PRIST UNIVERSITY

(Estd. u/s 3 of UGC Act, 1956)

Vallam, Thanjavur -613403

B.Tech. – Electrical & Electronics Engineering

ANSWER KEY- QUESTION BANK

Course Details
Course Code & Title : 17153C44-TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION

Regulations : 2017 Regulation

Nature of the Course : Hard core

Semester : IV

H.O.D. Staff-In-Charge
17153C44 TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION 3003
AIM
To become familiar with the function of different components used in Transmission and Distribution
levels of power systems and modeling of these components.
OBJECTIVES
i. To develop expression for computation of fundamental parameters oflines.
ii. To categorize the lines into different classes and develop equivalent circuits for these classes.
iii. To analyze the voltage distribution in insulator strings and cables and methods to improve the same.
UNIT I INTRODUCTION 09
Structure of electric power system: generation, transmission and distribution; Types of AC and DC
distributors- distributed and concentrated loads- interconnection-EHVAC and HVDC transmission-
Introduction to FACTS.
UNIT II TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS 09
Parameters of single and three phase transmission lines with single and double circuits-Resistance,
Inductance and Capacitance solid, Stranded and Bundled conductors -Symmetrical and unsymmetrical
spacing -Transposition -Application of self and mutual GMD -Skin and Proximity effect –interference
with neighboring communication circuits-Typical configurations, conductor types and electrical
parameter of EHV lines, corona discharges,
UNIT III MODELLING AND PERFORMANCE OF TRANSMISSION LINES 09
Classification of lines: Short line, medium line and long line; equivalent circuits, phasor diagram,
attenuation constant, phase constant, surge impedance; transmission efficiency and voltage regulation;
real and reactive power flow in lines: Power-angle diagram; surge-impedance loading, methods of
voltage control: Ferranti effect.
UNIT IV INSULATORS AND CABLES 09
Insulators: Types, voltage distribution in insulator string, improvement of string efficiency. testing of
insulators. Underground cables- Types of cables, Capacitance of single core cable, Grading of cables,
Power factor and heating of cables, Capacitance of 3- core belted cable, D.C cables.
UNIT V MECHANICAL DESIGN OF TRANSMISSION LINES 09
Mechanical design of transmission line – sag and tension calculation for different weather conditions,
Tower spotting, Types of tower, Substation layout (AIS,GIS), Methods of grounding.
TOTAL =45
TEXT BOOKS
1. B.R.Gupta, ‘Power System Analysis and Design’, S.Chand, New Delhi, 2003.
2. S.N. Singh, ‘Electric Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution’, Prentice
Hall of India Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, 2002.

REFERENCE BOOKS
1. LucesM.Fualkenberry ,Walter Coffer, ‘Electrical Power Distribution and Transmission’, Pearson
Education, 1996.
2. HadiSaadat, ‘Power System Analysis,’ Tata McGraw Hill PublishingCompany’,2003.
3.Central Electricity Authority (CEA), ‘Guidelines for Transmission System Planning’, New Delhi.
4.‘Tamil Nadu Electricity Board Handbook’, 2003.

H.O.D. Staff-In-Charge

UNIT – I
Part – As
1) What is meant by electrical power system?
The power system includes the devices connected to the system like the synchronous generator,
motor, transformer, circuit breaker, conductor, etc. The power plant, transformer, transmission line,
substations, distribution line, and distribution transformer are the six main components of the power
system.

2) What are the different types of power supply system?

DC System
AC System
Single Phase AC, Three Phase AC (three wire), Three phase(Four wire)

3) What are the demerits of Underground system?

Expansion and replacement is difficult.
Conductor size is large.
Due to charging current it is not used for long transmission
Conductor size is large
Insulation cost is more
Conductor is costlier

4) What are the advantages of HVDC transmission system?

The applications of HVDC transmission are,
Long distance bulk power transmission for connecting two different areas for exchange of power
Power transmission through underground or submarine cables
Interconnection between power systems (or) pools.
Interconnection of systems of the same frequency through a zero length DC link (back to back
connection)

5) Classify the transmission systems based on voltage level?

The transmission voltages that are followed in Tamil Nadu are, For primary transmission – 110
��/132 �� /220 �� / 400 �� / 765 �� For secondary transmission – 66
��
The transmission voltages that are followed in Tamil Nadu are, For primary transmission – 110
��/132 ��/220 ��/ 400 ��/ 765 ��For secondary transmission – 66 ��/ 33 ��/ 11
��

6) What is a feeder?
These are the line conductors which connects the station to the areas, to be fed by those stations.

7) Define the term a) Distributor b) service mains.

Distributors:
These are the conductors from which several tapings for the supply to the consumer are taken.
Service Main: These are the conductors which connect the consumers terminals to the

8) Give the classification of distribution system based on the scheme of connection.

The primary distribution voltages in India are 11 ��/ 6.6 ��.
The 11 ��lines run along the important road sides of the city. It may be noted that big consumers
(having demand more than 50 ��) are generally supplied power at 11 �� for further handling with their o
stations.
9) Distinguish between radial and ring main distribution.
Radial Network Ring Network
Radial electrical power Ring network of distributors is
distribution system has one fed by more than one feeder.
major drawback that in In this case, if one feeder is
case of any feeder failure, under fault or maintenance, the
the associated consumers ring distributor is still
would not get any power as energized by other feeders
there was no alternative connected to it. In this way,
path to feed the the supply to the consumers is
transformer not affected even when any
feeder becomes out of service

Part – B
1) (i) Draw and explain the structure of modern power system including the voltage level in each
transmission levels.
Electric power is generated at a voltage of 11 to 25 kV which then is stepped up to the transmission
levels in the range of 66 to 400 kV (or higher). As the transmission capability of a line is proportional
to the square of its voltage, research is continuously being carried out to raise transmission voltages.
Some of the countries are already employing 765 kV. The voltages are expected to rise to 800 kV in
the near future. In India, several 400 kV lines are already in operation. One 800 kV line has just been
built.

For very long distances (over 600 km), it is economical to transmit bulk power by DC transmission.
It also obviates some of the technical problems associated with very long distance AC transmission.
The DC voltages used are 400 kV and above, and the line is connected to the AC systems at the two
ends through a transformer and converting/inverting equipment (silicon controlled rectifiers are
employed for this purpose). Several DC transmission lines have been constructed in Europe and the
USA. In India two HVDC transmission line (bipolar) have already been commissioned and several
others are being planned. Three back to back HVDC systems are in operation.
The first stepdown of voltage from transmission level is at the bulk power substation, where the reduction is
to a range of 33 to 132 kV, depending on the transmission line voltage. Some industries may require power
at these voltage levels. This stepdown is from the transmission and grid level to subtransmission level.
The next stepdown in voltage is at the distribution substation. Normally, two distribution voltage levels are
employed:
1. The primary or feeder voltage (11 kV)
2. The secondary or consumer voltage (415 V three phase/230 V single phase).
The distribution system, fed from the distribution transformer stations, supplies power to the domestic or
industrial and commercial consumers.

(ii) Compare Overhead and Underground system

2) Explain the necessity, advantages and disadvantages of EHVAC transmission system (12)
Mention the various types of HVDC transmission system

As per present terminology, voltages less than 300 kV are termed as High Voltages. The
voltages in the range of 300 kV to 765 kV are known as Extra High Voltages (EHV). The voltages
which are 765 kV are termed as Ultra High Voltage (UHV). In India, transmission voltage ranges
from 66 kV to 400 kV (RMS value of line to line voltage in three phase system). There are several
advantages of extra high voltage transmission.

In EHV AC lines additional parallel three-phase line is always provided to ensure continuity of
power supply and stability of line. A long EHV AC line is always double circuit line with
intermediate substations at an interval of 250 km to 400 km for compensating reactive power.

Electrical energy is generated at a voltage of about 11 kV. Then it is stepped up to 132, 220 or 400
kV for transmission. Electrical power transmission is preferred at high voltages because it has many
advantages. The advantages of extra high voltage transmission will be obvious from the
following discussion.

Power transmitted is given by

P = √3 V I cos φ

Where, V = transmission voltage, I = load current, cos φ = load power factor.

Or Load current, I = P/( √3 V cos φ)

From above expression, it is clear that for a constant power and power factor, the load current is
inversely proportional to the transmission voltage. In simple words, as we increase the
transmission voltage, the load current decreases.

Advantages of Extra High Voltage Transmission

This decrease in load current results in following advantages:

As current gets reduced, size and volume of conductor required also reduces for transmitting
the same amount of power.
Voltage drop in line (3IR) reduces and hence voltage regulation of the line is improved.
Line losses (3I2R) gets reduced which results in the increase in transmission line efficiency.
Some other advantages of extra high voltage transmission are as under:
Power handling capacity of the line increases as we increase the transmission voltage. It is
proportional to the square of operating voltage. The cost related to tower, insulators and
different types of equipment are proportional to voltage rather than the square of voltage.
Thus the net capital cost of transmission line decreases as voltage increases. Therefore, a
large power can be transmitted with high voltage transmission lines economically.
The total line cost of per MW per km decreases considerably.
The operation of EHV AC system is simple, reliable and can be adopted easily.
The lines can be easily tapped and extended.

3) Explain the principle of operation of HVDC transmission system and also explain its types .
Definition: High voltage direct current (HVDC) power systems use D.C. for transmission
of bulk power over long distances. For long-distance power transmission, HVDC lines are less
expensive, and losses are less as compared to AC transmission. It interconnects the networks that
have different frequencies and characteristics.
In AC transmission, alternating waves of voltage and current travels in the line which change its
direction every millisecond; due to which losses occur in the form of heat. Unlike AC lines, the voltage
and current waves don’t change their direction in DC. HVDC lines increase the efficiency of
transmission lines due to which power is rapidly transferred.
 In a combined AC and DC system, generated AC voltage is converted into DC at the sending
end. Then, the DC voltage is inverted to AC at the receiving end, for distribution purposes. Thus, the
conversion and inversion equipment are also needed at the two ends of the line. HVDC transmission is
economical only for long distance transmission lines having a length more than 600kms and for
underground cables of length more than 50kms.

In generating substation, AC power is generated which can be converted into DC by using a

rectifier. In HVDC substation or converter substation rectifiers and inverters are placed at both the ends
of a line. The rectifier terminal changes the AC to DC, while the inverter terminal converts DC to AC.

The DC is flowing with the overhead lines and at the user end again DC is converted into AC by
using inverters, which are placed in converter substation. The power remains the same at the sending
and receiving ends of the line. DC is transmitted over long distances because it decreases the losses and
improves the efficiency.

4) Explain the various connection schemes involved in distribution system. Mention the
requirements of a good distribution system.

Types Of AC Power Distribution Systems

According to phases and wires involved, an AC distribution system can be classified as -

1. Single phase, 2-wire system

2. Single phase, 3-wire system
3. Two phase, 3-wire system
4. Two phase, 4-wire system
5. Three phase, 3-wire system
6. Three phase, 4-wire system
Single Phase, 2-Wire Distribution
This system may be used for very short distances. The following figure shows a single phase two wire
system with - fig (a) one of the two wires earthed and fig. (b) mid-point of the phase winding is earthed.
Single Phase, 3-Wire System
This system is identical in principle with 3-wire dc distribution system. The neutral wire is center-tapped
from the secondary winding of the transformer and earthed. This system is also called as split-
phase electricity distribution system. It is commonly used in North America for residential supply.

Two Phase, 3-Wire System

In this system, the neutral wire is taken from the junction of two phase windings whose voltages
are in quadrature with each other. The voltage between neutral wire and either of the outer phase wires
is V. Whereas, the voltage between outer phase wires is √2V. As compared to a two-phase 4-wire
system, this system suffers from voltage imbalance due to unsymmetrical voltage in the neutral.

Two Phase, 4-Wire System

In this system, 4 wires are taken from two phase windings whose voltages are in quadrature with
each other. Mid-point of both phase windings are connected together. If the voltage between the two
wires of a same phase is V, then the voltage between two wires of different phase would be 0.707V.
Three Phase, 3-Wire Distribution System

Three phase systems are very widely used for AC power distribution. The three phases may be
delta connected or star connected with star point usually grounded. The voltage between two phases or
lines for delta connection is V, where V is the voltage across a phase winding. For star connection, the
voltage between two phases is √3V.

Three Phase, 4-Wire Distribution System

This system uses star connected phase windings and the fourth wire or neutral wire is taken from
the star point. If the voltage of each winding is V, then the line-to-line voltage (line voltage) is √3V and
the line-to-neutral voltage (phase voltage) is V. This type of distribution system is widely used in India
and many other countries. In these countries, standard phase voltage is 230 volts and line voltage is
√3x230 = 400 volts. neutral. Three phase loads like three-phase

Classification On The Basis Of Connection Scheme

Distribution system can be classified according to its connection scheme or topology as follows -

1. Radial system
2. Ring main system
3. Interconnected system

5) Write a short note on ring main distribution system

In the early days of electrical power distribution system, different feeders radially came out from the
substation and connected to the primary of distribution transformer.
But radial electrical power distribution system has one major drawback that in case of any feeder
failure, the associated consumers would not get any power as there was no alternative path to feed
the transformer. In case of transformer failure also, the power supply is interrupted. In other words,
the consumer in the radial electrical distribution system would be in darkness until the feeder or
transformer was rectified.
Ring Main Electrical Power Distribution System
The drawback of radial electrical power distribution system can be overcome by introducing a
ring main electrical power distribution system. Here one ring network of distributors is fed by
more than one feeder. In this case, if one feeder is under fault or maintenance, the ring distributor is
still energized by other feeders connected to it. In this way, the supply to the consumers is not
affected even when any feeder becomes out of service. In addition to that, the ring main system is
also provided with different section isolates at different suitable points. If any fault occurs on any
section, of the ring, this section can easily be isolated by opening the associated section isolators on
both sides of the faulty zone transformer directly.

In this way, supply to the consumers connected to the healthy zone of the ring can easily be
maintained even when one section of the ring is under the shutdown. The number of feeders
connected to the ring main electrical power distribution system depends upon the following
factors.
1. Maximum Demand of the System: If it is more, then more numbers of feeders feed the ring.
2. Total Length of the Ring Main Distributors: It length is more, to compensate the voltage
drop in the line, more feeders to be connected to the ring system.
 3. Required Voltage Regulation: The number of feeders connected to the ring also depends
upon the permissible allowable, voltage drop of the line.
The sub-distributors and service mains are taken off may be via distribution transformer at different
suitable points on the ring depending upon the location of the consumers. Sometimes, instead of
connecting service main directly to the ring, sub-distributors are also used to feed a group of service
mains where direct access of ring distributor is not possible

6) Compare various types of Overhead DC & AC distribution system based on the Volume of
copper requirement.
 UNIT – II
Part – A
1) What is meant by transposition of conductors?
The periodical change in conductor physical position is called transposition

The advantages of transposition of conductors are,

It is used to avoid the unequal voltage drop in three phases.
The transposition is done to get the inductances in all the three wires equal to get same voltage at the r
end.
If the line is transposed, each line will take all the three positions for the one third length of the line.
Transposition makes it possible for each phase conductor to have the same average inductance.

2) What are bundle conductors?

A bundled conductor is a conductor made up of two or more subconductors and is used as one phase
conductor. Bundled conductors are separated from each other by 30 𝑐� or more and conductors of
each phase are connected by connecting wires at particular length.
3) List out the advantages of bundled conductors.
The advantages of using bundled conductors are,
• Provide damping and connect the sub-conductors in parallel
• Reduces the line reactance due to increase in self GMD which improves the line performance
(Inductance reduced)
• Increases the capacitance
• Increases the power capability of the line
• Reduces the voltage surface gradient
• Reduces corona loss
• Reduces radio interference
• Increases surge impedance loading
• Reduces surge impedance
4) What do you understand by “Stranded Conductor”?
Stranded conductors are composed of two or more elements of strands electrically in parallel with
alternate layers spiraled in opposite direction to prevent unwinding.
5) Write the expression for capacitance of transmission line considering the effect of earth?

6) Define self GMD

GMD & GMR stands for Geometrical Mean Distance and Geometrical Mean Radius. This concept
is very useful in Power System for the calculation of Inductance and Capacitance of Transmission
Line. Self GMD of a conductor depends upon the size & shape of the conductor and is independent
of spacing between the conductors so it is not applicable for capacitance calculation.
7) Define “Inductive Interference”
Effect arising from the characteristics and inductive relations of electric supply and communications
systems of such character and magnitude as would prevent the communications circuits from
rendering service satisfactorily and economically if methods of inductive coordination were not
applied.

8) What are the advantages of using ACSR conductors?

 A conductor which operates at high voltages and composed of two or more elements or strands,
electrically in parallel is called as a composite conductor. For example, ACSR (Aluminum Core
Steel Reinforced) is a comp
9) What is proximity effect?
The alternating magnetic flux in a conductor caused by the current flowing in a neighbouring
conductor gives rise to circulating currents, which cause the non-uniformity of the current and thus
increases resistance of a conductor. This phenomenon is called proximity effect.
10) What is skin effect? On what factor is depends.
Tendency of high frequency AC to flow through only the outer most surface of the conductor

PART – B

1) Derive an expression for inductance of three phase over Head line when the conductors are
Symmetrically and unsymmetrical spacing placed

It is rather difficult to maintain symmetrical spacing as shown in Fig. 1.6 while constructing a transmission line. With asymmetrical
spacing between the phases, the voltage drop due to line inductance will be unbalanced even when the line currents are bal anced. Consider
the three-phase asymmetrically spaced line shown in Fig in which the radius of each conductor is assumed to be r . The distances between
the phases are denoted by Dab, Dbcand Dca. We then get the following flux linkages for the three phases
2) (i) Derive an expression for inductance of a three phase double circuit line (12)

Double Circuit Three Phase Lines:

It is common practice to build Double Circuit Three Phase Lines so as to increase transmission reliability at
somewhat enhanced cost. From the point of view of power transfer from one end of the line to the other, it is
desirable to build the two lines with as low an inductance/phase as possible. In order to achieve this, self
GMD (Ds) should be made high and mutual GMD (Dm) should be made low. Therefore, the individual
conductors of a phase should be kept as far apart as possible (for high self GMD), while the distance between
phases be kept as low as permissible (for loW mutual GMD).
Figure shows the three sections of the transposition cycle of two parallel circuit three-phase lines with
vertical spacing (it is a very commonly used configuration).

It may be noted here that conductors a and a’ in parallel compose phase a and similarly b and b’ compose
phase b and c and c’ compose phase c. In order to achieve high Ds the conductors of two phases are placed
diametrically opposite to each other and those of the third phase are horizontally opposite to each other. (The
reader can try other configurations to verify that these will lead to low Ds.) Applying the method of GMD,
the equivalent equilateral spacing is
 ( (i) Write a short note on Proximity Effect
When one conductor carries alternating current, then there is alternating(constantly varying flux) linked with the nearby
conductor in vicinity. This causes changes in current density of both conductors. The eddy currents are also induced in the
conductor in vicinity.

Consider two conductors carrying current in same direction. The current distribution is:

Now consider two conductors carrying current in opposite direction. The current distribution is:

Effects:

1. The overall current carrying capacity is reduced.

2. The ac resistance is increased. (For DC Current : This effect isn't observed as f=0 Hz.
3. Eddy currents induced causes losses in this system.
(4)
(ii) Determine the inductance per km of a transported double circuit three phase line as shown
below. Each circuit of the line remains on its own side. The diameter of each conductor is 2.532 cm.
 (12)
Given :
Diameter of the conductor = 2.53 𝑐�
2.53
Radius of the conductor (��) = 2 = 1.21 𝑐�= 1.21 × 10−2 �= 0.012 �
Distance between the conductors(equilateral triangle side) �= 4 �
Solution :
GMR (or) Self GMD (���) = ��′ = 0.7788 × 𝑟
�𝑆 = 0.7788 × 0.00815 = 0.00635 �
𝐷
Inductance per phase per �(��/��ℎ/�) = 2 × 10−7 �
𝐷
�( ) ��/�
𝑆

3
��/𝑝ℎ/�= 2 × 10−7 ��( ) ��/�
0.00635
��/𝑝ℎ/�= 2 × 10−7 × 6.158 = 1.232 × 10−6 ��/�
Inductance per phase per ��(��/𝑝ℎ/��) = 1.232 × 10−6 × 1000 = 1.232 × 10−3 ��/��
∴ Inductance per phase per ��(��/𝑝ℎ/��) = 1.232 ���/��

3) (i) Derive an expression for capacitance of three phase over head line when the conductors are
a. Symmetrically placed
 (16)

4) (i) Deduce an expression for capacitance of a three phase double circuit line (16)
5) Derive an expression for the capacitance between conductors of a single phase over head line.
UNIT – III
Part – A
1) Classify over head transmission line
• Short transmission line Length lesser than 80 ��Voltage lower than 20 ��
• Medium transmission line Length between 80 ��and 200 ��Voltage between 20 ��and 100 ��
• Long transmission line Length above 200 ��Voltage above 100 ��
2) Define transmission efficiency
Output power delivered / Input power
3) List out the methods of representation of medium transmission line
End condenser method , Nominal T method, Nominal PI method
4) Draw the II equivalent circuit of transmission line.

5) What is Ferranti effect?

The condition where a receiving end voltages are more than sending end voltage due to
Capacitance effect is called Ferranti effect.
6) Define surge impedance loading.
Characteristic impedance is defined as the square root of the ratio of series impedance (�) to the
shunt admittance (�) which is a complex quantity. Mathematically, characteristic impedance can be
written as, ��= √ ��= √ 𝑟 + (�����) 𝑔 + (����)
7) What is meant by series compensations with reference to transmission line?
The advantages of series compensation are : • It is a powerful device to Increase in power
transmission capacity of line • It improves the voltage stable state. • Improvements in system
stability • Improved voltage regulation • Load division between parallel circuits • Damping effect
8) Define power angle diagram.
Expression of power delivered in a transmission line is given by, 𝑃 = ���𝑟 �sin 𝛿 When 𝛿 = 900 ,
𝑃 = 𝑃��𝑥 Maximum power, 𝑃��𝑥 = ���𝑟 � where, �� = sending end voltage �� = receiving
end voltage �= reactance
9) What is corona?
The phenomenon of violet glow, hissing noise and production of ozone gas in an overhead
transmission line due to the cumulative process of ionization that takes around the power lines is
known as corona.
10) What are the methods of reducing corona?
Corona is accompanied by loss of energy. This affects the transmission efficiency of the line. •
Ozone is produced by corona and may cause corrosion of the conductor due to • Chemical action. •
The current drawn by the line due to corona is non-sinusoidal and hence nonsinusoidal voltage drop
occurs in the line. This may cause inductive interference with neighbouring communication lines.
Part – B
1) (i) Explain briefly the series compensation and its advantages with neat diagrams.

2) (i) Derive an expression for sending end voltage in short transmission line (8)
3) A 100 km long three phase 50 Hz transmission line has following line constants.
Resistance/ph/km = 0.1 Ω
Reactance/ph/km = 0.5 Ω
Susceptance/ph/km = 10 × 10-6 mho.
If the line supplies load of 20 MW at 0.9 p.f lagging at 66 KV at the receiving end. Calculate i)
Sending end power factor.
ii) Regulation.
iii) Transmission efficiency.

Sending end power factor: 0.8

Sending end voltage : 66.342 V
Sending end current : 196.54 A

4) Derive the expression for regulation and transmission efficiency in nominal T and nominal -
method with neat diagrams
5)Write short notes on:
(i) Surge impedance (5)

(ii) Power angle diagram (6)

(iii) Ferranti effect (5)

The Ferranti effect definition is, the voltage effect on the collecting end of the transmission line is
higher than the transmitting end is called as “Ferranti Effect”. Generally, this sort of effect happens
due to an open circuit, light load at the collecting end or charging-current of the transmission line.
Here, charging current can be defined as, whenever an exchanging voltage is connected, the current
will flows through the capacitor, and it is also called as “capacitive current”. When the voltage at the
collecting end of the line is superior to the transmitting end, then the charging current rises in the
line.
UNIT – IV
Part – A
1) State the various properties of insulator?
The important properties of an insulator are :
• High mechanical strength. • High electrical resistance
• High relative permittivity
• High ratio of puncture strength
• The insulator material should be non-porous
2) What is an insulator?
Which minimize the leakage current from the tower to the ground through the post
3) List out various types of insulators used for over head transmission line.
Pin, shackle, suspension,string
4) Define string efficiency.
Voltage across the conductor/ No of string * voltage across the string nearer to conductor
5) What are the methods for improving string efficiency?
Lengthening the cross arm – sizing of insulator- compensation winding
6) What is an underground cable?
Cable which carries the power under ground.
The insulating materials used in cables should have the following properties • High insulation
resistance to avoid leakage current. • High dielectric strength to avoid electrical breakdown of the
cable. • High mechanical strength to withstand the mechanical handling of cables. • Non-
hygroscopic i.e., it should not absorb moisture from air or soil. The moisture tends to decrease the
insulation resistance and hastens the breakdown of the cable. In case the insulating material is
hygroscopic, it must be enclosed in a waterproof covering like lead sheath. • Non-inflammable.
7) What is the main purpose of armouring?
The purpose of armouring for underground cables is as follows : Over the bedding, armouring is
provided which consists of one or two layers of galvanized steel wire or steel tape. Its purpose is to
protect the cable from mechanical injury while laying it and during the course of handling.
8) What is meant by grading of cables?
The process of achieving uniform electrostatic stress in the dielectric of cables is known as grading of
cables. Methods: 1.Capacitance Grading. 2.Intersheath Grading
9) What is meant by capacitance grading?
Capacitance Grading: The process of achieving uniformity in the dielectric stress by using layers of
different dielectrics is known as Capacitance Grading.
10) What is meant by intersheath grading?
Intersheath grading: in order to distribute the stress properly, we use extra metallic sheaths between
the conductor and the main sheath. These intermediate sheaths are called ‘intersheaths’. These
intersheaths are then held at adequate voltage levels. This method improves voltage distribution in
the dielectric of the cable and consequently uniform potential gradient is obtained.
 Part – B
1) (i) Explain briefly about suspension type and pin type insulator with neat diagrams

Pin insulators are the earliest developed overhead insulator, but are still commonly used in
power networks up to 33 kV system. Pin type insulator can be one part, two parts or three
parts type, depending upon application voltage.
In a 11 kV system we generally use one part type insulator where whole pin insulator is one
piece of properly shaped porcelain or glass.
As the leakage path of insulator is through its surface, it is desirable to increase the vertical
length of the insulator surface area for lengthening leakage path. We provide one, two or
more rain sheds or petticoats on the insulator body to obtain long leakage path.

Suspension Type Insulator:

The suspension insulator separates the line conductors and supports them electrically. It consists
the number of porcelain insulator units connected with each other by metal links to form a flexible
string. The conductor is connected at the bottom of the string.

Advantages of Suspension Type Insulator

The suspension type insulator has the following advantages.

1. Each unit operates the voltage of about 11kV and hence depending upon the voltage the appropriate
number of discs are connected in series with the string.
2. If one of the units is damaged, then it is replaced by the new one and hence no need of replacing the
whole string.
3. The string is free to swing in any direction and, therefore, great flexibility is provided to the
transmission line.
4. The conductors are placed below the suspension insulators and hence it partly protects the conductor
from lightning.

(ii) List out the properties of insulator

The important properties of an insulator are :
• High mechanical strength.
• High electrical resistance
High relative permittivity
• High ratio of puncture strength
• The insulator material should be non-porous (4)

2) (i) Explain any two methods of grading of cables with necessary diagrams (16)
The process of achieving uniform electrostatic stress in the dielectric of cables is known as
grading of cables. Methods: 1.Capacitance Grading. 2.Intersheath Grading

The potential across each unit in a string can be equalized by using a guard ring (or) grading ring
which is a metal ring electrically connected to the conductor and surrounding the bottom insulator.
The guard (or) grading ring introduces capacitance between metal fittings and the line conductor.
The guard (or) grading ring is contoured in such a way that shunt capacitance currents are equal to
metal fitting line capacitance currents. The result is that same charging current flows through each
unit of string. Consequently, there will be uniform potential distribution across the units. Thus the
guard (or) grading ring improve string efficiency.
3) (i) Describe with the neat sketch, the construction of a 3 core belted type cable

Underground cables are used for power applications where it is impractical, difficult, or dangerous to
use the overhead lines. They are widely used in densely populated urban areas, in factories, and even to
supply power from the overhead posts to the consumer premises.

The underground cables are classified in two ways; by the voltage capacity, or by the construction.

By Voltage

LT cables: Low-tension cables with a maximum capacity of 1000 V

HT Cables: High-tension cables with a maximum of 11KV
ST cables: Super-tension cables with a rating of between 22 KV and 33 KV
EHT cables: Extra high-tension cables with a rating of between 33 KV and 66 KV
Extra super voltage cables: with maximum voltage ratings beyond 132 KV
By Construction

Belted cables: Maximum voltage of 11KVA

Screened cables: Maximum voltage of 66 KVA
Pressure cables: Maximum voltage of more than 66KVA
Belted cables
The cores in the belted underground cables are not circular and are insulated by impregnated paper. The cores are
generally stranded and may be of non-circular shape to make better use of available space. In a 3 phase cable, the
three cores are grouped together and then belted with the paper belt.

The gaps between the conductors and the paper insulation are filled with fibrous material such as the jute. This
makes the cable to have a circular cross-sectional shape. A lead sheath is used to cover the belt hence protect it
from moisture and provide mechanical strength. The lead sheath is then covered with a single or multiple layers of
an armoring material and finally an outer cover.

(ii) Compare the underground cable system with over head system (8)
4) Explain the various methods for locating faults on a cable. (16)
Murray Loop Test
Murray loop test employs the principle of wheatstone bridge for locating the fault. To perform
this test, it is necessary to have a sound cable running alongside the faulty cable. One end of the
faulted cable is connected through a pair of resistors to the voltage source. Also a null detector is
connected. The other end of the cable is shorted. The circuit is shown in the figure at right. The
bridge is brought to balance by changing the values of RB1 and RB2. Then the distance to the fault
location is calculated by solving the bridge equation.

Varley Loop Test:

The similar Varley loop uses fixed resistors for RB1 and RB2, and inserts a variable resistor in the faulted leg. Test sets
for cable testing can be connected for either bridge technique. If the fault resistance is high, the sensitivity of the Murray bridge
is reduced and the Varley loop may be more suitable.

5) Write a brief note on each of the following:

(i) strain insulator (6)

A strain insulator is an electrical insulator that is designed to work in mechanical tension (strain),
to withstand the pull of a suspended electrical wire or cable. They are used in overhead electrical
wiring, to support radio antennas and overhead power lines. A strain insulator may be inserted
between two lengths of wire to isolate them electrically from each other while maintaining a
mechanical connection, or where a wire attaches to a pole or tower, to transmit the pull of the wire
to the support while insulating it electrically. Strain insulators were first used in telegraph systems
in the mid 19th century.

(ii) shackle insulator

Shackle insulator - In early days, the shackle insulators were used as strain insulators. But nowaday,
they are frequently used for low voltage distribution lines. Such insulators can be used either in a
horizontal position or in a vertical position. They can be directly fixed to the pole with a bolt or to
the cross arm.

Shackle Insulator Shackle insulator is used in low voltage distribution lines. Shackle insulators are
also known as butterfly insulators. Shackle insulator introduction: Structure: Porcelain shackle
insulator has an axial mounting hole and a circumferential groove or grooves for the attachment of a
conductor.

Application: Used at the end of distribution lines or at sharp turns, fixed on wooden poles or
bolted to the cross-arm of poles Can be mounted axially either in the vertical or horizontal
position Used with bracket to change the direction of conductor, the loading is on circumferential
grooves, the conductor is secured in the grooves by means of soft-bending wires
Features: Heavy insulated glaze & smooth coating More effective during the heavy rain fall
Good performance and long service life Available in brown / gray color Adopting wet method,
high strength and high quality aluminum porcelain

Standards: IEC 60383, BS137 Rated Voltage: 50V ~ 1100V, especially for 400V Strength: 8.9kN,
9.2kN, 10.2kN, 13.3kN, 17.8kN, 20kN, 27kN Models: ED-2B, ED-2B2, 1617, 1617-1, 1618, S05
…
(6)
(iii) stay insulator
 (4)

6) (i) Discuss about the various methods of improving string efficiency.

Methods of Improving String Efficiency
The maximum voltage appears across the insulator nearest to the line conductor and decreases
progressively as the crossarm is approached. If the insulation of the highest stressed insulator (i.e.
nearest to conductor) breaks down or flash over takes place, the breakdown of other units will take place
in succession. This necessitates to equalise the potential across the various units of the string i.e. to
improve the string efficiency.
The various methods for this purpose are :

1. By using longer cross-arms. The value of string efficiency depends upon the value of K i.e.,
ratio of shunt capacitance to mutual capacitance. The lesser the value of K, the greater is the
string efficiency and more uniform is the voltage distribution. The value of K
can be decreased by reducing the shunt capacitance. In order to reduce shunt capacitance, the
distance of conductor from tower must be increased i.e., longer cross-arms should be used.
However, limitations of cost and strength of tower do not allow the use of very long cross-arms.
In practice, K = 0·1 is the limit that can be achieved by this method.
2. By grading the insulators. In this method, insulators of different dimensions are so chosen that
each has a different capacitance. The insulators are capacitance graded i.e. they are assembled in
the string in such a way that the top unit has the minimum capacitance, increasing progressively
as the bottom unit (i.e., nearest to conductor) is reached. Since voltage is inversely proportional
to capacitance, this method tends to equalise the potential distribution across the units in the
string. This method has the disadvantage that a large number of different-sized insulators are
required. However, good results can be obtained by using standard insulators for most of the
string and larger units for that near to the line conductor.
3. By using a guard ring. The potential across each unit in a string can be equalised by using a
guard ring which is a metal ring electrically connected to the conductor and surrounding the
bottom insulator. The guard ring introduces capacitance between metal fittings and the line
conductor. The guard ring is contoured in such a way that shunt capacitance currents i1, i2 etc.
are equal to metal fitting line capacitance currents i′1, i′2 etc. The result is that same charging
current I flows through each unit of string. Consequently, there will be uniform potential
distribution across the units.

(ii) Testing of insulator:

Type tests These tests are done to determine whether the particular design is suitable for the
purpose. (a) Withstand Test: The insulator should be mounted so as to simulate practical
conditions. A 1/50 s wave of the specified voltage (corrected for humidity, air density etc.,) is
applied. Flashover or puncture should not occur. [If puncture occurs, the insulator is
permanently damaged]. The test is repeated five times for each polarity.

(b) Flash-over test: A 1/50 s wave is applied. The voltage is gradually increased to the 50%
impulse flashover voltage. The test is done for both polarities. There should be no puncture of
insulation during these tests.

(c) Dry One-minute test: The insulator, clean and dry, shall be mounted as specified and the
prescribed voltage (corrected for ambient conditions) should be gradually brought up (at power
frequency) and maintained for one minute. Thee shall not be puncture or flash-over during the
test. Dry flash-over test: The voltage shall then be increased gradually until flash-over occurs.
This is repeated ten times. There shall be no damage to the insulator. Figure 9.13 - variations of
voltage and voltage gradient vx (neutral) 0 1 x/l 1 x/l V ξ x High Voltage Testing 159

(d) One-minute Rain test: The insulator is sprayed throughout the test with artificial rain drawn
from a source of supply at a temperature within 10o C of the ambient temperature of the
neighbourhood of the insulator. The rain is sprayed at an angle of 45 o on the insulator at the
prescribed rate of 3 mm/minute. The resistivity of the water should be 100 ohm-m ± 10%. The
prescribed voltage is maintained for one minute. Wet flash-over test: The voltage shall then be
increased gradually until flash-over occurs. This is repeated ten times. There shall be no damage
to the insulator.

(e) Visible discharge test: This states that after the room has been darkened and the specified
test voltage applied, after five minutes, there should be no visible signs of corona. 9.5.2 Sample
Tests The sample is tested fully, up to and including the point of breakdown. This is done only
on a few samples of the insulator.

(f) Temperature cycle test: The complete test shall consist of five transfers (hot-cold-hot-....),
each transfer not exceeding 30 s. (b) Mechanical loading test: The insulator shall be
mechanically loaded up to the point of failure. When failure occurs, the load should not be less
than 2000 lbf.

(g) Electro-mechanical test: The insulator is simultaneously subjected to electrical and

mechanical stress. (i.e. it shall be subjected to a power frequency voltage and a tensile force
simultaneously. The voltage shall be 75% of dry flash-over voltage of the unit. There should be
no damage caused.

(h) Overvoltage test: The insulator shall be completely immersed in an insulating medium (oil),
to prevent external flashover occurring. The specified overvoltage must be reached without
puncture. The voltage is then gradually increased until puncture occurs. (e) Porosity test:
Freshly broken pieces of porcelain shall show no dye penetration after having been immersed
for 24 hours in an alcoholic mixture of fushing at a pressure of 2000 p.s.i. 9.5.3 Routine Tests
These are to be applied to all insulators and shall be commenced at a low voltage and shall be
increased rapidly until flash-over occurs every few seconds. The voltage shall be maintained at
this value for a minimum of five minutes, or if failures occur, for five minutes after the last
punctured piece has been removed. At the conclusion of the test the voltage shall be reduced to
about one-third of the test voltage before switching off. Mechanical Routine Test: A mechanical
 load of 20% in excess of the maximum working load of the insulator is applied after suspending
the insulator for one minute. There should be no mechanical failure of the insulator.

UNIT – V
Part – A
1) Define the term sag template
Sag template is a plot of curves on transparent paper, which is used for locating the tower positions.
In order to locate the position of towers, a suitable value of tower support must be known, however
there are no clear-cut guidelines for the same and several alternatives may be tried. The ground
clearance is maintained which varies with a specific voltage level.
2) Name the different types of vibration in transmission line
3) Define factor of safety.
The ratio of puncture strength to flash over voltage is known as safety factor.
Puncture strength
Safety factor of insulator =
Flash − over voltage
It is desirable that the value of safety factor is high so that flash-over takes place before the
insulator gets punctured. For pin type insulators, the value of safety factor is about 10.
4) What is stringing chart?
The curves of sag and tension with temperature variation are called the stringing charts and are
useful in erecting the transmission line conductors at specified temperatures and loading
conditions.
Stringing chart is helpful in providing sag and tension at any temperature, if the sag and tension
is known for a particular temperature.

5) What are the factors affecting Sag?

The factors affecting sag in a transmission line are,
Weight of conductor per unit length
Load due to ice, snow, wind, etc.
Distance between the supports (span length)
Surrounding temperature
Conductor tension
6) Write the expression for sag of a transmission line on level supports
7) What is the use of dampers?
8) Define sag in a transmission line
9) What is the effect of wind and ice loadings on sag?
10) What are the effects of too low sag in a conductor?
Part – B
1) Derive the expression for sag, when the towers of transmission lines are at Equal level(16)

Sag calculation is classified on two conditions.

1. When supports are at equal levels

2. When supports are not at equal levels
Now let us start discussion on two conditions.
Sag calculation for supports are at equal levels

Suppose, AOB is the conductor. A and B are points of supports. Point O is the lowest point and the
midpoint.
Let, L = length of the span, i.e. AB
w is the weight per unit length of the conductor
T is the tension in the conductor.
We have chosen any point on conductor, say point P.
The distance of point P from Lowest point O is x.
y is the height from point O to point P.
Equating two moments of two forces about point O as per the figure above we get,

2) (i) Derive the expression for sag, when the towers of transmission lines are atDifferent level
 (6)
3) (i) With neat sketches, explain how will you derive the expression for the sag of a overhead
transmission line under various effects of atmospheric conditions.
Normally the net wind pressure direction is taken into the horizontal direction to the line
conductor. The direction of Ice coating and the original conductor weight pressure in the vertical
direction. So the total force on the high voltage line conductor is the vertical sum of the horizontal
and vertical forces.

So the relevant calculation to calculate the weight of the conductor per unit length area we can use
the following equation.
 (10)
(ii) Explain the following terms
a) Stringing chart
Stringing chart is basically a graph between Sag, Tension with Temperature. As we want low
Tension and minimum sag in our conductor but that is not possible as sag is inversely proportional to
tension. It is because low sag means a tight wire and high tension whereas a low tension means a loose
wire and increased sag. Therefore, we make compromise between two but if the case of temperature is
considered and we draw graph then that graph is called Stringing chart.

b) Factor of safety
The difference between the safety factor and design factor (design safety factor) is as follows: The safety
factor, or yield stress, is how much the designed part actually will be able to withstand (first "use" from
above). The design factor, or working stress, is what the item is required to be able to withstand (second
"use"). The design factor is defined for an application (generally provided in advance and often set by
regulatory building codes or policy) and is not an actual calculation, the safety factor is a ratio of
maximum strength to intended load for the actual item that was designed.
 (6)
4) (i)Explain the various types of line supports implemented in transmission lines. (12)
Types of Line Supports
The main requirement of the line supports is low cost, low maintenance expense and long life. The line
supports are made up wood, concrete, steel or aluminium. It is mainly classified into two types;

1. Electrical Pole
2. Electrical Tower

Their types are explained below in details.

1. Electrical Pole
A pole which is used for supporting the small voltage (not more than 115 kV) transmission lines, such
type of pole is called electrical pole. It is usually made up of woods, concrete or steel. These poles are
mainly classified into three types. Their types are explained below in details;

Types of Electrical Poles

The choice of electrical poles depends on the cost, atmosphere, and line voltage of the line.The electrical
poles are mainly classified into following types.

a. Wood Poles

It is one of the cheapest types of line supports and used for lines where spans are short, and tension is
low. The wood poles have the limitations of height and diameter. The double pole structure of the A or
H types is used where greater strength is required.

The strength of these types of constructions varies from two to four times the strength of the single pole.
H-type of construction is usually employed for four terminal poles or those carrying switchgear and
transformers.
Wood pole has a natural insulating property, and lesser flashovers are likely to take place due to
lightning. One of the drawbacks of wood poles is that their strength and durability cannot be predicted
with certainty.

Self- Supporting Towers

Self-supporting towers are divided into two categories; wide-base and narrow-base towers. In the wide
base tower, lattice (criss-cross) with the roasted connection is adopted. Each leg has a separate
foundation. The narrow-base designs used as a lattice (criss-cross) construction of angle, channel or
tubular steel section with bolted or welded connection. Self-supporting tower is also classified as

Tangent Tower – It is used for a straight run of the line. Suspension insulators are used with these
towers.
Deviation Tower – It is used in a line where the transmission line changes direction.

Strain insulators are used with these towers. They have a broader base,
stronger members and are costlier as compared to tangent towers. The narrow-based design requires less
steel or aluminium in comparison with a wide base tower, but its cost of foundation is more. The
selection between the two is based on the costs of material, foundations, and right-of-way requirement.

b. Guyed or Stayed Towers

Such types of towers are either portal types or V-types. Both of them had two supports connected at the
top by a cross arm and provided with four guys.
 I

In portal structure, each supports is resting on its foundation, whereas in V-support structure the two
supports are resting at an angle to one another on one thrust footing only which is of heavier of type.
 5)Explain the layout of substation and also explain the different protection equipment in a substation

Main Components of 11kV Substation

The working of the electrical equipment used in the substation is explained below in details.

1. Isolator – The isolator connects or disconnects the incoming circuit when the supply is already
interrupted. It is also used for breaking the charging current of the transmission line. The isolator is
placed on the supply side of the circuit breaker so that the circuit breaker isolated from the live parts of
the maintenance.
2. Lightning Arrester – The lightning arrester is a protective device which protects the system from
lightning effects. It has two terminals one is high voltage and the other is the ground voltage. The high
voltage terminal is connected to the transmission line and the ground terminal passes the high voltage
surges to earth.
3. CT Metering – The metering CT measure and records the current when their secondary terminal is
connected to the metering equipment panel.
4. Step-down Transformer – The step-down transformer converts the high voltage current into the low
voltage current.
5. Capacitor Bank – The capacitor bank consists series or parallel connection of the capacitor. The main
function of the capacitor bank is to improve the power factor of the line. It draws the leading current to
the line by reducing the reactive component of the circuit.
6. Circuit Breaker – The circuit breaker interrupts the abnormal or faults current to flow through the
line. It is the type of electrical switch which open or closes the contacts when the fault occurs in the
system.
6) Explain the various methods of grounding in a power system?

1. Solid grounding
2. Resistance grounding
3. Reactance groundin (8)