had the right to vote, but could
The poetry of Homer gave an account of the gods
not hold public office until 287 B.C, when
that provided Greek religion with a definite
they gained equality with patricians.
structure.
Roman Expansion
- They came to accept a basic polytheistic
religion with 12 chief gods who supposedly - Under the leadership of ambitious generals,
lived on Mount Olympus, the highest Rome’s highly trained soldiers took over
mountain in Greece. most of the land surrounding the
Ritual Mediterranean.
- The ancient Romans called the
- Assumed enormous proportions
Mediterranean mare nostrum, meaning
- Meant sacrifices
“our sea”.
Festivals
Rome 117 A.D.
- To honor gods
- All Greeks were invited The End of the Roman Republic
Games
- A successful Roman general and famous
- first held at the Olympic Games Festival speaker, Julius Caesar, was a governor of
- Came to end when Christian Roma the territory of Gaul and managed to take
emperor banned them as pagan exercises control of many nearby territories. Fearing
In 1896, the first modern Olympic games were held him the Roman Senate ordered him to
in Athens, Greece. resign but he had other ideas.
- Caesar fought for control and won,
Made use of oracle, a scared shrine dedicated to a
becoming the dictator of the Roman world,
god or goddess who revealed the future. The most
ending the Roman Republic.
famous was the oracle of Apollo at Delphi.
The Roman Empire- Less than a year after gaining
LIFE IN CLASSICAL ATHENS
power a group of angered Senators stabbed Caesar
The polis was above all a male community: to death on the floor of the Roman Senate. (March
only adult male citizens took part on public life. In 15, 44 B.C.)
Athens, this meant the exclusion of women, slaves,
- This caused a civil war that lasted several
and foreign residents.
years.
CHAPTER 3: The First World Civilizations: Rome, - In 27 B.C., Caesar’s adopted son, Octavian
China, Silk Road was named the first emperor of Rome.
Ancient Rome -In the Beginning Ancient Rome The Roman Empire- An empire is a nation or group
begin as a group of villages along the Tiber River in of territories ruled by a single powerful leader, or
what is now Italy. emperor.
Around 750 B.C. these villages united to form the - As emperor Octavian took the name
city of Rome. Augustus.
 - Augustus ruled the Roman Empire for more - The increased use of slaves put many
than 40 years, known as the Augustan Age. Romans out of work
- The rich became lazy and showed little
The Augustan Age
interest in trying to solve Rome problems.
- During the rule of Augustus the Roman - The poor were overtaxed and overworked.
empire continued to expand. They were very unhappy.
- Augustus kept soldiers along all the borders - Prices increased; trade decreased.
to keep peace in the Roman world. - the population was shrinking due to
- During this time architects and engineers starvation and disease. That made it
built many new public buildings. difficult to manage farms and government
- During this time trade increased with olive effectively.
oil, wine, pottery, marble, and grain being
The Empire started shrinking. The Huns,
shipped all across the Mediterranean.
Visigoths, Franks, Vandals, Saxons and other
- Lighthouses were constructed to guide
barbarian tribes overran the empire.
ships into port.
- This was also a time of great Roman The Fall of the Roman Empire
literature.
- The ancient Romans tried to solve some of
The Rise of Christianity their problems by splitting the Roman
Empire in half, hoping that would make the
- After the death of Augustus in 14 A.D. a
empire easier to manage.
new religion begins to spread: Christianity.
- - Each side had an emperor, but the
- At first it took hold in the eastern half of the
emperor in charge was the emperor of the
Roman Empire.
western half, the half that included the city
- By 200 A.D. this religion had spread
of Rome. 
throughout the empire.
- The Western Roman Empire did not do well.
- Christians were viewed with suspicion and
Instead of getting stronger, they became
suffered persecution, and many were
weaker. By 400 AD, it was pretty much over.
punished or killed for their beliefs.
The Huns, Franks, Vandals, Saxons,
- Things changed when Constantine became
Visigoths – any of these barbarian tribes
emperor of Rome in 306 A.D. During his
might have been the group that finally
reign Christianity became the official
brought Rome down.
religion of the Roman Empire.
- They were all attacking various pieces of the
The Fall of the Roman Empire Western Roman Empire. In 476 AD, the
Visigoths sacked Rome. Europe entered the
- Rome had quite a run-First a monarchy,
Dark Ages. The eastern half of the Roman
then a republic, then an empire – all roads
Empire received a new name – the
led to Rome for over 1200 years.
Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine Empire did
In the Mediterranean, Rome was in charge. fine. It lasted for another 1000 years!

- Rome had some wonderful emperors. Rome State power and the Silk Road
also suffered from a series of bad, corrupt
What's so special about silk?
and just plain crazy emperors.  
- Silk is a strong material, but is also light,
The Fall of the Roman Empire
warm and soft.
- The empire was too large to govern - Only the Chinese at this time knew how to
effectively. make it, which made the value of it
- The army was not what it used to be. There skyrocket. Kept the process a secret so no
was corruption in the military - dishonest one else could get in on the market.
generals and non-Roman soldiers. - Revealing the process was a crime
- Civil wars broke out between different punishable by death.
political groups. Roman Glassware for Silk
- Emperors were often selected by violence,
- The Romans prized silk and traded eagerly
or by birth, so the head of government was
for it.
not always a capable leader.
 - First encountered silk in Mesopotamia in a the Tigris River, a new miles north of
battle. Ancient Babylon.
- Even the richest of Romans could only - Traders from Egypt, Arabia and Persian
afford to wear a strip or a patch of silk brought perfumes, cosmetics and carpets,
stitched to their togas (a toga isa loose robe as well as metal items and dies.
worn by Roman men) - Sometimes even slaves.
- In return, the Romans traded glassware, - Romans brought glass trays, cases,
which the Chinese were unfamiliar with. necklaces and small bottles, as well as coral
- Romans were able to blow the glass into and asbestos (used for making fireproof
wonderful, delicate shapes. cloth).
The Silk Road is not just one road - Chinese doctors used coral to help them
locate illness (it was said that coral lost it’s
• A network of shorter trade routes between 40-
color when placed on the skin of someone
41/49
who was sick).
• The Eastern Silk Road connected Luoyang to - Romans sent so much gold in exchange for
Kashgar (a city in the western part of the silk that in the first century C.E., a Roman
Taklimakan Desert) emperor named Tiberius outlawed silk
because he thought it made Romans soft
• The Western Silk Road connected Kashgar to
and weak because of all the expensive
Antioch and other ports in the Mediterranean.
fabric they wore.
Eastern Silk Road Cultural Exchanges

- This route led west along the Gobi Desert to - , gardening techniques and agriculture
Dunhuang, in northwestern China. changed as new plants were introduced to
- Protected by the desert and the Great Wall other areas. • China imported many new
to the north. From Dunhuang, traders could foods and spices, such as grapes,
go by a northerly or southerly route to cucumbers, figs, pomegranates, walnuts,
Kashgar. chives, sesame, and coriander.
- Most chose the northern route because the - Meanwhile, the West imported many
distances between the oases were much decorative plants like roses, peonies,
shorter. azaleas, chrysanthemums, and camellias, as
Eastern Silk Road continued well as oranges, peaches and pears.
- Also eventually learned to make the major
- Dangers include bandits, sandstorms, and
products, they traded for, around 500 C.E.
mirages (an image of something that isn’t
Cultural Exchanges continued
really there, like water) pulling them off the
path. - The Silk Road also helped spread Buddhism,
- Before entering the desert, many traders which began in India.
chose to form caravans (a group of people - the Silk Road passed through many
travelling together) for protection. different nations; religious travelers use the
- Used bactrian camels (have double eyelids route to spread their beliefs.
and nostrils that they can close to keep the - Buddhism was introduced to China around
blowing sand out. This let them carry the middle of the first century C.E.
enough food and water for a traveler to - Some Chinese Buddhists journeyed through
make it to the next oasis. Central Asia to learn more about their new
- Very expensive to carry goods over the Silk religion and brought back sacred Buddhist
Road. In order to make a profit, the items texts.
would need to be of good quality, valuable, Buddhism would soon become a major religion
and easy to carry.
- One cause of expanded trade was the
- Silk was great because it was light, valuable
growth of imperial power.
and didn’t take up much room.
Western Silk Road continued Emperor Wu of Han- Near the end of the second
century BCE, he mounted many campaigns against
- A major stop along the route was
the nomadic Xiongnu people.
Ctesiphon, located on the eastern bank of
Xiongnu horsemen- raided Chinese settlements caused travelers to exchange many things:
along the northern border for many years. Emperor animals, spices, ideas, and diseases.
Wu looked for a new source of horses for his - In the first century CE, during the reign of
cavalry to deal with the threat of the Xiongnu. Emperor Tiberius, silk had become a big
problem. The luxury fabric, imported at
Zhang Qian- ordered by Emperor Wu as emissary
great cost from China, had become a
to find allies in the fight against the Xiongnu. Zhang
symbol of decadence and excess among
returned to China, eager to discuss the wonders he
Romans. To make their supply of silk last
had seen in Ferghana—modern-day Uzbekistan.
longer, merchants unraveled and re-wove
Along with rice, wheat, and grapes, the region
their fabric into thinner, sheer garments.
produced hardy, "heavenly" horses.
This practice had a side-effect of making the
Ferghana horses- became a highly desired trade garments nearly transparent.
item in China. China imported so many horses that
Seneca the Younger- a writer and imperial advisor,
the Dayuan people who controlled the Ferghana
complained of people wearing silk:
valley refused to sell any more of the horses! This
led to a three-year conflict known as the War of the In the year 14 CE- the Roman historian Tacitus
Heavenly Horses. reported that the Imperial Senate made it illegal for
men to wear silk, resolving that "Oriental [Eastern]
By 101 BCE- the Ferghana valley belonged to Han
silks should no longer degrade the male sex. "
China. Control of the Ferghana valley also opened a
route to the West. With a new supply of horses, This prohibition on silk did not last. The demand for
Han China projected its new military strength silk continued to drive trade between the Roman
throughout Asia. The expansion of Han control led Empire, China, India, and many places in between.
to the first Pax Sinica—or Chinese Peace. During
Travel on the Silk Road
this time, the standard of living in China rose and
cities grew. Economic growth and political stability Traders had to find ways to move their goods
led to increased demand for luxury goods from far- efficiently. To travel overland, the camel was
off places favored mode of transportation. Nomadic peoples
in central Asia started domesticating camels as
Victory in the Punic Wars gave Rome control
early as the second millennium BCE. For example,
over the western Mediterranean Sea. Over the next
the Han Chinese used camels captured from the
few centuries, Rome expanded to control all the
Xiongnu to carry military supplies. Camels could
Mediterranean shoreline. The first century CE saw
withstand the harsh desert conditions through
the beginning of the Pax Romana—Roman Peace.
central Asia and were also able to carry up to 500
The Pax Romana lasted about 200 years and was a
pounds at a time! Pack animals—especially camels
period of relatively few wars. As with Han China,
—made the transportation of goods over land on
political stability brought more trade. Rome gained
the Silk Road viable
access to overseas trade routes to India via Egypt
and began to trade regularly. Although Rome and Merchants and sailors made use of the ocean to
Han China expanded greatly, there was still a lot of transport goods, too. Sailors needed a strong
distance between them. Central Asia is covered understanding of wind patterns and storm systems
with mountains, deserts, and vast grasslands. to successfully navigate the oceans. For example, in
Traders provided an essential link between the the Indian Ocean, monsoon winds blow from the
Roman and Han empires. northeast in the winter and from the southwest in
the summer. With a southwestern wind pushing
The Silk Road
them east, merchants were able to travel from the
The Silk Road- was a vast trade network connecting Red Sea between Egypt and Arabia to India in the
Eurasia and North Africa via land and sea routes. summer and then back to the Red Sea in the
The Silk Road earned its name from Chinese silk, a winter. This information was exchanged among
highly valued commodity that merchants sailors and made its way beyond the Indian Ocean.
transported along these trade networks.
A map of the monsoon pattern, made by Khan
- Advances in technology and increased Academy. Map shows the Red sea and the land
political stability caused an increase in surrounding it (east Africa, Saudi Arabia, India,
trade. The opening of more trade routes southeast Asia). Blue arrows point south and west,
showing the winter winds from the northeast. Red
arrows point north and east across the Red Sea, territories and kept them relatively peaceful. The
showing the summer winds coming from the Han conquered their way into central Asia. From
southwest. there, nomadic traders carried goods farther west
or south. Trade brought new faiths, new ideas, and
The Effects of Exchange
new goods to places they had not previously been.
One obvious effect of trade along the Silk Road was
MESOAMERICAN CIVILIZATIONS
more goods were available in more places. Silk,
owing to its soft texture and appealing shimmer, - Avocado, tomato, and chocolate originally
became so hotly desired that it was used as came from Mexico.
currency in central Asia. However, the process of - Nahuatl is the language spoken by the
raising silkworms and creating fabric from their Nahua ethnic group that is found today in
cocoons remained a Chinese secret through the 6th Mexico, but with deep historical roots.
century C.E. The fact that China remained the only
Maya (MY-uh)- Were only the latest in a series of
source of silk meant that trade goods continued to
sophisticated societies that had sprung up at
travel across Asia. This involved many people and
various locations in North and South America
locations in the Silk Road trade networks.
Amerindians- Lived by hunting and fishing or by
Spices from the East Indies, glass beads from Rome,
food gathering.
silk, ginger, and lacquer ware from China, furs from
animals of the Caucasian steppe and slaves from Aztecs- one of Nahua group more accurately called
many locations all travelled along the Silk Road. the Mexica. The Mexica were one of many
Some effects were cultural. During the rule of the Mesoamericans cultural groups that flourished in
Tang dynasty of China, for example, sculptures of Mexico prior to the arrival of Europeans in the
camels from the caravans that frequently traded in sixteenth century.
China were placed in graves. Clearly the animals
The AZTECS
made an impression
- The Aztecs were American people of central
Part of a 7th-century purchase contract,
Mexico in the 14th, 15th and 16th eary.
exchanging a fifteen-year-old enslaved person for
- They were a civilization with a rich
six bolts of silk and five Chinese coins. This contract
mythology and cultural heritage.
is from the city of Turfan, an oasis city along the
- Their capital was Tenochtitlan on the shore
Silk Road. Ideas and diseases were also exchanged
of Lake Texcoco-the site of modern-day
along the sea lanes and camel-routes—and both
Mexico City.
would have profound effects on the locations they
- The Aztecs were famous for their
traveled to. Toward the end of the second century,
agriculture, cultivating all available land,
a plague tore through the Roman Empire, killing
introducing irrigation, draining swamps, and
10%of the population. Historians think that this
creating artificial islands in the lakes.
plague first appeared in China before making its
- They developed a form of hieroglyphic
way through trade routes to the Near East, where
writing, a complex calendar system, and
Roman soldiers were campaigning. As for the
built famous pyramids and temples.
exchange of ideas, Buddhism came to China
- Folk legend held that their original
through trade with India. The Sogdians of central
homeland was an island in a lake called
Asia often acted as traders between India and
Aztlan, from the homeland comes the name
China. Sogdians also translated Sanskrit sutras into
Aztec by which known to the modern world.
Chinese and spread the Buddhist faith as they
- During early 12th century Aztecs left their
traded. Other faiths, like Zoroastrianism,
original habitat and carrying an image of
Manichaeism, and Christianity also traveled along
their patron deity named:
the sea and land routes. These religions developed
Huitzilopotchli (WEET-see-loh-POSHSHT-
and changed to fit the new regions they travelled
lee)- guiding deity of the entire population.
to.
- The Aztecs were at first forced to seek
Chinese Silk in Rome alliances with stronger states. •They were
excellent warriors and become the
So now we have a sense of the economic and
dominant city state in the lake.
political conditions that enabled Chinese silk to
POLITICS OF THE AZTECS
make its way to Roman markets. Both the Han
Chinese and Roman Empires controlled vast
 - They are authoritarian. Power was vested - A supreme deity called Ometeofl
on the Monarch whose authority was both represented the all powerful and
divine and a secular character. omnipresent forces of the heaven.
- The Aztec ruler claimed descent from the - other God, notably the feathered serpent
Gods and served as an intermediary Quetzalcoatl had a more impact on the lives
between the material and the metaphysical of the people that bears a distinct similarity
worlds. to Shiva in Hindu belief.
- The Aztecs were allowed considerable •Aztec cosmology were based on a belief in the
autonomy in return for paying tribute in the existence of two worlds the material ( earth) and
form of goods or captives to the central the divine heaven and hell).
government.
•Aztec society may have been undergoing a
- The collectors of tribute are the most
process of secularization.
important officials in the provinces
BERNAL DIAZ DEL CASTILLO- His True History of •Aztec religion contained a distinct element of
the Conquest of New Spain detailed Hernán Cortés' fatalism that was inherent in the creation of myth.
1519-1521. military expedition against the
•They also believed that by appeasing the sun God
powerful Aztec Empire from the perspective of
Huitzilopochtli, with sacrifices, they could delay the
Díaz's fellow foot soldiers.
final destruction of their world.
SOCIAL STRUCTURES OF AZTECS
ART AND CULTURE
- Male children in noble families were sent to
Architecture and sculpture had a religious
temple school to work and memorization of
significance.
information about the Aztec society and
religion while women were expected to •Aztec painting survives, it was evidently of high
work in home. quality and in a form of writing they based on
- On reaching adulthood they would select a hieroglyphs represented an object or a concept
career in the military service, the
• This is the STONE OF THE FIFTH SUN that weighs
government bureaucracy, or the
26 tons
priesthood.
- Most indentured workers were landless • It portrays the perpetual struggle between forces
labourers and slaves. served in the of good and evil in the universe.
household of wealthy family.
• In the center is an intimidating image of the sun
CALPULIS- vast majority of the popular consisted of
God clutching human hearts with his talons.
commoners and all of them were members of large
kinship groups. THE FIRST CIVILIZATION IN SOUTH AMERICA
• Each group composed of thousand members was - South America is a vast continent
headed by an elected chief who its day-to-day characterized by extremes in climate and
affairs and served as intermediary with the central geography and has been inhabited by
government. human beings for more than 12,000 years.
- Farther to the south, the forests are
• Each group was responsible for providing taxes
replaced by prairies and steppes stretching
and conscript labour to the state.
westward to the Andes mountains.
• Each calpuli maintained its own temples and CARAL- A HIGHLY PUBLICIZED SITE LOCATED 14
schools in the cities each calpuli occupied a MILES INLAND FROM THE COAST -LAND WAS
separate neighborhood. DIVIDED IN A MANNER SIMILAR TO THE WELL FIELD
SYSTEM IN ANCIENT CHINA.
LAND OF THE FEATHERED SERPENT: THE AZTEC
RELIGION AND CULTURE - This culture reached its height during for
the first millennium B.C.E with the
- Some scholar identified that Aztecs have
emergence of the Chavin Style named for a
more than a hundred deities and
site near the modern city of Chavin de
- Some of them were nature spirits like the
Huantar.
rain God, Tlaloc and some were patron
MOCHE
deities.
• Artifacts found at Moche especially the metal important to remember that modern-day
work and stone and ceramic figures exhibit a high geographic terms—like Mesoamerica or the
quality of artisanship. Southwestern U.S.—are recent
designations.
• It symbolizes that the people at the Moche were
preoccupied with warfare. The history of Mesoamerica is usually divided
into specific periods which, taken together, reveal
• It also fascinated by the heavens and much of
the development of culture in the region and, for
their art consisted of celestial and astronomical
the purposes of this definition, the emergence and
constellation.
cultivation of the Maya Civilization.
Mesoamerica- refers to the diverse civilizations
 The Archaic Period: 7000-2000 BCE –
that shared similar cultural characteristics in the
During this time a hunter-gatherer culture
geographic areas comprising the modern-day
began to cultivate crops such as maize,
countries of Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Belize,
beans and other vegetables and the
El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. Some of the
domestication of animals (most notably
shared cultural traits among Mesoamerican
dogs and turkeys) and plants became widely
peoples included a complex pantheon of deities,
practiced. The first villages of the region
architectural features, a ballgame, the 260-day
were established during this period which
calendar, trade, food (especially a reliance on
included sacred spots and temples
maize, beans, and squash), dress, and
dedicated to various gods. The villages
accoutrements (additional items that are worn or
excavated thus far are dated from 2000-
used by a person, such as earspools).
1500 BCE.
Well-known Mesoamerican culture are Olmec,  The Olmec Period: 1500-200 BCE – This era
Maya, Zapotec, Teotihuacan, Mixtec, and Mexica is also known as the Pre-Classic or
(or Aztec). Formative Period when the Olmecs, the
oldest culture in Mesoamerica, thrived. The
- The geography of Mesoamerica is
Olmecs settled along the Gulf of Mexico and
incredibly diverse—it includes humid
began building great cities of stone and
tropical areas, dry deserts, high
brick. The famous Olmec heads strongly
mountainous terrain, and low coastal
suggest highly sophisticated skill in
plains. An anthropologist named Paul
sculpture and the first indications of
Kirchkoff first used the term
Shamanic religious practices date from this
“Mesoamerica” (meso is Greek for “middle”
period. The enormous size and scope of
or “intermediate”) in 1943todesignate
Olmec ruins gave birth to the idea that the
these geographical areas as having shared
land was once populated by giants. Though
cultural traits prior to the invasion of
no one knows where the Olmecs came
Europeans, and the term has remained.
from, nor what happened to them, they lay
- Mesoamerican art we are referring to art
the foundation for all the future civilizations
made by people in Mexico and much of
in Mesoamerica.
Central America.
- The Olmecs: In the Land of Rubber
- Native North American art, they are usually
- Characterized by intensive agriculture along
referring to indigenous peoples in the U.S.
the muddy riverbanks
and Canada, even though these countries
- Carving of stone ornaments, tools, and
are technically all part of North America,
monuments such as San Lorenzo and
Greater Southwest or Greater Mesoamerica- an Lavinta.
area where archaeologists and art historians have THE OLMECS
considered connections between the Southwestern The Olmecs: In the Land of Rubber
and Southeastern U.S. and Mesoamerica. - Characterized by intensive agriculture along
the muddy riverbanks
- Focusing on these connections
- Carving of stone ornaments, tools, and
demonstrates how people were in contact
monuments as sites such as San Lorenzo
with one another through trade, shared
and Laventa.
beliefs, migration, or conflict. Ball courts,
1. Laventa
for instance, are found in Arizona sites such
2. Massive stone heads
as the Pueblo Grande of the Hohokam. It is
3. Stone pyramids
 4. Rubber tree  The Teotihuacan Period: 200-900 CE –
 The Zapotec Period: 600 BCE-800 CE – In During this era the great city of Teotihuacan
the region surrounding modern-day Oaxaca, grew from a small village to a metropolis of
the cultural center now known as Monte enormous size and influence. Early on,
Alban was founded which became the Teotihuacan was a rival of another city
capital of the Zapotec kingdom. The called Cuicuilco but, when that community
Zapotecs were clearly influenced by (or, was destroyed by a volcano c. 100 CE,
perhaps, related to) the Olmecs and, Teotihuacan became dominant in the
through them, some of the most important region. Archaeological evidence suggests
cultural elements of the region were that Teotihuacan was an important religious
disseminated such as writing, mathematics, center which was devoted to the worship of
astronomy, and the development of the a Great Mother Goddess and her consort
calendar; all of which the Maya would the Plumed Serpent. The Plumed Serpent
refine. god Kukulkan (also known as Gucamatz)
- Parallel developments were occurring at was the most popular deity among the
Monte Alban, on a hillside overlooking the Maya. Like many of the cities which now lie
modern city of Oaxaca. in ruin throughout the southern Americas,
Monte Alban contains a number of temples Teotihuacan was abandoned sometime
and pyramids, but they are located in much around900 CE.
more awesome surroundings on a massive
Teotihuacan
stone terrace atop.
- Government of Monte Alban was - Americas First Metropolis
apparently theocratic, with an elite class of - Name means “where man met the gods”
nobles and priests ruling over a population - First major metropolis in Mesoamerica was
composed of primarily farmers and artisans in the City of Teotihuacan
- The building style of Monte Alban Pyramid of the Sun
influenced future urban centers
- Archaeologist have discovered the remains
- Become the seed to Mesoamerican
sacrificial victims, probably put to death
civilizations
during the dedication of the structure
The Zapotec - in the vicinity are the remains of a large
market where goods from distant regions as
- Parallel developments were occurring at
well as agricultural produce grown by
Monte Alban, on a hillside overlooking the
farmers in the vicinity were exchanged.
modern city of Oaxaca.
1. PULQUE
- Monte Alban contains a number of temples
2. OBSIDIAN
and pyramids, but they are located in much
Teotihuacan- Most of the City consisted of one-
more awesome surroundings on a massive
story stucco apartment compounds; some were as
stone terrace atop
large as 35,000 square foot, sufficient to house
Monte Alban more than a hundred of people.
- Government of Monte Alban was - Fertile Valley of Mexico surrounded by
apparently theocratic, with an elite class of snowcapped mountains that made the
nobles and priests ruling over a population wealth obtained the agriculture.
composed of primarily farmers and artisans. Chinampas- A swampy islands crisscrossed by
- The building style of Monte Alban canals.
influenced Future urban centers Become
the seed to Mesoamerican civilizations
 The El Tajin Period: 250-900 CE – This
Downfall period is also known as the Classic Period in
Mesoamerican and Mayan history. The
- For more than thousand years the Zapotec
name `El Tajin’ refers to the great city
controlled the Oaxaca Valley but around
complex on the Gulf of Mexico which has
A.D 600. They began to collapse. Some
been recognized as one of the most
believed that this was caused by lack of
important sites in Mesoamerica. During this
trade or economic difficulties.
time the great urban centers rose across
 the land and the Maya numbered in the Mole (moh-LAY)- the chocolate consumed in
millions. The very important ball game Mesoamerican culture was roasted and had a bitter
which came to be known as Poc-a-Toc was taste
developed and more ball courts have been
- Overcrowding forced farmers in the lowland
found in and around the city of El Tajin than
areas to shift from slash-and-burn
anywhere else in the region. Who, precisely,
cultivation to swamp agriculture.
the people were who inhabited El Tajin
remains unknown as there were over fifty Tikal (tee-KAHL)- Had 100, 000 inhabitants at their
different ethnic groups represented in the height and displayed a level of technological and
city and dominance has been ascribed to cultural achievement that was unsurpassed in the
both the Maya and the Totonac. region.
 The Classic Maya Period: 250-950 CE – This
Mayan Temple at Tikal
is the era which saw the consolidation of
power in the great cities of the Yucatec - This 18th century temple, peering over the
Maya such as Chichen Itza and Uxmal. treetops of a jungle at Tikal represents the
Direct cultural influences may be seen, in zenith of the engineering and artistry of the
some sites, from the Olmecs and the Mayan people.
Zapotecs and the cultural values of - It dominates a great plaza that is
Teotihuacan and El Tajin but, in others, a surrounded by a royal place and various
wholly new culture seems to have emerged religious structures,
(such as at Chichen Itza where, though
Political Structure
there is ample evidence of cultural
borrowing, there is a significantly different - One of the monarchs of Copan,
style to the art and architecture). This Waxadajuun Ub aah Kawill, also known as
period was the height of the Maya 18 rabbit ordered the construction of grand
civilization in which they perfected palace requiring more than 30,000 person-
mathematics, astronomy, architecture, and days of labor.
the visual arts and refined and perfected - Around the ruler was a class of aristocrats
the calendar. The oldest date recorded in whose wealth was probably based on the
this era is on Stele 29 in the city of Tikal ownership of land farmed by their poorer
(292 CE) and the latest is from an inscription relatives.
on the Stele at the site of Tonina (909 CE). - Majority of the population on the peninsula,
The city-states of the Mayan civilization however were farmers. They lived in
stretched from Piste in the north all the way chinampa plots or on terraced hills in
down to modern-day Honduras. highlands
THE MAYA Pakal (pa-KAL)- Became the King of Palenque one
of the most powerful of the Mayan city-states,
- Arisen in the state of Guatemala and the
through the royal line of his mother and
Yucatan Peninsula
grandmother, thereby breaking the patrilineal
- Older and just as sophisticated as the
twice.
society at Teotihuaca.
Mayan Religion
ORIGINS
- Like some of the early religious belief in Asia
- People are already cultivating such as corn, yams
and the Mediterranean, Mayan Religion
and manioc in the area during the first millennium
was Polytheistic.
As the population increase, an early civilization
began to emerge along the Pacific coast directly to Itzamna (eet-SAHM-nuh)- Viewed as the creator of
the south of the peninsula and in the highlands of all things, he was credited with bringing the
modern Guatemala. knowledge of maize, cacao, medicine, and writing
of the Mayan people.
Kakaw- from cacao trees
- Deities were ranked in order of importance
- Gave rise to the developed relations with
and had human characteristics.
other early civilizations in the region. It is
- Some like jaguar god of night, were evil
also the source of chocolate where was
rather than good.
drunk as a beverage of the upper class.
 - Mayan cities were built around a - Classical mayan civilization begin to decline
ceremonial care dominated by a central in the 8th to 9th century.
pyramid surmounted by a shrine to the - Worked on various stone sculptures of the
gods. ruler suddenly ceased.
- End of Palenque
A dangerous game was played on ball courts such
- City of Tikal was abandoned.
as this one.A large ball of solid rubber was
- Over cultivation of land
propelled from the hip at such tremendous speed
that players had to wear extensive padding Uxmal and Chichen Itza
The Creation of the World: A Mayan View - This latter area was taken over by people
known as the Toltecs led by a man known
A Sample of Mayan Writing
as Kukulcan but eventually they declined
- Were the only Mesoamerican people to too.
devise a complete written language.
THE INKA- SMALL COMMUNITY OF CUZCO
- Many specialists believed that it may have
emerged from scripts invented earlier by Pachakuti- “He who transforms the world” and
the neighboring Zapotecs or Olmecs. launched a campaign of Conquest.
Composed of a mixture of ideographs and
The Four Quarters: Inka Politics and Society
phonetic system which were written in
double columns to be read from left to right Jahuantinsuyu- The world of four quarters
and from top to bottom
CUZCO- CITY OF MUD TO METROPOLIS STONE
A Sample of Mayan Writing
“All four walls of the temple were covered from
- Numbering system included zero using dots the top to bottom with plates and slabs of gold.”
and bars.
- Nachu Picchu
- 365 day solar calendar
MAJOR CONSTRUCTION
- 260 day calendar based on the orbit of
Venus - A system of 24,800 miles of highways and
roads from Colombia to Santiago Chile.
Mayan Writing
TWO MAJOR ROADWAYS
- Arrival of planet Venus in the evening sky,
1. Through Andes
for example was to prepare for war.
2. Aling the Coast
- devised the Long Count Tradition
RURAL AREAS
A Sample of Mayan Writing
- Lived by farming
class of scribes- responsible for compiling official - Terraced agriculture
records in the Mayan city-states, who wrote an - Irrigation systems
deerskin or strips of tree bark. MARRIAGE WERE STRICTLY REGULATED
- Almost the only surviving written records WOMEN SERVE AS “CHOSEN VIRGINS”
dating from the Classical Mayan Era are
INCA CULTURE
those that were carved in stone.
- SOLDIERS WERE RAISED BY UNIVERSAL
Palenque- An archaeological site deep in the jungle
MALE CONSCRIPTION
in Mexican peninsula under the table of
- INKA HAD NO WHEELED VEHICLES,
inscriptions, Archaeologists discovered a royal
SUPPLIES WERE CARRIED ON THE BACKS OF
tomb and a massive limestone slab covered.
ILAMAS
Pascal- where historical figures of Mayan was QUECHUA- Lingua franca of the state
discovered.
QUIPO- A system of knotted strings because they
- Scholars believed that Maya were peaceful have no writing system.
people who rarely engaged in violence. But,
STATELESS SOCIETIES IN THE AMERICA
scene from paintings and rock carvings
depict a society preoccupied with war. The Eastern Woodlands
Misery in Mayan Decline
 - Cultivate indigenous plants for food in a the region. The widely popular conception
systematic way that the Maya were driven from their cities
- URBAN CENTERS BEGAN TO APPEAR by the Spanish Conquest is erroneous as the
- TRADE INCREASED cities were already vacant by the time of
COHAKIA the Spanish invasion (in fact, the Spanish
conquerors had no idea the natives they
- Near the modern city. Of east of Saint Louis
found in the region were responsible for the
Illinois
enormous complexes of the cities). The
- Administrative capital until 1200s
Quiche Maya were defeated at the Battle of
- Carried on extensive trade throughout
Utatlan in 1524 CE and this date
League of Iroquois
traditionally marks the end of the Maya
The Ancient Puebloans- Also called Anasazi or Civilization.
“alien ancient ones. They created a system of road
-GOODLUCK AND GODBLESS-
for extensive exchange of technology, products and
ideas. - Shiela Mae Dela Cruz
CHACO CANYON- Walled city with dozens of three- - Klent Kaye Arre Sandoval
story adobe communal houses called PUEBLOS
KIVAS- Two large circular chambers of community
religious functions.
THE ANCIENT PUEBLOANS
- PUEBLO BONITO- Contained several
hundred compounds housing several
thousand residents
- MOVED NORTH TO MESA VERDE
- ZUNI AND HOPI- Occupy pueblos in Central
Arizona and New Mexico
South America: The ARAWAK- PEOPLE LIVING
ALONG ORINOCO RIVER IN MODERN VENEZUELA
MANIOC- Tuber also known as cassava or yuco, the
source of tapioca.
CHIEFTAINS- They have the control over the
economy.
PRACTICES- Human Sacrifice
MEN AND WOMEN WERE CONSIDERED OF EQUAL
STATUS
MEN- Hunting, warfare, and dealing with outsiders
WOMAN- Distribution of food, maintaining
household and bearing and raising child.

 The Post-Classic Period: 950-1524 CE – At

this time the great cities of the Maya were
abandoned. Thus far, no explanation for the
mass exodus from the cities to outlying
rural areas has been determined but
climate change and over population have
been strongly suggested among other
possibilities. The Toltecs, a new tribe in the
region, took over the vacant urban centers
and re-populated them. At this time, Tula
and Chichen-Itza became dominant cities in