Chapter 3

Simplification and minimization

of Boolean functions

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 Topics to be covered
 Introduction
 Karnaugh map representation of logical functions
 Simplification of logical functions using K-maps.
 Minimization of Boolean functions specified in minterms/
Maxterms or truth table
 Don't-care Combinations
 EX-OR and EX-NOR simplification of k-maps
 The tabulation method of minimization

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 Introduction
 Since there is no a set of rules for minimizing a Boolean function
using identities, sometimes it is difficult to know whether the
minimum expression is obtained.
 We have seen in the preceding chapter about simplification using
Boolean algebraic laws and theorems. But, in general the following
methods can be used to simplify the Boolean function.
1. Algebraic method
2. Karnaugh map technique(mapping method)
3. Variable entered map(VEM) technique
4. Quine-MCClusky method(Tabular method)
 We have introduced the algebraic method of simplification using Boolean
algebraic theorems.
 In this chapter, we will discuss about the simplification of logic functions using
Karnaugh map method Quine-MCClusky method.
 The Karnaugh map or simply K-map is the simple and most commonly used
method. It can be used up to six variables. The VEM technique is beyond the scope
of this course.
 K-map representation of logic functions

 The above figure shows the K-maps for two, three and four variables.
 In an n-variable K-map there are 2n cells.
 Each cell corresponds to one of the combinations of n-variables. Therefore we see
that for each row of the truth table, for each minterm and for each maxterm, there
is n specific cell in the K-map.
 In each map the variables are indicated to identify the cells.
 Gray code has been used for the identification of cells. The reason for using Gray
code will become clear when we discuss the application of K-map.
 You can verify the decimal number corresponding to each cell which is written in
the bottom right corner of the cell.
 Two-variable K-Map

MSB x
y
0 1

0 m0 m2
x y minterms
Row #
1 m1 m3
0 0 m0
0
0 1 m1
1 LSB y
1 0 m2 x
2 0 1
1 1 m3
3 0 m0 m1

(a) Truth table 1 m2 m3

(b) Karnaugh map

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 Three-variable K-Map

row # xx1 xy2 xz3 Gray code

xx1xy
2
0 0 0 0 m0 x3
z 00 01 11 10
1 0 0 1 m1
0 m0 m2 m6 m4
2 0 1 0 m2 LSB

0 1 1 m3 1 m1 m3 m7 m5
3
1 0 0 m4 y z
4
1 0 1 m5 x (b) Karnaugh map
5
1 1 0 m6
6
1 1 1 m7
7
(a) Truth table

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 Four-variable K-Map

Gray code x 1
x1 x2
x3 x4
00 01 11 10

00 m0 m4 m 12 m8
Gray code
01 m1 m5 m 13 m9
x4
11 m3 m7 m 15 m 11
x3
10 m2 m6 m 14 m 10

x2

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 Four-variable K-Map

𝑥3 𝑥4
𝑥1 𝑥2

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 Representation of truth table on K-map
Consider the truth table of 3-variable logic function given below:
Y = 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 + 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 + 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 + 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
Row No. Inputs Outputs
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 Y
0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 1
2 0 1 0 1
3 0 1 1 0
4 1 0 0 1 K-map for the above figure
5 1 0 1 0
6 1 1 0 0
7 1 1 1 0
table represents the complete truth table in SOP form
 On the other hand, if a K-map is given we can make a truth table
corresponding to this by reverse process, i.e. output Y is logic "1"
corresponding to minterms represented by cells with entries 1. In the
all remaining rows the output is logic "0".
 Example: prepare a truth table for the following K-map.

Solution:
Inputs Output
Row No. 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 Y
0 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 0
2 0 0 1 0 1
Representation of standard SOP form on K-map
 A logical function in standard SOP form can be represented on a K-
map simply by entering 1’s in the cells of the K-map corresponding
to each minterms present in the function.
 Example: represent the following equation on K-map.
Y = 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 + 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 + 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 + 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
Solution:…………..?

Representation of standard POS form on K-map

 A logical function in standard POS form can be represented on a K-
map simply by entering 0’s in the cells of the K-map corresponding
to each maxterms present in the equation.
Example: represent the following equation on K-map.
Y = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 )
Solution:………….?
Simplification and minimization of Boolean functions

 Simplification of logical functions with K-map is based on the

principles of combining terms in adjacent cells. Two cells are said to
be adjacent if they differ by one variable i.e. primed in one cell and
unprimed in the other. Left most cells adjacent to the corresponding
right most cells and most top cells are adjacent to most bottom cells.
 The simplification of logical function is achieved by grouping
adjacent 1’s or 0’s in groups of 2𝑖 , where 𝑖 = 1,2,3, … , 𝑛 is the
number of variables and each group should be as large as possible.
Refer from your text book on page 140,141 and 143 (table 5.5, 5.6,
and 5.7).
A. Grouping two adjacent one’s
 If there are two adjacent cells on the map these can be grouped
together and the resulting term will have one less literal than the
original two terms.

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Example:

Solution:
B. Grouping four adjacent one’s
 Four cells form a group of four adjacent one’s, if two of the literals
associated with the minterms or maxterms are not the same.

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Example: simplify the following K-map

Solution:
C. Grouping eight adjacent one’s
 Eight cells form a group of eight adjacent one’s, if three of the
literals associated with the minterms/maxterms are not the same and
the other literals are the same.

 For 3-variable K-map, there is only one possibility of eight

one’s corresponding in the K-map and this corresponds to
output Y = 1, irrespective of the values of the inputs.
 For 4-variable K-map, there are eight possible grouping of eight
adjacent one’s. (see table 4.7 on page 143)
Some of possible 8 adjacent one’s

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D. Grouping 2, 4, and 8 adjacent zero’s
 In the above discussion, we have considered groups of 2, 4, and 8
adjacent one’s. Instead of making the groups of one’s, we can also
make groups of zero’s. the procedure is similar to the one used
above.
Example:
1. Given the following Boolean function
𝐹 = 𝐴′ 𝐶 + 𝐴′ 𝐵 + 𝐴𝐵′ 𝐶 + 𝐵𝐶
a. Express it in sum of minterms
b. Find the minimal sum of products expression
2. Minimize the following expression using K-map
𝐹 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 = 𝑚(2,4,5,6,7)

3. Simplify using K-map

𝐹 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥4 = 𝑚(0,2,3,7,11,13,14,15)
 Minimization of Boolean functions
specified in minterms/ Maxterms or
truth table
 Minimization using K-Maps
(Deriving a SOP Expression using the Maxterms)
 Enter minterms (for SOP) into K-map
 Identify adjacent cells
– Minterms differ in only one bit
 Use adjacency to minimize logic function
– Gray code used for enumeration
• Specifies the location of each minterm in K-map
– Horizontal and Vertical adjacency
• Both are logically adjacent
– K-map wraps
• Left and right columns are logically adjacent
• Top and bottom rows are logically adjacent

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 Minimization using K-Maps

 Group adjacent cells to reduce

– the number of literals in a term
– the number of terms in a Boolean expression
 Adjacencies are of size 1, 2, 4, 8, …
 Number of adjacent cells is a power of 2
 Adjacent cells form a rectangle
 The larger the grouping of adjacent cells the greater
the minimization of the logical function.

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 Two-variable K-Map

Example:
Using a Karnaugh Map, minimize the logic function
described by the following Truth table.

# A B F
0 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
2 1 0 0
3 1 1 1

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 Three-variable K-Map

Example:
Using a Karnaugh Map, minimize the logic function
described by the following Truth table.

# A B C F
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 1
2 0 1 0 0
3 0 1 1 0
4 1 0 0 1
5 1 0 1 1
6 1 1 0 1
7 1 1 1 0

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 Minimization using K-Maps
Exercise:
Given the following Truth table,
1. Derive the Boolean Expression
2. Use a K-Map to determine the minimized Boolean Expression

# A B C F
0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
2 0 1 0 1
3 0 1 1 0
4 1 0 0 1
5 1 0 1 1
6 1 1 0 1
7 1 1 1 0

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 Four-variable K-Map
# A B C D F
0 0 0 0 0 0
Example: 1 0 0 0 1 0
Using a Karnaugh Map, 2 0 0 1 0 1
minimize the logic function 3 0 0 1 1 1
4 0 1 0 0 0
described by the following
5 0 1 0 1 0
Truth table. 6 0 1 1 0 0
7 0 1 1 1 0
8 1 0 0 0 0
9 1 0 0 1 1
10 1 0 1 0 1
11 1 0 1 1 1
12 1 1 0 0 0
13 1 1 0 1 1
14 1 1 1 0 0
15 1 1 1 1 0

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 Four-variable K-Map
# A B C D F
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0
Example: 2 0 0 1 0 1
Using a Karnaugh Map, 3 0 0 1 1 1
minimize the logic function 4 0 1 0 0 0

described by the following 5 0 1 0 1 0

6 0 1 1 0 1
Truth table.
7 0 1 1 1 1
8 1 0 0 0 0
9 1 0 0 1 1
10 1 0 1 0 1
11 1 0 1 1 1
12 1 1 0 0 0
13 1 1 0 1 1
14 1 1 1 0 1
15 1 1 1 1 1

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 Four-variable K-Map
# A B C D F
0 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 0
Exercise: 2 0 0 1 0 1
3 0 0 1 1 1
Given the following Truth table,
4 0 1 0 0 0
1. Derive the Boolean Expression 5 0 1 0 1 0
2. Use a K-Map to determine the 6 0 1 1 0 1
minimized Boolean Expression 7 0 1 1 1 1
8 1 0 0 0 1
9 1 0 0 1 0
10 1 0 1 0 1
11 1 0 1 1 0
12 1 1 0 0 0
13 1 1 0 1 0
14 1 1 1 0 0
15 1 1 1 1 1
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 Minimization using K-Maps
(Deriving a POS Expression using the Maxterms)

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 Minimization using K-maps
 Enter Maxterms (for POS) into K-map
 Identify adjacent cells
– Maxterms differ in only one bit
 Use adjacency to minimize logic function
– Gray code used for enumeration
• Specifies the location of each Maxterm in K-map
– Horizontal and Vertical adjacency
• Both are logically adjacent
– K-map wraps
• Left and right columns are logically adjacent
• Top and bottom rows are logically adjacent

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 Three-variable K-Map

Example:
Using a K-Map, minimize the logic function described by
the following Truth table.

# A B C F
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 1
2 0 1 0 0
3 0 1 1 0
4 1 0 0 1
5 1 0 1 1
6 1 1 0 1
7 1 1 1 0

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 Four-variable K-Map
# A B C D F
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0
2 0 0 1 0 1
Example: 3 0 0 1 1 1
4 0 1 0 0 0
Using a K-Map, minimize the
5 0 1 0 1 0
logic function described by
6 0 1 1 0 1
the following Truth table.
7 0 1 1 1 1
8 1 0 0 0 0
9 1 0 0 1 1
10 1 0 1 0 1
11 1 0 1 1 1
12 1 1 0 0 0
13 1 1 0 1 1
14 1 1 1 0 1
15 1 1 1 1 1

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 Minimizing SOP Expressions
# A B C F
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 1
2 0 1 0 1
corresponds to the row #s
3 0 1 1 0
4 1 0 0 0
5 1 0 1 1 F = S m(1, 2, 5, 7)
6 1 1 0 0 Shorter-hand Notation
7 1 1 1 1

F = A'B'C + A'BC' + AB'C + ABC F = S (m1, m2, m5, m7)

Canonical Sum-of-Products Shorthand Notation

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 Minimizing SOP Expressions

Exercise:
Given the following Canonical SOP expression:
F(A,B,C) = S m(0, 2, 3, 6)

1. Write out the expression in terms of the minterms.

2. Minimize the SOP expression using a K-Map

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 Minimizing SOP Expressions
Exercise: Given the following Canonical SOP expression,
F(A,B,C) = S m(1, 4, 5, 6, 7)

1. Write out the expression in terms of the minterms.

2. Minimize the SOP expression using a K-Map

Exercise: Given the following Canonical SOP expression,

F(A,B,C,D) = S m(0, 4, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15)

1. Write out the expression in terms of the minterms.

2. Minimize the SOP expression using a K-Map

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 Minimizing POS Expressions
# A B C F
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 1
2 0 1 0 1
corresponds to the row #s
3 0 1 1 0
4 1 0 0 0
5 1 0 1 1 F = P M(0, 3, 4, 6)
6 1 1 0 0 Shorter-hand Notation
7 1 1 1 1

F = (A+B+C)(A+B'+C')(A'+B+C)(A'+B'+C) F = P (M0, M3, M4, M6)

Canonical Product-of-Sums Shorthand Notation

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 Minimizing POS Expressions
Exercise:
Given the following Canonical POS expression:

F(A,B,C) = P M(4, 5, 6)
1. Write out the expression in terms of the minterms.
2. Minimize the POS expression using a K-Map

Exercise:
Given the following Canonical POS expression:
F(A,B,C) = P M(1, 2, 3, 5)

1. Write out the expression in terms of the minterms.

2. Minimize the POS expression using a K-Map
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 Minimizing POS Expressions

Exercise:
Given the following Canonical POS expression:

F(A,B,C,D) = P M(0, 1, 4, 8, 9, 12, 15)

1. Write out the expression in terms of the minterms.

2. Minimize the POS expression using a K-Map

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Minimizing Boolean Expressions using
K-maps for
Incompletely Specified Functions

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Incompletely Specified Functions
 If the function is specified in one of the two standard forms, its
K-map can be prepared and the function can be minimized.
 Now we consider the cases where the functions are not specified
in standard forms.
 In such cases, the equations can be converted into standard
forms, the K-map obtained and minimized. Alternately, we can
directly prepare K-map using the following algorithm:
1. Enter ones for minterms and zeros for maxterms.
2. Enter a pair of ones/zeros for each of the terms
with one variable less than the total number of
variables.
3. Enter four adjacent ones/zeros for terms with two
variables less than the total number of variables.
4. Repeat for other terms in the similar way.
 Once the K-map is prepared the minimization procedure is
same as discussed earlier.
Incompletely Specified Functions
Example :Minimize the following four variable logic function
𝑓 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 = 𝐴𝐵𝐶 ′ 𝐷 + 𝐴′ 𝐵𝐶𝐷 + 𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝐶 ′ + 𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝐷′ + 𝐴𝐶 ′ + 𝐵′

Solution: The method for obtaining K-map is

1. Enter 1 in the cell corresponding to the miniterms 𝐴𝐵𝐶 ′ 𝐷 and 𝐴′ 𝐵𝐶𝐷
2. Enter 1 in the two cells corresponding to the miniterm 𝐴′𝐵′𝐶 ′
3. Enter 1 in the two cells (one of these is already entered) corresponding to the
miniterm 𝐴′𝐵′𝐷′
4. Enter 1 in the two cells corresponding to the miniterm 𝐴𝐵′ 𝐶
5. Enter 1 in the four cells (one of these is already entered) corresponding to the
miniterm 𝐴𝐶 ′
6. Enter 1 in the eight cells (all of them except one have already been entered)
corresponding to the miniterm 𝐵′
The K-map is given as:

The minimized expression is: 𝑓 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 = 𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶 ′ + 𝐴′ 𝐶𝐷

Exercise: Minimize the following four variable logic function

𝑓 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷
= (𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 ′ + 𝐷′) ⋅ (𝐴′ + 𝐶 + 𝐷′) ⋅ (𝐴′ + 𝐵 + 𝐶 ′ + 𝐷′)(𝐵′ + 𝐶)
⋅ (𝐵′ + 𝐶′) ⋅ (𝐴 + 𝐵′) ⋅ (𝐵′ + 𝐷′)
Don’t Care Conditions

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Don’t Care Conditions
Example :Minimize the following four variable logic function
𝑓 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 = 𝑚 1, 3, 7, 11, 15 + 𝑑(0, 2, 5)

Solution:

Exercise :Minimize the following four variable logic function

𝑓 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 = 𝑀 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 12 + 𝑑(1, 2, 3, 9, 11, 14)
 More “Don’t Care” examples
• “Don’t cares” entries in K map can take on values of 1 or 0.
Therefore can be exploited to help simplification

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EX-OR and EX-NOR simplification of k-maps
 XOR & XNOR Patterns on the Map.
 Inspect the K-map to detect XOR/XNOR patterns:
1. kitty-corner (diagonal) adjacencies;
2. offset adjacencies.

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Cont’d

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