Republic of Iraq

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

AL-Nahrain University
College of Science
Physics Department

Pspice Battery Model with

Bidirectional Charging Converter
A Thesis
Submitted to the College of Science of Al-Nahrain
University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of

Master of Science
In

Physics

By
Zeena Mowafaq Al-Azzawi
(B.Sc.2004)

Supervised by
Dr. Zainab M. Younis Kubba

In

Shawal 1429 A. H.
October 2008 A.D
 Examination Committee Certification

We certify that we have read the thesis entitled "Pspice Battery Model
with Bidirectional Charging Converter" and as an examination committee,
examined the student Ms.Zeena Mowafaq Kadury Al-Azzawi on its contents,
and that in our opinion it is adequate for the partial fulfillment of the
requirements of the degree of Master of Science in Physics.

Signature:
Name: Dr. Kader H. Al-Shara
Title: Assistant Professor
(Chairman)
Date: / /2009

Signature: Signature:
Name: Dr. Safa Saod Mahdi Name: Dr. Khalid A. Yahya
Title: Assistant Professor Title: Lecture
(Member) (Member)
Date: / /2009 Date: / /2009

Signature:
Name: Dr. Zainab M. Kubba
Title: Lecture
(Supervisor)
Date: / /2009

Approved by the College Committee of Postgraduate studies

Signature:
Name: Dr. LAITH ABDUL AZIZ Al- ANI
Title: Assistant Professor
(Dean of the College of Science)
Date: / /2009

I
 Certification

I certify that this thesis entitled “Pspice Battery Model

with Bidirectional Charging Converter” is prepared by
Ms.Zeena Mowafaq Kadury Al-Azzawi under my
supervision at the College of Science of Al-Nahrain University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science in Physics.

Supervisor: Dr. Zainab M. Kubba

Date: 14/10/2008

In view of the recommendations, I present this thesis for

debate by the examination committee.

Dr. Ahmad K. Ahmad

Title: Assistant Professor
Head of Physics Department
Date: 14 /10 /2008

II
DEDICATED
TO
MY PARENTS
AND
BROTHERS

III
 Acknowledgments

Praise be to ALLAH, Lord of the whole creation and peace be

upon his messenger Mohammad.
I would like to express my sincere thanks and deep gratitude to
my supervisors Dr. Zainab M.Younis Kubba for suggesting the
present project of research, and for helpful comments and
simulating discussions throughout the research.
I am most grateful to the Dean of College of Science and Head
and the staff of the Department of Physics at Al-Nahrain
University for their valuable support and cooperation.

Finally, I acknowledge the helpful comments assistance given

to me at various stage of this work by Dr.Nahida Jouma AL-
Mashhadani. I most grateful to my Parents, my brothers Ahmad,
Ali, Mohammad, Omar, Baker for their patience and
encouragement throughout this work, and my friends manar
majed, Fatma Nafaa, Noor mohammed, for their encouragement.

Zeena

IV
 Abstract

This research intents to design Bidirectional Converter that can be

used in wide applications from uninterrupted power supplies (UPS),
photovoltaic (PV) and battery charging and discharging system, to
auxiliary power supplies designed primarily with a general module
depending on Orcad PSPICE program.

Lead Acid battery model (12V) is putted, which is used in wide

applications. The model consists of charge efficiency and battery voltage
components. The charge efficiency factor can vary from (0 to 1) and is
dependent on the Battery State of charge and charge current. The voltage
component of the model consists of amp-hour integrator which tracks the
net current flowing into the battery terminal (Battery voltage). The output
of the integrator gives us the state of charge so, it is connected to a table
driven voltage source, ETABLE, which generates the equivalent open
circuit battery voltage. The method used here is implemented in orcad
PSPICE program with bidirectional converter of properties (D=0.4,
P=12W, Vo=12V, f=1 KHz, Io=1A).

V
 Contents
Acknowledgments……………………………………………………IV
Abstract…………………………………………………………….…V
Contents……………………………………………………….….….VI
List of Symbols………………………………………………….….. IX

Chapter One

Introduction….……………………………..……..1
1.1 Motivation……………………………………………….………....1
1.2 Battery…………………………………………………….……......3
1.3 Lead Acid Battery……………………………………….……..…..4
1.4 Battery performance characteristics…………………….…….…....5
1.5 Ideal and Non Ideal properties…………………………….…….....7
1.6 Pspice ……………………………………………………...……….9
1.7 Letrature Servey…………………………………………………....9
1.8 Aim of project…………………………………………………….12
1.9 Thesis overview…………………………………………………..13

Chapter Two

Theory of batteries and Buck-Boost Converter ……..14

2.1 Lead-Acid battery …………………………………………….…14
2.2 State of Charge (SOC) Determination ………………………..…16
2.2.1 Direct Measurement………………………………………..17

VI
 2.2.2 Voltage-based SOC Estimation……………………………..18
2.2.3 Current-based SOC Estimation……………………..……….18
2.2.4 Specific gravidity Method…………………………….....…..19
2.3 Charge Efficiency …………………….………………………..…20
2.4 DC-DC Switch Mode Converters ………………………….……..20
2.4.1 Control of DC-DC Converters……………………………….21
2.4.2 Buck-Boost Bidirectional Converter…………………………23
2.4.3 Selection of inductance ……………………………………...26

Chapter Three
Design, Modeling and Simulation……..…..……....28
3.1 Introduction………………………………………………….……28
3.2 Lead-Acid battery PSPICE Model……………………………...…28
3.2.1 Charge efficiency Factor………………………………….…..29
3.2.2 Battery Voltage Components…………………………….…...32
3.3 Converter Circuit Design……………………………………….….35
3.4 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) and Gate Drive Circuit…………36
3.5 Boot-Strap Circuit Technique (BSCT)…………………………….37

Chapter Four

Results and Discussion……………………………..39

4.1 Battery model Simulation…………………………………..….…...39
4.2 Analytical Result obtained by PSPICE……………………………..49
4.3 Bidirectional converter with Battery model results………………....52

VII
 Chapter Five

Conclusions and Future Work……………..…….…59

4.1 Conclusions………………………………………………………...59
4.2 Future Work……………………………………………………..…59
References……………………………………………………………...61

VIII
 List of Symbols
Symbols Description
AH Ampere-Hour

Bat cur Battery current

Cbatt Input Capacitance

Cbus Bus Capacitance

D Duty cycle

fs Switching frequency

fld flooded

ibat Battery charging current

L Inductance
Nameplate Initial Capacity
Capacity
Rint Battery internal resistance

R2 Sum of the inductor's resistance

Sinitial Initial state of charge

sld Sealed

ton time switch on duration

Ts Total time

Temp C Temperature ,degC

Vst Saw tooth Voltage

Vcontrol Control Voltage (amplified error)

IX
 List of abbreviation
abbreviation Description
ABM Analog Behavioral Modeling

BMS Battery management system

BSCT Boot Strap Circuit Technique

ESR Equivalent Series Resistance

HST Hubble Space Telescope

IGBT Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor

MOSFET Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor

PSPICE Personal Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit

Emphasis
PWM Pulse Width Modulation

RC Resistive Companion

SLA Sealed Lead Acid

SOC State of Charge

VRLA Valve Regulated Lead Acid

VTB Virtual Test Bed

X
 List of Figures
Figure No. Caption Page
No.
Figure (1-1) The proposed power conditioning system block 1
diagram
Figure (1-2) Basic bidirectional switching cells used for 2
constructing multipart bidirectional converters
Figure (1-3) Battery Cell Composition 3

Figure (1-4) Pb, Pbso4/H2SO4/ PbO2, Pb Cell 5

Figure (1-5) Characteristics of an ideal battery: constant 7

voltage and constant capacity
Figure (1-6) Non-ideal battery properties 8

Figure (2-1) Control Circuit of DC-DC Converter 22

Figure (2-2) Buck Boost converter schematic 23

Figure (2-3) Current thorough Vbattery ripple waveform 26

Figure (3-1) Pspice lead-acid battery model ٢٩

Figure (3-2) rt three terms as represented by ABM in PSPICE ٣١

Figure (3-3) The charge efficiency factor as represented in ٣٢

PSPICE
Figure (3-4) The battery voltage component represented in ٣٣
PSPICE
Figure (3-5) Complete circuit of the battery as Represented in ٣٤
PSPICE
Figure (3-6) Non-Isolated Single-Phase Bidirectional Buck 35
Boost converter
Figure (3-7) The system of the PWM generator and gat drive ٣٧
circuit
Figure (3-8) Complete Circuit of the Converter as Represented ٣٨
in PSPICE
Figure (4-1) Battery voltage as a function of time at different ٤١
RL (0.1Ω, 0.3Ω, and 0.5Ω)
Figure (4-2) State of charge as a function of time at different ٤١
RL (0.1 Ω, 0.3 Ω and 0.5 Ω)

XI
Figure No. Caption
Figure (4-3) Charge efficiency as a function of time at ٤٢
different RL (0.1 Ω, 0.3 Ω and 0.5 Ω)
Figure (4-4) battery voltage as a function of state of charge at 42
RL=0.5 Ω
Figure (4-5) Charge efficiency as a function of state of charge 43
at RL=0.5 Ω
Figure (4-6) Battery voltage as a function of time at different ٤٣
Kval (0.1, 0.2 and 0.3)
Figure (4-7) State of charge as a function of time at different ٤٤
Kval (0.1, 0.2 and 0.3)
Figure (4-8) Charge efficiency as a function of time at 4٤
different Kval (0.1, 0.2 and 0.3)
Figure (4-9) Battery voltage as a function of state of charge at ٤٥
Kval=0.3
Figure (4-10) Charge efficiency as a function of state of charge 4٥
at Kval=0.3
Figure (4-11) Battery voltage as a function of time at different 4٦
Rbatt (0.066 Ω, 0.086 Ω and 0.106 Ω)
Figure (4-12) State of charge as a function of time at different 4٦
Rbatt (0.066 Ω, 0.086 Ω and 0.106 Ω)
Figure (4-13) Charge efficiency as a function of time at ٤٧
different Rbatt (0.066 Ω, 0.086 Ω and 0.106 Ω)
Figure (4-14) battery voltage as a function of time at different 4٧
temperature
Figure (4-15) State of charge as a function of time at different ٤٨
temperature
Figure (4-16) Charge efficiency as a function of time at 4٨
different temperature
Figure (4-17) Voltage of converter ٥٠

Figure (4-18) Output Voltage of bidirectional converter ٥١

Figure (4-19) Output Current of bidirectional converter ٥١

Figure (4-20) Total circuit of the battery and converter as ٥٣

represented in PSPICE
Figure (4-21) Voltage as a function of time ٥٤

Figure (4-22) current and battery voltage as a function of time 5٥

XII
 List of Figures
Figure No. Caption Page
No.
Figure (4-23) Charge efficiency as a function of time ٥٦

Figure (4-24) Charge efficiency as a function of state of charge ٥٦

Figure (4-25) State of charge as a function of time 5٧

Figure (4-26) Battery voltage as a function of state of charge 5٧

Figure (4-27) State of charge as a function of time at different ٥٨

temperature
Figure (4-28) Charge efficiency as a function of time at 58
different temperature

List of Tables
Table No. Caption Page
No.
Table (1-1) Battery characteristics 3

Table (2-1) Battery specifications 15

Table (3-1) Parameters of used in equations for Lead acid 30

battery

XIII
Chapt er
One
Chapter one Introduction

Chapter One
Introduction
1.1 Motivation

There are many applications for bidirectional DC-DC converters ranging

from spacecraft to renewable energy applications such as electric vehicles and
fuel cell power generation. Each of these applications requires specific attention
to be paid to cost, performance and reliability with fuel cell energy management
systems being no different. [Andy 2003]

The entire power conditioning system is divided into three main sections: (1)
the dc-dc converter that boosts from the (fuel cell, solar cell……etc) to the high
voltage bus, (2) the dc-ac inverter, (3) the auxiliary energy management system
that consists of a battery bank and a bidirectional dc-dc converter to provide
power during load transients. Figure (1-1) shows the block diagram of the
proposed power conditioning system. [Chris.S and et al 2003]

Fuel cell
Or DC-DC Inverter Load
solar cell

Bidirectional
converter

Battery

Figure (1-1) the proposed power conditioning system block diagram [Chris.S and et al
2003]
Chapter one Introduction

Higher voltage batteries could be directly connected to the dc link without any
intermediate power converter, but the high voltage battery is relatively expensive
and may have the battery cell unbalance problem in the long run. A battery pack
is connected to the dc link via a bi-directional Dc-Dc converter. [Jinhee lee and
et al 2003]. In some applications, such as battery charging and discharging, it is
desirable to have bidirectional power flow capability.

Bidirectional Boost converters can be classified as isolated and no isolated

There are three main converters that can be used on either side of the
transformer, push-pull, full-bridge or half-bridge and can be either current or
voltage fed. Of these, only certain combinations are cost-effective and efficient
depending on their placement, either on the low or high side. [Andy 2003] A
multipart bidirectional converter can be constructed from the basic bidirectional
switching cell as shown in figure (1-2). Using interleaved topologies, the
proposed basic cells can also be used for high-power applications. [Haimin Tao]

Figure (1-2) Basic bidirectional switching cells used for constructing multipart
bidirectional converters [Haimin Tao]
Chapter one Introduction

1.2 Battery
A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy.
It consists of one or more voltaic cell. Each voltaic cell consist of two half cells
connected in series by a conductive electrolyte. Each cell has a positive electrode
(cathode), and a negative electrode (anode). These do not touch each other but are
immersed in a solid or liquid electrolyte. In a practical cell the materials are
enclosed in a container, and a separator between the electrodes to prevent the
electrodes from coming into contact as shown in figure (1-3). [Battery electricity
2007]

Many types and classifications of batteries are manufactured today. Each, with
specific design and performance characteristics suited for particular applications.
Table (1-1) summarizes some of the key characteristics of the different battery
types as shown in appendix (B). [James 1997]

Figure (1-3) Battery Cell Composition [James 1997]

Chapter one Introduction

1.3 Lead Acid Battery

Most economical for large power application where weight is of little concern.
The lead acid battery is preferred choice for hospital equipment, wheelchairs,
emergency lighting and ups system. [Isidor 2001]

This type is used to validate the PSPICE model so all details of this type will be
discussed.

Let us consider a cell such as shown in figure (1-4). This cell schematically
represents a classic Lead-acid battery. It consists of a lead electrode (pb) and
another of lead oxide (PbO2) submerged in an H2SO4 solution. When the two
electrodes come together figure (1-4a), an electric current flows from one to the
other due to an electrostatic potential difference between the two electrodes. The
reaction giving rise to this electromotive force is

PbO2+Pb+2H2SO4 2PbSO4+2H2O (1-1)

This reaction can be split into two parts. One that takes place in the left electrode,

Pb+SO4-2 PbSO4+2e - (1-2)

And the other that takes place in the right one,

PbO2+4H+ + SO4-2+2e - PbSO4+2H2O (1-3)

If a potential greater than its electromotive force is applied to the cell, the
chemical process is inverted in the electrodes figure (1-4b) and the direction of the
reaction (1-2) and (1-3) is also inverted. The pb electrode is transformed into the
cathode and the PbO2 into the anode, with the system now working as an
electrolytic cell. [Esperilla.J.J and et al 2006]
Chapter one Introduction

Figure (1-4) Pb, Pbso4/H2SO4/ PbO2, Pb Cell [Esperilla.J.J et al 2006]

1.4 Battery performance characteristics

Ambient Temperature
The prevailing surface temperature to which a battery is exposed.

Capacity
The electrical energy available from a cell or battery expressed in ampere-hours.
Available capacity refers to ampere-hours that can be discharged from a battery
based on its state of charge, rate of discharge, ambient temperature, and specified
cut-off voltage. Rated capacity ( C ) is the discharge capacity that the
manufacturer says may be obtained at a given discharge rate and temperature.
[Ruffin Rd and San Diego 2004]

Rated Charge Capacity

The capacity, usually given in ampere-hours (Ah) or milliampere-hours (mAh),

specified by the manufacturer and typically printed on the label of the battery
itself. If a batch of batteries includes parallel connections, the rated charge capacity
of the batch is the total charge capacity of the parallel configuration, that is, the
rated charge capacity of each battery time the number of batteries connected in
parallel. Connecting multiple batteries in series does not affect the rated charge
capacity. [Suzanne Foster Porter 2008]
Chapter one Introduction

Discharge
The process of drawing current from a battery. Deep Discharge the discharge of
a cell or battery to between 80% and 100% of rated capacity. Depth of Discharge
the mount of capacity typically expressed as a percentage removed during
discharge. Self Discharge the loss of capacity while stored or not in use. Self
Discharge Rate the percent of capacity lost on open circuit
Over a specified period of time.

Impedance
The (resistive and reactive) value of a battery to an AC current expressed in ohms
( ). Generally measured at 1000 Hz at full charge.

Internal Resistance
The resistance inside a battery which creates a voltage drops in proportion to the
current draw.

Open Circuit Voltage

The voltage of a battery or cell when measured at no load condition.

State of Charge
The available capacity of a battery at a given time expressed as a percentage of
rated capacity. Discharging a battery results in a decrease in state of charge, while
charging results in an increase in state of charge.

Thermal Runaway
A condition in which a cell or battery on constant potential charge can destroy
itself through internal heat generation. [Ruffin Rd and San Diego 2004]
Chapter one Introduction

1.5 Ideal and Non Ideal properties

The two most important properties of batteries from the viewpoint of some one
using them are voltage and capacity. An ideal battery has a constant voltage
throughout a discharge, which drops instantaneously to zero when the battery is
fully discharge and has constant capacity no matter what is the rate of the load as
shown in figure (1-5). [Thomas and Daniel 1999]

While ideally a battery has constant voltage and capacity, in practice both vary
widely. Figure (1-6a). Shows the battery voltage as a function of discharge time
for two different loads. The load on the battery for discharge curve (1) is smaller
than load for discharge curve (2). The capacity also varies with the value of the
load figure (1-6b). Shows the loss of capacity with increasing load current for a
typically NiCd battery. The second non-ideal capacity property, recovery is shown
in figure (1-6c). Areduction of the load for a period of time results in an increase in
battery capacity. [Kubba Z.M 2003]

Figure (1-5) Characteristics of an ideal battery: constant voltage and constant capacity
[Thomas and Daniel 1999]
Chapter one Introduction

Figure (1-6) Non-ideal battery properties:

(a) Voltage change,
(b) Loss of capacity, and
(c) Recovery [zainab 2003]
 Chapter one Introduction

1.6 Pspice
There are several circuit simulation programs available on the market such as
SPICE, EMTP and SABER among several others. In this a spice simulator is used,
pspice.

A spice stands for simulation program with integrated circuit emphasis. The
language was developed at the University of California, Berkley. Spice is a
language developed for simulation integrated circuits. [Mikael 2007]

1.7 Letrature Servey

A Voltaic Pile, the first modern battery.

More often than not, battery performance in a particular device is still

determined by testing. Testing, although time-consuming and expensive, is
necessary because the performance of a battery depends on how the battery in
used. However, a advances in computer simulation of battery performance now
allow good estimates of battery performance to be made, so devices can be
designed in software.
Chapter one Introduction
R.Tim and H.John, in 1994 are described an electrical model of a battery that
can accurately simulates characteristic battery behavior during over-current
instances using the analog bahavioural modeled functions available with Micro
Sim's PSpice simulation software. . The battery model can be coupled with other
distribution component models to simulate the protection performance in
telecommunication Dc distribution system. [Tim.R and John.H 1994]

B.Wu, and et al, in 2001 are described Resistive Companion (RC) modeling in
an easy-to-use approach for electric circuit simulations. With a RC numerical
solver, simulations of complex electric system can be achieved based on RC
models. In this study, the construction of RC battery models is investigated. A
general battery model and a nickel-metal hydride cell model have been built.
Simulations of RC battery models on Virtual Test Bed (VTB) are presented and
analyzed. It is shown that RC modeling provides a flexible and powerful way for
the simulation of battery systems. [Wu.B and et al 2001]

F.A.Himmelstoss and P.A.Wurm , in 2002 they used tapped inductors and

current bi-directional switches in the classical boost or buck-boost converter leads
to a high step-up ratio, thus avoiding the extreme duty cycles of the active switches
and the high stress switches. A high Voltage DC-link and a battery of low voltage
can therefore be coupled easily. Due to the possibility of bidirectional power flow
charging and discharging of the battery is possible. Two converters are presented
and analyzed. Due to the simultaneous regulation of the switching frequency and
the duty cycle on one hand and the winding ratio of an autotransformer on the
other, high conversion rates of 1:5 can easily be realized. The dimensioning of the
converters, their dynamical behavior, and the component stresses are analyzed.
[Himmelstoss.F.A and Wurm.P.A 2002]

M. Hashem Nehrir, and et al, in 2002 is presented the development of a

computer approach for evaluating the general performance of stand-alone
Chapter one Introduction
wind/photovoltaic generating systems. Simple models for different system
components are developed, integrated, and used to predict the behavior of
generating systems based on available wind/solar and load data. The model is
useful for evaluating the performance of stand-alone generating systems and
gaining a better insight in the component sizes needed before they are built.
[Hashem Nehrir.M and et al 2002]

S. Abu-Sharkh and D.Doerffel, in 2005 described battery model for a high

power Lithium-Ion battery. An IsSpice4 model was made using the techniques and
data described, and it was scaled down for use with a C cell (1.4 amp-hr, 3.6 volt).
They described the batteries that hold their charge for many hours, making a
PSPICE simulation impossible over the entire charge-discharge cycle when other
circuit operations need to be simulated. Time constants on the order of seconds are
long enough to appear to be steady state for surrounding circuitry, and are short
enough to run simulations without running out of memory. [Issue#78, November
2005]

J.J Esperilla, and et al, 2006 presented a model of a lead-acid battery developed
with bond graphs. The bond graph structure was used to reproduce the behavior of
reversible electrochemical cell in charging condition or in discharging conditions.
The charging process for a standard 12V battery for two different voltage charges
was simulated using both isothermal model and the thermal model. With the later,
it was seen that when the charge currents are high, the thermal effects are
considerable, and at the end of the charge process the electrolyte reaches
temperatures considerably higher than at the beginning. This increase in electrolyte
temperature has repercussions on the charge current value, and as a result, on the
State of Charge (SOC). [Esperilla.J.J and et al 2006]

M.Thele and et al, 2006 presented a model for flooded and VRLA batteries that
is parameterized by impedance spectroscopy and includes the overcharging effects
Chapter one Introduction
to a allow charge-acceptance simulations (e.g. for regenerative. braking drive-
cycle profiles). The full dynamic behavior and the short-term charge/discharge
history are taken into an account. This is achieved by a detailed modeling of the
sulfate crystal growth and modeling of the internal gas recombination cycle. The
validation measurements have been performance for different type of Lead-acid
batteries (flooded and VRLA). The complete battery model allows for charge-
acceptance tests which are a prerequisite for the development of complex electrical
system such as vehicles with regenerative-braking. [Thele.M and et al 2006]

E. Sanchis-Kilders, in 2006 are presented the results of a project that looked

after a high efficiency bidirectional converter which could be used as a battery
discharge/charge regulator when the bus voltage is above the battery voltage.
High efficiency, high stability and simplicity are the main goals, no galvanic
isolation is required. Taking into account all these parameters, a new topology
based on a Boost converter with coupled inductors has been proposed. The use of
a bidirectional converter reduces the mass of the overall charge/discharge
subsystem and lowers cost and component count. [Sanchis-Kilders.E et al 2006]

1.8 Aim of project

This thesis provides theoretical studies to build battery modeling techniques

of type Lead-acid battery using charge efficiency and battery voltage
components. After modeling and simulating the battery model, it will be
considered as an as auxiliary source to the Bidirectional Buck-Boost Converter in
order to test the battery model validity.
Chapter one Introduction

1.9 Thesis overview

The work deal mostly with the modeling and simulating of a lead acid battery
as well as an Bidirectional converter charger.

Chapter one presented the introduction including the Bidirectional converter

principles, battery types, battery performance characteristics and the previous
work was presented to show the extent of research interest in this field.

Chapter two describes the principles of single phase Bidirectional converter.

A paragraph is also included detailing the parameters of the battery (SOC,
internal resistance and charge efficiency).

Chapter three

Chapter four discusses the development and simulating results of a battery

model and Bidirectional converter using Pspice circuit simulation software.

Finally Chapter five gives the conclusions and suggestion to continue and to
extend this work in the future.
Chapt er
Two

Theory of batteries and Buck-

Boost Converter
Chapter Two Theoretical Consideration

Chapter Two
Theory of batteries and Buck-Boost Converter

2.1 Lead-Acid Battery

In 1859 a French physicist Gaston Planté, Invented the oldest type of

rechargeable battery. Despite having the second lowest energy-to-weight
ratio (next to the nickel-iron battery) and a correspondingly low energy-
to-volume ratio, their ability to supply high surge currents means that the
cells maintain a relatively large power-to-weight ratio. These features,
along with their low cost, make them attractive for use in cars, as they can
provide the high current required by automobile starter motors. They are
also used in vehicles such as forklifts, in which the low energy-to-weight
ratio may in fact be considered a benefit since the battery can be used as a
counterweight. Large arrays of lead-acid cells are used as standby power
sources for telecommunications facilities, generating stations, and
computer data centers. They are also used to power the electric motors in
diesel-electric (conventional) submarines. Table (2-1) summarizes of the
key specifications of Lead acid battery. [Lead-acid battery 2006]

In terms of numbers of units or of watt-hours of capacity, the usage of

the lead-acid battery is probably over twenty times as that as large as that
of its nearest rival, the nickel-cadmium (or ion) alkaline storage battery.
[KADHEM.M .S 1995] There are several contributory factors to this
success:
Chapter Two Theoretical Consideration

(a) Great versatility; the battery can supply on instant demand high or low
currents over a wide range of temperatures.
(b) Good storage characteristics, particularly in the dry-charged
condition.
(c) A very high degree of reversibility: It is capable of giving hundreds of
discharge-charge cycle with great reliability.
(d) Lead, the basic material of construction, has a low melting point and
the various metallic components, grid , bus bars, terminal posts, inter-
cell connectors. Can be easily coasted and grouped together by simple
low temperature welding techniques.
(e) High cell voltage, due to high potential of the lead dioxide electrode
in sulfuric acid, namely E=1.685V, gives a cell voltage of 2.04V.
(f) The metal is relatively cheap, when compared with nickel, cadmium
and silver used in other storage batteries.

Table (2-1) Battery specifications [Lead-acid battery 2006]

Parameters Value
Energy/weight 30-40 wh/kg
Energy/size 60-75 wh/L
Power/Weight 180 W/kg
Charge/discharge efficiency 70%-92%
Energy/consumer price 7(sld)-18(fld) wh/Us$
Self-discharge rate time durability 3%-20%/month
Cycle durability 500-800 cycles
Nominal Cell Voltage Charge 2.0 V
temperature interval
Chapter Two Theoretical Consideration

Driven by different application, two battery designations emerged.

They are the small Sealed Lead Acid (SLA); also known under the
brand name of Gel cell, and large Valve Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA).

Unlike the flooded Lead acid battery, both the SLA and VRLA are
designed with a low over-voltage potential to prohibit the battery from
reaching its gas-generating potential during charge excess charging would
cause gassing and water depletion. Consequently, these batteries can
never be charged to their full potential. [Isidor 2001]

The most common type used is the Valve Regulated Lead Acid
(VRLA) battery, because of its low cost, maintenance-free operation and
high efficiency characteristics. [Koutroulis, E., and Kalaitzakis, K.
2004]

2.2 State of Charge (SOC) Determination

The state of charge of a battery is useful in determining the available

capacity of the battery. It is expressed as the percentage of the rated
capacity of the battery. State of charge tells the user how much more
energy the battery can deliver to the application before it needs
recharging. A Battery Management System (BMS) should determine the
SOC of individual cells in a battery pack to check for uniform distribution
of SOC among the cells. Usually the SOC is expressed as a percentage of
the rated capacity, rather than of the capacity to which the battery was last
charged. The rated capacity of the cell is not the same as the capacity of
the battery to which it was last charged because of aging and
environmental effects that prevent the battery from charging to its rated
Chapter Two Theoretical Consideration

capacity as time passes. However, if the SOC is used only for cell
equalization purposes, it can be expressed either way, as all the cells in a
string generally experience the same environment.

It is not possible to measure the SOC of a battery directly therefore, a

physical parameter that varies with the SOC is measured to determine the
SOC of a battery. Based on the physical parameter that is measured, SOC
determination methods are classified into the following types:
1. Direct Measurement
2. Voltage-Based SOC Estimation
3. Current-Based SOC Estimation
4. Specific Gravity Method
Each of these methods is now described in more detail.

2.2.1 Direct Measurement

The direct measurement method for SOC assumes that the current
through the cell is constant. The state of charge is calculated solely in
terms of the elapsed time, based on q = i t. The controller that is being
used to calculate the SOC of the charging and discharging process and
accumulates time either positively or negatively to determine the SOC.
This method has two problems associated with it. First, this method
requires that the current through the battery is to be constant. The current
through a battery in fact is not constant; it increases/decreases as the
battery charges/discharges, in a nonlinear fashion. Therefore, a more
accurate measure would require that actual current be measured and
accumulated over time. Second, this method requires that the battery is to
be discharged in order to determine how much charge it contained
initially. [Annavajjula V.K 2007]
Chapter Two Theoretical Consideration

The SOC could be measured simply by integrating the battery

charging current ibat as follows, [Jinhee lee et al 2003]
Qo i dt
bat
SOC 2 1
Qn
where Q0 is initial charge and Qn is rated ampere-hour of battery. The
initial charge Qo is set to be Qn when the system starts from full battery
charge. [Jinhee lee et al 2003]

2.2.2 Voltage-based SOC Estimation

This method is applicable to cell chemistries whose voltages are
directly proportional to the available state of charge. [Annavajjula V.K
2007]
Voc(t) a SOC(t) a
1 0

Voc(t) a
0
SOC(t) (2 2)
a
1
where SOC (t) is the stat of charge of the battery, a0 is the battery
terminal voltage, a1 is the obtained knowing the value of a0 and Voc.

If this relation is known a priori, the SOC can be obtained by

measuring the open circuit voltage. In practice, the SOC varies widely
with temperature, discharge rate and aging of the battery; all these factors
must be considered for an accurate determination of SOC.

2.2.3 Current-Based SOC Estimation

Like direct measurement, current-based SOC estimation uses the basic
t
definition of the charge q i t dt to determine the SOC of a battery;
0
Chapter Two Theoretical Consideration

charge is obtained by integrating the current. This method accumulates

the current drawn in and out of the battery over time to determine the
capacity of the battery. Therefore, this method is also known as Coulomb
counting. The current flowing in and out of the battery is obtained by
measuring the voltage drop across a known low ohmic, high precision,
series resistor. [Annavajjula V.K 2007] In coulomb method, SOC is
estimated by subtracting charge flow out of battery from the initial
existing charge as described by this eq. [Sauradip M. 2001]

SOC S Charge flow out of battery 2-3

intial

Sinitial is initial state of charge of battery (i.e. before discharge takes place,
if battery is full charge Sinitial=100). However, the non-linear and time
varying behavior of battery posses a severe problem with the coulomb
metric method. As for example, a battery of capacity C A-h at C/20 rate
would suggest different capacities with different discharge rates. The
capacity of battery is also a function of battery temperature. Also a
battery displays a variation in performance with aging and other
operational factors (Charging pattern, Depth of Discharge). [Sauradip
M. 2001]

2.2.4 Specific Gravity Method

Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of a solution to the weight of
an equal volume of water at a specified temperature. Specific gravity is
used as an indicator of the state of charge of a cell or battery. However,
specific gravity measurements cannot determine a battery's capacity.
[John A. Yoder 1995]
Chapter Two Theoretical Consideration

2.3 Charge Efficiency

Charge efficiency refers to how many amp-hours are absorbed by the

battery compared to how many charge amp-hours are delivered. [Blue
Sky Energy Inc 2004]

2.4 DC-DC Switch Mode Converters

A switch mode DC-to-DC converter is used to convert the unregulated

DC input into controlled DC output at a desired voltage level. This
converter is very often used in conjunction with a transformer for
electrical isolation in DC power supplies and most often without isolation
in DC motor drives. There are five major types of DC-DC switch mode
converters. The two basic converter topologies are the step down (buck)
converter and the step up (boost) converter. From the combination of
these two basic topologies are the buck-boost converter and the Cuk
converter. The last one is the full bridge and half bridge converter, which
is derived from a step-down converter. Unlike the other four this
converter has the ability to be operated as an inverter since the power
could be manipulated in a bi-directional manner. This converter is
commonly used for DC Motor drives and to convert DC to AC as an
inverter. In analysing the four converters mentioned, the following
assumptions were considered; the converters are in steady state condition,
the switches are ideal (lossless), the DC input have zero internal
impedance however in most cases the input is a diode rectified AC line
voltage with a large filter capacitor, to provide a low internal impedance
and a low ripple DC voltage output and at the load side a small filter is
treated as an integral part of the converter. [Mohan N. 1989]
Chapter Two Theoretical Consideration

2.4.1 Control of DC-DC Converters

The control of the DC-DC converter could be accomplished by

injecting a Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) signal in the gate of the power
electronic switch. This switch can be a MOSFET or an IGBT. The PWM
could either be varied by altering the time in which the pulse is at high or
low position and by altering both the period of the PWM signal and the
time in which it is on or off . The second method however makes it
complicated to filter the input and output ripple component of the
waveform in the converter. For the first method the PWM signal needed
for controlling the on and off position of the switch is generated by
comparing a repetitive triangular waveform with a control signal voltage
shown in figure (2-1). The switching frequency is determined by the
frequency of the constant peak repetitive triangular waveform. For the
control voltage it is generated by amplifying the error signal of the
converter output and the desired voltage level. Base on figure (2-1) when
the instantaneous value of the triangular waveform is greater than the
control voltage the pulse is at its low position hence the switch will be
close. When it is lesser than the control voltage the pulse is at its high
position closing the switch. The duty cycle of the switch can be related by
the ratio of the control voltage magnitude and the peak value of the
repetitive waveform. In terms of Vcontrol and the peak of the saw tooth
waveform Vst, the switch duty ratio can be expressed as: [Mohan N.
1989]

t on V
D control
Ts Vst
Chapter Two Theoretical Consideration

where
ton: time switch on duration
Ts: total time
Vst: Saw tooth Voltage
Vcontrol: Control Voltage (amplified error)

Figure (2-1) Control Circuit of DC-DC Converter [Mohan N. 1989]

(a) Block Diagram

(b) Compatator Signal

Chapter Two Theoretical Consideration

2.4.2 Buck-Boost Bidirectional Converter

A buck-boost bidirectional converter is the simplest topology and

contains two active switches and a single inductor. In boost mode the
switch must carry the full power and likewise for the inductor. This
requires the devices and magnetics to be quite large. [Andy M. 2003]

1
M2
D2
Rint
2

Ls R2
Cbus

M1
1

Vdc
D1 Cbatt V2
2

Figure(2-2) Buck Boost converter schematic [Micah Ortuzar et al 2003]

Figure (2-2) shows a simplified schematic of the Buck-Boost

converter and the two connected sources. The Vbattery bank is considered
as a constant voltage source (V2) with a series resistance and (Vdc) as an
ideal voltage source with its internal series resistance.

The converter itself is composed of the inductor Ls, the capacitor Cbus,
MOSFT M1 and M2; and Diodes D1 and D2. Buck operation consists of
transferring energy from the battery pack to the Vbattery by triggering
MOSFT M2. Boost operation results from triggering MOSFT M1, in this
way energy is transferred from the Vbattery to the Vdc. However, on either
case the amount of current transferred, if any at all, will depend on the
Chapter Two Theoretical Consideration

Vbattery actual voltage, the system parameters (resistance values, battery

voltage) and the duty cycle of the PWM applied. While the energy-
transfer's efficiency will depend on these conditions and on the
semiconductor's loses. Equations governing the converter will be
discussed further on.

In the steady state and for mean values during periods of several
seconds, the converter can be modeled as an ideal DC transformer as
follows.

For the Boost operation, steady state voltages and currents are
described by equations (2-4) and (2-5), respectively. For simplicity, these
equations do not take into account the diode's and MOSFT's voltage drop
effect. [Micah Ortuzar et al 2003]
V
V 2 (2 4)
dc (1 D)

V
2 V
1 D dc
V
at 2 V 0
R R 1 D dc
int 2
Ib 1 D 2 (2 5)

V
0 at 2 V 0
1 D dc

In equations (2-4) and (2-5) Rint for the battery's internal resistance, R2
for the sum of the inductor's resistance and the Vbattery ESR (Equivalent
Chapter Two Theoretical Consideration

Series Resistance); and D stands for the duty cycle of the PWM applied.
As it can be seen eq. (2-4) and (2-5), Boost operation can be modeled as a
one-way-conducting DC transformer, where the transformer ratio seen
from the Vbattery side is 1/ (1-D).

Equations (2-6) and (2-7) describe steady state voltages and current
during Buck operation. [Micah Ortuzar et al 2003]

V D V (2 6)
2 dc

V D V
dc 2 at (V D V ) 0
dc 2
R R D2
2 int
Ib (2 7)

0 at (V D V ) 0
dc 2

As in the previous case, Buck operation may be modeled as a one-

way-conducting DC transformer, where the transformer ratio seen from
Vdc is D.

Equations (2-5) and (2-7) do not take into account the ripple
component of current. Equations (2-4) through (2-7) will help to
understand the converter's behaviour under different conditions and will
help to elaborate control strategy. [Micah Ortuzar et al 2003]
Chapter Two Theoretical Consideration

2.4.3 Selection of Inductance

In order to produce a controlled DC current thorough the Vbattery, small
ripple content is desirable. High ripple amplitude also produces other
undesired effects, such as loses due to currents induced in other elements;
and electromagnetic noise. Therefore, it is desirable to reduce ripple
amplitude as much as possible.

Figure (2-3) shows a typical steady state current waveform for a Buck
operation.

Figure (2-3) Current thorough Vbattery ripple waveform

[Micah Ortuzar et al 2003]

Equations (2-8), (2-9) and (2-10) describe the relation between

current's components signaled in figure (2-3), which corresponds to
current thorough Vbattery during a Buck operation. [Micah Ortuzar et al
2003]

di ( ) V V i
b dc 2 b (R 0, R 0) (2 8)
dt Ls to 2 int
Chapter Two Theoretical Consideration

di (-) V i
b 2 b (R 0) (2 9)
dt Ls T to 2

V 1
i dc D (1 D) f (2 10)
b Ls f T

For simplicity, these equations do not take into account the effect of
diode and MOSFT voltage drop, nor the voltage drop thorough R2 and
Rint resistances.

Deriving with respect to D and zeroing equation (2-10) leads to the

value of D for which the ripple amplitude (represented by ib) is
maximum. This value is 0.4. Then the maximum value of ib is described
by eq. (2-11). [Micah Ortuzar et al 2003]

V
i max dc (2 11)
b 4 f Ls
Chapt er
Three
Chapter Three Design, Modeling and Simulation

Chapter Three
Design, Modeling and Simulation
3-1 Introduction

This chapter discusses the simulated and design of the battery model. The
simulated is carried out using PSPICE software for the complete model in
order to get the results for the proposed battery model. Details are also given
to the method of measuring the charge efficiency.

3-2 Lead-Acid Battery PSPICE Model

The PSPICE Lead-acid battery model is based on the SPICE, which

consists of the charge efficiency and battery voltage components. The charge
efficiency component was originally developed at Lockheed Martin/
Sunnyvale. The schematic of the Pspice model is shown in figure (3-1). The
voltage component of the model consists of amp-hour integrator which tracks
the net current flowing into the battery terminal (Vbattery). The output of the
integrator give us the SOC according to eq (3-1) so, it is connected to a table
driven voltage source, ETABLE, which generates the equivalent open circuit
battery voltage (Vbattery) according to the piecewise linear curve shown in
appendix(A). [Greg Waldo 2002]
1
SOC Vin dt (3 1)
RC
As the battery is charged, less and less charge current contributes to an
increase (SOC) instead being converted to heat. The model accounts for the
changing battery efficiency by multiplying the battery current by a factor
called charge efficiency.
Chapter Three Design, Modeling and Simulation

SOC

E1
IN+ OUT+ Vbattery vc
Charge ef f iciency
IN- OUT-
ETABLE

V+
+
R U12
OUT batcur
uA741

V-
-

-v c

Figure (3-1) Pspice lead-acid battery model

3.2.1 Charge Efficiency Factor

Charge efficiency factor can vary from 0 to 1 and is dependent on the

battery SOC, charge current and temperature. If battery SOC is negative, or
battery is in discharge, then charge efficiency equal one, otherwise it becomes
as in eq.(3-2 ) [Greg Waldo 2002]

1
Charge efficiency (3 2)
1 r
where
-r
r exp t (3 3)
e
2
and

rt eterm1 eterm2 eterm3 (3 4)

These terms (term1, term2, term3) represents the three parameters affected
in a charge efficiency factor. [Greg Waldo 2002]
Chapter Three Design, Modeling and Simulation

eterm1 a1 log (e1 batcur) (3 5)

SOC
eterm2 a2 log (3 6)
(KEBatcap batcap SOC)

eterm3 a3 25 tempC a4 (3 7)

where
a1, a2, a3, a4, e1 and e2 are constants and their values are explained in
table (3-1) and
KEBatcap =Battery theoretical capacity/nameplate capacity
Batcap =capacity (A.h)*K sec per (hr)
Ksecper(hr)=second/hour=3600

Table (3-1) Parameters of used in equations for Lead acid battery

[Greg Waldo 2002]
Parameters Value
a1 0.009
a2 -0.028
a3 2.677e-4
a4 0.10566
e1 -0.0055*KSecperHr/(KEBatCap*batcap)
e2 0.005
KEBatCap 0.84
TempC 50
KSecPerHr 3600
batcap 288000
Chapter Three Design, Modeling and Simulation

The Analog Behavioral Modeling (ABM) is used to define these three

terms as shown in figure (3-2). Figure (3-3) shows the complete circuit of the
charge efficiency factor as represented by ABM in PSPICE.

25 a3

tempC
1

KEbat cap

(a)

Vsoc
-a2

bat cap

PWR -1 LOG 2

KEbat cap

(b)

batc a1

LOG 3
KEbat cap PWR -1.0

-6.86e-9

(c)

Figure (3-2) rt three terms as represented by ABM in PSPICE

(a) eterm1
(b) eterm2
(c) eterm3
Chapter Three Design, Modeling and Simulation

0.005

25 a3
PWR
-1.0 1

tempC

EXP PWR -1.0

a4

Vsoc

-a2 R

batcap PWR -1 LOG

batc
a1
{kEbatCap}

LOG
0

PWR -1.0

-6.86e-11

Figure (3-3) the charge efficiency factor as represented in PSPICE

3.2.2 Battery Voltage Components

The voltage component of the battery PSPICE model is shown in figure

(3-4). The output of the charge efficiency factor is applied to the integrator
OP1 (uA741) after multiplying it by the battery current (bat curt) (the output
of OP2) in order to change the battery efficiency. The nominal battery
resistance (Rbatt) is connected between the two terminals of (OP2). The output
of the integrator is applied to the ABM part (gain of 5) for expanding the
range of SOC to 75.

The Etable part (E1) is used to generate the battery voltage. This part use a
transfer function described by a table. The table consists of the pairs of
values, the first of which is an input, and the second of which is the
corresponding output. Linear interpolation is performed between entries. For
Chapter Three Design, Modeling and Simulation

values of outside the table's range, the devices output is a constant with a
value equal to the entry with the smallest (or largest) input. The characteristic
can be used to impose an upper and lower limit on the output. [Greg Waldo
2002]

C1

vc
OP1 vc
Vsoc battery
V+
+ OP3
E1
5

V+
uA741 OUT IN+ OUT+ +
0 IN- OUT-
V-

- (-20,8)(0,11)(10,11.8)(30,12.6)(60,13)(75,13.5) OUT
R1 V(%IN+, %IN-) uA741

V-
-
-v c
0
-v c

RL
Vc
OP2
V+

+ vc -v c
Rbatt
OUT batc
uA741
.066 V1 V2
V-

-
14v 14v
-v c

Figure (3-4) the battery voltage component represented in PSPICE

The model described in the previous paragraph has been implemented in

the orcad-pspice. The complete model shown in figure (3-5) has been verified
and used to find the optimal operation.
 1
-200

2.677e-4 C1
25

.000001u
PWR -1.0 vc
EXP -v c Vsoc
50 R1 OP1 E1 battery OP3
5

V+
V-
- IN+ OUT+ +
100 uA741 IN- OUT-
.10556 OUT (0,8)(10,11.8)(30,12.6)(60,13)(75,13.5) uA741 OUT

V+

V-
+ V(%IN+, %IN-) -

0 -v c
vc
PARAM ET ERS: Vsoc
0
Kv al = 0.5 -0.028

288000 PWR -1 LOG RL

Rbreak
{Kv al}
vc

batc vc -v c

V+
.009 +
Rbatt
OUT batc
.066 uA741 V10 V11
LOG 14v 14v

V-
-
PWR -1.0 OP2
-v c 0

-6.86e-11 0

Figure (3-5) complete circuit of the battery as represented in PSPICE.

Chapter Three Design, Modeling and Simulation

3.3 Converter Circuit Design

In continuous condition mode, the bidirectional boost converter that to has

to be designed is for output voltage 12V, switching frequency 1 kHz, duty
cycle 0.4 and power 12W. Figure (3-6) shows the non isolated single-phase
bidirectional boost as represented in PSPICE. This converter is consist of two
MOSFT (IRF460), inductor (L1), capacitors (Cbatt, Cbus) and resistance (R2).
The connection of blocking diode after the MOSFT is necessary to prevent
any leakage current passing through the MOSFT that might interfere with the
operation of the converter.

As it was mentioned before, the battery pack's nominal voltage (Vdc) is

12V. The frequency of 1 kHz has been arbitrarily chosen in order to minimize
current ripple, while maintaining low commutation loses and operating the
MOSFT within its recommended range.
1

M2
D2
2

L1

Cbus R2 V2
1

M1
D1
Cbatt
Vbatt
2

Figure (3-6) Non-Isolated Single-Phase Bidirectional Buck Boost converter

Chapter Three Design, Modeling and Simulation

Power flows from the auxiliary power unit to the DC bus when Q2 and
M1are active (Q1 and M2 are inactive) while the power flows from the DC
bus when the pack Q1 and M2 are active (Q2 and M1are inactive).

A ripple of 0.6A was established as the maximum desired value.

Therefore, the inductance value L1 is calculated according to eq. (2-12)
(6mH), Cbus (20.8 f) and Cbatt (10.4 f).

3.4 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) and Gate Drive Circuit

This unit generates the signal with necessary duty ratio to drive the
switching devices of the converter as shown in figure (3-7).

The error amplifier U3 (uA741) detects the error output result from the
difference between the reference voltage (V1) and the actual voltage (battery).
This error level is applied to the comparator U4 (uA741) which compare with
the saw tooth signal that properties (Vpeak =15V, Tperiod = 2ms). The output
of the PWM generator is connected to the buffer circuit U9 (uA741) in order
to isolate the output PWM from transistor Q1. The transistor Q1 operates as
(not gate) and figures as MOSFT gate drive circuit through a resistance R4.
Chapter Three Design, Modeling and Simulation

battery vc

vc R3

V+
+ to driv e M1
Q2
U3 R1

V+
AD741 OUT +
U4

V-
V1 - AD741 OUT 40235
12V

V-
V1 = 15v -
V2
-v c V2 = -15v 0
TD = 1m -v c
TR = 0 vc
TF = 0
0 PW = 1m
PER = 2m vc R5 R4
0
to driv e M2

7
U9
3 5

V+
+ OS2 Q1
R2
6
OUT
2 1 40235

V-
- OS1
AD741

4
0
-v c

Figure (3-7) the system of the PWM generator and gate drive circuit

3.5 Boot-Strap Circuit Technique (BSCT)

The Boot-Strap circuit, which uses diode and capacitor, is shown in figure
(3-8). When the low side power switching device is turned on, the floating
supply capacitor is charged through the Boot-Strap diode. When the low side
of the switching device is off, the energy stored in the capacitor provides
power for the high side gate drive. The Boot-Strap circuit is very effective
method for providing power for the high side of power switching gate drive.
However care must be exercised to maintain the high side supplies when the
inverter is idle and during fault handing conditions.

This usually means that the low side of power switching must be pulsed on
periodically even when the inverter is not running. At power up, the Boot-
Strap supplies must be changed before the PWM is started. [Kubba Z.M
2003]
 1
M1 D7
R2

2
battery vc
vc
D6

V+
+ 1 2
U3

V+
OUT + R7
U4
V-

- OUT Q3
V1 R1 D5 C2
12V 2 1 Cbus R6 V3

V-
- vc
20Vdc
-v c
V1 = 15v V2 -v c battery L1
V2 = -15v 0
0 TD = 1m
TR = 0 R4
TF = 0 Cbatt
PW = 1m vc
PER = 2m
0
0
R5 R10 M2

Q1

1
vc
7
U9 D8
vc -v c 3
V+

+ R3

2
6 0
12v 12v OUT 0
2
V-

V10 -
V11
0
4

-v c

Figure (3-8) complete circuit of the converter as represented in PSPICE.

Chapt er
Four
Chapter Four Results and Discussion

Chapter Four
Results and Discussion
4.1 Battery Model Simulation

Three parameters affect the results of this model RL, Rbatt and KEbat cap. First
the model was tested by varying the load, therefore RL defined as Rbreak,
Rbatt=0.066 and KEbatcap=0.88.From the transient analysis figure (4-1) shows
the battery voltage for three cases (0.1 , 0.3 , 0.5 ), the one that shows the
highest Vbattery belongs to the lowest RL (0.1 ), and so on. The figure also
shows that all the curves starts for (8V) and increases up to the region of the
steady state at (90ms). The curves for (0.3 and 0.5) shows very close to each
other and some time they seem to be coincide. The curve for (0.1 ) shows
similar behaviour to the (0.3 and 0.5 ) but with higher values of Vbattery. A
good similarity between this curves but Vbattery decreases as RL increased.

Next the following figures (4-2) (4-3) describe the state of charge and
charge efficiency for three cases of RL (0.1 , 0.3 , 0.5 ). Figure (4-2)
indicates that the SOC increases gradually with charge time all the curves
starts for zero and increases up to the region of steady state at (95ms) but
charge efficiency decreases gradually with time in figure (4-3) shows the
curves of charge efficiency for the (0.1 , 0.3 and 0.5 ).It is very clear that
the charge efficiency is higher for more stable curves (curves of little drop)
and those of severe drop are of less charge efficiency. The highest charge
efficiency is for the lowest RL (0.1 ) and the lowest charge efficiency is for
the highest RL (0.5 ). SOC and charge efficiency are decrease as RL increase.
The battery voltage as a function of the SOC is described in figure (4-4) for
RL=0.5 , it reveals that the battery voltage increased linearly with the SOC
increased according to eq (2-2). Figure (4-5) shows a plot of charge efficiency
Chapter Four Results and Discussion

as a function of the SOC and it shows that the first drops severely as the SOC
increase for RL=0.5 , Rbatt=0.066 .

Now, the model will be tested by varying KEbatcap so, this factor defines as
Kval (varying parameter), Rbatt=0.066 and RL=0.7 .The same figures which
explained in the first test are repeated here in figures [(4-6), (4-7), (4-8), (4-9)
and (4-10)]. These figures differ from the first test that the battery voltage,
SOC and charge efficiency increases as the KEbatcap increased. Also in figure
(4-8) the charge efficiency of smallest value of KEbatcap reaches (0.25) faster
than the biggest value.

The last test is determined by defining Rbatt as Kval while the other factor
is constant (RL=0.7 , KEbatcap=0.3). The battery voltage is affected by Rbatt
value as shown in figure (4-11) three curves for three Rbatt (0.066 , 0.086
and 0.106 ) these curves shows very close to each other and some time they
seem to be coincide. All curves starts for (8V) and increase up to the region of
the steady state of (50ms) but the SOC and charge efficiency gives a little
affect as Rbatt increased as shown in figure (4-12), (4-13) respectively.

The battery parameters (battery voltage, SOC and charge efficiency) is

affected by temperature and this effect is explained in figure (4-14), (4-15)
and (4-16) respectively. Figure (4-14) shows two curves for the two
temperature (30oC and 10oC) starts for (8V) and increases up to the region of
the steady state at (76ms). Figure (4-15) shows two curves for the two
temperature (30oC and 10oC) starts for (zero) and increases up to the region of
the steady state at (85ms). Figure (4-16) shows the curves of charge efficiency
for the (30oC and 10oC) the charge efficiency of smallest value reaches (0.1)
and two curves starts for (1) and decrease down to the region of the steady
state at (80ms).
Chapter Four Results and Discussion

Figure (4-1) battery voltage as a function of time at different RL (0.1 , 0.3 , and
0.5 )

Figure (4-2) state of charge as a function of time at different RL (0.1 , 0.3 and
0.5 )
Chapter Four Results and Discussion

Figure (4-3) charge efficiency as a function of time at different RL (0.1 , 0.3 and
0.5 )

Figure (4-4) battery voltage as a function of state of charge at RL=0.5

Chapter Four Results and Discussion

Figure (4-5) charge efficiency as a function of state of charge at RL=0.5

Figure (4-6) battery voltage as a function of time at different Kval (0.1, 0.2 and 0.3)
Chapter Four Results and Discussion

Figure (4-7) state of charge as a function of time at different Kval (0.1, 0.2 and 0.3)

Figure (4-8) charge efficiency as a function of time at different Kval (0.1, 0.2 and 0.3)
Chapter Four Results and Discussion

Figure (4-9) battery voltage as a function of state of charge at Kval=0.3

Figure (4-10) charge efficiency as a function of state of charge at Kval=0.3

Chapter Four Results and Discussion

Figure (4-11) battery voltage as a function of time at different Rbatt (0.066 , 0.086
and 0.106 )

Figure (4-12) state of charge as a function of time at different Rbatt (0.066 , 0.086
and 0.106 )
Chapter Four Results and Discussion

Figure (4-13) charge efficiency as a function of time at different Rbatt (0.066 , 0.086
and 0.106 )

Figure (4-14) battery voltage as a function of time at different temperature

Chapter Four Results and Discussion

Figure (4-15) state of charge as a function of time at different temperature

Figure (4-16) charge efficiency as a function of time at different temperature

Chapter Four Results and Discussion

4.2 Analytical Result obtained by PSPICE

The proposed bidirectional boost converter system is shown in figure (3-

8). The analysis of this system was carried out to obtain the waveform and
result of each stage by using PSPICE software and comparing these with the
predicted results obtained by circuit design to confirm that the chosen model
work satisfactory.

The bidirectional boost converter configuration will be discussed as

fallows:

Figure (4-17) shows two voltage responses for drain to source of M1 and M2,
one for buck operation and the other for boost operate. The output of two
states is out of phase.
Figure (4-18) show the output ripple voltage. The maximum voltage is equal
to 10.5V and the minimum voltage is to 4.5V.
As expected the maximum ripple content was produced at duty cycle of 0.4
and its value of less than 1A (about 0.6A) as shown in figure (4-19).
Chapter Four Results and Discussion

15V

10V

5V

0V

40ms 44ms 48ms 52ms 56ms 60ms

V(M1:D,M1:s)
Time

(a)

15V

10V

5V

0V

40ms 44ms 48ms 52ms 56ms 60ms

V(M2:D,M2:s)
Time

(b)

Figure (4-17) Voltage of converter

(a) Voltage Across M1

(b) Voltage across M2

Chapter Four Results and Discussion

Figure (4-18) Output Voltage of bidirectional converter

1.25A

1.00A

0.75A

0.50A

40ms 45ms 50ms 55ms 60ms

-I(L1)
Time

Figure (4-19) Output Current of bidirectional converter

Chapter Four Results and Discussion

4.3 Bidirectional converter with Battery model results

After modeling and simulating the battery model in the previous section,
now this model will be tested as an auxiliary source to the bidirectional
converter. The proposed system is shown in figure (4-20). This system was
simulated with Rbatt=0.066, RL=7 and KEbatcap=0.2.

Curve in figure (4-21) shows that the waveform of the two transistor Q1
and Q2. Amore detailed diagram of the charging process is shown in figure
(4-22). It is seen that the battery current is reduced 0.6A, resulting in a
reduction of the battery voltage from 8.5 to 5, then the battery voltage rises
towards 8.5 be cause of the battery SOC increase.

The variation in SOC and charge efficiency factor with time is shown in
figure (4-23) and figure (4-24). Figure (4-25) shows the relation between
charge efficiency and state of charge, while figure (4-26) shows the extracted
battery voltage Vbatt (SOC) the battery voltage increases linearly with the state
of charge.

Next, the following figures (4-27) and (4-28) depict the results of the
simulation at different temperature for state of charge and charge efficiency
respectively.
 25 2.677e-4 -200

1
C1 R2c

1
50 50 M1
D7
.001n vc BYT30P-400
PWR -1.0 Vsoc battery vc IRF460

2
.10556 EXP vc

V+
+ vc

V+
U12 battery U8 + 1 2
E1
100 0 uA741 OUT 5 U3

V+

V+
IN+ OUT+ + AD741 OUT + R7 D6

V-
- IN- OUT- U4 D5 10k BYT30P-400
V

V-
R1 (-20,8)(0,11)(10,11.8)(30,12.6)(60,13)(75,13.5) OUT - AD741 OUT BYT30P-400 V3
Vsoc V1 2 1 Cbus R6 20Vdc
Q3 vc

V-

V-
-vc V(%IN+, %IN-) - 12V -vc - R1c C2 500
-0.028 uA741 8u 20.4u
PARAMETERS: 0 V1 = 15v V2 -vc battery L1
Kval = .8 V2 = -15v 100 40235
-vc 0 TD = 1m 12mH
TR = 0 0 R4c C1c
288000 PWR -1 LOG TF = 0 10 10.2u
PW = 1m 0 vc
RL PER = 2m
10k 0
{Kval} Rbreak vc R5 R10 M2
Vc

7
U9
50
U15 3 5 IRF460 D8
Q1

V+
vc -vc + OS2

1
R3 BYT30P-400
V+
batc + 6
.009 Rbatt V10 OUT
OUT batc
V11 2 1 100 40235

2
V-
.066 14v - OS1
0
V-

- 14v AD741
LOG
uA741 0

4
-vc
0 -vc
PWR -1.0

-6.86e-9 0

Figure (4-20) total circuit of the battery and converter as represented in PSPICE.
Chapter Four Results and Discussion

19.7V

10.0V

0V

40ms 44ms 48ms 52ms 56ms 60ms

V(M1:d,M1:s)
Time

(a)

19.7V

10.0V

0V

40ms 44ms 48ms 52ms 56ms 60ms

V(M2:d,M2:s)
Time

(b)

Figure (4-21) voltage as a function of time

(a) Voltage Across M1

(b) Voltage across M2

Chapter Four Results and Discussion

1.50A

1.20A

0.80A

0.49A
40.14ms 45.00ms 50.00ms 55.00ms 59.86ms
-I(L1)
Time

(a)

9.1V

8.0V

6.0V

4.7V
40ms 44ms 48ms 52ms 56ms 60ms
V(BATTERY)
Time

(b)

Figure (4-22) current and battery voltage as a function of time

(a) Current

(b) Battery voltage

Chapter Four Results and Discussion

Figure (4-23) charge efficiency as a function of time

Figure (4-24) charge efficiency as a function of state of charge

Chapter Four Results and Discussion

Figure (4-25) state of charge as a function of time

Figure (4-26) battery voltage as a function of state of charge

Chapter Four Results and Discussion

50V
50C

30C

25V

0V
0s 10ms 20ms 30ms 40ms 50ms
V(VSOC)
Time

Figure (4-27) state of charge as a function of time at different temperature

1000mV

980mV

50C

30C
960mV

940mV
0s 10ms 20ms 30ms 40ms 50ms
V(N224819)
Time

Figure (4-28) charge efficiency as a function of time at different temperature

Chapt er
Five

Conclusions
And
Fut ureWork
Chapter Five Conclusions and Future Work

Chapter Five
Conclusions and FutureWork
5.1 Conclusions

Some of the individual achievements and conclusions have been

outlined in the following points:

1. An accurate, intuitive and comprehensive electrical model has been

proposed to capture the entire dynamic characteristics of a battery,
from nonlinear open circuit voltage, SOC and charge efficiency.
2. The model can be used for training personnel in the basic operation
of solar energy system or other hybrid systems.
3. A battery modal was installed in a Buck-Boost Converter to prove
the validity of the battery model.
4. The Buck-Boost Converter was tested with battery and without
battery to verify the response and stability of the converter.

5.2 Future Work

Future work on the frame work would largely depend on the

application for which it is being developed however:

1. The battery model which have been implemented have a SOC of

positive value and charge efficiency less than one. So, this model
could be tested at negative SOC and charge efficiency equal to 1.

59
Chapter Five Conclusions and Future Work

2. The control section should be improved, several further features can

be developed:
Over voltage protection.
Battery temperature.

3. The battery model and Bidirectional described in this work could be

tested with a PV power source in PSPICE first and then in laboratory.

60
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Sensor less control of a bidirectional boost converter for a fuel cell
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Battery electricity.
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Espreilla, J.J., Felez, J., Romero, G., and Carretero, A.

A model for simulation a lead-acid battery using bond graphs. Science
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Pspice Model of the Hubble Space Telescope Electrical Power System
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Hashem M. Nehrir, Brock J. LaMeres, Giri Venkataramanan, Victor

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An Approach to Evaluate the General Performance of Stand-Alone
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Koutroulis, E., and Kalaitzakis, K.

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Power electronics converter, application and design second edition.
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Design, Construction and performance of a Buck-Boost Converter for an
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Higher Speed 2kW DC-Dc Converter
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Sanchis-Kilders, E., Ferreres, A., Maset, E., Ejeat, J.B., Esteven, V.,
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Appendix A
Richard Perez
Lead-Acid Battery State of Charge vs. Voltage
August/September 1993
Appendix B
Types of battery

1. Nickel Cadmium (NiCd).

Mature and well understood but relatively low in energy density. The
NiCd is used where long life. High discharge rate and economical price
are important. Main applications are two-way radios, biomedical
equipment, professional video cameras and power tools. The NiCd
contains toxic metals and is environmentally unfriendly. [Isidor 2001]

2. Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH)

Has a higher energy density compared to the NiCd at the expense of
reduced cycle life. NiMH contains no toxic metals. Applications include
mobile phones and laptop computer. [Isidor 2001]

3. Lithium Ion (Li-ion)

Fastest growing battery system Li-ion is used where high-energy density
and lightweight is of prime importance. The technology is fragile and a
protection circuit is required to assure safety. Applications include
notebook computer and cellular phones [Isidor 2001].

4. Lithium Ion polymer (Li-Ion polymer)

Offers the attributes of the Li-Ion in ultra-slim geometry and simplified
packaging Main applications are mobile phones. [Isidor 2001]
 Table (1-1) Battery characteristics [James 1997]
Battery Type Advantages Disadvantages
Flooded Lead-Acid

Lead-Antimony low cost, wide availability, High water loss and

good deep cycle and high maintenance
temperature performance, can
replenish electrolyte
Lead-Calcium Open Vent low cost, wide availability, poor deep cycle performance,
low water loss, can replenish intolerant to high
electrolyte temperatures and overcharge
Lead-Calcium Sealed Vent low cost, wide availability, poor deep cycle performance,
low water loss intolerant to high
temperatures and
overcharge, can not replenish
electrolyte
Lead Antimony/Calcium medium cost, low water loss limited availability, potential
Hybrid for stratification

Captive Electrolyte Lead-

Acid
Gelled medium cost, little or no fair deep cycle performance,
maintenance, less intolerant to overcharge and
susceptible to freezing, high temperatures, limited
install in any orientation availability
Absorbed Glass Mat medium cost, little or no fair deep cycle performance,
maintenance, less intolerant to overcharge and
susceptible to freezing, high temperatures, limited
install in any orientation availability
Nickel-Cadmium
Sealed Sintered-Plate wide availability, excellent only available in low
low and high temperature capacities,
performance, maintenance high cost, suffer from
free memory effect
Flooded Pocket-Plate excellent deep cycle and low limited availability, high cost,
and high temperature water additions required
performance, tolerance to
overcharge
 PSPICE

Lead Acid (12V)

.Etable, Integrator
D=0.4 PSPICE
Io=1A fs=1 KHz Vo=12V P=12W
PSPICE