Deformation & Strengthening Mechanisms

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• Why are dislocations observed primarily in metals
and alloys?

g and dislocation motion related?

• How are strength

• How do we increase strength?

Deformation Mechanisms (Metals)

• Theoretical strengths of perfect crystal were
much higher than those actually measured.
• It was believed that this discrepancy in
mechanical streng gth could be explained
p by
y
dislocations.
• On a macroscopic scale, plastic deformation
corresponds to the net movement of large
numbers of atoms (dislocations) in response
t an applied
to li d stress.
t
• Interatomic bonds rupturing and reforming.

2
 Dislocations & Materials Classes
• Metals: Disl. motion easier. + + + + + + + +
-non-directional bonding + + + + + + + +
-close-packed directions + + + + + + + +
for slip. electron cloud ion cores

• Covalent Ceramics
(Si, diamond): Motion hard.
-directional
directional (angular) bonding

• Ionic Ceramics (NaCl):

+ - + - + - +
Motion hard.
- + - + - + -
-need to avoid ++ and - -
neighbors.
g + - + - + - +

Dislocation Motion
Dislocations & plastic deformation
• Cubic & hexagonal metals - plastic deformation by
plastic shear or slip where one plane of atoms slides
over adjacent plane by defect motion (dislocations).

• If dislocations don't move, Adapted from Fig. 7.1,

deformation doesn't occur!

Callister 7e.
4
 Dislocation Motion
• Dislocation moves along slip plane in slip direction
perpendicular
p p to dislocation line
• Slip direction same direction as Burgers vector
Edge dislocation

Adapted from Fig. 7.2,

Callister 7e.

Screw dislocation

Deformation Mechanisms - Slip

Slip System
– Slip plane - plane allowing easiest slippage
• Wide interplanar spacings - highest planar densities
– Slip direction - direction of movement - Highest linear
densities
Adapted from Fig.
7.6, Callister 7e.

– FCC Slip occurs on {111} planes (close-packed) in <110>

directions (close-packed)
=> total of 12 slip systems in FCC
– in BCC & HCP other slip systems occur 6
 Slip Systems

Stress and Dislocation Motion

• Crystals slip due to a resolved shear stress, R.
• Applied tension can produce such a stress.
Applied tensile Resolved shear Relation between
stress:  = F/A stress: R =Fs /A s  and R

A
F slip plane
R
R = FS /AS
normal, ns
AS Fcos  A/cos 
FS
F nS 

A
R FS AS
F

R   cos  cos 
8
 Critical Resolved Shear Stress
• Condition for dislocation motion: R  CRSS
• Crystal orientation can make typically
it easy or hard to move dislocation
10-4 GPa to 10-2 GPa
R   cos  cos 
  

R = 0 R = /2 R = 0
 =90°
90°  =45°
45°  =90°
90°
 =45°

 maximum at  =  = 45º 9

Single Crystal Slip

Adapted from Fig.

7.9, Callister 7e.

Adapted from Fig. 7.8, Callister 7e.

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 Ex: Deformation of single crystal
a) Will the single crystal yield?
b) If not, what stress is needed?
=60°

crss = 3000 psii
=35°
   cos  cos 
  6500 psi

Adapted from
Fig. 7.7,
  (6500 psi) (cos 35 )(cos 60 )
 (6500 psi) (0.41)
Callister 7e.

  2662 psi  crss  3000 psi

 = 6500 psi
So the applied stress of 6500 psi will not cause the
crystal to yield.
11

Ex: Deformation of single crystal

What stress is necessary (i.e., what is the
stress, y)?
yield stress

crss  3000 psi   y cos  cos    y (0.41)

crss 3000 psi

 y    7325 psi
cos  cos  0.41

So for deformation to occur the applied stress must

be greater than or equal to the yield stress

   y  7325 psi
12
 Slip Motion in Polycrystals
• Stronger - grain boundaries

pin deformations
• Slip planes & directions
(, ) change from one
Adapted from Fig.
7.10, Callister 7e.
((Fig.
g 7.10 is
crystal to another
another. courtesy of C.
Brady, National
Bureau of
• R will vary from one Standards [now the
National Institute of
crystal to another
another. St d d and
Standards d
Technology,
Gaithersburg, MD].)
• The crystal with the
largest R yields first
first.
• Other (less favorably
oriented) crystals
300 m
yield later.
13

Anisotropy in y
• Can be induced by rolling a polycrystalline metal
- before rolling
g - after rolling
g
Adapted from Fig. 7.11,
Callister 7e. (Fig. 7.11 is from
W.G. Moffatt, G.W. Pearsall,
and J. Wulff, The Structure
and Properties of Materials,
Vol. I, Structure, p. 140, John
Wiley and Sons, New York,
1964.)

rolling direction
235 m
- isotropic - anisotropic
since grains are since rolling affects grain
approx. spherical orientation and shape.
& randomly
oriented.

14
 Deformation Mechanism - Twinning
• A part of the atomic lattice is deformed
so that it forms a mirror image of the
un deformed lattice next to it.
un-deformed it
• Twinning plane: is the plane between
the un-deformed and deformed parts
of the metal lattice

15

Micro Structural View of Cu Shows Twinning

Cross-sectional view of the copper Longitudinal view of the copper

microstructure showing annealing twins, microstructure showing annealing twins,
deformation twins,
twins and circular inclusions.
inclusions deformation twins and elongated
inclusions.

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Comparison between slip and twinning mechanisms

Slip Twinning
1. The atoms in one side of the slip 1. The atoms move distances
plane all move equal distances proportional to their distance from
the twinning plane
2. Slip Leaves a series of steps 2. Twinning leaves small but well
(lines) defined regions of the crystal
deformed
3. Most for FCC and BCC structure, 3. Is most important for HCP
they have more slip systems structure, because its small
number of slip systems

4. Normally slip results in relatively 4. Only small deformations result for

large deformations twinning

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Mechanisms of strengthening in metals

• The ability of a metal to plastically deform depends
on the ability of dislocations to move.
• Ductility is sacrificed when an alloy is strengthened
• Restricting or hindering dislocation motion renders
a material harder and stronger.
• Strengthening mechanisms for single phase
metals
Grain size reduction
Solid-solution alloying
Strain hardening (cold work)
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 Strategies for Strengthening
Reduce Grain Size

• G
Grain
i boundaries
b d i are
barriers to slip.
• Barrier "strength"
increases with
Increasing angle of
misorientation
misorientation. Adapted from Fig. 7.14, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.14 is from A Textbook of Materials
• Smaller grain size: Technology, by Van Vlack, Pearson Education,
Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.)
more barriers to slip.

• Hall-Petch Equation:  yield  o  k y d 1 / 2

19

Strategies for Strengthening

Solid Solutions - alloying
• Impurity atoms distort the lattice & generate stress.
• Stress can produce a barrier to dislocation motion.
• Smaller substitutional • Larger substitutional
i
impurity
it i
impurity
it

A C

B D

Impurity generates local stress at A Impurity generates local stress at C

and B that opposes
pp dislocation and D that opposes
pp dislocation
motion to the right. motion to the right.

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 Stress Concentration at Dislocations

Adapted from Fig. 7.4,

Callister 7e
7e.

21

Strengthening by Alloying
• small impurities tend to concentrate at dislocations
• reduce mobility of dislocation  increase strength

Adapted from FigFig.

7.17, Callister 7e.

22
 Strengthening by alloying
• large impurities concentrate at dislocations on low
densityy side

Adapted from Fig.

7.18,, Callister 7e.

23

Ex: Solid Solution

Strengthening in Copper
• Tensile strength & yield strength increase with wt% Ni.
180
Tenssile strength (MPa)

h (MPa)

Adapted from Fig.

400 7.16 (a) and (b),
Callister 7e.
eld strength

120
300

200 60
Yie

0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
wt.% Ni, (Concentration C) wt.%Ni, (Concentration C)

• Empirical relation:  y ~ C 11// 2

• Alloying increases y and TS.

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 Strategies for Strengthening
Precipitation Strengthening
• Hard precipitates are difficult to shear.
Ex: Ceramics in metals (SiC in Iron or Aluminum).
precipitate
Large shear stress needed
Side View to move dislocation toward
precipitate and shear it.

Unslipped
pp p part of slip
ppplane Dislocation
T View
Top Vi
“advances” but
precipitates act as
S “pinning” sites with
spacing S.
Slipped part of slip plane

1
• Result: y ~
S
25

Application: Precipitation Strengthening

• Internal wing structure on Boeing 767

Adapted from chapter-
opening photograph,
Chapter 11, Callister 5e.
(courtesy of G.H.
Narayanan and A.G.
Miller Boeing Commercial
Miller,
Airplane Company.)

• Aluminum is strengthened with precipitates formed

b alloying.
by ll i
Adapted from Fig.
11.26, Callister 7e.
(Fig 11
(Fig. 11.26
26 is courtesy
of G.H. Narayanan
and A.G. Miller,
Boeing Commercial
Airplane Company.)

1.5m
26
 Strategies for Strengthening
Cold Work (%CW)
• Room temperature deformation.
• Common forming operations change the cross
sectional area:
-Forging
Forging force -Rolling
Rolling
roll
die Ad
A o blank Ad Ao
Adapted from Fig.
11 8 Callister 7e
11.8, 7e. roll

-Drawing force -Extrusion

Ao
die Ad container die holder
Ao ttensile
il force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die container die
Ao  Ad
%CW  x 100
Ao 27

Dislocations During Cold Work

• Ti alloy after cold working:

• Dislocations entangle
with one another
during cold work.
• Dislocation
Di l ti motion
ti
becomes more difficult.

Adapted from Fig.

4.6, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 4.6 is courtesy
of M.R. Plichta,
Michigan
Technological
0.9 
m University.)

28
 Result of Cold Work
Di l
Dislocation
i d density
i = total dislocation length
unit volume
– Carefullyy grown
g single
g crystal
y
 ca. 103 mm-2
– Deforming sample increases density
 109-1010 mm-2
– Heat treatment reduces density
 105-10
106 mm-22


• Yield
Yi ld stress
t iincreases
y1 large hardening
as d increases: y0 small hardening


29

Summary
• Dislocations are observed primarily in metals
and alloys.

• Strength is increased by making dislocation

motion difficult.
• Particular ways to increase strength are to:
 decrease grain size
 solid solution strengthening
 precipitate strengthening
 cold work
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