APhO 2018

Theory
Q1-1 English (Official)
Optical trap of neutral atoms (12 points)

Optical traps are versatile tools to create ultracold atom systems that nowadays play very important role
in quantum physics and are believed to have highly nontrivial applications in technology as well as in
quantum measurements. By shining a laser beam onto an assembly of neutral atoms, we are able to
capture and cool these atoms. When atoms are cooled to near absolute zero temperature, they reveal
the whole fascinating quantum behavior, in particular their Bose-Einstein condensation (BEC).
In this problem you will study basic concepts of an optical trap of neutral atoms and one of the signatures
to recognize the BEC in experiments on sodium atoms.
An neutral sodium atom can be well described as a core with positive charge e surrounded by a homoge-
nous electron cloud with negative charge -e. The mass of the core is much larger than the mass of the
electron cloud. In the absence of an external electric field, the core and the cloud centers coincide. The
electric field of a laser beam interacts with the positive core as well as the electron cloud of the atom, so
an electric dipole is induced. In turn, this induced dipole will interact with the electric field of the laser
beam and thereby gives rise to a dipole potential energy of the atom. The atom is said to feel an optical
potential. The later depends on the intensity profile 𝐼(𝑟)⃗ as well as the frequency of the laser beam in
use. By choosing an appropriate laser intensity and frequency, one may form a trap-like potential well
to confine the neutral atoms.
We start off by considering the polarization of a neutral atom that is placed in a uniform external electric
field 𝐸0⃗ = 𝐸0 𝑢,̂ where 𝑢̂ is a unit vector and 𝐸0 is the field magnitude. Then, a dipole moment 𝑝0⃗ = 𝑒ℓ𝑢̂ =
𝛼𝐸0 𝑢̂ is induced. Here, ℓ is distance between the negative and positive charge centers, and 𝛼 is called
polarizability.
Figure 1. Electron cloud distribution. [1] Spherical distribution of electron cloud about the
atomic core; [2] Shifted electron cloud (separation of + and - within the atom) in an electric
field.
1 (1.5 points)
Initially the external field is turned off. Then the field magnitude is increased from zero to 𝐸0 very slowly
so that the electric field can be considered effectively time-independent in this question. The instanta-
neous value of the external field is denoted by 𝐸⃗ = 𝐸 𝑢,̂
1.1 Find the instantaneous power absorbed by the atom from the external field in 0.75pt
terms of 𝐸⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ and 𝑝,̇⃗ where 𝑝⃗̇ is the rate change of the induced dipole moment.
Theory
1.2 Find the total work done by the external field on the atom when the electric field 0.75pt
is increased from zero to 𝐸 = 𝐸0 . Hence deduce an expression for the induced
dipole potential energy 𝑈𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 in terms of 𝐸𝑜⃗ and 𝑝𝑜⃗ .
Note that when the external electric field is turned off, the electron cloud oscillates with a natural fre-
quency 𝜔0 due to its inertia and the Coulomb restoring force.
2 (1.0 point)
In the following we will study the case where the neutral atoms are placed in an external laser field that
varies in time and space as 𝐸(⃗ 𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) =𝑢.𝐸
̂ 0 (𝑟)cos
⃗ 𝜔𝑡 . The induced dipole moments 𝑝⃗ will oscillate with the
driving laser field frequency 𝜔. It is well known that an oscillating dipole itself emits electromagnetic
radiation. By doing so, electron receives some recoil momentum that causes an electromagnetic friction
resulting in a phase shift between the applied electric field and the induced dipole moment. Therefore,
the induced dipole moment takes the form 𝑝(⃗ 𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) = 𝑢𝐸 ̂ 0 (𝑟)𝛼(𝜔)
⃗ cos[𝜔𝑡+𝜑(𝜔)]. Here, both the polarizability
𝛼 and the phase shift 𝜑 depend on the driving frequency 𝜔 . Due to the oscillating nature, all physical
quantities of our interest reveal themselves only via the corresponding time-averaged values over a pe-
riod 2𝜋/𝜔 of the laser field. The time-averaged value of a periodically varying quantity is defined as
2𝜋/𝜔
⟨𝑓 (𝑡)⟩ = 𝜔
2𝜋 ∫ 𝑓 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡. Hereafter, the notation ⟨...⟩ means time-average of the enclosed quantity.
0
𝜀0 𝑐𝐸02 (𝑟)⃗
Laser intensity 𝐼(𝑟)⃗ is related to amplitude of the laser electric field 𝐸0 as 𝐼(𝑟)=
⃗ 2 , where 𝜖0 is the
permittivity of free space and 𝑐 is the speed of light.
2.1 Find the induced dipole potential energy 𝑈𝑑𝑖𝑝 (𝑟)⃗ = ⟨𝑈𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 (𝑟,⃗ 𝑡)⟩ in term of 1.0pt
𝛼, 𝜑, 𝜀0 , 𝑐, and 𝐼(𝑟).
⃗
3 (1.0 point)
Besides capturing neutral atoms in the trap via the induced dipole potential energy, the oscillating elec-
tric field may cause a scattering force on atoms that arises from absorption and emission of light. The
light scattering processes lead either to heating or to losses of atoms from the trap and may be charac-
terized by the scattering rate, that is related to the number of photons scattered by an atom in unit time
⟨𝑃 (𝑟)⟩ ⃗
and is defined by Γ𝑠𝑐 (𝑟)⃗ = 𝑎𝑏𝑠 . Here, ⟨𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 (𝑟)⟩
⃗ is the time-averaged power absorbed from the laser
ℏ𝜔
field, and ħ𝜔 is the photon energy (ħ = ℎ/2𝜋) .
3.1 Find the scattering rate Γ𝑠𝑐 (𝑟)⃗ in term of 𝛼, 𝜑, 𝜀0 , 𝑐, 𝐼(𝑟),

⃗ ħ and 𝜔. 1.0pt
4 (2.0 points)
Both quantities 𝑈𝑑𝑖𝑝 and Γ𝑠𝑐 (𝑟)⃗ depend on the polarizability 𝛼. In order to calculate the polarizability 𝛼, we
will adopt the one dimensional oscillator model under the presence of an electric field 𝐸(𝑡) ⃗ =𝑢𝐸 ̂ 0 cos 𝜔𝑡.
Let 𝑂𝑥 the axis parallel to the unit vector 𝑢̂ . In this model motion of the electron is determined by three
forces:
i) The restoring force −𝑚𝑒 𝜔02 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑢̂ that describes the free oscillation with the natural frequency 𝜔0 corre-
sponding to the atomic optical transition frequency. We use x to denote the displacement of the negative
charge center from the positive one, which is assumed to be at rest.
ii) The driving force of the laser field −𝑒𝐸0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡.𝑢̂
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iii) The damping force −𝑚𝑒 𝛾𝜔 𝑥.̇ 𝑢̂ that originates from the radiation of the accelerating charge, and is
characterized by the frequency-dependent damping rate 𝛾𝜔 .
−𝑒𝐸0 cos 𝜔𝑡
Therefore, the equation of motion of the electron is given as 𝑥̈ + 𝛾𝜔 𝑥̇ + 𝜔02 𝑥 = 𝑚𝑒 . The solution to
this equation is 𝑥 = 𝑥0 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑). Here 𝑥0 and 𝜑 are to be determined.
4.1 Find the polarizability 𝛼 in term of 𝛾𝜔 , 𝑒, 𝑚𝑒 , 𝜔0 , and 𝜔. 2.0pt
5 (1.0 point)
In fact the energy damping rate 𝛾𝜔 is independent of the electron orbits. Therefore we will adopt another
simple model where the electron cloud center performs a circular motion in the absence of the laser field
but with the frequency 𝜔 and speed 𝑣. Being accelerated, the electron radiates an electromagnectic wave
with power given by the Larmor formula 𝑃𝐿 = 6𝜋𝜀1 𝑒2 𝑎2 with 𝑎 denoting acceleration. The damping force
3
0 𝑐
is supposed to be related to the damping rate 𝛾𝜔 as 𝐹𝑑 = −𝑚𝑒 𝛾𝜔 𝑣. We also assume that the total energy
of the electron is large compared with the energy loss per cycle.
5.1 Find the energy damping rate 𝛾𝜔 in term of 𝑒, 𝜖0 , 𝑐, 𝑚𝑒 , and 𝜔. 1.0pt
6 (0.5 point)
When the driving frequency 𝜔 is close to the natural frequency 𝜔0 , then the polarizability gets larger,
leading to a larger value of the dipole potential as well as an increased scattering rate. Therefore, by
considering the ratio 𝑈𝑑𝑖𝑝 (𝑟)/ħΓ
⃗ ⃗ one can find an appropriate laser frequency to reduce the scatter-
𝑠𝑐 (𝑟),
ing rate while maintaining a reasonably deep trapping potential.
6.1 Introducing the damping rate at 𝜔 = 𝜔0 , as 𝛾 ≡ 𝛾𝜔0 , find the ratio 𝑈𝑑𝑖𝑝 (𝑟)/ħΓ
⃗ 𝑠𝑐 (𝑟)⃗ 0.5pt
in terms of 𝜔, 𝜔0 , and 𝛾.
7 (1.5 points)
From the above result we can see that it is possible to simultaneously achieve a deep trapping potential
and low heating rates by choosing the laser frequency 𝜔 not to be too close to the atomic optical transition
𝜔0 , as well as high laser intensity. Because the scattering rate Γ𝑠𝑐 (𝑟)⃗ is positive, and from the above
obtained ratio 𝑈𝑑𝑖𝑝 (𝑟)/ħΓ
⃗ ⃗ if 𝜔 < 𝜔0 then the dipole potential is negative and the atoms are captured
𝑠𝑐 (𝑟),
in a focused region of laser beam with maximum intensity. Once atoms are captured in the trap, by
reducing the trapping well depth to remove high energy atoms, one may cool the confined atom gas to
ultracold temperatures, enabling formation of BEC. A breakthrough progress in BEC physics had been
achieved with sodium atoms 23 Na in the late nineties (D. M. Stamper-Kurn et al., Phys.Rev.Lett. 80, 2027
(1998)).
The physics of BEC can be understood as follows. In nature, there are two kinds of particles: bosons
with integer spin and fermions with half integer spin. Two identical fermions cannot exist in the same
quantum state. In contrast, multiple bosons are not forbidden to occupy one quantum state: at ultralow
temperatures a large fraction of bosons can condensate into the state with lowest possible energy and
form a condensate cloud (condensate bosons), while the rest bosons are in the excited state with higher
energy (noncondensate or thermal bosons). Let us analyse a practical example of a dilute gas of sodium
atoms, which are bosons, confined in the optical trap created by a Gaussian laser beam (Fig 2a). The
laser beam has the wavelength 𝜆 corresponding to the frequency 𝜔 (with 𝜔 < 𝜔0 ). The beam propagates
along the z-axis with the intensity profile 𝐼 (𝜌, 𝑧) = 2𝑃 2 exp (− 2𝜌 2 ), where 𝜌 = √𝑥2 + 𝑦2 and the waist
2
𝜋𝐷(𝑧) 𝐷(𝑧)
Theory
size is 𝐷 (𝑧) = 𝐷0 √1 + 𝑧 2 /𝑧𝑅

2 with 𝑧
𝑅 = 𝜋𝐷0 /𝜆 denoting the Rayleigh length. The total laser power P
2
and the beam waist parameter 𝐷0 determine the parameters of the optical trapping potential, one of
which is the potential depth 𝑈𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ . The later is defined by the absolute value of the local minimum of
the potential energy, taking as a reference the potential energy energy to be zero at infinity (Fig 2b).
Figure 2. (a) Gaussian beam. The envelope represents the beam waist 𝐷(𝑧) at the plane
𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. (Adopted from wikipedia); (b) Illustration of optical trap along x-axis created by
a Gaussian beam with 𝜔 < 𝜔0 . The dashed line corresponds to a harmonic approximation
near the trap bottom.
7.1 Find the expression for the dipole potential depth 𝑈𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ in terms of 𝑐, 𝜔, 𝜔0 , 𝛾, 𝑃 , 0.5pt
and 𝐷0 .
7.2 Given laser power 𝑃 = 4 mW, laser wavelength 𝜆 = 985 nm, 𝐷0 = 6𝜇m, and nat- 1.0pt
ural wave length for sodium 𝜆0 = 589 nm, evaluate the potential depth 𝑈𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ .
Express your answer as an equivalent temperature 𝑇0 , at which thermal energy
of the non-trapped atom is equal to the trap depth.
8 (0.5 point)
When the cloud temperature 𝑇 is much smaller than equivalent temperature 𝑇0 , the optical potential can
be well approximated by a cylindrically symmetric harmonic potential 𝑈𝑑𝑖𝑝 (𝜌, 𝑧) = −𝑈𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ + 12 𝑚Ω2𝜌 𝜌2 +
1 𝑚Ω2 𝑧 2 , where m is the mass of a sodium atom and Ω , Ω are oscillation frequencies in the correspond-
2 𝑧 𝜌 𝑧
ing directions.
8.1 Find the expression for Ω𝜌 , Ω𝑧 in terms of 𝑇0 , 𝑚, 𝐷0 , 𝑧𝑅 and 𝑘𝐵 . Here 𝑘𝐵 is the 0.5pt
Boltzmann constant.
Recall that at ultralow temperatures, the sodium atom cloud consists of condensate atoms and thermal
atoms. Condensate bosons behave according to the uncertainty principle that can be used for estimating
the spatial size or the momentum distribution of the cloud. On the other hand, thermal bosons are
described by classical physics, in particular, they obey the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution law.
We estimate the size of the condensate cloud, that is, the mean distance of the condensate sodium
Theory
atoms from the trap center. Moving inside this cloud, each condensate atom has potential energy as
well as kinetic energy. The potential energy is a monotonically increasing function of the cloud size,
and the particle tries to reduce it to reach the lowest energy level. On the other hand, as the cloud size
decreases, the uncertainty principle requires an increase in the particle momentum, that results in an
increase of kinetic energy. The particle therefore finds an optimal cloud size to balance the two opposite
tendencies of the two different energy contributions.
9 (1.0 point)
For simplicity, let us consider the simplest case of one dimensional trap potential 𝑈 (𝑧) = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 + 21 𝑚Ω2𝑧 𝑧2 .
9.1 Estimate the size 𝑧0 of the condensate fraction in terms of 𝑚, ħ, Ω𝑧 . 0.5pt
9.2 Find the expression for 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 - the lowest energy level, in terms of ħ, Ω𝑧 . 0.25pt
9.3 Find the average particle velocity 𝜈0 in terms of 𝑚, ħ, Ω𝑧 . 0.25pt
In what follows we will figure out how to differentiate the condensate cloud from the thermal one by
switching off the confining trap. It is neccesary to capture the image of the cloud density profile.
The thermal gas will show an isotropic Maxwell velocity distribution even if the trap is anisotropic. In
contrast, the velocity distribution of a BEC is anisotropic. More precisely, the BEC expands faster along
the axis of strong confinement than along the axis of weak confinement. The expansion predominantly
occurs in the radial direction, and the initially cigar-shaped condensate becomes pancake-shaped. There-
fore the density profile after a long time of flight will be anisotropic and inverted with respect to the shape
of the cloud in the trap.
Figure 3. Cloud shape. [1] Before switching off the trap; [2] A very long time after switching
off the trap.
10 (2.0 points)
Now we extend the previous results to the three-dimensional potential which is the case of the optical
trap in a Gaussian laser beam.
Theory
10.1 Find the aspect ratio 𝜌𝑧00 in terms of Ω𝜌 , Ω𝑧 , where 𝑧0 and 𝜌0 are the initial sizes 0.5pt
of the condensate cloud.
10.2 When the trap is turned off, the condensate will be expanding in different direc- 0.5pt
tions with different initial velocities 𝑣𝜌 and 𝑣𝑧 . Determine the ratio 𝑣𝜌𝑧 in terms
𝑣
of Ω𝜌 , Ω𝑧 .
10.3 Assuming that the velocities of the cloud expansion remain unchanged during 0.5pt
the expansion, find aspect ratio of the condensate cloud after a long period of
time 𝜌𝑧𝐿𝐿 when the cloud size is much greater than its initial size, that is 𝑧𝐿 ≫ 𝑧0
and 𝜌𝐿 ≫ 𝜌0 .
10.4 Same as question 10.3., find the aspect ratio of the thermal cloud after a long 0.5pt
period of time 𝜌𝑧𝑇𝑇 ,𝐿
,𝐿
when the cloud size is much greater than its initial size, that
is 𝑧𝑇 ,𝐿 ≫ 𝑧0 and 𝜌𝑇 ,𝐿 ≫ 𝜌0 .
Theory Q1
Optical trap of neutral atoms (12 points),
Solution and Marking Scheme
 
1.1 At the instance when the seperation between charge centers is x , the external field E exerts
0.75pt   0.15
on them opposite forces F  eE.
 
After a time interval dt , the seperation is changed to x  dx , work done by the external field
      
on the charges is thus dW  Fdx  F  edx  E  dp  E 0.3
The power received by the atomic dipole

dW dp   
Pabs   E  pE 0.3
dt dt
1.2 Total work can be obtained by integration 0. 5
 
0.75pt E0   E0   1  1 
W   dp  E    dE  E   E02  p0 E0
0 0 2 2
Potential energy of the dipole is
1 
U dip  W   p0 E0 0.25
2
If the sign of Udip is incorrect or the factor 1/2 is missing, students get 0pt.
2 / 
2.1 
1.0pt The time average of any time dependent function is denoted by f  t    f  t  dt
2 0
 1  0.5
U dip  r       cos .E02  r  (1)
4

    cos  .I  r 
U dip  r    (2) 0.5
2 0 c
If student gets directly to eq. (2) – full mark (1.0pt)
If the answer is still correct but expressed in any quantity other than those requested – 0.5 pt.
3.1 The power absorbed by the oscillator from the driving field (and re-emitted as dipole
1.0pt radiation) is given by
   sin  .    2
Pabs  r   pE  E0  r  0.5
2
 sin  .     
Pabs  r    I r  (3) 0.25
 0c
 P    sin   0.25
The corresponding scattering rate is  sc  r   abs   I r . (4)
  0 c
 
4.1 In one dimensional Lorentz’s model, we replace E  r , t   E  x , t  . One can find the solution
2.0pt
of the form x  x0 cos t    thus from the equation of motion,

x    x  02 x  eE0 cos t / me
 x0 02   2  cos t     x0  sin t     eE0 cos t / me 0.25
Page 1
 
x0 02   2  cos     sin   cos t  02   2  sin     cos   sin t  0.25
 eE0 cos t / me
Comparing coefficients before cos t and sin  t on both sides, one has
eE0
 2
0   2  cos     sin   
me x0
0.5
 2
0   2  sin     cos   0
eE0 / me
x0  ; 0.25
2 2
 2
0      2 2
 
sin   (4)
2
02   2    2 2
0.25
(02   2 )
cos    (5)
2 2
 2
0   2
   2
0.25
p  ex  ex0 cos(t   )   E0 cos(t   ) (6)
e2 0.25
     (7)
2 2
me  2
0   2
   2
Note: students can obtain  via any of sin, cos, tan functions: full mark (0.25 pt)
5.1 The power radiated due to the damping force, thus

1.0pt 1 e2a 2
me  v.v   0.25
6 0 c3
1 e2 ( 2 r ) 2 0.25
 me  ( r ) 2   ,
6 0 c3
1 e 2 2 0.5
  . (8)
6 0 me c 3
6.1 Substituting e2 2
 6 0c3  /  2 the on-resonance damping rate    0  0 /     .
0.5pt me
Using Eq. (1), (4), (5) and (6) one has
1
     cos 
U dip  r  2 0 c 1 1 1 02   2
    ,
 sc  r     sin  2 tan  2  3 / 02  
 0.5
 0 c
7.1 From (1), (5) and (6) one has

0.5pt
Page 2
0.5
U depth  U0 
   cos   I  0, 0     cos   2 P
  6c 2  02   2   / 02 P
2 6 2
2 0 c 2 0c  D0  2 2 2 2   D0
 0
     
 04 
7.2 Trap depth when P  4mW , laser wavelength   985nm, and D0  6 m. For sodium
1.0pt
0  589nm .
2 c 2 c
One has:   ; 0  ;
 0
1 e 202 2 e 2
And   3
 2
 6.4  107 s 1 0.5
6 0 me c 3 0 me c0
U depth  f kBT0 (factors f = 3/2, 1/2,1 are all accepted) 0.25
 f .T0  4.13 K 0.25
8.1 4k B fT0 0.25

0.5pt Using linear expansion, we have   
mD02
2kB fT0
and  z  0.25
mzR2
9.1 1
0.5pt Mean potential enery U ( z0 )  const  m2z z02 .
2
To estimate the particle momentum, we assume p ~ p, z ~ z0 . 0.2
 0.1
The uncertainty principle is written now p  .
z0
p2 2
Kinetic energy K   .
2m 2mz02
1 2 2 2 0.1
Total energy of the particle E  m z z0   const
2 2mz02
1 2 
Minimal energy corresponds to the energy balance m 2z z02  2
 z0  . 0.1
2 2mz0 m z
If the student followed a correct analysis any obtained correct answer upto some
multiplication factor: full mark
If the student obtained correct answer using dimensional analysis: only 0.1 pt is granted
9.2 
0.25pt Insert the expression of the cloud size z0  to the energy expression
m z
1 2 0.25
Emin  m 2z z02   const one obtains Emin   z  const.
2 2mz02
 z  1
If the student obtained the answer Emin  by using En    z  n   : full mark
2  2
9.3 From the uncertainty principle, the particle velocity therefore is estimated to be 0.25
Page 3
0.25pt   z
mvz   m z  v z  .
z0 m
1 1  z
Alternative estimation is constructed from kinetic energy: mvz2  K   z  vz 
2 2 m
10.1  0.2
0.5pt For the three dimendional trap, one has: z0  .
m z
 2 0.2
Similarly for x, y coordinates x0  y0  and thus  0  x02  y02  .
m  m 
z0 
The condensate aspect ratio:  .
0 2 z 0.1
Student may use either x0 , y0 or 0 in estimating the radial size of the cloud. Correct
answers upto multiplication factor: full mark
10.2  z
0.5pt vz  ,
m
  2  0.25
vx  v y  ,  v  vx2  v y2 ~ ,
m m
v 2 
~ . 0.25
vz z
Student may use either vx , v y or v in estimating expansion velocity in the radial direction.
Correct answers upto some multiplication factor: full mark
10.3 After the time t , the sizes of the condensate cloud are: 0.
0.5pt zL  z0  vz t  vz t  L  0  v t  v t . 25
zL vz z
The cloud aspect ratio after the time t ,  ~  1.
L v 2  0.25
Correct final answers upto some multiplication factor: full mark
10.4 Due to isotropic nature of thermal cloud, described by the Maxwell distribution:
0.5pt v
vT , z  vT ,   T ,   1. 0.2
vT , z
one can easily find zT , L  z0  vz t  vz t , T ,L  0  v t  v t . 0.2
After a very long time, the aspect ratio of the thermal cloud therefore:
T , L : zT , L ~ 1 0.1
Note: students use different velocities (arithmetrical, rms, projection….etc.) to
estimate the expansion of the cloud, as long as they give the correct ratio  L : zT ~ 1, full
mark of this sub question is granted. In this question, the correct multiplication factor is
requested. For incorrect multiplication factor: zero mark
Page 4
Theory
Space elevator (8.0 points)

Useful mathematics formula:
𝑒𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ...
1! 2! 3!
Presently, the use of rockets is the only viable method of transporting material from Earth to Moon,
Mars, and beyond. However, this method of space travel is not so efficient. A space elevator, if it could
be built, would provide a completely new technology for space travel (Fig. 1). This is a long structure that
is anchored at the equator and reaches a higher altitude than geostationary orbit (GEO). Geostationary
orbit is a circular orbit positioned approximately 42300 km from the Earth's center and having a period of
the same duration and direction as the rotation of the Earth. An object in this orbit will appear stationary
relative to the rotating Earth. The modern ideas of the space elevator were first proposed by Artsutanov
(Artsutanov, Y. et al., Science, 158, 946, 1967). However, only modest attention was paid to the subject
until Pearson published an inspiring paper “The Orbital Tower: a Spacecraft Launcher Using the Earth's
Rotational Energy” (Pearson J., Acta Astronautica. Vol. 2, p. 785, 1975). In Pearson's paper, many useful
features of the space elevator were pointed out and it was made clear that for the space elevator to
ever become a reality, the use of a material that is much stronger but much lighter than steel would
be necessary. Due to the lack of such a material, there was little continuation of this research for many
years, until the 1990s when carbon nanotubes, a new material composed of hexagonal arrays of carbon
atoms, were discovered. In 2003, the Port project (http://www.port.com/) was launched to build and
operate a space elevator with current technology.
Figure 1. Space Elevator (adapted from wikipedia).(1) Earth; (2) North pole; (3) Anchored at
equator; (4) Climber; (5) Counterweight; (6) Rotates with Earth; (7) Cable; (8) Geostationary
orbit altitude.
In this part we will study two designs of a space elevator, mechanical properties of carbon nanotubes,
and explore some applications of space elevator. You are given the mass of Earth 𝑀 = 5.98 × 1024 kg ,
radius of the Earth 𝑅 = 6370 km , geostationary orbit radius 𝑅𝐺 = 42300 km , solar mass 𝑀𝑆 = 2 × 1030 kg
, orbital radius of the Earth around the Sun 𝑅𝐸 = 1.5 × 108 km = 1AU (AU – the astronomical unit), the
orbital speed of the Earth 30.9 km/s, and the speed of rotation of the Earth around its axis 𝜔 = 7.27 × 10−5
rad/s.
1. The cylindrical space elevator with a uniform cross section (1.5 points)
Let us first consider a space elevator, which is a cylindrical wire with a uniform cross section A and is
homogeneous with density 𝜌. It is a cylinder positioned vertically at the equator. Its height is greater
Theory
than the height of the geostationary satellite orbit, so that the stress (force per unit area) on the bottom
of the cylinder is zero. The cylinder is in tension along its entire length, with the stress adjusting itself so
that each element of the cylinder is in equilibrium under the action of the gravitational, centrifugal, and
tension forces.
1.1 Calculate the height of the upper end of the cylinder above the Earth’s surface 0.5pt
1.2 Find the distance from the Earth’s center to the point where the stress in the 0.5pt
cylinder is maximum.
1.3 Find the expression for maximum stress of the cylinder in terms of 𝜌, 𝑅𝐺 , 𝑅 and 0.5pt
the gravitational acceleration 𝑔. If the cylinder is made of steel whose density
is 7900 kg/m , tensile strength is 5.0 GPa, evaluate the ratio between the maxi-
3
mum stress and the tensile strength of steel. Tensile strength is the maximum
stress a material can withstand.
2. Carbon nanotubes (2.5 points)

Calculation in the previous part shows that in order to build the space elevator, it is neccessary to have
light materials with very high tensile strength. Carbon nanotubes are materials that meet such require-
ments because of strong chemical bondings between very light atoms. Two natural polymorphs of car-
bon are diamond and graphite. In diamond every carbon atom is surrounded by four nearest neighbor
(NN) atoms to form a tetrahedron. Graphite has a layer structure. In each layer, carbon atoms are
arranged in a hexagonal plane lattice with three NNs. Although diamond is known as the hardest ma-
terials, covalent bondings between carbon atoms in hexagonal layers of graphite is stronger than those
between carbon atoms in diamond tetrahedra. Graphite is much softer than diamond because of the
van der Waals bonding between carbon atoms of different layers, which is much weaker than covalent
bonding.
Figure 2. Graphite structure

Theory
Figure 3. Graphene (a) and carbon nanotube (b).
A monatomic layer in graphite is called graphene and has monoatomic thickness. Isolated graphene
sheet is not stable and has a tendency to roll up to form carbon spheres or carbon nanotubes. The
hexagonal crystal lattice of graphene is depicted in Fig. 4. The distance between two NN carbon atoms
is 𝑎 = 0.142 nm and the distance between two closest parallel bondings is 𝑏 = 0.246 nm. Because the
covalent bondings between carbon atoms in graphene are very strong, mechanical properties of carbon
nanotubes are very special. They have an extremely large Young’s modulus and tensile strength, as well
as a very light density. Young's modulus is defined as the ratio of the stress along an axis to the strain
(ratio of deformation over initial length) along that axis in the range of stress in which Hooke's law holds.
Figure 4. Graphene.
Theory
Figure 5. An illustration of a carbon nanotube with 9 carbon-carbon parallel bondings. Note:

In this problem, there are 27 carbon-carbon parallel bondings. (1) parallel bond; (2) slanted
bond; (3) tube axis.
Now we examine some mechanical properties of a carbon nanotube having 27 carbon-carbon bondings
parallel to the tube axis (for an illustration, see Figure 5). The bonding between two carbon atoms can be
described by the Morse potential 𝑉 (𝑥) = 𝑉0 (𝑒−4 𝑎 − 2𝑒−2 𝑎 ). Here 𝑎 = 0.142 𝑛𝑚 is the equilibrium distance
𝑥 𝑥
between two NN carbon atoms, 𝑉0 = 4.93𝑒𝑉 is the bonding energy, and 𝑥 is the displacement of the atom
from the equilibrium position. Hereafter, we approximate the Morse potential by a quadratic potential
𝑉 (𝑥) = 𝑃 + 𝑄𝑥2 . All non-nearest-neighbor interactions are neglected. In this approximation, one can
propose that carbon atoms are bonded through “springs” with the spring constant 𝑘. Changes in angles
between bonds are neglected.
2.1 Find coefficients 𝑃 and 𝑄 in term of 𝑎 and 𝑉0 0.25pt
2.2 Calculate the value of the spring constant 𝑘. 0.25pt
2.3 Calculate the value of the Young’s modulus of the carbon nanotube. 0.5pt
In order to estimate the tensile strength, we assume that when the “spring” connecting carbon atoms
has the maximum extension 𝑥max the harmonic potential energy equals to the bonding energy.
2.4 Calculate the value of the maximum extension 𝑥max of the spring. 0.5pt
2.5 Estimate the tensile strength 𝜎0 of the carbon nanotube. 0.5pt
2.6 Given that the molar mass of carbon is 12 g, estimate the density of the carbon 0.5pt
nanotube.
3. The tapered space elevator with a uniform stress (2.5 points)

In the previous section, the density and the tensile strength of carbon nanotubes have been evaluated
theoretically. These evaluated values indeed depend on the specific structure of carbon nanotubes. Nev-
ertheless, the idea of space elevator construction is truly feasible. Now we will study a new space elevator
Theory
design of the so-called tapered tower whose cross section varies with height in such a way that both the
stress 𝜎 and mass density 𝜌 are uniform over the entire tower length. The tower has axial symmetry and
is positioned vertically at the equator; its height is greater than the height of the geostationary satellite
orbit. Denote the cross sectional area of the tapered tower on the Earth surface by 𝐴𝑆 and at geosta-
tionary height 𝐴𝐺 .
3.1 Find the cross section 𝐴(ℎ) as a function of distance ℎ up the tower from the 0.5pt
ground.
3.2 The tower is designed symmetrically so that the cross sections at the two ends 0.5pt
are equal, find the distance from the center of the Earth to the upper end of the
tower.
3.3 The taper ratio is defined as 𝐴𝐺 /𝐴𝑆 . Find the taper ratio of the tower made of 0.5pt
carbon nanotubes with tensile strength 130 GPa and density 1300 kg/m3 .
3.4 We can considerably shorten the length of the elevator by terminating it at the 1.0pt
upper end by a counterweight of the appropriate mass. Let ℎ𝐶 be the height of
the tower relative to the geostationary height, and find the relation of mass 𝑚𝐶
of the counterweight and ℎ𝐶 .
4. Applications: launching payload into orbit and spacecraft to the other planets (1.5 points)
The main application of space elevator is the use of the tower's rotational energy to launch payload into
orbit or send spacecraft to the other planets. It is very easy to get payload into space: we simply have to
make it ride up the elevator to an altitude r and release it from rest. For simplicity in the calculations, let
us assume that the motion of the tower occurs in the plane of Earth's orbit.
4.1 Find the critical height 𝑟𝐶 up the tower, measured from Earth’s center, at which 0.5pt
the object would have to be released from rest to escape Earth’s gravity.
Building a tower of greater height than 𝑟𝐶 is necessary if we wish to use it to launch spacecraft on voyages
to other planets. Given that the tower height is 107000 km from Earth’s center.
4.2 Find the minimal and the maximal distances from the Sun that a spacecraft 1.0pt
released from rest from the top of the tower can reach. Give your answers in
astronomical units. We neglect the Earth's gravitational attraction at this height.
Theory Q2
Space elevator (8 points)
Solution and Marking Scheme
1 Cylindrical Space Elevator with Uniform Cross Section

1.1 Consider a small element of the cylinder of thickness dr at position r , there are
0.5pt four forces acting on that element: gravitational W  r  , centrifugal F  r  , cable
C
   
tension FD  T  r  at position r , tension FU  T  r  dr  at position r  dr .
Positive direction is chosen from the Earth center outward. The net force must be
zero, therefore:
W  FC  T  r  dr   T  r   0
, 0.1
 W  FC  A.  r  dr   A.  r   0
Hence
GM  A dr  
Ad    A dr    2 r
r2
d 1 r 
  GM   2  3 
dr r RG  0.1
Note that, the tensions at the ends of the
cylinder are zero. Integrating the above
equation from R to RG, one obtains the stress
at RG
0.1
1 3 R2 
  RG   GM     3 ,
 R 2RG 2RG 
Similarly, integrating from RG to H (the distance from the Earth center to the
upper end of the cylinder), one obtains the same stress at RG
1 3 H2  0.1
  RG   GM     3
 H 2 RG 2 RG 
Equating the two above expressions, one arrives to the equation:
R H 2  R 2 H  2 Rg3  0 ,
R 
3
 RG 
from where H is determined: H   1  8    1  1.51105 km.
2  R  
 
R 
3
R  0.1
The height of the cylinder L  H  R   1  8  G   3  1.45 105 km.
2
  R  

Note: Students can just equalize the net gravitational force and the net centrifugal
force acting on the cylinder to obtain H correctly: full mark.
1.2 The maximal stress is determined from the requirement
0.5pt
Page 1
d 1 r  0.25
 GM   2  3   0
dr  r RG 
which yields r  RG 0.25
1.3 Maximal stress is expressed by

0.5pt 1 3 R2 
  RG   GM     3 (1)
 R 2RG 2RG 
 3R 2 R 4 
  RG    g  R    (2) 0.25
 2 RG 2RG3 
Numerical calculation with   7900kg / m3 one obtains the ratio:
  RG  383 GPa
  76.5 , 0.25
5.0GA 5.0 GPa
This ratio is much larger than 1, therefore steel is not suitable to build this kind of
elevator.
If eq. (2) is not obtained and other correct equation like eq. (1) is derived - 0.1pt
from full mark (get only 0.15pt for maximal stress).
2 Carbon Nanotubes
2.1 Expand exponential function in series, and limit to the lowest power of x, one
0.25pt  4x 2 
has V  V0  1  2  and gets P  V0 and 0.1
 a 
4V0 0.15
Q .
a2
2.2 dV 8V 0.1
0.25pt F    20 x
dx a
8V0
then k   313Nm 1 . 0.15
a2
2.3 Young’s modulus of the carbon nanotube. Denote d the diameter of the carbon
0.5pt nanotube, one has d  27b /  .
stress  F / A kx / A ka 32V0 0.25
E1      2
strain  x/a x/a A a d
E  NE1  342 GPa
0.25
2.4 1 2 2V0 1 0.25

0.5pt V0  kxmax  xmax   a
2 k 2
0.25
 0.071nm
2.5 xmax 0.5
0.5pt Tensile strength of the carbon nanotube,  0  E  E / 2  171GPa.
a
Page 2
2.6 d2 3a 0.25
0.5pt Volume  contains 18 carbon
4 2
atoms, therefore the density of the
carbon nanotube,
3 3a /2
2  27 12  10
 2
= 1440 kg/m 3 .
 d 3a 0.25
NA  
4 2
3 Tapered Space Elevator with Uniform Stress

3.1 The solution to this section is analogous to
0.5pt that given in the previous section, however,
now one has to take into account the fact that
the stress  is constant, but the cross section
area A varies along the tower.
GM  A dr  
 dA  2
  A dr    2 r
r
dA  gR 2  1 r  0.25
   2  3  dr
A   r RG 
where g  GM / R 2 is gravitational
acceleration at the Earth surface. By
integration one can obtain the tower cross
section as:
  gR 2  1 R 2 1 ( R  h) 2   0.25
A  h   AS exp    3   
   R 2 RG R  h 2 RG3  
3.2 Using the condition A(H)=A(R)=AS one arrives to the equation
0.5pt R H 2  R 2 H  2 RG3  0 , which allows to determine 0.25
R 
3
  RG    151000 km.
H 1 8   1
2  R   0.25
 
3
3.3 AG R  R   R   0.5
0.5pt The ratio  exp[ {   3   2}]  1.623 where LC 
AS 2 LC  RG   RG  g
3.4 Net force exerted on the counterweight must be zero
1.0pt GMmC 0.5
2
 A  RG  hC  .  mC 2  RG  hC  , replacing A  RG  h  from the
 RG  hC 
equation for cross section area, one can determine the counterweight mass.
Page 3
 R 2  2 R 3  R 3 2 R 3   R  h 3  
 AS LC exp  3
 G  G G C

2 L R
 C G   R R  h 
G C  0.50
mC  3
.
R  RG  hC    RG  
2
1    
RG3   RG  hC  
4 Applications
4.1 An object can leave the Earth if its energy at the distance r satisfies
0.5pt m ( r ) 2 GMm 1
E   0 from which rC   2GM /    53200km
2 3
0.25
2 r
In order to launch an object, the upper end of the tower must locate above the
distance rC. 0.25
4.2 We denote the Earth orbital velocity as vE , the spacecraft velocity when it’s
1.0pt released from the tower top as v   h . The spacecraft can reach the furthest
1 0
 
distance from the Sun if v1 is parallel to vE . The spacecaft velocity relative to the
Sun is vE  v1 . The Earth orbital radius RE also is the smallest distance from the
sun (if one neglects the tower length compared to the radius of the Earth’s orbit).
r2 is the apogee distance of the spacecraft from the Sun, v2 is its velocity at apogee.
Angular momentum and energy convervation laws read
m  vE  v1  RE  mv2 r2 0.1
1 2 GM S m 1 2 GM S m 0.1
m  vE  v1    mv2 
2 RE 2 r2
GMm
Here the energy term  due the earth’s gravity is neglected. Eliminating v2
h0
one has
 2 2GM S  2 2 2 0.1
 vE   h0    r2  2GM S r2   vE  h0  RE  0
 RE 
2 0.1
 vE   h0  RE2
from which rMax  r2  2
.
2GM S   vE   h0  RE
Numerical calculation gives r2=5.3AU, that covers Jupiter’s orbit. 0.1
Similarly, for the spacecraft to approach as close as possible to the Sun, the
 
released velocity v1 must be antiparallel to vE . The spacecaft velocity relative to
the Sun is vE  v1 , r2 is the perigee distance of the spacecraft from the Sun, v2 is its
velocity at perigee.
The previous angular momentum and energy convervation laws still hold,
m  vE  v1  RE  mv2 r2 0.1
Page 4
1 2 GM S m 1 2 GM S m 0.1
m  vE  v1    mv2 
2 RE 2 r2
GMm
Here the energy term  due the earth’s gravity is neglected. Eliminating v2
h0
one has
 2 2GM S  2 2 2
0.1
 vE   h0    r2  2GM S r2   vE  h0  RE  0
 RE 
2
from which rmin  r2 

 vE   h0  RE2 .
0.1
2
2GM S   vE   h0  RE
Numerical calculation gives rmin  0.43AU, meaning the Mercury’s orbit is within 0.1
our reach.
References
[1] Artsutanov, Y. Kosmos na elektrovoze. Komsomolskaya Pravda July 31 (1960); contents
described in Lvov Science 158, 946–947 (1967).
[2] Pearson, J. The Orbital Tower: a Spacecraft Launcher Using the Earth's Rotational Energy.
Acta Astronautica 2, 785 (1975)
[3] Aravind, P. K. The physics of the space elevator. American Journal of Physics 75, 125
(2007).
[4] Bochníček, Z. A Carbon Nanotube Cable for a Space Elevator. The Physics Teacher 51, 462
(2013).
Page 5
Theory
Thermoelectric effects and their applications in thermoelec-

tric generator and refrigerator (10 pt)
Introduction: Thermoelectric effects
Thermoelectric effects in conducting materials are due to the interplay between heat current and elec-
trical current. In this problem we consider only three predominant thermoelectric effects, namely the
Joule, the Seebeck and the Peltier effects, neglecting the others.
The Joule effect is a consequence of the interaction between electrical carriers and crystal lattice. Mov-
ing directionally in presence of electrical current, carriers transfer a part of their energy to the vibrating
crystal lattice, and as a result the crystal is heated. The Joule effect is irreversible.
The Seebeck effect can be observed in a thermocouple consisting of two dissimilar conducting bars A
and B connecting by direct junction (Fig. 1a) or junction via an intermediate material C (Fig. 1b). The
material C is good electrical conductor with very small specific heat. When the two junctions of the
thermocouple are maintained at different temperatures 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 (Fig. 1a,b) the Seebeck electromotive
force (emf ) is produced
𝜖 = 𝛼(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) (1)
where 𝛼 is the Seebeck coefficient of the thermocouple. 𝛼 is considered temperature independent .

The Seebeck effect is applied in thermoelectric generator to convert heat energy into electrical one.
Figure 1. (a) direct junctions. (b) junctions via an intermediate material C. (1) Heat source
(temperature 𝑇1 ); (2) Heat sink (temperature 𝑇2 )

The Peltier effect
Whenever current passes through a thermocouple circuit consisted of two dissimilar conductors A and
B with direct junctions (Fig. 2a) or junctioned via intermediate conductor C (Fig. 2b), depending on the
Theory
current direction, heat is either absorbed or released at the junctions of the two conductors. This is the
Peltier effect. The Peltier heat power q appeared at a junction is
𝑞 = 𝜋𝐼 (2)
𝜋 is the Peltier coefficient of this junction.The Seebeck and Peltier effects are reversible effects in contrast
to the irreversible Joule effect. Although the Seebeck and Peltier effects need junctions between the
thermoelements, they are essentially bulk effects. A closed electrical cycle in a thermocouple with the
Peltier effect (Fig. 2b) can be used as a refrigerator when heat is removed from one isolated junction and
rejected at the other.
For simplicity, the heat radiation, circulation, conduction through surrounding environment are consid-
ered negligible, and heat current is supposed to be inside the thermocouple and at the heat source and
the heat sink.
Figure 2. (a) Direct junctions; (b) junctions via an intermediate material C
Data for thermal and electrical properties of materials and the thermocouple studied in this problem are
given in the Table 1 and 2 for numerical calculation.
Name Material Resistivity 𝜌 (Ω ⋅ m) Thermal conductivity 𝑘 (W ⋅ m−1 ⋅ K−1 )

A Bi2 Te2.7 Se0.3 1.0 × 10−5 1.4
B Bi0.5 Sb1.5 Te3 1.0 × 10 −5
1.4
Table 1: Parameters of materials used in thermocouple (at room temperature)
Thermocouple AB Length (m) Seebeck's coefficient 𝛼(𝜇V ⋅ K−1 )

0.02 420
Table 2: Parameters of the thermocouple.
Theory
A. Heat transfer and thermoelectric generator

A1. Heat transfer in a homogeneous conducting bar
An electric current 𝐼 (Figure 3) flows along a homogeneous conducting bar with length 𝐿, resistivity 𝜌,
thermal conductivity k. The two ends of the bar are located at coordinates 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 𝐿 in the OX
axis. The temperature at 𝑥 = 0 is 𝑇1 , at 𝑥 = 𝐿 is 𝑇2 (𝑇1 > 𝑇2 ) , both temperatures are kept constant.
Figure 3
The heat current 𝑞(𝑥) (the amount of heat transferred via perpendicular cross-section per unit time)
flowing in the bar is described by the Fourier law
𝑑𝑇 (𝑥)
𝑞(𝑥) = −𝑘𝑆 (3)
𝑑𝑥
here 𝑘 is thermal conductivity, and 𝑆 is the cross-sectional area of the bar.
A1.1 Find the temperature distribution 𝑇 (𝑥) when 𝑥 varies along the bar at the steady 0.75pt
state assuming no heat loss to the surroundings.
Hint: the equation 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 has the solution 𝑇 (𝑥) = 12 𝑎𝑥2 + 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2 , where 𝐶1
2
𝑇 (𝑥)
2
and 𝐶2 are derived from boundary conditions.
A1.2 Find the heat current 𝑞(𝑥) at point 𝑥 and 𝑞(0), 𝑞(𝐿) at the two ends, respectively. 1.0pt
A2. Relation between Peltier and Seebeck Coefficients

Relation between Peltier and Seebeck coefficients for all temperature range is generally proved in ther-
modynamics. Here, this relation is derived for the particular case when the thermocouple is made of
conducting materials A and B (Fig.1b) with the Seebeck coefficient 𝛼 and small-enough resistivity so that
the Joule effect can be neglected. The Peltier coefficients at the hot (temperature 𝑇1 ) and cold ( tem-
perarure 𝑇2 ) junctions are 𝜋1 and 𝜋2 correspondingly. During electrical process, the electron gas in the
thermocouple performs a ideal thermodynamic cycle.
A2.1 Find the expression for the heat current received by the electron gas from the 0.25pt
heat source with temperature 𝑇1 .
Theory
A2.2 Find the expression for the heat current transferred by the electron gas to the 0.25pt
heat sink with temperature 𝑇2 .
A2.3 Find the net electrical power produced by the electron gas if the Seebeck coef- 0.5pt
ficient is 𝛼.
A2.4 Express the Peltier coefficient 𝜋 at a junction in term of the Seebeck coefficient 0.5pt
𝛼 and the temperature 𝑇 of the junction.
A3. Thermoelectric generator
Figure 4. Thermoelectric generator. (1) Heat source (temperature 𝑇1 ); (2) Heat sink (tempera-
ture 𝑇2 ).
Hereafter the Peltier coefficient 𝜋 is taken to be equal to 𝛼𝑇 for all temperatures and the Joule heat must be
included in consideration.
The thermocouple consistsing of two conducting bar A and B with equal lenght 𝐿 is used as thermoelec-
tric generator (Fig. 4). The parameters of the bars A and B are: cross-sectional areas 𝑆𝐴 , 𝑆𝐵 ; resistivities
𝜌𝐴 , 𝜌𝐵 ; thermal conductivities 𝑘𝐴 , 𝑘𝐵 . The lower ends of the A and B bars are connected to a load of re-
sistance 𝑅𝐿 . Parameters of the thermocouple are: 𝛼 the Seebeck coefficient, 𝑅 = 𝜌𝑆𝐴 𝐿 + 𝜌𝑆𝐵 𝐿 the internal
𝐴 𝐵
resistance, 𝐾 = 𝑘𝐴𝐿𝑆𝐴 + 𝑘𝐵𝐿𝑆𝐵 the thermal conductance. The upper hot end (lower cold end) of the ther-
mocouple is maintained at temperature 𝑇1 (𝑇2 ) and 𝑇1 > 𝑇2 . Denote 𝑞1 as the heat power taken from the
heat source with temperature 𝑇1 , 𝑞2 as the heat power transferred to the heat sink with temperature 𝑇2
by the themocouple.
Theory
A3.1 Find the expressions for 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 in terms of the thermocouple parameters 𝛼, 𝐾, 𝑅, 0.5pt
the temperatures 𝑇1 , 𝑇2 and the current 𝐼
The efficiency of the thermoelectric generator is defined as 𝜂 = 𝑃𝑞1𝐿 , where 𝑃𝐿 the electrical power of the
load. The ratio between the load and internal resistances of the thermocouple is denoted as 𝑚 = 𝑅𝑅𝐿
A3.2 Find the expression for the efficiency 𝜂 in terms of the thermocouple parame- 0.75pt
ters 𝛼, 𝐾, 𝑅, the temperatures 𝑇1 , 𝑇2 and the resistance ratio 𝑚
In order to determine the efficiency of thermoelectric generators, the following properties of the ther-
mocouple are needed: low electrical resistance to minimize Joule heating, low thermal conductivity to
retain heat at the junctions, and a maintained large temperature gradient. These three properties are
𝛼2 , which is called the figure-of-merit of the thermocouple.
put together in one quantity 𝑍 = 𝐾𝑅
A3.3 Find the expression for the efficiency in terms of 𝑍, the ideal Carnot cycle effi- 0.25pt
ciency 𝜂𝑐 = 𝑇1𝑇−𝑇2 , 𝑇1 and 𝑚.
1
A4. The maximum efficiency

The efficiency of the thermocouple equals 𝜂𝑃 when the electric power of the load takes the maximum
value, 𝑃𝐿 = 𝑃max .
A4.1 Find the expression for the 𝜂𝑃 in terms of the figure of merit 𝑍, 𝑇1 , and 𝑇2 . 0.25pt
The efficiency is maximum 𝜂 = 𝜂max when the resistance ratio m takes some value which is denoted by𝑀 .
A4.2 Find the expression for 𝑀 in terms of 𝑇1 , 𝑇2 , and 𝑍. 0.75pt
A4.3 Express the maximum efficiency 𝜂max via 𝑇1 , 𝑇2 , 𝑍 and 𝑀 . 0.25pt
A5. The maximum figure of merit

Increasing the figure of merit of the thermocouple leads to the increase of the efficiency of the ther-
moelectric generator. In practice, the cross-sectional areas 𝑆𝐴 , 𝑆𝐵 of the bars of the thermocouple are
choosen so that the figure of merit of the thermocouple has maximum value 𝑍 = 𝑍𝑚
A5.1 Derive the expression for the ratio between the cross-sectional areas 𝑆𝑆𝐴 of the 0.5pt
𝐵
bars in terms of 𝜌𝐴 , 𝜌𝐵 , 𝑘𝐴 , 𝑘𝐵 when the figure of merit of the thermocouple is
maximum.
A5.2 Express the maximum figure of merit 𝑍𝑚 in term of 𝛼,𝜌𝐴 , 𝜌𝐵 , 𝑘𝐴 , 𝑘𝐵 0.25pt
A6. The optimum efficiency

The optimum efficiency 𝜂𝑜𝑝𝑡 of the thermolectric generator is defined as the efficiency when the electric
power at the load and the figure of merit both are at the maximum values. The hot heat source and cold
heat sink are maintained at temperatures 𝑇1 = 423 K, 𝑇2 = 303 K respectively.
Theory
A6.1 Find the numerical value 𝜂𝑜𝑝𝑡 of the thermoelectric generator made from mate- 0.5pt
rials with parameters given in Table 1 and compare it with the ideal efficiency
𝜂𝑐 .
A6.2 Find the numerical value of the maximum efficiency 𝜂max of the thermoelectric 0.25pt
generator made from given materials.
B. Thermoelectric refrigerator
The thermocouple with parameters 𝛼, 𝐾, 𝑅 given in the question A3 is used as a thermoelectric refrig-
erator and described in the Fig.5.
B1. The cooling power and the maximum temperature difference
The upper end of the thermocouple is a heat source with the initial temperature 𝑇1 . It is thermally
isolated with ambient environment, and needs to be cooled. The lower ends of the thermocouple, A
and B bars are connected to a battery and are at the temperature 𝑇2 of the heat sink. The sense of the
electrical current is chosen so that the Peltier heat is absorbed at the upper junction and released to the
heat sink at the lower junction.
Figure 5. Thermoelectric refrigerator. (1) Isolated heat source (temperature 𝑇1 ); (2) Heat sink
(temperature 𝑇2 )
B1.1 Find the expression for the cooling power 𝑞𝐶 (heat current flows from the heat 0.25pt
source to the bars of the thermocouples) in terms of the thermocouple param-
eters 𝛼, 𝐾, 𝑅 and 𝑇1 , 𝑇2 , 𝐼.
Theory
B1.2 Find the expression for the maximum temperature difference Δ𝑇max = 𝑇2 − 0.5pt
𝑇1 min in term of the figure of merit Z of the thermocouple and the lowest tem-
perature of the isolated heat source 𝑇1 min .
B2. The working current

The thermocouple made from materials A and B with best value of figure of merit 𝑍𝑚 found in part A is
used for the refrigerator.
B2.1 Calculate the numerical value of the minimum temperature of the isolated heat 0.25pt
source 𝑇1 min if the temperature of the heat sink is 𝑇2 = 300𝐾.
B2.2 Calculate the working current intensity 𝐼𝑤 of the thermoelectric refrigerator 0.5pt
when the temperature of the heat source is at the minimum value 𝑇1 min and
the temperature of the heat sink 𝑇2 = 300𝐾. For simplicity the cross-sectional
areas of the bars are taken to be equal, 𝑆𝐴 = 𝑆𝐵 = 10−4 𝑚2 .
B3. The coefficient of performance

When the temperature difference is less than its maximum value Δ𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 , the coefficient of performance
𝛽 is usually used for assessing of the performance of the thermoelectric refrigerator. 𝛽 = 𝑞𝑃𝐶 , where 𝑃 is
the supplied electrical power.
B3.1 Find the expression for the coefficient of performance 𝛽 in terms of the param- 0.5pt
eters 𝛼, 𝐾, 𝑅 of the thermocouple and 𝑇1 , 𝑇2 , 𝐼.
When the coefficient of performance has its maximum value 𝛽max , the current intensity is 𝐼𝛽 .
B3.2 Find the expression for 𝐼𝛽 in terms of the parameters 𝛼, 𝑍, 𝑅 of the thermocou- 0.25pt
ple and temperatures 𝑇1 , 𝑇2 .
B3.3 Find the expression for the maximum coefficient of performance 𝛽max . 0.25pt
Theory Q3
Thermoelectric effects and theirapplication in
thermoelectric generator and refrigerator(10 points)
Solution and Marking scheme
A. Heat transfer and thermoelectric generator

A1. Heat transfer in a homogeneous conducting bar
A1.1 Consider heat transfer in the segment dx of the bar in the steady state. Equation for
0.75 pt the balance of the energy exchange through the cross-sectional area is written as
dT  x  dx 2 dT  x  dx  dT  x  d 2T  x 
kS   I  kS  kS  kS .dx
dx S dx dx dx 2
Hence
d 2T  x   I 2 0.25
kS  (A1)
dx 2 S
Integration of (A1) gives
dT  x  I 2
  2 x  C1 , (A2)
dx kS
I2
T  x   x 2  C1 x  C2 . (A3)
2kS 2
Constants C1 , C2 are derived from the boundary conditions
x  0  T  T1  C2  T1 , (A4) 0.25
T2  T1 1  L 2
x  L  T  T2  C1   I . (A5)
L 2 S 2k
Equation for the temperature distribution in the bar is
  LI 2 T1  T2  I 2 2
T  x   T1   2
  x  x . (A6) 0.25
 2kS L  2kS 2
A1.2 Using (A2) –(A5) we obtain the equation for the heat current at x
1.0 pt dT  x  kS I 2  L
q  x    kS   1 2
T  T   x  , (A7) 0.5
dx L S  2
at x  0, and x  L
kS  LI 2 RI 2
q  x  0   1 2
T  T   K  1 2
T  T  , (A8)
L 2S 2 0.25
kS  LI 2 RI 2
q  x  L  T1  T2    K T1  T2   . (A9) 0.25
L 2S 2
kS L
Here K  , R .
L S
A2. Relation between Peltier and Seebeck Coefficients

Thermocouple consists of two subsystems: a) the conducting electron gas that performs an ideal
themodynamic cycle; b) Nuclei and bounded electrons of the bar crystal that oscillate around
Page 1
equillibrium positions at finite temperature and participate in heat conduction process. If the
resistance of the thermocouple is neglected, these two subsystems may be considered as
noninteracting, the electron gas exchanges heat only with the heat source at T1 and the heat sink at
T2 , performing the ideal Carnot cycle.
A2.1 Electron gas receives heat from heat source due to the Peltier effect 0.25
0.25 pt q1   1 I (A10)
A2.2. The heat amount transferred to the heat sink due to the Peltier effect 0.25
0.25 pt q2   2 I (A11)
A2.3. Power delivered by the electron gas due to the Seebeck emf is 0.5
0.5 pt P   I   T1  T2  I (A12)
A2.4 The efficiency of the ideal Carnot cycle applied to the thermocouple can be
0.5 pt written as
P T T
  ,  1 2 . (A13) 0.25
q1 T1
Thus
T1  T2  T1  T2 
 (A14)
T1 1
0.25
Comparing these equations, one has  1   T1 .
This is the Peltier coefficient at the first junction contacting with the heat source.
Generally, one has    T .
A3. Thermoelectric generator

A.3.1. Power received by the thermocouple from the heat source (see also (A8)) is
0.5 pt 1
q1  K T1  T2    T1I  I 2 R. (A15) 0.25
2
Here  is the Seebeck coefficient of the thermocouple and
k S k S
K  K A  KB  A A  B B , (A16)
L L
 L  L
R  RA  RB  A  B , (A17)
SA SB
are its thermal conductance and internal resistance.
The heat sink receives a power (see also (A9))
1
q2  K T1  T2   T2 I  I 2 R. (A.18) 0.25
2
A3.2. The efficiency of the thermoelectric generator is
0.75 pt PL I 2 RL m 0.25
   . (A19)
q1 K T1  T2    T1 I  I R / 2 K T1  T2   T1 1
2
 
I 2R IR 2
Here we use RL  mR . The electrical current in the circuit is
Page 2
 T1  T2   T1  T2  0.25
I  . (A20)
RL  R 1  m  R
Substituting (A20) into (A19) we obtain the expession for the efficiency
m  T1  T2 
 2
. (A21)
KR 1  m  T T 0.25
2
 T1 1  m   1 2
 2
A3.3. Replacing the figure of merit
0.25 2
Z (A22)
KR
T T
and c  1 2 the efficiency of the ideal Carnot cycle in (A21), one has
T1
m
  c 2
. (A23)
1  m  1 0.25
 1  m   c
ZT1 2
From (A23) one sees that larger Z leads to the larger efficiency of the
corresponding thermoelectric generator. The condition ZT1  1 can be used for
material application in thermoelectric generators.
A4. The maximum efficiency

A4.1 When RL  R or m=1, the power consumed on the load is maximum. The
0.25 pt efficiency in that case is
T1  T1
P  . (A24) 0.25
 4 3T1  T2 
 Z  2 
A4.2. Equation (A23) may be rewritten as
0.75 pt m 0.25
 2
, (A25)
a 1  m   b 1  m   1 / 2
1 T1
where a  , b .
Z T1  T2  T1  T2
d 2b  1
Equation  0 has the solution M  1  or 0.25
dm 2a
M  1 Z
T1  T2  .
(A26) 0.25
2
A4.3. Using (A25), (A26) we obtain the maximum efficiency of the thermoelectric 0.25
0.25 pt generator
T  T  M  1
max  1 2 (A27)
T1  T2 
M  
 T1 
(Correct expression containing either M , Z or both is also accepted)
Page 3
A5. The maximum figure of merit
A5.1 According to (A22) Z takes the maximum value Z  Z m when KR  y is
0.5
   S
smallest. Denoting  k A S A  k B S B   A  B   y, x  A
 S A SB  SB
 
one has the equation  k A x  k B   A   B   y . 0.25
 x 
It is easily to show the function y has the minimum at x=xm, where
1/2
 Ak B S  k 
xm  or A   A B  .
BkA SB  B k A  0.25
(A28)
A5.2 If the ratio of cross-sectional areas satisfies (A28) then

2 0.25
0.25 pt 1/2 1/2
ym    A k A     B k B   and the maximum figure of merit of the
 
thermocouple is
2
Zm  2
.
  A k A 1/2    B k B 1/2  (A.29)
 
A6. The optimal efficiency

A6.1. The thermocouple with two bars made from material A and B has the following
0.5 pt the figure of merit
2 2 0.15
Zm  2
  3.15 103 K 1 . (A.30)
  A k A 1/2    B k B 1/2  4 Ak A
 
The optimal efficiency of the thermocouple AB when T1= 423K, T2 = 303K has
the following value
T1  T2 120 0.25
opt    5.84% . (A.31)
1 3T1  T2 1 3  423  303
4Z m  4 
2 3.2  103 2
The corresponding ideal Carnot efficiency for that case is
T  T 120
C  1 2   28.4% (A32)
T1 423
0.1
opt / C  0.21 .
A6.2 The maximum efficiency of the thermoelectric generator designed from AB 0.25
0.25 pt materials is
M  1  Zm
T1  T2   1  3.2 103  363  1.46
2
 M  1
max  C  6.0% .
 T2 
M   ( A.33)
 T1 
Page 4
B. Thermoelectric refrigerator
B1. The cooling power and the maximum temperature difference
B1.1 For cooling purpose we choose the current direction so that heat is absorbed at 0.25
0.25pt upper junction (temperature T1) due to Peltier effect and transferred to the A & B
bars. Using (A.9) one gets cooling power taken out from heat source at T1
RI 2
qC   T1 I  K  T1  T2   (B.1)
2
where K , R are thermal conductance and internal resistance of thermocouple.
B1.2. dqC
Condition for the maximum cooling power qCM is founded from  0 , one
0.5 dI 0.25
has
T1
Iq  , (B2)
R
 2T1
qCM   K  T2  T1  . (B3)
2R .
The maximum temperature depression is derived from the condition qCM  0 ,
which gives
 2T1min
2 2
ZT1min 0.25
Tmax  T2  T1min   . (B4)
2 KR 2
2
Here Z  is the figure of merit of the thermocouple.
KR
B2. The working current

B2.1 Thermocouple AB with Z m  3.15 103 K 1 is used for a refrigerator. The
0.25pt
lowest cooling temperature T1min is found from the same equation (B4)
2 2 2
0  T1min  T1min  T2
Zm Zm
1
T1min 
Zm
 1  2Z mT2  1 . (B5)
0.1
Putting T2  300K and Z m  3.15 103 K 1 in (B.5) we obtain

T1min  2.22 102 K. (B.6) 0.15
B2.2. AL B L 2 B L
Putting the value of the internal resistance R     4.0  103 
0.5 SA SB SB 0.25
in (B2), one gets the working current
 T1min 4.2  104  221.5 0.25
IW   A  23.3A (B7)
R 4  103
Page 5
B3. The coefficient of performance
B3.1 According to the energy conservation law, the power supplied by the electrical
0.5pt source P equals to the Joule heat plus Peltier’s heat taken away in thermocouple
per unit of time:
0.25
P   (T2  T1 ) I  RI 2 . (B.8)
The equation for Coefficient of Performance (COP) is
RI 2
qC
 T1I  K T2  T1  
2 0.25
  2
(B9)
P  (T2  T1 ) I  RI
B3.2. Electrical current I  corresponds to the maximum of the COP is found from the
0.25
d
equation  0 . (B9) may be rewritten in convenience form
dI
1  T1  T2  I  2 K  T2  T1 
   . (B10)
2 2  (T2  T1 )  RI  I
d
The equation  0 leads to
dI
2
 R T1  T2  I 2  4 K T2  T1  RI  2 K T2  T1   0 ,
2 K T2  T1  I K 2
I2   T2  T1   0 , (B.11)
 TM RTM
with TM 
T2  T1  . (B.12)
2
Solution of (B.11) is
K T2  T1 
I 
 TM
 1  Z TM  1 .  (B.13) 0.25
2
(Taking into account that Z  , (B.13) can be written in other form
KR
 T2  T1 
I  ) (B.14)
R  1  Z TM  1 
B3.3. Substituting (B.14) into (B.9) one has 0.25
0.25 T1  1  ZTM  T2 / T1 
 max  . (B.15)
T2  T1   1  ZTM  1
Page 6
Experiment
A1-1 English (Official)
ANSWER SHEET
A. Understanding of magnetic fields (1.0 pt)
1. Understanding of magnetic field created by a circular coil
A.1 (0.5 pt)

𝑘=
A.2 (0.5 pt)

𝐵𝛽 =
B. Investigation of the GMR effect using a GMR magnetic sensor (7.0 pt)
1. Determination of resistance of GMR elements
a. Resistance of the elements at 𝐵 = 0.
B.1 (1.25 pt)

Diagrams of the experiment and expressions for calculating the resistance of each element a, b, c
and d.

Experiment
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B.2 (1.25 pt)

For 𝐵 = 0:
𝑎=

𝑏=

𝑐=

𝑑=
b. Resistance of the elements at maximum external magnetic field
B.3 (0.5 pt)

𝑎=

𝑏=

𝑐=

𝑑=
c. Properties of the elements
B.4 (0.25 pt)

Elements sensitive to the magnetic field are:
2. Characteristics of a GMR element

Experiment
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B.5 (0.75 pt)

The name of the chosen element:
Diagrams of the experiment and expressions for calculating 𝛿(𝐵).

Experiment
B.6 (1.25 pt)

Table for determining 𝛿(𝐵)
I B 𝛿(𝐵)
Experiment
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B.7 (0.5 pt)

Graph 1- Graph of the relative change of resistance 𝛿(𝐵)
B.8 (0.25 pt)

The average slope

𝛼=
B.9 (0.25 pt)

The GMR coefficient

𝛿 = △𝑅 max =
𝑅(0)

B.10 (0.75 pt)

R and r of the GMR element

𝑟=

𝑅=

𝛾 = 𝑅𝑟 =
Experiment
C. Study of GMR magnetic sensor (6 points)

1. Characteristics of sensor output signal
C.1 (1.0 pt)

Table with the values of S corresponding to the values of the current 𝐼 in the coil and the magnetic
field B.
𝐼 𝐵 𝑆 𝐼 𝐵 𝑆
Experiment
C.2 (1.0 pt)

Graph 2 - Graph 𝑆(𝐵) of the output signal S as a function of the applied magnetic field B.
C.3 (0.5 pt)
1. Circle the region of saturation in the curve 𝑆(𝐵) and label it with "S". 0.25pt
2. Circle the region of linearity in the curve 𝑆(𝐵) and lable it with "L". For this 0.25pt
region, find the average value of the slope 𝑚 = ∆𝐵 ∆𝑆 .
C.4 (0.5 pt)

The coercive field is
𝐵𝑐 =
2. Dependence of the output signal on the supply voltage
C.5 (0.25 pt)

Table with the values of 𝑆 corresponding to the values of E.
E S
C.6 (0.25 pt)

Graph 3 - Graph of 𝑆 as a function of 𝐸
C.7 (0.5 pt)

𝑆 =

Experiment
C.8 (1.0 pt)
1.The magnetic field used in this experiment. 0.25 pt

Put a cross in the appropriate box.
a. The field of the circular coil carrying an electric current
b. The field of the flat coil carrying an electric current
c. The plate of permanent magnet
d. The magnetic field of the Earth
2.Diagrams of the experiment and expressions to determine the value of n. 0.75 pt

Experiment
C.9 (0.5 pt)

Table to find 𝐵/𝐵0 for different values of 𝐿1 .
𝐿1 𝐵/𝐵0
C.10 (0.5 pt)

Graph 4 - Graph of 𝐵/𝐵0 as a function of an appropriate variable to determine the value of 𝑛.
𝑛=
Experiment
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D. Applications of GMR magnetic sensors (6 points)

1. Measuring the Earth's magnetic field
a. Magnitude of the horizontal component of the Earth's magnetic field
D.1 (0.5 pt)

Diagrams of the experiment and expressions for calculating 𝐵ℎ .

D.2 (0.25 pt)

𝐵ℎ =
b. Magnitude of the Earth's magnetic field and magnetic inclination

Experiment
D.3 (0.75 pt)

Diagrams of the experiment and expressions for calculating 𝐵𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ and 𝜃.

Experiment
D.4 (0.5 pt)

𝐵𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ =

𝜃=
2. DC wattmeter
D.5 (0.5 pt)

Diagram of the wattmeter circuit together with the load and the multimeters.

Experiment
D.6 (0.75 pt)

Table with the values of the sensor output signal S corresponding to the values of I and U, and of
𝑃 = 𝐼 • 𝑈.
I U P S
D.7 (0.5 pt)

Graph 5 – Graph of 𝑃 = 𝑓(𝑆)
D.8 (0.25 pt)

The expression of the function:
The coefficient(s):
Experiment
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3. Detection of buried electrical circuits
D.9 (2.0 pt)

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Experiment
Giant Magnetoresistance (GMR)

I. INTRODUCTION
Magnetoresistance is the dependence of electrical resistance of a sample on the strength of an external
magnetic field. It is characterized by the following formula:
𝑅(𝐵) − 𝑅(0)
𝛿(𝐵) = (1)
𝑅(0)
where R(B) is the resistance of the sample in the magnetic field B, and R(0) corresponds to 𝐵 = 0; 𝛿(𝐵) is
called the relative change of resistance.
There exist several “normal” magnetoresistance effects whose relative change of resistance is small at
relatively weak magnetic field, typically in the order of less than several percent. For instance, one of the
magnetoresistance effects may arise from the direct action of magnetic field on electric current. Due to
the Lorentz force, the flow of the charge carriers is deflected, leading to the effective reduction in the
mobility. Hence, the electric conductivity will decrease with increasing magnetic field, and the resistance
of the sample will increase. It occurs in a relatively large range of change in the strength of the magnetic
field.
Giant magnetoresistance arises from the interaction of the spin of conduction electrons with the mag-
netic moments in the solid. This effect consists of the reduction of the electrical resistance in multilayer
structures composed of alternating ferromagnetic and non-ferromagnetic layers with thickness of sev-
eral nanometers when an external magnetic field is applied. The change of the electric resistance is large
in relatively weak field; therefore it is called Giant Magneto Resistance (GMR) effect. Due to the practical
significance of GMR, its discoverers, Albert Fert and Peter Grünberg, were awarded the Nobel Prize in
Physics, in 2007.
In such a multilayer, two adjacent ferromagnetic layers have spontaneous magnetization with opposite
directions in the absence of an external magnetic field. Let us suppose that scattering of conduction
electrons with magnetic moments of the solid is weak for electrons with spin parallel to the magnetization
direction and is strong for electrons with spin antiparallel to the magnetization direction. Thus, both the
parallel-spin and antiparallel-spin electrons are scattered strongly within one of the ferromagnetic layers.
Therefore, in this case the total resistivity of the multilayer is high (see Fig. 1a)
If a sufficiently strong magnetic field is applied parallel to the plane of the layers, then all ferromagnetic
layers are magnetized in the same direction of the magnetic field. As a consequence, the electrons
with spin parallel to the magnetization direction pass through the structure almost without scattering
on magnetic moments. On the contrary, the electrons with spin antiparallel to the magnetization are
scattered strongly within the ferromagnetic layers. Since conduction occurs in parallel for the two spin
channels, the total resistance of the multilayer is determined mainly by the highly-conductive parallel-
spin electrons and appears to be low (see Fig. 1b). In Figure 1, R denotes the high resistance of the layer
with strong scattering, and r- the low resistance of the layer with weak scattering. 𝑅0 is the resistance of
the structure in a zero magnetic field, and 𝑅𝐵 is that in a sufficiently strong magnetic field which makes
the two adjacent ferromagnetic layers magnetized in the same direction. The equivalent electrical model
(so-called "two resistor" model) of the GMR effect is shown at the bottom of Figure 1. The circuit of the
model represents one GMR element.
Experiment
Figure 1: GMR effect model. (1) magnetization; (2) electron path; (3) electron spin
One of the applications of GMR is the magnetic sensor, also called magnetometer, which can be used to
measure the strength of an applied magnetic field. A widely used GMR magnetic sensor consists of four
GMR elements connected in a Wheatstone bridge as shown in Fig. 2b. Each GMR element consists of
a multilayer structure as described in the above model. Two of these elements are shielded to prevent
the applied magnetic field from reaching them hence they are not sensitive to the external magnetic
field. The magnetic sensor is packaged in an 8-pin device as shown in Fig. 2a. The supply voltage is
connected to pins 4 and 8. The signal output is taken from pins 1 and 5. This is the normal way of
operation. However, during solving the problem, you can connect the power supply to any other pair of
pins without destroying the sensor. The axis of sensitivity of the sensor is indicated by the arrow on Fig.
2a. The magnetic sensor is not sensitive to an applied magnetic field which is perpendicular to this axis.
Figure 2
Experiment
We call the resistance of the elements a, b, c, d as shown in Fig.2b.

Please note that resistance of the elements can be considered not dependent on current.
To fabricate sensors with different sensitivities, an integrated flux concentrator is used. Thanks to it, the
magnetic field acting on the elements inside the sensor is stronger than the applied magnetic field.
Due to the presence of ferromagnetic materials in the flux concentrator and in the magnetic layers of
the multilayer structure, there exists hysteresis in electrical characteristics of the sensor.
The aims of the experiment are:
1. Investigation of the GMR effect.
2. Investigation of the GMR magnetic sensor.
3. Study of some applications of the GMR magnetic sensor.
Experiment
Q1-4
English (Official)
II. APPARATUS
Figure 3
Experiment
1 Leads 12 Platform with longitudinal rail

2 Rheostat 13 Magnetic sensor
3 220-V AC supply cord 14 Sensor holder
4 Battery *) 15 Round table graduated in de-
grees fixed on the support with
short pole (not seen in the pic-
ture)
5 Flat coil 16 Sensor connection box *)
6 Adjustable DC current source 17 Connection box
(with its adapter [6a])
7 Support with tall pole 18 Ferromagnetic sheets
8 Circular coil 19 Plate of permanent magnet
9 Printed circuit boards with buried 20 Multimeters *) (3 pcs)
electric circuit
10 Transverse rail 21 Double-filament electric bulb
11 Turntable
*) See more details in the Appendix
Warning: The 220 V AC voltage is used only for the table lamp (it is not shown in the Figure 3) and the adapter
(6a) of the adjustable DC current source. Plugging any other device to this voltage is strictly forbidden.
III. EXPERIMENT
A. Understanding of magnetic fields (1.0 point)

In this experimental problem, the magnetic field may be
• the magnetic field created by
- a circular coil carrying an electric current;
- a flat coil carrying an electric current;
- a plate of permanent magnet.
• the magnetic field of the Earth.
1. Understanding of magnetic field created by a circular coil
The circular coil [8] has an average diameter d = 10.0 cm and the number of turns 𝑁 = 500. The magnetic
field created by this coil at its center when a current 𝐼 flows in it can be approximated to that of a circular
current loop with radius equal to the average radius of the circular coil and a current equal to 500𝐼.
A.1 The magnitude of the magnetic field at the center of the circular coil can be 0.5pt
written in the form 𝐵 = 𝑘𝐼. Calculate the numerical value of 𝑘 if B is measured
mT and 𝐼 - in mA
2. Understanding of the Earth's magnetic field

The Earth's magnetic field exists everywhere. It can be considered as a uniform magnetic field in a large
region of space around each given point. The magnitude of the horizontal component of the Earth's
magnetic field is denoted as 𝐵ℎ .
Experiment
A.2 Write down the expression for the magnitude 𝐵𝛽 of the Earth's magnetic field 0.5pt
measured in the horizontal plane and in the direction making an angle 𝛽 with
the horizontal component of the Earth's magnetic field in terms of 𝛽 and 𝐵ℎ .
Note: Always take into account the effect of the Earth's magnetic field on the magnetic measurements.
B. Investigation of the GMR effect using a GMR magnetic sensor (7 points)

Note: This part is relatively independent of the remaining parts. You can also solve parts C and D without
having to solve part B.
In this part, we investigate the dependence on the external magnetic field of the resistance of each
element inside the magnetic sensor. The circular coil [8] stands on the longitudinal rail. The sensor
holder [14] is screwed on the round plate [15] in the horizontal position, with the magnetic sensor [13]
at the center of the circular coil, and the sensor axis perpendicular to the plane of the coil. By changing
the electric current in the coil, we vary the magnetic field acting on the sensor. Be sure that the axis of
sensitivity of the magnetic sensor is oriented along the West - East direction (marked on the experiment
table) so that the Earth's magnetic field does not affect your measurements. Note that the West-East
direction has been determined locally using a magnetic compass.
The magnetic sensor is supplied by the battery [4]. The circular coil is fed by current from the adjustable
DC current source [6].
a. Resistance of the elements at 𝐵 = 0.
Set the current in the circular coil at 𝐼 = 0
B.1 Sketch the diagrams of the experiment and find the expressions for calculating 1.25pt
the resistance of each element in terms of measurement data.
B.2 Perform the measurements and calculations to determine the resistance of the 1.25pt
elements a, b, c and d at 𝐵 = 0.
b. Resistance of the elements at maximum external magnetic field.

Set the current I in the coil to the highest possible value.
B.3 Perform the measurements and calculations to determine the resistance of the 0.5pt
elements a, b, c and d in the maximum external magnetic field.
c. Properties of the elements.
B.4 Indicate which elements are sensitive to the magnetic field. 0.25pt

In this section, you will study the properties of one of the two GMR elements which are not shielded.
Choose one of such GMR elements and determine 𝛿(𝐵) - the dependence on the external magnetic field
of the relative change of resistance.
Experiment
B.5 Give the name of the chosen GMR element. Sketch diagrams of the experiment 0.75pt
and find the expressions for calculating 𝛿(𝐵) in terms of measurement data.
B.6 Perform the measurements and calculations to determine 𝛿(𝐵) with the exter- 1.25pt
nal magnetic field B, in the range from zero to the maximum possible value.
Fill the table with the values of the measured quantities and determine 𝛿(𝐵)
corresponding to the values of the current 𝐼 and the external magnetic field B.
B.7 Plot on a graph 𝛿(𝐵) as a function of the external magnetic field B (Graph 1) 0.5pt
B.8 Determine the average slope 𝛼 = △𝛿(𝐵)

△𝐵
of the curve 𝛿(𝐵) in the region in which 0.25pt
𝛿(𝐵) depends strongly on 𝐵.
B.9 Determine the GMR coefficient 𝛿 = △𝑅 𝑚𝑎𝑥 of the element. Here △𝑅

𝑅(0) 𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the 0.25pt
maximum change of the resistance in a magnetic field.
B.10 Find the value of the resistances R and r of the GMR element according to the 0.75pt
model given in Figure 1 and the ratio 𝛾 = 𝑅𝑟 .

In this part, we investigate the most important characteristics of the magnetic sensor [13]. The circular
coil [8] stands on the longitudinal rail [12]. The sensor holder [14] is screwed on the round plate [15] in
the horizontal position, such that the sensor is at the center of the circular coil, and the sensor axis is
perpendicular to the plane of the coil. By changing the electric current in the coil, we vary the magnetic
field acting on the sensor. Be sure that the axis of sensitivity of the magnetic sensor is oriented along
the East-West direction so that the Earth's magnetic field does not affect your measurements.
The magnetic sensor is supplied by the battery [4] at maximum voltage. The supply voltage is connected
to pins 4 and 8. The circular coil is fed by the adjustable DC current source [6].
a. First, set the current 𝐼 in the coil to the highest possible value. The voltage between pins 1 and 5 is
the output signal S of the sensor.
b. While gradually decreasing the current in the coil to 𝐼 = 0 , read the value of S corresponding to each
value of 𝐼.
c. Change the direction of current 𝐼 in the coil. While gradually increasing the current to its maximum
value, read the value of S corresponding to each value of 𝐼.
d. While gradually decreasing the current to 𝐼 = 0, read the value of S corresponding to each value of 𝐼.
e. Change the direction of current 𝐼 in the coil. While gradually increasing the current to its maximum
value, read the value of S corresponding to each value of 𝐼.
Experiment
C.1 Fill the table with the values of S corresponding to the values of the current 𝐼 in 1.0pt
the coil and the external magnetic field B during the above measuring process.
C.2 Plot the graph 𝑆(𝐵) of the output signal S as a function of the external magnetic 1.0pt
field B (Graph 2).
C.3 1. Circle the region of saturation in the curve 𝑆(𝐵) and label it with “S”. 0.5pt
2. Circle the region of linearity in the curve 𝑆(𝐵) and label it with “L”. For this
region, find the average value of the slope 𝑚 = △𝐵 △𝑆 .
C.4 From the graph 𝑆(𝐵), determine the coercive field 𝐵𝐶 , which is the external 0.5pt
magnetic field needed to make S minimum after being magnetized in the op-
posite direction with a saturation field.
Note: In the case you want to use the linear region of the curve 𝑆(𝐵), a small plate of permanent magnet
[19] is provided. Just place the permanent magnet on the sensor holder [14], near the sensor [13], and change
the relative position of the magnet to the sensor to choose the working point on the curve. Once the suitable
working point is found, you can fix the magnet on the holder by means of adhesive tape. This process is called
biasing.
2. Dependence of output signal on supply voltage
The magnetic sensor is supplied by the battery [4]. By connecting the sensor to different sockets on
the battery box, you can change the supply voltage E. The current 𝐼 in the circular coil is set at a value
corresponding to the linear region on the curve S(B).
C.5 Fill the table with the values of 𝑆 corresponding to the values of 𝐸 0.25pt
C.6 Plot a graph of 𝑆 as a function of 𝐸 0.25pt
C.7 Derive an analytical expression relating the output signal 𝑆 of the sensor with 0.5pt
the slope 𝛼 of the GMR element found in B.8, the supply voltage 𝐸 and the ap-
plied magnetic field B. Here, we assume that 𝛼 is the same for the two elements
and there is no hyteresis in the characteristics of the elements. Besides, we as-
sume here that in the absence of a magnetic field, values of resistance of all 4
elements are the same.
3. Study of effects of a flux concentrator

The integrated flux concentrator inside the magnetic sensor consists of two thin-film ferromagnetic
structures with thickness in the order of micrometers, with length in the order of some hundreds of
micrometers. The purpose of the flux concentrator is to magnify the magnetic field in the gap between
the structures.
In order to study the effect of a flux concentrator on a magnetic sensor, we use an external flux concen-
trator made of two ferromagnetic sheets (as shown in Fig. 4) placed near the two ends of the sensor,
with length 𝐿2 , and mutual distance 𝐿1 .
Experiment
Figure 4. Diagram of the flux concentrator
Once the sensor with a flux concentrator is put in a uniform magnetic field of magnitude 𝐵0 , the ef-
fective magnetic field acting on the sensor is 𝐵. In a not very large range of change of 𝐿1 , 𝐵 can be
approximately found by using the empirical formula:
𝐵 𝐿
=𝑛 2 +1 (2)
𝐵0 𝐿1
You are asked to perform an experiment with the magnetic sensor and the two ferromagnetic sheets
[18] to determine the value of n in formula (2).
C.8 1.0pt
Which magnetic field in the following will you use in this experiment? 0.25pt
a. The field of the circular coil carrying an electric current
b. The field of the flat coil carrying an electric current
c. The field of the plate of permanent magnet
d. The magnetic field of the Earth
Sketch diagrams of the experiment and find expressions to determine the 0.75pt
value of n in terms of measurement data.
C.9 Perform the experiment to find 𝐵/𝐵0 for different values of 𝐿1 and fill the table 0.5pt
with the measurement data.
C.10 Plot a graph of 𝐵/𝐵0 as a function of an appropriate variable to determine the 0.5pt
value of n (Graph 4).
Give the value of n .

In this part, we consider some applications of the magnetic sensor.
1. Measuring the Earth's magnetic field
You are asked to use the magnetic sensor to determine some parameters of the Earth's magnetic field.
Some extra graph sheets are provided, in case you need them for solving this question.
a. Magnitude of the horizontal component of the Earth's magnetic field
Experiment
Fix the round plate [15] in the horizontal plane. The sensor holder [14] is screwed on the round plate.
By rotating the sensor holder on the round plate, you can determine the component in the horizontal
plane of the Earth's magnetic field in different directions of the sensor axis.
D.1 Sketch diagrams of the experiment and find expressions for calculating the 0.5pt
magnitude 𝐵ℎ of the horizontal component of the Earth's magnetic field in
terms of measurement data.
D.2 Perform the measurements and calculations to find 𝐵ℎ . 0.25pt
b. Magnitude of the Earth's magnetic field and magnetic inclination

The magnetic inclination is defined as the angle 𝜃 between the Earth's magnetic field vector 𝐵⃗ 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ and
the horizontal plane.
Fix the round plate [15] to the tall pole [7], with the round plate in the vertical plane containing the South-
North direction. The sensor holder [14] is screwed on the round plate. By rotating the sensor holder on
the round plate, you can determine the component of the Earth's magnetic field in different directions
of the sensor axis.
D.3 Sketch diagrams of the experiment and find expressions for calculating the 0.75pt
Earth's magnetic field 𝐵𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ and the magnetic inclination 𝜃 in terms of mea-
surement data.
D.4 Perform measurements and calculations to find 𝐵𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ and 𝜃. 0.5pt
2. DC wattmeter
In this section, you use the magnetic sensor to form the circuit of a wattmeter. The flat coil [5] wraps
around the sensor. This flat coil is connected in series with the load, so the electric current 𝐼 in the flat
coil is the same as that in the load. The current 𝐼 in the flat coil creates the magnetic field which acts on
the sensor, and the voltage U across the load is used to supply the sensor.
The output signal S of the sensor is used to determine the power P dissipated in the load.
The double-filament electric bulb [21] is used as the load. By using the three terminals of the bulb in
different ways, you may obtain several values of the load’s resistance 𝑅𝐿 .
In many cases, the Wheatstone bridge of the magnetic sensor is unbalanced even when there is no ex-
ternal magnetic field acting on it. This is due to a small difference in the resistance of the elements and
remanence of the ferromagnetic layers. In this case, you need to balance the bridge before using it in
the circuit of the wattmeter. The sensor holder [14] is screwed on the round plate [15] in the horizontal
position. The sensor is supplied by the battery [4] with the highest voltage. Orient the sensor perpen-
dicular to the Earth's magnetic field. Observe the output signal S on a multimeter. If 𝑆 = 0 , the bridge
is balanced, and you do not need to do anything else. If 𝑆 ≠ 0 , the bridge is unbalanced, and you need
to balance it. Connect the rheostat [2] in parallel with one of the elements a, b, c, and d, for which once
the rheostat is connected to it, S decreases its magnitude. Adjust the rheostat to reduce S to zero. Now
the bridge is balanced. This process is called balancing.
In some cases, the use of the rheostat cannot help to balance the bridge. In such cases, it suffices to
rotate the sensor holder by a small angle such that the output signal S is reduced to 𝑆 = 0.
Experiment
D.5 Sketch the diagram of the wattmeter circuit together with the load and the mul- 0.5pt
timeters used in the measurements.
Use the Connection Box [17] to build the circuit of the wattmeter according to your diagram. Vary the
resistance 𝑅𝐿 of the load and adjust the output of the DC current source [6] to change the voltage U
across the load.
D.6 Fill the table with the values of the sensor output signal 𝑆 corresponding to the 0.75pt
values of 𝐼 and U, and of 𝑃 = 𝑈 .𝐼
D.7 Plot a graph of 𝑃 as a function of 𝑆 (Graph 5) 0.5pt
The curve 𝑃 = 𝑓(𝑆) is called the calibration curve of the wattmeter.
D.8 Find the form of the function 𝑃 = 𝑓(𝑆) of the calibration curve and determine 0.25pt
values of its coefficients.
3. Detection of buried electrical circuits

In this section, you are asked to use the magnetic sensor to form a device for finding the shapes of two
buried electric circuits. The electric circuit is made on the hidden surface of a printed circuit board. A grid
sheet attached on the reversed surface of the printed circuit board serves as a system of coordinates.
You may carry out this experiment in the following way. Set the round plate [15] in the horizontal position
and fixed to the short pole. The sensor holder [14] is screwed on the round plate. The printed circuit
board with the buried electric circuit [9] lies flat on the turntable [11]. The turntable is free to rotate
in the horizontal plane, and also to move in two perpendicular directions along the rails [10] and [12].
Connect the conductors of the printed circuit board to the adjustable DC current source [6], with the
red conductor at the positive terminal. Adjust the DC current source to choose a value of the current in
the circuit. By moving the printed circuit board relatively to the magnetic sensor [13], and looking at the
change in the output signal S of the sensor, you can detect the position and the shape of the buried circuit
and also the direction of the current in the buried circuit. Some larger scale Grid Sheets are provided, in
case you need them in solving this question.
D.9 Draw a diagram of the buried electric circuits together with the direction of the 2.0pt
current in them on the grid sheets in the Answer Sheet.
Experiment
Q1-12
English (Official)
APPENDIX
1. Instructions for the multimeter
Figure A1
Experiment
1 Display 7 Measuring terminal (mA)

2 REL Key 8 Measuring terminal (A)
3 HOLD Key 9 Function Selector Switch
4 Hz/DUTY Key 10 RESET Key
5 Measuring terminal (COM) 11 SELECT Key
6 Measuring terminal (V/Ω/Hz) 12 RANGE Key
• To avoid complications do not use the following keys: REL Key [2], HOLD Key [3], Hz, DUTY Key [4],
RESET Key [10].
• To power on the multimeter and begin a measurement, rotate the Function Selector Switch [9] to
the desired function.
• Use the Measuring terminal (V/Ω/Hz) [6] and Measuring terminal (COM) [5] for measuring voltage
and resistance.
• Use the Measuring terminal (A) [8] and Measuring terminal (COM) [5] and Function A for measuring
current.
• The multimeter is automatically switched off about 30 minutes after power on. Rotate the Function
Selector Switch to OFF and then back to the function to continue the measurement.
To avoid automatic switching off, press the SELECT Key while rotating the Function Selector Switch to the
desired function.
2. The battery
The circuit of the battery is given in Fig A2.
The battery is switched on when the button is pressed, and is switched off when the button is released.
Figure A2
3. Sensor connection box

Before using the sensor, its cable needs to be plugged to the sensor connection box. Once the sensor is
connected to this box, the numbers labeled on the box correspond to the pin numbers in Figure 2.
MARKING SCHEME
Part Total
points
A. Understanding of magnetic fields 1.0
A.1 Value k  6.2810-3 mT/mA 0.5

Correct 0.5
Incorrect -0.5
No unit -0.25
A.2 Formula B  Bh cos  0.5

Correct 0.5
Incorrect -0.5
B. Investigation of the GMR effect using a GMR magnetic 7.0

sensor
B.1 Diagrams Diagrams and expressions 1.25
and Correct 1.25
expressions Incorrect -1.25
B.2 Values Resistance of a, b,c ,d. The four resistances 1.25
are nearly equal.
4800  r  5200 1.2
4500  r  4800 or 5200  r  5500 -0.25
4000  r  4500 or 5500  r  6000 -0.5
r  4000 or r  6000 -1.25
No units -0.5
B.3 Values Resistance of a, b,c ,d. 0.5
Correct 0.5
For b and d
Correct if 4800  r  5200 0.25
r  4800 or r  5200 -0.25
For a and c
Correct if 4100  r  4500 0.25
r  4100 or r  4500 -0.25
B.4 a and c are sensitive 0.25
Correct 0.25
Other -0.25
B.5 Diagrams Diagrams and expressions 0.75
and
expressions
Correct 0.75
Incorrect -0.75
B.6 Table Table 1.25
At least 15 points, whole range of B 1.25
Less than 15 points -0.25
Less than 2/3 range of B -0.5
Less than 0.5 range of B -1.25
B.7 Graph Graph 1 0.5
Correct 0.5
No units -0.15
Less than 2/3 area of the sheet -0.15
B.8 Values   0.067 mT-1 0.25
Correct 0.25
No units -0.1
No sign -0.1
  0.05 or   0.08 -0.15
B9   13.5% 0.25
Correct: 12    15 , sign not important 0.25
Out of range -0.25
B.10 r 0.75
r  3180  ; R  6740  ;    0.47
R
2900  r  3300 ; 6000  R  7000 ; 0.75
0.43    0.51
Each of these values out of range -0.25
C. Study of GMR magnetic sensor 6.0
C.1 Table Table 1.0
At least 40 points, whole range of B 1.0
Less than 2/3 range of B -0.5
Less than 0.5 range of B -1.0
C.2 Graph 2 Graph 2 1.0
Correct 1.0
No units -0.15
C.3 Graph and 0.5
value Correct regions and value 0.5
1.8 102  m  2.2 102
Error in each region -0.1
m out of range -0.2
C.4 Value Bc  0.10mT 0.5
Correct: 0.08  Bc  0.12 0.5
Out of range -0.5
C.5 Table S and E 0.25
Correct 0.25
Less than 4 pts -0.25
C.6 Graph Graph 3 0.25
Correct 0.25
No units -0.1
C.7 Formula E 0.5
S    B
2
Correct, symbol of absolute value not 0.5
important
Other -0.5
C.8 Magnetic field used is that of the Earth 0.25
Diagrams Correct 0.25
and Incorrect -0.25
expressions
Diagram and expressions 0.75
Correct 0.75
Incorrect -0.75
C.9 Table B and L1
At least 8 points, 5  L1  20 1.0
C.10 Graph and Graph 4 and value 0.5
value Correct 0.5
No units -0.15
Correct if n  0.56 ; 0.35  n  0.75
n out of range -0.15
D. Applications of GMR magnetic sensors 6.0
D.1 Diagrams Diagram and expressions 0.5
and Correct 0.5
D.2 Value Bh  0.035mT 0.25
0.025  Bh  0.045 0.25
Out of range -0.25
D.3 Diagrams Diagram and expressions 0.75
and Correct 0.75
D.4 Value B
Earth 0.041mT ;   31o 0.5
Correct if 0.03  BEarth  0.05 ; 0.5
20o    40o
Out of range of each value -0.25
D.5 Diagram Diagram 0.5
Correct 0.5
Incorrect -0.5
D.6 Table Table S and I, U, P 0.75
At least 12 points, P from 0 to larger than 0.75
5W.
D.7 Graph Graph 5 0.5
Correct 0.5
No units -0.15
D.8 Formula P  S 0.25
Correct 0.15
Incorrect -0.15
Value   0.026 W/mV
Correct 0.01    0.05 0.1
Out of range -0.1
D.9 Shape Shape of circuit and direction of current 2.0
One shape and direction correct 1.5
The second shape and direction correct 0.5
Incorrect direction in the first circuit -0.5
Incorrect direction in the second circuit -0.25
SOLUTION
A. Understanding of magnetic fields (1.0 point)

1. Understanding of magnetic field created by a circular coil
A.1 k  6.28 103 mT/mA 0.5 pt
2. Understanding of the Earth’s magnetic field

A.2 B  Bh cos  0.5 pt
B. Investigation of the GMR effect using a GMR magnetic sensor (7 points)

a. Resistance of the elements at B  0 .
B.1 Diagrams of the experiment and the expressions for calculating the
resistance of each element a, b, c and d. 1.25 pt
a. Short circuit pins 8 and 4. 8
R5, 84  m ; R1, 84  n
1 1 1 d a
  (1)
m a b 1 5
1 1 1
  (2) c b
n c d
4
b. Connect pins 8 and 4 to a battery. 8

U 8,5 U 8,1
 p; q d a
U 5,4 U1,4
1 5
a
p (3)
b c b
d
q (4) 4
c
Solve the system of equations (1), (2), (3) and (4). Obtain:
 1
a  m  p  1 ; b  m 1  
 p
1
 1
c  n 1   ; d  n  q  1
 q
B.2 For B  0 : 1.25 pt
a  4960 Ω ; b  4870 Ω ; c  4950 Ω ; d  4970 Ω
b. Resistance of the elements at maximum external magnetic field

B.3 a  4320 Ω ; b  4870 Ω ; c  4310 Ω ; d  4970 Ω 0.5 pt
c. Properties of the elements

B.4 Elements sensitive to the magnetic field are: a, c 0.25 pt

B.5 The name of the chosen element: a 0.75 pt
Diagrams of the experiment and the expressions for calculating
  B .
1..Method 1:
The same as used in B.1 with different values of the current I in the
circular coil.
2..Method 2:
Connect the sensor to the battery 8
according to the diagram, forming a E
bridge. The GMR element under d a
1 5
consideration is a. V E/2
If at I  0 the bridge is
balanced, then U  0 . c b U
Set the current I in the coil, the 0
4
resistance of a becomes R  R ,
ER E
then U  0 . Because U   , then
R  R  R 2
R U
  B   .
R E/4
If at I  0 , the bridge is unbalanced and the initial voltage is U 0 ,
R U  U 0 R U  U 0
then  and   B   
R E/4 R E/4
The voltages are measured relatively to the middle point of the
battery.
2
The maximum value of R / R is about 10%. The error in
determining it by using above approximations is less than 1% and
can be accepted.
B.6 Table of   B  corresponding to the values I and B. 1.25 pt

E  6300mV
I (mA) B (mT) U (mV) U  U 0   B
0 0 -25.8 0 0
10 0.0628 -21 4.8 -0.00305
20 0.126 -15.7 10.1 -0.00641
45 0.283 -2.1 23.7 -0.01504
67 0.421 11.1 36.9 -0.02343
87 0.546 24.5 50.3 -0.03193
107 0.672 38.1 63.9 -0.04057
129 0.810 54 79.8 -0.05067
156 0.980 74 99.8 -0.06336
186 1.168 96 121.8 -0.07733
215 1.350 117.3 143.1 -0.09085
240 1.507 134.5 160.3 -0.10177
268 1.683 152.6 178.4 -0.11326
303 1.903 170.6 196.4 -0.12469
330 2.072 179.6 205.4 -0.13041
354 2.223 184.1 209.9 -0.13326
384 2.411 186.2 212 -0.13460
405 2.543 186.7 212.5 -0.13492
436 2.738 187.1 212.9 -0.13517
469 2.945 187.2 213 -0.13523
B.7 Graph 1- Graph of the relative change of resistance 0.5 pt
3
  B  0.25 pts
B.8 The average slope   of the curve   B 
B
  0.067 mT -1
B.9 The GMR coefficient 0.25 pts

R
  max  13.5 %
R 0
B.10 The value of the resistances r and R of the GMR element: 0.75 pts
r  R0  R0  R0  RB  ; R  R0  R0  R0  RB 
Choose element a in B.2 and B.3, then:
r
r  3180  ; R  6740  ;    0.47
R
C.1 Table with the values of the output signal S corresponding to the 1.0 pts
values of the current I and the magnetic field B.
I B S I B S
4
C.2 Graph 2 - Graph S  B  of the output signal S as a function of the 1.0 pts
applied magnetic field B.
C.3 1. Region of saturation in the curve S  B  : S 0.5 pts

2. Region of linearity in the curve S  B  : L
m  2.0 102 mV/mT
C.4 The coercive field is 0.5 pts

Bc  0.10mT
2. Dependence of output signal on the voltage

C.5 Table with the values of S corresponding to the values of E . 0.25 pts
E (V) S (mV)
0 0
5
1.51 91.5
3.1 183
4.6 274
6.25 365
C.6 Graph 3 - S as a function of E . 0.25 pts
C.7 E 0.5 pt
S    B
2
3. Study of effects of a flux concentrator
6
C.8 1. The magnetic field used in this experiment. 0.25 pt
Put a cross in the appropriate box
a. The field of the circular coil carrying an electric
current
b. The field of the flat coil carrying an electric current
c. The field of the plate of permanent magnet
d. The magnetic field of the Earth X
2. Diagrams of the experiment and expressions to determine the
value of n.
0.75 pt
1. The sensor on the round plate in the horizontal plane.
2. With no flux concentrator
a. Orient the sensor perpendicular to the South-North direction.

Note the value S1.
b. Rotate the sensor along the South-North direction. Note the
value S2.
c. S0  S2  S1 ; B0  S0 / m .
3.With flux concentrator
For each value of L1, do the same, to obtain B  S / m .
C.9 Table to find B / B0 for different values of L1 . B / B0  S / S0 0.5 pt

S1  17 mV ; S0  21.2  17  4.2mV .
L1 (mm) S2 (mV) 1 / L1 (mm-1) S  S2  S1 B / B0

5 33.2 0.200 16.2 3.86
6 31.2 0.167 14.2 3.38
7 30.2 0.143 13.2 3.14
7
8 28.6 0.125 11.6 2.76
9 27.7 0.111 10.7 2.55
10 26.8 0.100 9.8 2.33
11 26.4 0.0909 9.4 2.24
13 25.4 0.0769 8.4 2.00
15 24.6 0.0667 7.6 1.81
 21.2 0.0000 4.2 1.00
C.10 Graph 4 – Graph of B / B0 as a function of 1/ L1 . 0.5 pt

B 1
Use the function  nL2   1 . Find a  nL2  14.1 .
B0 L1
a 14.1
Obtain n    0.56 .
L2 25

1. Measurements of the Earth’s magnetic field
8
a. Magnitude of the horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field
D.1 Diagrams of the experiment and expressions for calculating Bh . 0.5 pt
1. The sensor on the round plate in the horizontal plane. Carry out the
biasing.
2. Method 1
a. Set   0 - the sensor perpendicular to the direction South-

North.
b. Rotate the sensor holder, measure S  f  
c. Fit the curve S to a sine function S  a sin  .
d. Bh  a / m
2
y=a sin(x+b)+c, r =0.9979
a=6.091, b=-0.5577, c=105.2
a=0.05912, b=0.5406, c=0.04123, prob=1.000
110
S [mV]
105
100
0 200 400 600 800
 [degree]
9
3..Method 2
a. Orient the sensor along the Earth’s magnetic field. Find the
direction with the maximum (or minimum) value of S. Note this
value S1
b. Rotate the sensor holder by about 180o. Find the direction with
the minimum (or maximum) value of S. Note this value S2
S1  S 2
Bh 
2m
D.2 Bh  0.035mT . 0.25 pts
b. Magnitude of the Earth’s magnetic field and magnetic inclination

D.3 Diagrams of the experiment and expressions for calculating BEarth 0.75 pts
and  .
1. The sensor on the round plate in the vertical plane containing the
South-North direction. Carry out the biasing.
2..Method 1
10
a. Orient the sensor along the Earth’s magnetic field. Find the
direction with the maximum (or minimum) value of S. Note this
value S1 and the angle 1 between the sensor direction and the
horizontal.
b. Rotate the sensor holder by about 180o. Find the direction
with the minimum (or maximum) value of S. Note this value S2 and
the angle α2 between the sensor direction and the horizontal.
c. Orient the sensor in the direction midway between 1 and α2
with the angle 3=α2+90o. Note the value S3.
d. Starting from 3, rotate the sensor holder, take the values of
S corresponding to values of α. Measure S  f   .
e. S  S3  a sin . Obtain a from fitting.
f. BEarth  a / m
Bh
g.   Arccos
BEarth
3. Method 2
Orient the sensor along the Earth’s magnetic field. Find the
direction with the maximum (or minimum) value of S. The angle 
between the sensor direction and the horizontal is the magnetic
inclination.
From the obtained  , BEarth  Bh / cos .

This method may have systematic errors due to the relative
misalignment of the sensor to the sensor holder. To eliminate this
error, rotate the round plate together with the sensor holder by 180o
about a horizontal axis along the South-North direction. Repeat the
measurement. The magnetic inclination is the mean value of the
11
two obtained angles.
D4 BEarth  0.041mT 0.5 pts
  31o
2. DC wattmeter
D.5 Diagram of the wattmeter circuit together with the load and the 0.5 pt
multimeters.
D.6 Table with the values of the sensor output signal S corresponding to 0.75
the values of I and U, and of P  I  U .
I (A) U (V) P (W) S (mV)

0.30 2.64 0.792 18.3
0.35 3.9 1.365 42
0.40 5.37 2.15 74.3
0.45 6.94 3.12 112.4
0.50 8.67 4.34 162.4
0.543 10.29 5.59 215.4
0.20 0.89 0.178 4.9
0.25 1.53 0.382 11.5
0.50 1.3 0.65 25.8
0.60 2.13 1.28 50.7
0.70 3.1 2.17 88.1
0.80 4.1 3.28 137
0.97 6.11 5.92 253
0.30 3.13 0.939 31.4
0.442 7.74 3.42 128
12
D.7 Graph 5 - Calibration curve of the wattmeter P  f  S  . 0.5 pt
D.8 The function: P   S 0.25 pt

The coeficient:   0.026 W/mV
b. Detection of buried electrical circuits
D.9 2.0 pt
13

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Theory

Q1-1 English (Oﬃcial)

Optical trap of neutral atoms (12 points)

Q1-2 English (Oﬃcial)

3.1 Find the scattering rate Γ𝑠𝑐 (𝑟)⃗ in term of 𝛼, 𝜑, 𝜀0 , 𝑐, 𝐼(𝑟),

Q1-3 English (Oﬃcial)

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Q1-4 English (Oﬃcial)

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Q1-5 English (Oﬃcial)

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Q1-6 English (Oﬃcial)

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 f .T0  4.13 K 0.25

8.1 4k B fT0 0.25

Q2-1 English (Oﬃcial)

Space elevator (8.0 points)

Q2-2 English (Oﬃcial)

2. Carbon nanotubes (2.5 points)

Figure 2. Graphite structure

Q2-3 English (Oﬃcial)

Figure 3. Graphene (a) and carbon nanotube (b).

Q2-4 English (Oﬃcial)

Figure 5. An illustration of a carbon nanotube with 9 carbon-carbon parallel bondings. Note:

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Q2-5 English (Oﬃcial)

1 Cylindrical Space Elevator with Uniform Cross Section

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3 Tapered Space Elevator with Uniform Stress

from which rmin  r2 

Q3-1 English (Oﬃcial)

Thermoelectric effects and their applications in thermoelec-

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Q3-2 English (Oﬃcial)

Figure 2. (a) Direct junctions; (b) junctions via an intermediate material C

Name Material Resistivity 𝜌 (Ω ⋅ m) Thermal conductivity 𝑘 (W ⋅ m−1 ⋅ K−1 )

Thermocouple AB Length (m) Seebeck's coeﬃcient 𝛼(𝜇V ⋅ K−1 )

Q3-3 English (Oﬃcial)

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A3. Thermoelectric generator

Q3-5 English (Oﬃcial)

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A4.3 Express the maximum eﬃciency 𝜂max via 𝑇1 , 𝑇2 , 𝑍 and 𝑀 . 0.25pt

A5. The maximum ﬁgure of merit

A5.2 Express the maximum ﬁgure of merit 𝑍𝑚 in term of 𝛼,𝜌𝐴 , 𝜌𝐵 , 𝑘𝐴 , 𝑘𝐵 0.25pt

A6. The optimum eﬃciency

Q3-6 English (Oﬃcial)