Actuators

the actuators will

In this chapter one of the basic robot components namely,
be

which comprise the following

discussed. Actuators are the muscles of the robots,

(i) A power supply:

(11) a power amplifier;
(11) a servomotor: and
(IV) a transmission system.
The connections between all the actuator

components are depicted in Fig. 3.1.

Actuator vs. Motor
To choose an actuator, it is worthwhile

A motor together with the transmis- starting from the requirements imposed on he
sion and other accessories if any, is mechanical power-P by the force and
referred to as an actuator (See Fig. that describe the joint motion. Based
velocity
3.1). However, in many instances, on the of input power-P, the
source
actuators
used interchangeably to
they are
can be classified into three groups:
mean that they move a robot link.

provided by a
(i) Pneumatic Actuators They utilise pneumatic energy
of pistons or turbincs
compressor and transforms it into
mechanical energy by means

ina

Hydraulic Actuators They transform the hydraulic energy stored

(ii)
reservoir into mechanical energy by means of suitable pumps.
 Power
supplies

Pp
Power P Motor
or
amplitier Transmission
Servomotor

Pda Pds dt
Pp: Primary source of power (electricity, pressurised fluid, or compressed air,
etc):P: Input control power (usually electric); P,: Input power to motor (electric,
hydraulic or pneumatic type); Pm Power output from motor, P, : Mechanical
power required; Pádar Pás, and Pdr: Powers lost in dissipation for the conversions
performed by the amplifier, motor, and transmission
Fig. 3.1 An actuator system

(iii) Electric Actuators The primary input power supply is the electric
energy from the electric distribution system.
A portion of the motor input power-Pa, is converted to the output as mechanical
power-Pm» and the rest as--Pis is dissipated because of mechanical, electrical.
hydraulic, or pneumatic motor losses. In a robotic application, an actuator should
have the following characteristics:
Low inertia
High power to weight ratio
Possibility of overload and delivery of impulse torques
Capacity to develop high accelerations
Wide velocity ranges
High positioning accuracy
Good trajectory tracking and positioning accuracy.

3.1 PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS

Pneumatic actuators are one of the two types of fluid power devices for industrial
robots. The other type is hydraulic, described in the next section. Pneumatic actuators
utilise compressed air for the actuation, and are widely used for the typical opening
and closing motions of the jaws in the gripper of a robot, as shown in Fig. 2.4, or for
the actuation of simple robot arms used in applications where continuous motion
control is not a concern. A pneumatic actuator comprising a pneumatic cylinder and
other accessories are shown in Fig. 3.2. Specification of such a system is used for
example, in robot grippers 2.4, is given in Table 3.1.
of Fig.
 34 Introduction to Robotics

Pneumatic cylinder
P'iston located
inside
cylinder
Compressor unit Double-acting
cylinder
Eleetric motor Actuating
Tank gauge rod
Air-conditioning unit

Four-way
b
Receiver Filter Lubricator manually activated Adjustable flow
Water drain control valve control valves
tank Regulator
(a) Pneumatic actuator components (one in each line)
Pressure
Gauge
- - -
regulator Lubricator
Filter Actuator
Receiver
tank Dryer

After cooler
FRL-Package Directional
control
valve

( ) Compressor

AirAir filter

A Air in
(b) Pneumatic circuit

Fig. 3.2 A pneumatic actuator

The advantages and disadvantages of pneumatic actuators are as tollowsi

Advantages and
i s the cheapest form of all actuators. Components are readily availaDe
factories.
compressed air normally is an already existing facility in
LOmpressed air can be stored and conveyed easily over long distancc
fluc
COmpressed air is clean, explosion-proof and insensitive to temperdtu
tuations, hus lending itself to many applications. cing
reliable and ie
n e y nave tew moving parts making them inherently
maintenance costs.
 Table 3.1 Specification of an actuator for a gripper (RS Catalogue)

Technical Specification
Brand SMO
Manufacturer Part No. MHC2 25D

Type Gupper (double acting)

Bore 25 mm

Operating Angle 30° (open) to 10° (Closed)

Pressure Range I to 6 Bar
Connection Port Size M5 m
Temperature Range O to 60 C
Media Non-Lubricated Air
Holding moment 1.4 Nm at 5 Bar
Repeatability at closing position t0.1 mm
Maximum operating frequency 80 cpm (Cycles per minute)

Since pneumatic systems are commen

throughout the industry, therefore rel-
evant personnel are often very familiar How much is 1 bar?
with the technology. One bar = one atm = 14.7 Psi =
They have a very quick action and 101356.5 N/m or approximately
response time, thus allowing for fast 10 Pa.
work cycles.
No mechanical transmission is usually required.
Pneumatics can be intrinsically safe in explosive areas as no electrical control
is required. Also in wet conditions there is no danger of electrocution.
The systems are usually compact.
Control is simple, e.g. mechanical stops are often used.
Individual components can be easily interconnected.

Disadvantages
Since air is compressible, precise control of speed and position is not easily
obtainable unless much more complex electromechanical devices are incorpo-
rated into the system. This means that only a limited sequence, operating at a
fixed speed is often available.
I f mechanical stops are used, resetting the system can be slow.
Pneumatics are not suitable for moving heavy loads under precise control due
to the compressibility of air. This compressibility necessitates the application
of more force than would normally be necessary to ensure that the actuator is
firmly in position against its stop under load conditions.
I f moisture penetrates the units and ferrous metals have been used, then dam-
age to individual components can result.
 36 Introduction to Robotics

The compressibility of the air in a

pneuunatic actuator does not allow for sophisti
cated control. but the same can he used to advantage. preventing
damage due to
overload and providing compiance that may be required in many
practical applica
tions

3.2 HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS

Hydraulic actuators are also fluid power devices for industrial robots, which
utilise
high-pressure fluid such as oil to transmit forces to the point of application desired. A
hydraulic actuator very similar in appearance to that of a pneumatically driven one.
is

Dfferent components are shown in Fig. 3.3, whereas a

typical specification of the
cylinder is given in Tabie 3.2. Hydraulic actuators designed to operate at much higher
pressures (typically between 70 and 170 bars). They are suitable for
high power
applications.
The advantages and disadvantages of hydraulic actuators are as follows:

Advantages
High efficiency and high power-to-size ratio.
Complete and accurate control over speed, position, and direction of actuators
are possible.

Table 3.2 Ahydraulic cylinder with 32-mm bore and 50-mm stroke (RS
Catalogue)
Technical Specifications
Brand Rexroth
Manufacturer Part No.
CDLIMO0/32/18/50/CIX/BICHUMS
Type Cylinder-Rod Ends Bearing
Body Carbon steel
Bore Size
32 mm
Stroke
50 mm
Port Size
G 1/4
Static Proof Pressure
240 bar
Working Pressure
160 bar
Maximum Force at 160 Bar
12.8 kN
Maximurm Flow at (9.I mm/sec 4.8 Vmin
Overall Length 200 mn
Overall length (piston extended)
250 mn
Rod End Dianeter 18 mn
Rod End Thread Size 18 mm
Seal Material
NBR/Polyurethane
Recommended hydraulic medium Mineral oil based tluids
Hydraulie fluid operating temperature range 20 to +80° C
 Actuators 37

Four-way
valve

Double acting
Hand Feed ine
Pressure cylinder
iydraulie indicator shut ofT

pump ( valve
Oil filter

L
Pressure
relief valve

Oil reservoir Return lines Hand control

shift lever Punch press
(a) Hydraulic actuator components
Double-acting double Inertial
Accumulator rod cylinder load Linear
Variable spring
displacement Check
pump valve
A B
TT77771 Viscous
Filter Free
damper
flow
Pilot-operated
relief valve Reservoir
XDirectional
control valve

Reservoir
(b) Hydraulic circuit
Fig. 3.3 A hydraulic actuator

Few backlash problems occur due to the stiffness and

incompressibility of the
fluid especially, when the actuator acts as the joint itself, such as in the
rotary
vane actuators described later. Backlash is the term used to
describe the un-
wanted play in transmission components from their intended
position when
put under load conditions due to wear or clearances between surfaces.
forces can be applied directly at the required locations.
Large
They generally have a greater load carrying capacity than electric and pneu-
matic actuators.
No mechanical linkage is required, i.e. a direct drive is obtained with
mechani-
cal simplicity.
Self-lubricating (low wear) and non-corrosive.
Due to the presence of an accumulator, which acts as a
'storage' device, the
system can meet sudden demands in power.
Hydraulic robots are more capable of withstanding shock loads than electric
robots.
 introduction to Robotics
38

Disadvantages
loss in performance, and general contamination
Leakages can occurcausing a
There is also a higher fire risk.
of the work area. about 70 decibel or dBA or louder if
The power pack can be noisy. typically
protected by an
not acoustic mufller
of the hydraulic fluid. Thus, at low
Changes in temperature alter the viscosity
temperatures fluid viscosity
will increase possibly causing sluggish
movement of the robot.

For smaller robots. hydraulic power is usually not feasible economically as the
cost of hydraulie components do not decrease in proportion to size.
Servo-control of hydraulic systems is complex and is not as widely understood
as electrie servo-control.
Hydraulic systems power the strongest and
How noisy is the stiffest robots and hence the bulk modulus
70 decibels? of the oil is an extremely important attribute to
be selected. A high bulk modulus implies a
the
The level of 70 decibels is about the
noise level of heavy traffic. stiff, quickly responding system with a
corresponding quick pressure buildup, while a
low bulk modulus may result in a system that is too loose because of the high
compressibility of the oil. Hydraulic systems or circuits have always four essential
components: a reservoir to hold the fluid, and pumps to move it, valves to control the
flow, and an actuator to carry out the dictates of the fluid on some load. Like
pneumatic rotary actuators, rotary hydraulic actuators are also available in the
market.

3.3 ELECTRIC ACTUATORS

Electric actuators are generally referred to as being those where an electric motor
drives the robot links through some mechanical transmission e.g. gears etc. In the
early years of industrial robotics, hydraulic robots were the most common, but recent
improvements in electric motor design have
meant that most new robots are of all-electric
construction. The first commercial electrically Who is ABB?
driven industrial robot was introduced in 1974
by ABB. The advantages and disadvantages of ABB is a Zurich, Switzerland based
multinational company operating in
an electric motor are:
ar-
power and automation technology
eas. It was formed in 1988 through
Advantages the merger of ASEA of Sweden and

.Widespread availability of power sup- Brown, Boveri & Cie of Switzerland. It

100
ply. has operations in more than
in-
cOuntries, and one of the major
The basic drive element in an electric dustrial robot manufactures in the
motor is usually lighter than that for world.
fluid power.
 Actuators 39

High power conversion efficiency.

No pollution of
working environment
.The accuracy and
repeatability of clectric power driven robots are normally
better than fluid power robots in relation to cost
Being relatively quiet and clean, thecy are very
.They are easily nmaintained and repaired
acceptable environmentally
Structural components can be
lightweight.
.The drive system is well suited
to electronic control.
Disadvantages
Electrically driven robots often require the incorporation of some sort of me-
chanical transmission system. This adds mass and
unwanted movement which
necessitates additional power, and may
Due to the increased
complicate control.
complexity of the transmission system, additional cost is
incurred for their procurement and maintenance.
Electric motors are not intrinsically safe.
They cannot therefore be used in for
example, explosive atmospheres.
The above disadvantages are
gradually being overcome with the introduction of
direct drive motor system, in which the electric motor is a
part of the relevant robot
arm joint, thus, eliminating the transmission elements. Moreover, the introduction of
newer brushless motors allows electric robots to be used in some fire-risk
applications such as spray painting, as the possibility of sparking at the motor brushes
is eliminated. Different
types of electric motors are steppermotors, the DCand AC
motors.

3.3.1 Stepper Motors

Stepper motors (also called stepping motors)
were first used for the remote control of the di-
rection indicators for torpedo tubes and guns n DC vs. ACc
British warships and later, for a similar purpose
DC stands for Direct Current,
in the U. S. Navy. A variable reluctance type
whereas AC means Alternating Cur
stepper motor was first patented in 1919 by C. rent. Batteries in flash lights, cars etc.
L. Walker, a Scottish Civil Engineer; however supply DC. For domestic use how
its commercial production did not start until ever, the electric supply is AC with
230 volts, 50 cycles (in India and
1950.
other countries), 110 volts, 60 cycles
These motors are used on some robots at the (USA and others), and similar.
Smaller and medium end of the industrial range
and with the teaching and hobby robots. They are also widely used in other industrial
applications and have the advantage that they do not necessarily require a leedback
ystem andthe associated cost,Towever, they are compatible with many fecdback
devices if so desired and are used in full servo-control configurations in medium duty
industrial robots. Because they are digitally controlled motors, they do not require the
expense of digital to analog conversion equipment when linked to a computer control

the shaft of the motor rotates incrementally in equal steps in

system. Normally,
 40 Introduction to Robotics

response to a programmed input pulse train. As the rotor indexes round a specific
amount for each control pulse any error in positioning is non-cumulative. To know
the final position of the rotor, all that is required is to count the number of pulses fed
into the motor stator phase winding. The number of pulses per tine unit determines
the motor speed. The rotor can be made to index slowly, coming to rest after each
increment, or it can move rapidly in a continuous motion termed slewing
Maximum dynamic torque in a stepper motor occurs at low pulse rates. Therefore, it
can easily accelerate a load. Once the required position is achieved and the command
pulses cease. the shaft stops without the need for clutches or brakes. The actual
rotational movements or step angles ofthe shaft are obtainable typically from 1.8°
90° depending on the particular motor choice. Thus, with a nominal step angle of 1.*
a stream of 1000 pulses will give an angular displacement of 1800° or five complete
evolutions. They have also a low velocity capability without the need for gear
reduction. For instance, if the previously mentioned motor is driven by S00 pulses per
second it will rotate at 150 rpm. Other advantages of the stepper motor are that the
motor inertia is often low, and also if more than one stepper motor is driven from the
same source then they will maintain perfect synchronization. Some disadvantages
are that they have a lower output and efficiency as compared to other motors, and
drive inputs and circuitry have to be carefully designed in relation to torque and the
speed required. There are various types of stepper motors e.g. variable reluctance,
permanent magnet, and hybrid.

(i) Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor Magnetic reluctance' or

simply 'Reluctance' is the analogpf electrical resistance. Just as current occurs only
in a closed loop, so magnetic flux around a closed path, although this
occurs only
path may be more varied than that of current. Figure 3.4(a) shows the basic form of
the variable reluctance stepper motor. The rotor is made of soft steel and it has four
poles, whereas the stator has six poles. When one of the phases, say AA, is excited
due to a DC current passing through the coils around the poles the rotor positions
itself to complete the flux path shown in Fig. 3.4(a). Note that there is a main flux
path through the aligned rotor and stator teeth, with the secondary flux paths
occurring as indicated. When rotor and stator teeth are aligned in this manner, the
reluctance is minimised and the rotor is at rest in this position. This flux path can be
considered to be rather like an elastic thread which always trying to shortenitset
The rotor will move until the rotor and stator poles are lined up. This is termed the
position of minimum reluctance. To rotate the motor counter-clockwise, phase AA 1

turned off and phase BB' is excited. At that point the main flux path has the form
indicated in Figs. 3.4(b) and (c). This form of stepper motor generally gives step
angles of 7.5° or 15°.

(ii) Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor The basic method of

As
operation of a permanent magnet type is similar to the variable reluctance type.
illustrated in Fig. 3.5, there them producing four
are two coils A and B each of
but displaced from each other by half a pole pitch. The rotor is of permanent magnet
poles
construction and has four poles, as illustrated. Each pole is wound with field winding
 Actuators 41

S
(a) Basic configuration

N N

30
B

N B N
B
S S
(b) Beginning of step (c) Completed step
Fig. 3.4 Variable reluctance stepper motor

the coils on opposite pairs of poles being in series. Current is supplied from a DC
source tothe winding through switches. It can be seen in Fig. 3.5() that the motoris
at rest with the poles of the permanent magnet rotor held between the residual poles
of the stator. In this position the rotor is locked unless a turning force is applied. If the
coils are energised and, in the first pulse the magnetic polarity of the poles of coil A is
reversed, the rotor will experience a torque and will rotate counter-clockwise
shown in Fig. 3.5(b), the reverse poles are shown as A'
If coil B poles are now reversed to B'", as shown in Fig. 3.5(c) the rotor will
again
experience a torque, and step round once more until the poles of the rotor are
positioned midway between the stator poles. Thus, by switching the currents through
the coils the rotor rotates by 45°. If in the first
pulse the poles of coil B had been
reversed then the motor would have rotated clockwise.
With this type of motor,
commonly produced step angles are 1.8°, 7.5°, 15°, 30°, 34°, 90°.

(111) Hybrid Stepper Motor Hybrid stepper motors combine the features
of both the variable reluctance and
permanent magnet motors, having a
permanent
 42 Introduction to Robotics

A
B
N
S Stator
A
S N
N)S A

B B
Rotor
A
(a)
A A'

B
S B' S B
S
A N N A A' N
NS
S N N A
S

B B
S
B B
A A
(b) (c)
Fig. 3.5 Permanent magnet stepper motor

magnet encaged in iron caps which are cut to have teeth as shown in Fig. 3.6. The
rotor sets itself in the minimum reluctance position in response to a pair of stator ecoils
being energised. Typical step angles are 0.9° and 1.8°. From the descriptions above. it
is therefore apparent that the rate at which the pulses are applied determines the
motor speed, the total number of pulses determines the angular displacement, and the
order of energising the coils in the first instance determines the direction of rotation
It is because of this case of driving using direct digital control that stepper motors are

well suited for use in a computer controlled robot, although the motor does require
interfacing with a high current pulse source.
3.3.2 DC Motors
much experience with pneurnatic or
While nmany people may never have had actually
evervOne has had an almost a daily contact with electric motors
hydraulic systens.

Teeth on Permanent magnet

end caps

Fig. 3.6 Hybrid stepper motor

 Actuatorss 43
Whether they DC (often battery operated) motors for
are
a child's toy or AC (mains
starting the car or powering
operated) motors for turning the blender etc., their
capabilities are well known. The tirst commercial electrically driven industrial robot
was introduced in 1974 by the Swedish
giant corporation ASEA. Traditionally
roboticists have employed electrically driven DC (direct-current) motors for robots
because. not only are their powerful versions available, but
thcy are also easily
controllable with relatively simple electronics. Alhough direct current is needed,
batteries are rarely used (for non-mobile robots) but instead the AC
rectified' into a suitable DC equivalent. The operation of any electric motorsupply
is
is based
upon the principle which states that a conductor will experience a force if an electric
current in that conductor flows at right angles to a
magnetic field. Therefore, to
construct a motor two basic components are one to required the produce magnetic
field-usually termed the stator, and one to act as the conductor-usually termed the
armature or the rotor. The principle is shown in Fig. 3.7(a) for one element of a DC
Conductor

Rotation

Brushes

Magnetic
fields

Commutator

(a) Principle of a DC motor

Stator

Field coils

ood Rotor or
amature

N
Brushes

Commulator

(b) Two-pole DC motor with field coils

Fig. 3.7 DC motor

 44 Introduction to Robotics

motor, whereas a two-pole DC motor is shown in Fig. 3.7(6). The magnetic field may

be created either by"field coils wound on the stator or by permanent magnets. The
to create the magnetic
field coils, if used would be provided with an electric current
toa conductor via the
poles on the stator. In Fig. 3.7(a). the rotor current supplied
is

field produces a torque

brushes and 'commutators". The current passing through the
on the conductor which is maximum for d = 90°, Moreover, higher the voltage
turns, providing a very
supplied the stator coils of the motor, the faster the motor
to
the current to the armature,
simple method of speed control. Similarly, varying
causes the motor to turn in
controls the torque. Reversing the polarity of the voltage
control DC motors, i.c. motors
the opposite direction. Some larger robots utilise field
field coils. These
in which the is controlled by manipulating the current to the
torque
motors allowhigh power output at high speeds and cangive a good power to weight
in Table 3.3, whereas its speed-
Tatto Atypical specification ofa DC motor is given values.
torque characteristic curve is shown in Fig. 3.8 for different voltage

Table 3.3 Specification of a DC motor (RS Catalogue)

Technical Specifications
Parvalux
Brand
PM2 160W511109
Manufacturer Part No.
Industrial DC Electric Motors
Type
Shaft Size (S.M.L) M
4000 rpm
Speed (pm)
Power Rating (W) 160 W
50 V(dc)
Voltage Rating (Vd)
Input Current 3.8 A
78 mm
Height (mm)
140 mm
Width (mm)
165 mmn
Length (mm)

However, for industrial robot systems

in general it may be said that current
excited field control methods involve too
slow a response time and incur losses that High
make permanent magnet fields and voltage
armature control more attractive.
|Low
i) Permanent Magnet (PM) voltage

DC Motors In the permanent mag-

net motor no field coils are used and the Rotationa: speed

field is produced by the permanent mag-

Fig. 3.8 Speed-torque characteristics
nets themselves. Some PM motors do
il
but these are simply to recharge the magnets
have coils wound on the magnet poles motors is
a constant the torque of these
their strength fails. Due to the field flux being
 are: excitation
directly proportional to the armature current. Some other advantages
there
power supplies for the tield coils are not required, relhability is improved as are

to tail, and no power loss from licld coils the efficiency and
no field coils eans

cooling are also improved. Two types of PM contiguraton are shown in Fig. 39
They are cylindrical and disk types.

Yoke

Permanent magncts

Shaft

Armature

(a) Cylindrical (b) Disk

Fig. 3.9 Two types of permanent magnet DC motor configurations

The cylindrical motor operates in a similar manner to that already described for
other DC motors except that there are no field coils, whereas the disk motor has a
large diameter, short length armature of non-magnetic material. It is the cylindrical
motor that is more commonly used in industrial robots.

(ii) Brushless Permanent Magnet DC Motors A problem with DC

motors is that they require a commutator and brushes in order to periodically reverse
the current through each armature coil. The brushes make a sliding contact with the
commutators and as a consequence sparks jump between the two and they suffer
wear. Brushes thus have to be periodically changed and the commutator resurfaced.
To avoid such problems brushless motors have been designed. Essentially they
consist of a sequence of the stator coil and a permanent magnet rotor. A current-
carying conductor in a magnetic field experiences a force; likewise, as a
Consequence of Newton's third law of C A
motion the magnet will also experience an

opposite and equal force.With the

conventional DC motor the magnet is fixed
N
and the current-carrying conductors made to B B
move. With the brushless pernmanent magnet
DC motor the reverse is the case, the current Stator
carrying conductors are fixed and the magnet Pemanent coils

moves. The rotor is a ferrite or a ceramic magnet

permanent magnet. Figure 3. 10 shows the rotor
basic form of such a nmotor. The current to Fig. 3.10 Brushless permanent
the stator coils is electronically switched magnet DC motor
by
 46 Introduction to Robotics

ransistors in sequenee nound the coils., the switching being controlled by the positi.
On
f the rotor so that there are always forces acting on the magnet causing it to rotate in

he same direction.
The 'brushless' motors have many advantages over the conventional DC motors
or example

They have a better heat dissipation, heat being more easily lost from the stator
than the rotor.
There is a reduced rotor inertia.
The motors in themselves are less expensive.
They are more durable.

They weigh less.

They are of smaller dimensions with a comparable power.
The absence of brushes reduces the maintenance costs due to the brush and
commutator wear, and also allows the electric robots to be used in hazardous
areas where flammable
atmospheres such as are found in spray painting appli-
cations.
One disadvantage is that the control system for brushless motors is relatively more
pensive