MIDTERM REVIEWER IN TOA 1  Renaissance Theories

ANTHROPOMETRY  Andrea Palladio (1508-80) was probably the

most influential architect of the Italian
 refers to the measurement of the size and Renaissance
proportions of the human body  In The Four Books on Architecture, first
 While the architects of the Renaissance saw the published in Venice in 1570, he followed in the
proportions of the human figure as a reaffirmation footsteps of his predecessors, Alberti and Serlio,
that certain mathematical ratios reflected the and proposed these seven “most beautiful and
harmony of their universe, anthropometric proportionable manners of rooms”.
proportioning methods seek not abstract or symbolic
ratios but functional ones.  Modulor
 The difficulty with anthropometric proportioning is
the nature of the data required for its use.  Le Corbusier developed his proportioning
system, the Modulor, to order “the dimensions
ERGONOMICS of that which contains and that which is
contained.”
 an applied science that coordinates the design of  He based his measuring tool, the Modulor, on
devices, systems, and environments with our both mathematics (the aesthetic dimensions of
physiological and psychological capacities and the Golden Section and the Fibonacci
requirements Series),and the proportions of the human body
 The dimensions of the human body also affect the (functional dimensions).
volume of space we require for movement, activity,  The principle work of Le Corbusier that
and rest. exemplified the use of the Modulor was his
 The fit between the form and dimensions of a space Unite d’Habitation at Marseilles. It uses 15
and our own body dimensions can be either static or measures of the Modulor to bring human scale
dynamic. A third type fit is how a space to a building that is 140 meters long, 24 meters
accommodates our need to maintain appropriate wide and 70 meters high.
social distances and to have control over our
personal space.  Ken
 a unit of measure which was introduced in the
THEORIES OF PROPORTION latter half of Japan’s Middle Ages; it became an
 Golden Section absolute measurement
 Classical Orders  Shaku – the traditional Japanese unit of
 Renaissance Theories measure; almost equivalent to the English foot
 Modulor and divisible into decimal units
 Ken
 Anthropometry Two methods of designing with the Ken modular grid:
 Scale 1. Inaka-ma method – the ken grid of 6 shaku
determined the center- to-center spacing of
• Golden Section columns
2. Kyo-ma method – the floor mat remained
 Defined as the ratio between two sections of a constant (3.15x6.30shaku) and the column
line, or the two dimensions of a plane figure, in spacing (ken module) varied according to the
which the lesser of the two is to the greater as size of the room and ranged from 6.4 to 6.7
the greater is to the sum of the both. shaku
 A rectangle whose sides are proportioned
according to the Golden Section is known as  Anthropometry
Golden Rectangle.
 refers to the measurement of the size and
 Classical Orders proportions of the human body

 To the Greeks and Romans of classical antiquity,  Scale

the Orders represented in their proportioning
of elements the perfect expression of beauty  A fixed proportion used in determining
and harmony. measurements and dimensions
 The basic unit of dimension was the diameter of  Also refers to how we perceive or judge the size
the column. of something in relation to something else
 Intercolumniation - the system of spacing  Mechanical Scale – the size or proportion of
between columns – was also based on the something relative to an accepted standard of
diameter of the column. measurement
 Visual Scale – the size or proportion an element
appears to have relative to other elements of
known or assumed size
CHAPTER 1 - As a result, man build palaces, skyscrapers, or
INFLUENCES ON ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN communities may erect cathedrals or public
I. GENERAL INFLUENCES buildings and monuments.
3. Desire for Response
NEEDS OF MAN - This arises from the gregarious nature of man,
from his wish for love, friendship, and
1. PHYSICAL NEEDS sociability.
a. Self preservation 4. Desire for Self-Expression
Food, shelter, clothing-basic add to this - This is the urge of man to assert himself as an
basic needs: power, water, transportation, individual. To do things in his own particular
ecological balance, education, sports, way.
medical, livelihood -This is responsible for aesthetic expression; for
b. Reproduction-for the population to architecture in its highest form, which result in
increase and continue in existence. building of theatres, museums, etc. To show
SHELTER- is something that covers, protects, or that he is the best in sports or recreation,
defends as a roof that shields one from the encouraged the building of stadia, bowling
elements and changes. alleys, gymnasiums, etc.

The modern man's shelter shall have: II. INFLUENCES OF NATURE

1. Necessities-warm, dry house with glazed  Climate and topography influence the life and
doors, windows, sanitation and habits of a nation. They decide what foods shall
permanency. be grown and what occupations shall be
2. Conveniences - rooms shall be arranged followed. They determine what regions will
economically. Circulations are studied develop farmers, 88ilors or merchants. Climate
according to functions, such as the kitchen aids in giving to races their own particular traits.
for food preparation, bedroom for sleep These· races in turn create architecture with
and bathroom for cleanliness. local or national characteristics.
3. Comforts - this must contain the labor-
saving devices which provide heat, A. CLIMATE
ventilation, and instant communication. The  This affect the habits and temperaments of
furnishings are designed for comfort. people. Those near the sea are quiet, taciturn
and bold people. They are easy going and care-
2. EMOTIONAL NEEDS free and produce an architecture different from
• The emotional reactions of man have to do with people in the cold and forested areas, whose
the instincts stirred by the forces of religion and .people plan in advance. This requires initiative,
art and with the desire to indulge in recreation . patience and energy.
Art in its broadest interpretation, assumes the  In the arctic, regions, civilization is less
various familiar forms painting, sculpture, advanced as climatic conditions are so
music, literature. unprotective and absorb so much energy that
the natives have little surplus with which to
3. INTELLECTUAL NEEDS develop civilization or art.
• Education, science and government, demand a  In the temperate zones, people are energetic
proper architectural setting. Intellect or reason and progress is assured. Here, man may plan
alone may erect a utilitarian building; emotion and may realize his ambitions without
will endow it with beauty and interest. interference from droughts, monsoons,
blizzards, or tropical fevers.
ACTIVITIES OF MAN
• If life is to exist and civilization is to develop, EFFECT ON ARCHITECTURE
there are fundamental impulses or desires' WARMER CLIMATES
which must be satisfied. These forces may be  The buildings may be more flamboyant in their
called the stimuli to action. Their effect upon conception and usually a closer relations exists
life and architecture, may be designated as between the works of man and nature where
Resulting Manifestations: RM vegetation is more luxuriant, more attention is
1. Desire for Preservation paid to the color and texture of surface
-in obtaining food, shelter, clothing and treatment.
security, civilized man must have commerce,  Plain wall areas give an opportunity for contrast
government and religion. These activities call with the colors of the foliage.
for their accompanying structures, or COLDER CLIMATES
architecture.  The architecture is more severe and the
2. Desire for Recognition designer depend less upon the landscape tor
- this is a desire for prestige, pride and final effect. Colors are usually more subdued.
ambition, social status, physical supremacy,
intellectual attainment, personal or civic, result
in the-struggle for position.
 1. PLANS In the Past
WARMER CLIMATES WARMER CLIMATES
 The plans are more open and often include  Windows are usually small in order not to admit
courts or patios. too much light, which produces excessive heat
COLDER CLIMATES and glare.
 More compact in arrangement. The severe cold COLDER CLIMATES
winds is avoided by providing a cover from  Windows are usually large in order to capture
portion of the building to the other. the greatest amount of light, and heat the
interior.
2. STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
 In the past, walls were load bearing, wall Modern
thickness were thick, to carry the load of the  In the architecture of the 20th Century, there
floors and the roof and also to resist the has ceased to be the relation between windows
extremes of temperature and to protect man and climate that existed in the past. We can
from his enemies. now heat or cool our houses in a satisfactory
 Today, modern man erects structures to protect manner with less reference to the sizes of
his investment from depreciation and himself openings and windows often simply contribute
from the curiosity of his neighbors. Walls are no to the cheerfulness of the interior.
longer bearing walls. They no longer carry loads  In the last few years, there has come a new
as thin as the material will permit. The conception of hygienic and therapeutic
development of insulation makes it possible to possibilities of the window. A type of glass has
keep out the heat and the cold in a highly been developed which does not filter out the
satisfactory manner. ultraviolet rays of the sunshine; as does
ordinary window glass.
3. PROTECTIVE ELEMENTS  Man also invented machines for air
 The roof protects the interior from the conditioning, heating, ventilating and this
elements of climate like typhoon, heat of the machine age brought about the suggestion of
sun, etc. windowless buildings.
In the Past
WARMER CLIMATE 5. DECORATIVE ELEMENTS
 The roofs are usually rather flat and colourful. WARMER CLIMATES
As in the rich red and brown tile roof of Italy  With brilliant sunshine, pronounced mouldings
COLDER CLIMATES are unnecessary and undesirable. When
 The roofs become steeper and less colourful. mouldings are used, the curves should be flatter
The necessity of shedding the rain and snow and more subtle.
makes the greater pitch to the roofs more COLDER CLIMATES
practical.  Sculpture and mouldings are usually deeply
curved and undercut to catch the maximum
 Entrance porches are the result of the desire for amount of light.
protection. The driving rains and cold winds
made these porches a desirable adjunct to the  Color is a decorative element which in warm
entrances. countries assumes an importance rivaling that
of carvings. Plain wall surfaces in white or light
Modern Development pastel tones, with their various textures catch
 However, with new inventions and innovations, the sunlight and allow an interesting play of
steel and concrete construction. insulation, and shadows from projecting roots and adjoining
modern drainage make almost any kind of trees. Colored tiles are also conspicuous in the
utilitarian roof possible. architecture in the mediterranean countries.
 The roof may be flat even in cold countries and
invisible from the ground. The roof has now B. TOPOGRAPHY
become a terrace, and the accompanying fresh • In the earliest periods of civilization, the
air and sunshine contribute to the health of a elements of topography-mountains, deserts and
nation. seas-constituted barriers to migration. This
retarded the intermingling of people and the
4. CIRCULATORY ELEMENTS cross-fertilization of cultures. Ideas traveled
 Windows - permit the entrance of light and slowly, and the customs and arts of different
circulation of air Doors, 9tairs, corridor- countries assumed definite national patterns.
circulation of human traffic and materials • However, as navigation became more of a
science, the sea that had been a barrier became
an aid to travel and communication.
• Topography, in its broadest sense, may mean
the general terrain or contour of the surface of
the entire country. If the country is small and
the topography is uniform, there tends to be a
 similarity of character in the architecture. It Congestion, economic pressure requires
may be nationalistic and may assume traits proximity of allied fields of endeavor and adds
common to the entire area. to the problems of the architect and city
planner. This complexity of our social system is
MOUNTAIN REGIONS reflected in our architecture.
• In a setting of rocks and cliffs with violent
changes in the direction of the contour of the 2. Man's Personality.
site, the building should appear to grow out of • By his appearance, something is known of his
its surroundings. The buildings should be interests from the type of house in which he
'informal'. The floor levels of the major parts lives. In a similar manner, it is possible to trace a
should follow as far as is convenient, the slope comparison between the personality of a nation
of the ground. If it crowns an eminence. its as reflected in its clothing and its attitude
steep roofs with vertical effects may serve as a toward architecture as seen in its buildings.
fitting termination to a commanding height. Clothes give an indication of the simplicity or
LEVEL COUNTRY complexity of the existence of its inhabitants
• While an unsymmetrical or informal plan is which in turn controls the development of its
possible on such a site. 'Formal' or balanced architecture.
scheme is more satisfactory.
GREEK DIGNITY
C. MATERIALS • Scholarly and philosophical refinement was
• The gifts of nature for the structures of man are characteristic of the lives of people, we find the
limestone, marble, pine and mahogany, etc. costume consisted of a simple, flowing robe.
(timber) clay for brick and ore for metals. Much attention was paid to the body and to
• In the past, certain materials have had a local physical health. The existence of the Greeks was
use and have influenced the development of an reduced to the essentials, and this was reflected
indigenous architecture. Since there was lack of in their dress and architecture. They did not
methods of conveyance. build on a grand scale, but rather sought for
• However, they have changed as new contacts purity of detail and development of technical
were made and as new developments came skill. Ornateness in dress had no place in their
into existence. Ideas were borrowed, commerce simple here activities.
and industry grew and now modern FRENCH RENAISSANCE
transportation has made building materials • This was a period of multiplicity of detail in
international in distribution and use. court life, in dress and in architecture. Social
etiquette was so complicated that all
Ill. INFLUENCE OF MAN naturalness was abandoned. Life was artificial
1. SOCIAL CONDITIONS: and theatrical. and likewise the costumes of the
• Architecture, because it is the most permanent period . Powdered wigs and brocaded coats
and cumulative-reflects the social structure of made congruous the jeweled canes and lace
the period in which it is developed. The frills . The furniture was colorful, but the chairs
interests of the people dictate the type and were often straight and uncomfortable. All this
appearance of its buildings. splendor would have been inappropriate in a
• Stable government and improved social simple setting. The architecture had to be
condition eliminate the necessity of many ornate in order to harmonize with the activities
protective features such as high fences, which it housed. Buildings were crowded with
shutters, wrought iron or steel railings for doors rococo details which hid structural lines and
and windows, broken glass and barbed wire on often prevented truth of expression.
top of fences. Comfort and convenience now • This elaborate architecture lined wide avenues
control architecture. lavishly decorated with fountains and gardens-
Example: all designed for the purpose of being
1. Periods-The different architectural characters in ostentatious.
the different periods of architecture is shown in VICTORIAN
the interests of man at that time as shown in • The flowing whiskers, beribboned bonnets,
their buildings. mutton- leg sleeves, and bustles were simply a
In this 20th Century, our social structure has reflection of the jig-saw ornament and sheet-
become so complex that confusion rather than metal cornices of the buildings of that period.
simplicity is its chief characteristic. The Again, it was an ugly and drab variety, without
automobile has made it possible for us to live the color of the French Renaissance.
many miles from our work but has created a CONTEMPORARY
traffic problem. • Although present-day civilization is complex, we
The movies, radio, t.v. and transportation have have been blessed with simple attire for both
brought us knowledge of foreign countries. men and women. The dress of today is probably
Standardization is more prevalent than due to the fact that the science of medicine and
individualism. health has kept step with other developments,
and our people have been impressed with the
 necessity of fresh air, sunshine, and exercise. 3. CHURCH
These were difficult to obtain under the  in the past, people worshipped different gods
restrictions of the 19th century. and only the priests enter the temples. The
• The desire for freedom of movement and an exterior then received more attention. Then the
interest in athletics is reflected in the christian religion built churches to hold
contemporary movement in architecture, congregation to participate in the worshipping
which, in seeking to interpret buildings in terms of God. For that reason the interior is in many
of the needs of the people, is placing the respects more important than the exterior.
emphasis upon plain wall surfaces.  The medieaval churches was not only a place
for worship but also a center of education for
3. Man's Interests. the masses who could not read or write. The
• It has been pointed out that the activities and carvings and sculpture of the exterior and
.interests of man are· directly responsible for interior furnished a chronology of biblical
the type of architecture which he develops. This events.
is shown in the typical structures like the  When the people learned socially to read and
• House-which provides shelter for man during write, especially with the invention of the
his hours of rest. printing press,-sculpture became, instead of the
• Factory -offers a place in which to work and to pictorial, a stressed decorative quality. The
produce a commodity of exchange. preaching type of church was developed,
• Church- affords spiritual relaxation and causing an auditorium, to be included. This was
opportunity for worship. a participation of mental rather than a physical
one.
1. HOUSE  Modern churches now are designed to provide
• in the past, houses were small and compact, the mental, physical, as well as spiritual relaxation.
hall was used as a workroom and dining room. The modem church has now classrooms for
When the scene changed from the farm to the educational work, halls and parlors for social
city, wealth and servants, and large houses gatherings and a gymnasium for the exercise of
were easily maintained. This was the age of the body.
pretense and show. Plans were complicated
and of various sizes, shapes, disorganized and 20th CENTURY ARCHITECTURE
unrelated to human needs. This was the  The present century has brought countless
Victorian House inventions and discoveries. Old standards of
• The Contemporary house-is called a functional thought and living have been modified or
type and one of comfort, There is a desire to abandoned. New activities have called for
take full advantage of sunlight.and air. The walls structures to house them, and new materials
are opened as much as possible, and the and types of construction have made these
interior is related to the exterior terraces and buildings possible.
gardens in a pleasing manner. Thus, the a. TRANSPORTATION-made possible the carrying
principle of comfort prevails In the 20th Century of all kind of building materials from one end of
designs. the earth to the other and has created
structures unknown a few generations ago. The
2. FACTORY automobile has made necessary the garages,
 in the early days, man often worked at home, it filling stations, and bus terminals. It has
was the age of craftsmanship, the period of rendered almost obsolete our narrow streets
individual effort. Those who created products designed for the horse and buggy. The airplane
required by their fellow men took pride in each has brought about the development of airports,
article. Business was personal rather than while new types of steamships with increased
impersonal tonnage have given added importance to docks
 When the industrial period arrived, with the last and warehouse. The expansion of the railroads
half of the 19 century, the small shops grew into has created the magnificent passenger and
factories, and little thought was given to freight terminals and has made possible our
efficient arrangements or pleasant working large industrial centers.
conditions. Labor was unorganized with few b. COMMERCE- large, complex and taller buildings
windows, light and air was insufficient and the are constructed to house the new business
result was gloom and ineffeciency. activities like banking, finance, etc.
 The present century-an age of competition and c. EDUCATION -with mass education, schools and
mass production. There must be efficient colleges are scientifically planned, and their
operation in order to compare favorably in price functions are numerous and involved.
and quality. Proper working conditions have The newspaper is also a powerful agency in the
been outgrowth of this kind of business life, and attempt to keep people informed upon the
as a result, well-planned factories and pleasant current affairs of the nations, and libraries and
surroundings are often typical of portions of our museums offer unlimited facilities to those who
industrial cities. would read and study.
 In the past, museums were designed to  The future promises shorter hours of labor and
resemble palaces with little thought to the longer hours of leisure. This increase in leisure
education and comfort of the public. The suggests a changed mode of living, It will
modern museum is designed to display the art promote the erection of those buildings which
of the past and the present in order that it may have to do with recreation. relaxation and
be studied and applied to contemporary needs. education. More time will be devoted to the
Simplicity of arrangement, satisfactory lighting, rehabilitation of the mind and body. This
and ease of circulation are primary possible change in our economic structure may
requirements. thus, have a profound effect upon our social life
d. REHABILITATION-labor-saving devices have and our architecture.
brought about time for leisure and the need for A PREVIEW OF THE COMING OF THE 21st CENTURY
recreation. There is a universal interest in sports  At this time, man has already reached the
and entertainment, both by spectators and moon, our transportation ~as brought us to
participants. As a result, we have theatres and space. Man has developed computers to solve
dance halls, arenas, ballparks, golf and city in an instant what has been solved in the past
clubs. for hours, days or even months. New and
synthetic materials are being discovered and
ECONOMIC CONDITIONS: developed in a fast pace. Thereby making the
 The social life of a nation and the resulting designs of our building more comfortable, and
architecture are linked closely with the now comes skyscrapers that are built higher
economic conditions under which people live. and higher.
The nature of trade, commerce, industry and  In the initial stages of the computers, man feeds
agriculture determines to a large extent the information based from the client’s needs, and
occupations and standards of living within a a schematic sketch comes out of the computer.
particular country. These factors influence the This can then be fed back to form a massing or a
types of buildings erected and the materials perspective. It can even be manipulated to
used. show the shades and shadows at selected
 As nations modify their basic economic different times of the day. In another problem,
institutions through changes in manufacture, for a subdivision planning, showing the
transportation, and communication, new contours of the lot, the computer can show the.
modes of living come into existence, and new different views altogether. Other functions
architecture must be developed to conform to which it can do are showing the weak spots in a
these customs. We are interested, therefore, in design for structural parts of a building for the
the economic status of individuals as they structural designer's guidance. The computer
constitute a nation , and not in their private can also store with its software all data on
finances. We are also interested in economy in materials, specifications, management,
architecture. Buildings may be so designed that schedulings and so many other information that
thete is economy of space, of movement, and can aid the designer to produce a better, faster
of materials. These factors control to a large and more accurate solutions to designs.
extent the cost of an architectural project. FUTUREHOME
 During the present century the concentration of  For Portia Isaacson, a computer scientist,
wealth in our cities has been responsible for our futurehome is a fantasy come true. The white,
attitude toward certain types of architecture. two storey, stucco, suburban Dallas home, will
Investments rule our lives, and the process of be an electronic showcase, but with spiral
building must lend an attentive ear to the staircase, hot tub, art gallery and style. A quick
caprices of finance. We erect structures many call to-or from-a computer ensures that her hot
stories in height, but mechanical devices render tub will be warm when she arrives or informs
them obsolete in a few years and they must her when her teenaged children have gotten
make way for those with later developments. home from school. If a business meeting keeps
True economy in architecture is not using her from getting home in time for her
interior materials but the omission of useless husband's birthday, a computer controlled
decoration and the inclusion of sensible scenario, complete with loving messages,
planning. romantic lighting, favorite music and
 Man's economic system remained unchanged appropriate videos, will let him know he hasn't
for centuries-until the present industrial age. been forgotten.
Previous to this age of machinery, power and  Answering the door is obsolete. A camera
energy were supplied by the hands of man or shows who it is by sending a close-up view of
the backs to animals. Production was relatively newcomers to wherever Isaacson is in the
slow, and the hours of labor were long. Now house. Then she can open the door remotely.
electrical or steam power is furnished in almost Can't find the keys or the husband? Via video
unlimited quantities, releasing man from the cameras she can scan shelftops and table
machine and creating new economic and social surfaces. Motion censors track each person's
problems. Man can now work less and produce room-to-room movements.
more.
  It will take 13 computers, 14 telephones, 26 tv  Architecture may be a group of buildings or a
monitors, 8 miles (13 km) of wiring, several profession. The term "architecture" is an in·
video casette recorders for this future home. elusive one. lt may refer to the process of
Isaacson has robots for pets, a sculpture of designing a building and supervising its
stereo and video components that seem to float erection. It may also be regarded as the
in space, futuristic plant stands that are really procedure assisted with the conception of an
computer terminals, and a media " command idea and its realization in terms of building
center", that includes four (4) 25-inch (60 cm.) materials.
tv's, a 40-inch (100 cm.) tv projection screen, 2  Architecture is represented by a building which
VCFS, and compact and laser disc players. meets in a satisfactory manner the
 At futurehome, a master computer is in charge. requirements of logical function, sound
It receives data from the rest of the house and construction and beautiful composition. It is
sends out commands, dimming lights, changing only when all of these qualities are present that
thermostat setting, and switching tv channels good architecture can be said to exist. In its
and volumes. Using a text-to-speech converter, broader aspects, architecture is shelter, not
the computer can answer and make telephone only for man during the various hours of his
calls. When someone- a housekeeper or tardy daily existence-work, recreation and sleep-but
teenager, for instance punches in their also to protect all the activities of human race.
individualized codes to get into the front door,  Man begins to create shelter by surrounding
the computer can be cued to let Isaacson know, space with the materials provided by nature
either where she is in the home or at work. and made usable by the ingenuity of civilized
 It can tell the condition of the house, not only peoples. Space, in itself is indefinable and
can lights or favorite music be turned on as a intangible and has no limits. Yet when it is
person enters a room, a synthesized voice can enclosed with stone and steel according to
welcome guests, remind a son to keep his feet accepted rules of composition, the result may
off furniture or wake a husband in time for be called “architecture".
dinner.  In providing shelter it is to be observed that
 Heating and airconditioning are regulated buildings have walls and roofs, doors and
electronically, and the computer tracks windows, and that these elements are
temperatures in each room so that the new assembled in a simple or complex manner.
occupants can assess airflow throughout the Whatever the type or character of the building,
house. Once computerized, the entire house parts of it are more evident to the observer
can be run from any one of 10 personal than others the exterior is more readily seen
computers by pointing with .a light pen to a and understood than is the arrangement of the
particular room pictured on the screen, and rooms, which is called the plan. Thus, there
designating a task to be completed: lights on or exist the invisible and visible structures, or the
off, specific music to be played, tv show to be plan pattern and the apparent volume.
recorded.
 Or "scripts" can be written that coordinate THE INVISIBLE STRUCTURE
activities for emergencies, normal household  The plan is the beginning of a building. It is the
maintenance, even family tends to take care of foundation upon which the scheme of the
intruders, a security script: If a security sensor structure rests. It relates the various units to
detects a break-in, the computer could be each other. It is the most important element of
programmed to flash all the lights, blast the volume and should receive early consideration,
stereos, wake up and tell the residents where whenever the solution of a problem is
the stranger is lurking, perhaps even inform the attempted. "We should proceed from within to
burglars that they are being filmed. without" from a satisfactory arrangement of the
 The Interior looks like the tv series Star Trek. plan units to the enclosing of these units by the
Instead of a wall-sized painting, an electronic shell which is called the exterior.
sculpture welcome visitors. The black THE VISIBLE STRUCTURE
components of an audio and video systems are  By enclosing space, volume or mass is created.
set into a glosSy, black metal wall on shelves If this space has, no relation to the activities of
not visible to viewers. Recessed lighting along man, there exist only the simple geometric
the wall edges adds to the effect. forms of the cube, the pyramid or the sphere. If
the surfaces of these volumes and the enclosed
THE PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN ESSENTIALS OF THE interiors are treated so that the forms are
STRUCTURE related to human needs, then they may be
 The various periods of historic developments regarded as architecture. Visible structure is
have left to this age buildings which may be composed of form and surface as follows:
identified as temples, cathedrals, factories and 1. FORM
bungalows. These have been built to house the  MASS or volume or evidence of the 3 dimension
activities of man, and to these structures has  direction -vertical or horizontal axis of the mass
been given the name of architecture.  shape- geometric qualities
 2. SURFACE  The cardinal points NESW have since remote
 AREA - surface with two dimensions as in a times been given prime importance among the
facade of a building factors determining the structure of the world.
 texture- surface treatment identified with The word orientation comes from "orient" the
materials whether rough or smooth direction of sunrise. Christian churches were
 tone - light and shade caused by openings, always oriented by the altar towards the East.
projections The East as the origin of light is also the source
 color- inherent or applied color caused by of life. The west as the place of the setting sun
spectrum hues is filled with all the terrors of the earth.
g. Visual Inertia: The degree of concentration and
FORM stability of a form; the visual inertia of a form
 In an architectural discussion the accepted depends on its geometry as well as its
definition of form deals with shape and when orientation relative to the ground plane and our
the figure is three dimensional, it becomes line of sight.
mass.  All of these visual properties of form are in
 In architectural composition, mass is more reality affected by the conditions under which
important than surface. In the design of a we view them:
building, "we should proceed from the general a. our perspective or angle of view
to the particular", from mass to detail. The b. our distance from the form
approach to design should not be through the c. lighting conditions
details of a style but rather through a d. the visual field surrounding the form
consideration of the mass of the building which
grows out of the function for which it is SHAPE
planned.  Shape is a plane's primary identifying
 MASS can be vigorous or weak; it can have characteristic. If refers to the edge contour of a
vitality and strength, or it may be indecisive and plane or the silhouette of a volume. It is the
faltering. If it is correctly composed in an primary means by which we recognize and
arresting manner, mass alone will arouse a identity the form of an object. Since it is seen as
definite emotional reaction. It will stimulate the the line that separates a form from its
observer with the sense of its completeness. background, our perception of a form's shape
Ornament should simply enhance a building. will depend on the degree of visual contrast
 in order that mass may be decisive, it should be between the form and its background.
directional. It should be either horizontal or  In Architecture, we are concerned with the
vertical. shapes of:
 In architecture mass is usually volume, and the 1. Planes (floor, walls, ceiling} that enclose
surfaces which enclose space have area. space
2. Openings (windows, doors) within a spatial
 FORM is the primary identifying characteristic enclosure
of a volume, it is determined by the shapes and 3. The silhouettes of building forms
interrelationships of the planes that describe PRIMARY SHAPES
the boundaries of the volume.  Should be viewed as it is distorted in
1. VISUAL PROPERTIES OF FORM perspective.
a. Shape: The principal identifying a. Circle
characteristic of form; shape results from -a series of points arranged equally and
the specific configuration of a form's balanced about a point.
surfaces and edges. -The circle is a centralized, introverted
b. Size: The real dimensions of form, its figure that is normally stable and
length, width and depth; while these selfcentering in its environment, Placing a
dimensions determine the proportions of a circle in the center of a field will reinforce
form, its scale is determined by its size its natural centrality.
relative to other forms in its context. b. Triangle
c. Color: The hue, intensity, and total value of -a plane bounded by three sides, and
a form's surface; color is the attribute that having three angles.
most clearly distinguishes a form from its -signifies stability When resting on one of its
environment. It also affects the visual sides, the triangle is an extremely stable
weight of a form. figure. When tipped to stand on one of its
d. Texture: The surface characteristic of a vertices, however, it can either be balanced
form; texture affects both tactile and light- in a precarious state of equilibrium or be
reflective qualities of a form's surfaces. unstable and tend to fall over onto one of
e. Position: A form's location relative to its its sides.
environment or visual field. c. Square
f. Orientation: A form's position relative to -a plane figure having four equal sides and
the ground plane, the compass points or to four right angles.
the person viewing the form.
 -represents the pure and the national. It is a IRREGULAR FORMS
static and neutral figure having no  Irregular forms are those whose parts are
preferred direction. All other rectangles can dissimilar in nature and related to one another
be considered variations of the square, in an inconsistent manner. They are generally
deviations from the norm by the addition of asymmetrical and more dynamic than regular
height or width. Like the triangle, the forms. They can be regular forms from which
square is stable when resting on one of its irregular elements have been subtracted or an
sides, and dynamic when standing on one irregular composition of regular forms.
of its corners.  Since we deal with both solids and voids in
PLATONIC SOLIDS architecture, regular forms can be contained
 The primary shapes can be extended or rotated within irregular forms. Similarly, irregular forms
to generate volumes whose forms are distinct, can be enclosed by regular forms.
regular and easily recognizable. These forms are THE TRANSFORMATION OF FORM
referred to as the platonic solids.  All other forms can be understood to be
 Circles generate spheres and cylinders; triangles transformations of the platonic solids,
generate cones and pyramids; squares generate variations that are generated by the
cubes. manipulation of their dimensions, or by the
 The SPHERE is a centralized and highly subtraction or addition of elements.
concentrated form. It is, like the circle from 1. DIMENSIONAL TRANSFORMATIONS:
which is generated, self-centering and normally  A form can be transformed by altering one or
stable in its environment. It can be inclined more of its dimensions and still retain its family
toward a rotary motion when placed on a identity. A cube for example, can be
sloping plane. From any viewpoint, it retains its transformed into other prismatic forms by
circular shape altering its height, width, or length. It can be
 The CYLINDER is a centralized about the axis compressed into a planar form, or stretched
defined by the centers of its two circular faces. into a linear one.
It can be extended easily along this axis. The  A spherical form can be transformed into any
cylinder is a stable form, if it rests on one of its number of ovoid or ellipsoid forms by
circular faces; it becomes unstable when its elongating it along an axis.
central axis is inclined.  A pyramidal form can be transformed by
 The CONE is generated by rotating an altering the dimensions of its base,
equilateral triangle about its vertical axis. Like  A cube can be transformed into other
the cylinder, the cone is a highly stable form rectangular prismatic forms by shortening or
when resting on its circular base and unstable elongating its height, width or depth.
when its vertical axis is tipped or overturned. It 2. SUBTRACTIVE TRANSFORMATlONS:
can also be stood on its apex in a precarious  A form can be transformed by subtracting a
state of balance. portion of its volume. Depending on the extent
 The PYRAMID has properties similar to those of of the subtractive process, the form can retain
the cone. Because all of its surfaces are flat its initial identity, or be transformed into a form
planes, however, the pyramid can rest in a of another family. For example, a cube can
stable manner on any of its faces. While the retain its identity as a cube even though a
cone is a soft form, the pyramid is relatively portion of it is removed, or be transformed
hard and angular. slowly into a polyhedron approximating a
 The CUBE is a prismatic form that has six square sphere.
faces of equal size, and twelve edges of equal SUBTRACTIVE FORMS:
length. Because of the equality of its  We search for regularity and continuity in the
dimensions, the cube is a static form that lacks forms we see within our field of vision. If a
apparent movement on direction. It is a stable platonic solid is partially hidden from our view,
form except when it stands on one· of its edges we tend to complete its form in a regular
or corners. Even through its angular profile is manner, and visualize it as if it were whole.
affected by our viewpoint; the cube remains a Similarly, when regular forms have fragments
highly recognizable form. missing from their volumes, they can retain
REGULAR FORMS their formal identities if we perceive them as if
 Regular forms refer to those whose parts are they were whole and complete. We refer to
related to one another in a consistent and these mutilated forms as subtractive forms.
orderly manner. They are generally .stable in  Because they are highly recognizable, forms
nature and symmetrical about one or more that are simple and geometrically regular, such
axes. The platonic solids are prime examples of as the platonic solids, adapt readily to
regular forms subtractive treatment. These forms will retain
 Forms can retain their regularity even when their formal identities if portions of their
transformed dimensionally, or by and the volumes are removed without deteriorating
addition or subtraction of elements. their edges, corners and overall profile.
  Ambiguity regarding a form's original identity sacred or honorific places, or commemorate
will result if the portion removed from its significant persons or events.
volume erodes its edges and drastically alters its 2. LINEAR FORMS-Consist of forms arranged
profile. sequentially in a row. A linear form can result
 In the series of figures below, at what point from a proportional change in a form's
does the square figure with a corner portion dimensions, or the arrangement of a series of
removed become an "L" configuration of two forms along a line. In the latter case, the series
rectangular planes of forms may be repetitive, or they may be
 Volumes may be subtracted from a form to dissimilar in nature and organized by a separate
create recessed entrances, well-defined, private and distinct element such as a wall or path.
courtyard spaces, or window openings shaded  A linear form can be segmented or curvilinear
by the vertical and horizontal surfaces of the to respond to conditions of its site such as
recesses. topography, view, or vegetation.
3. ADDITIVE TRANSFORMATIONS  a linear form can be used to front or define an
 A form can be transformed by the addition of edge of an exterior space, or define a plane of
elements to its volume. The nature of the entry to the spaces behind it.
additive process will determine whether the  A linear form can be manipulated to enclose
identity of the initial form is retained or altered. space.
ADDITIVE FORMS:  A linear form can be oriented vertically as a
 While a subtractive form results from the tower element to fix a point in space.
removal of a portion of its original volume, an  A linear form can act as an organizing element
additive form is produced by the addition of to which a variety of forms can be attached.
another form of its volume. 3. RADIAL FORMS- Are compositions of linear
FOUR {4) BASIC possibilities for two forms to group forms that extend out ward from central forms
together are: in a radial manner.
1. by SPATIAL TENSION -this type of relationship  A radial form consists of linear forms that
requires that the two forms be relatively close extend outward from a centrally located .core
to each other, or share a common visual trait element in a radiating manner. It combines
such as shape, material of color. the aspects of centrality and linearity into a
2. by EDGE to EDGE CONTACT -in this type of single composition.
relationship, two forms share a comn1on edge,  The core is either the symbolic or functional
and can pivot about that edge. center of the ·organization. Its central
3. by FACE to FACE CONTACT -this type of position can be articulated with a visually
relationship requires the two forms to have flat, dominant form, or it can merge with and
planar surfaces that are parallel to each other. become subservent to the radiating arms
4. by INTERLOCKING VOLUMES-in this type of  The radiating arms, having properties similar
relationship, two forms interpenetrate each to those of linear forms, give a radial form its
other's space. These forms need not share any extroverted nature. They can reach-out and
visual traits. relate or attach themselves to specific
 Additive forms, resulting from the accretion of features of their site. They can expose their
elements to one another, can be characterized long surfaces to desirable conditions of sun,
generally by their ability to grow and merge wind, view, or space.
with other forms. For us to perceive additive  Radial forms can grow into a network where
groupings as unified compositions of form, as several centers are linked by linear forms.
figures in our visual field, the component forms  The organization of a radial form can best be
must be .related to one another in a coherent seen and understood from an aerial view.
and close-knit manner. When it is viewed from ground level, its
 In order to categorize additive forms according central core element may not be clearly
to the nature of the relationship that exist visible, and the radiating patter~ of its linear
among the component forms as well as their arms may· be obscured or distorted through
overall configurations. perspective.
THERE ARE FIVE (5) DIAGRAMS as shown below. 4. CLUSTERED FORM-Consist of forms that are
1. CENTRALIZED FORMS- Consist of a number of grouped together by proximity or the sharing of
secondary forms clustered about dominant, a common visual trait.
central, parent forms. While a centralized organization has a strong
Centralized forms require the visual dominance geometrical basis for the ordering of its forms, a
of a geometrically regular, centrally located clustered organization groups its forms
form, such as the sphere, cylinder or according to functional requirements of size,
polyhedron. Because of their centrality, these shape or proximity. Lacking the introverted
forms share the self centering properties of the nature and geometrical regularity of centralized
point and circle . They are ideal as freestanding forms, a clustered organization is flexible
structures, isolated within their context, enough to incorporate forms of various shapes,
dominating a point in space, or occupying .the sizes, and orientations into its structure.
center of a defined field. They can embody
 Considering the flexibility of clustered the surface planes and emphasize instead the
organizations, their forms may be organized in volume of a form.
the following ways: EDGES & CORNERS
1. They can be attached as appendages to a  For a comer to be formally active in our visual
larger parent form or space. field there must be more than a slight deviation
2. They can be related by proximity alone to in the geometry of the adjoining planes. We
articulate and express their volumes as search for regularity and continuity in the forms
individual entities. within our visual field, and we will tend,
3. They can interlock their volumes and merge therefore, to regularize or smooth out slight
into a single form that has a variety of faces. irregularities in the forms we see. For example,
4. GRID FORMS - Are modular forms whose a wall plane that is bent only slightly will appear
relationships are regulated by three- to be a single, flat plane, perhaps with a surface
dimensional grids. imperfection. A corner could not be perceived.
 A grid may be defined as two or more  CORNERS define the meeting of two planes. If
intersecting sets of regularly spaced the two planes simply touch, and the corner
parallel lines. It generates a geometric remains unadorned, the appearance of the
pattern of regularly spaced points (where corner will depend on the visual treatment of
the grid line intersect) and regularly the adjoining surfaces. This corner condition
shaped fields. emphasizes the volume of a form.
 The most common grid is based on the  FOUR WAYS A corner condition can be
geometry of the square. Because of the VISUALLY Reinforced
equality of its dimensions e:md its 1. By introducing a separate and distinct
bilateral symmetry, a square grid is element that is independent of the surfaces
essentially neutral, non-hierarchical, and it joins. This element articulates the corner
non-directional. It can be used to break as a linear condition, defines the edges of
the scale of a surface down into the adjoining planes, and becomes a
measurable units and give it an even positive feature of the form.
texture. It can be used to wrap several 2. If an opening is introduced at the corner.
surfaces of a form and unify them with its One of the planes will appear to bypass the
repetitive and pervasive geometry. other. This opening de-emphasizes the
 The square grid, when projected into the corner, weakens the definition of the
third dimension, generates a spatial volume within the form, and emphasizes
network of reference points and lines, the planar qualities of the surfaces.
within this modular frame work, any 3. If neither plane is extended to define the
number of forms and spaces can be corner, a volume of space is created to
visually organized. replace the corner. This corner condition
ARTICULATION OF FORM deteriorates the form's volume, allows the
 Articulation refers to the manner in which the interior space to leak outward and clearly
surfaces of a form come together to define its reveals the surfaces as planes in space.
shape and volume. An articulated form clearly 4. Rounding off the corner emphasizes the
reveals the edges of its surfaces and the corners continuity of a form's surfaces, the
at which they meet. Its surfaces appear as compactness of its volume, and softness of
planes with distinct shapes; their overall its contour. The scale of the radius is
configuration is legible and easily perceived. important. If too small, it becomes usually
Similarly, an articulated group of forms insignificant; if large, it affects the interior
accentuates the joints between its constituent space it encloses and the exterior form it
forms to visually express their individuality. describes.
 A form and its surface planes can be articulated ARTICULATED CORNERS -independent of the adjoining
by: FOUR WAYS planes strengthening the edges of a form.
1. Differentiating adjacent surfaces with a
change in material, color, texture or PLAN CONFIGURATIONS
pattern. L-shaped configuration
2. Developing the corner as a distinct linear  Of planes generates a field of space from its
element independent of the surfaces. corner outward.
3. Removing the corner to physically separate  One of the corner can be articulated as an
adjacent planes. independent element that joins two linear
4. Lighting the form ·to create sharp forms together.
distinctions of light and dark at its corners.  One of the arms can be a linear form that
 In contrast to the above, the corners of a form incorporates the comer within its boundaries
can be rounded and smoothed over to while the other arm is seen as an appendage to
emphasize the continuity of its surfaces or a it.
material, color, texture or pattern can be  A building can have an L-configuration to
carried across a corner and the adjoining establish a corner of its site.
surfaces to de-emphasize the individuality of
  Or enclose a field of outdoor space to which its its size, form, surface, articulation, or the nature
interior spaces relate or to shelter a portion of of the openings within it.
outdoor space. SURFACE
 L-configurations of planes are stable and self-  Architectural surface are· Areas of materials
supporting, and can stand alone in space. which enclose a building and are of secondary
Because they are open-ended, they are flexible importance to the masses which they create.
space-defining elements. They can be used in But in order that a building may be wholly
combination with one another or with other satisfactory in its appeal, the necessary
elements of form to define a rich variety of attention must be given to the Treatment and
spaces. articulation of the exterior. The surfaces of a
 An L-configuration of rooms around an outdoor structure must have texture, tone, and color.
living space. Typically, one wing contains the A. TEXTURE
group living spaces while the other contains  Refers to the quality of surface treatment.
private, individual spaces. Usually occupy a Texture is usually associated with materials.
corner position, or is string along the backside Limestone may be polished and reflect light in
of one of the wings. The advantage of this type sparkling manner, or it may be rough and
of layout is its provision of a private outdoor coarse and give to the building a feeling of
space, sheltered by the building form, and to strength and simplicity. Stucco, with its various
which interior spaces can be directly related. texture of treatments to catch the sunlight, has
Parallel planes played an important part in the design of
 Define a volume of space between them that is homes which are mediterranean in character.
axially oriented toward the open ends of the  Surface covered with brick have a different
configuration. character from those in which wood is
 To visually reinforce the spatial field, along the employed. Thus, texture depends largely upon
open ends of the configuration, the base plane the choice and use of materials. The selection of
is manipulated or overhead elements are added a definite material fixes, to some extent, the
to the composition. character of the final effect, but the treatment
 The spatial field can be visually expanded by which is given to that material often produces
extending· the base plane beyond the open startling results.
ends of the configuration.  There should be a consistency in the selection
 Openings in one or both of the planes will also of the texture of materials-a harmonious
introduce secondary axes to the field and relationship between the various surfaces.
modulate the directional quality of the space. Contrast and the variety must be present but
U-shaped configuration the character and the quality of different
 Defines a field of space that has an inward focus textures should agree.
as well as an outward orientation.  Polished marble and bright chromium are
 Secondary zones are created when openings sympathetic with each other but usually do not
are introduced. combine well with rough field stone or brick.
 The open end will remain the "primary face" The character of each particular type of room or
and the plane opposite will be the " principal building calls for a corresponding type of
element" texture.
 The corners of the configurations can be seen  Texture can be used to destroy a form
to consist of linear forms. The corners can be perception. The figure below showing the
articulated as independent elements. This U - different texture on different sides of the cube
configuration can be used iri building forms and cause the experience of form to be disturbed.
organizations. We do not perceive a unit from here, but a
 A U-shaped building can define a forecourt for a fragment of a larger now destroyed form. The
building's approach as well as a recessed perception of a room can also be destroyed in
entrance within the volume of the building the same way.
form itself.  Two ways in which the attributes of a sensation
Four planes-closures of grain may vary hard-soft, smooth-rough.
 Since the field is completely -enclosed, its space Material examples of four extreme is shown in
is introverted. the figure below:
 If openings are introduced at the corners of the HARD HARD
space, the individual identity of the planes will smooth rough
be reinforced and encourage movement. (glass) brick, hollow block
 Openings provide continuity with adjacent SOFT SOFT
space; they can begin to weaken the enclosure smooth rough
of the space, depending on their size, number (silk) (wool)
and location.  Linear patterns reinforcing the height or, length
 To achieve visual dominance within the space, of a form, UNIFYING its SURFACES and
or become its primary face, one of the enclosing DEFINING its TEXTURAL QUALITY.
planes can be differentiated from the others by
 Openings and cavities creating textile with CHAPTER 3
shadow patterns and interrupting the continuity THE PRINCIPLE OF COMPOSITION
of a form's surfaces.  Architecture has the same basic principles
 The texture of a plane's surface, together with which are common to painting, sculpture, music
its color, will affect its visual weight, scale and and literature. It deals with unity, balance,
light-reflective qualities. rhythm, and composition. It is organized around
B. TONE a central plot, as in a novel. It has design, as has
 Is a variety in the use of the gradations from a sonata. It can be rhythmic as the dance. A
black to white. Tone comes from the change of painting has contrast of color, and a fine piece
impressions carried to the eye as a result of the of sculpture has beauty of form and line. Good
juxtaposition of dark and light areas. Tone, or architecture attains pleasing composition
the creation of light and shade, may be secured through the relation of contrasting masses and
by the use of doors and windows, or by tones.
shadows cast by projecting parts of the  It is difficult to isolate a single quality and
building, or by mouldings. consider it alone. A synthesis of all the
 JUXTA POSITION to put side by side or close principles is necessary in order to insure a
together (to juxta-pos)-to pose for a painting or unified and satisfactory composition, but for the
picture taking, to put in position. sake of study, it will be necessary to analyze
 Tone gives interest to an exterior and if the separately these qualities and their application
results are to be entirely satisfactory, requires to architectural problems. Mere recognition of
the same careful study that was devoted to the these principles does not, however, insure a
general massing. Poor arrangement of successful design. An individual may be a good
windows, plasters, and cornices can mar a critic but still be unable to write a poem, paint a
powerful composition. landscape, or design a building.
C. COLOR  Creative ability, in addition to a knowledge of
 The warmer climates have usually produced the application of the elements of design, is
most colorful architecture, as in Spain and Italy necessary for the production of distinguished
with their walls of delicate hues, tile fountains results. Ability to discern between what is fine
and wainscots, and richly contrasting roofs, and what is mediocre that quality which we call
Color as distinguished from tone, results from TASTE-must be developed.
the hues of the spectrum. It may be inherent as  GOOD TASTE is that discerning judgment which
in marble which is colored by nature, black or one exercises in connection with the better
gray stones, white or cream stone, red clay things of life. Good taste steers an individual
bricks. It may use colored tiles or metals. It may through the seas of social adjustments and
also apply colored wallpapers. aesthetic decisions. It enables him to choose
 Or it may apply or rather be applied, as in the correctly in accordance with cultural or artistic
case of surfaces which are painted or decorated standards. Popular taste, however, is so often a
by man. matter concerned with group action and
 Color requires intelligent handling and a changes so with the times, that it is not a
thorough knowledge of harmonies and values. reliable guide. Taste must, therefore, be based
The color scheme .of a building should be upon knowledge of the rules of proper conduct
carefully studied, with an understanding of the with respect to our actions and of the principles
character of the materials which are to produce of good composition in regard to our artistic
the colors. Simple conventionalized endeavors. Good taste and creative ability
arrangements in subdued tones are preferable together should produce buildings which merit
to garish and bizarre effects. the name architecture.
 The relationship between color and the CONTRAST variety
character of a building results from the  Our physical impressions are made possible
combining of warm and cool colors in the through contrast. We can hear because of the
proper amounts. contrast between silence and sound, because of
 the warm colors, the reds and the yellows, tend the difference between the lengths of the
to advance toward the observer (usually for sound waves. We can feel because of the
wide rooms) contrast between the quality of objects. The
 The cool colors. the blues and the greens, nerves in our finger tips tells us that some
appear to recede, showing infinity, immensity things are cold and smooth whereas others are
of space (usually for small compact rooms) warm and rough. We can see a building because
 Also the more neutral colors should be used for of the contrast in the shapes and textures of the
the larger areas, reserving for the more brilliant surfaces which enclose space to make
accents those bright colors which overpower architecture.
the composition unless sparingly used.  Not only is it possible for us to see a building
 The visual weight of a plane can be increased or through the element of contrast but also the
decreased by manipulating the tonal blue of its building is given beauty and interest by the
surface color. difference between the types of treatment
which are introduced. It is essential that certain
 areas, directions, and colors vary or differ from with reference to the direction of the mass or
others so that by contrast the qualities of each volume. The entire composition is decidedly
are emphasized. It is through contrast that we horizontal; but variety is secured by the vertical
secure proper scale, proportion, and unity and direction of the tower, of the end wings, and
consequently, a satisfactory design. the chimneys. Contrast of shape is also present
TYPICAL CONTRAST: in the rectangular and arched openings of the
1. CONTRAST OF FORM building, and contrast of tone is secured by the
 Shape darks and lights of the roots, walls, and
 mass windows.
2. CONTRAST OF LINE  CONTRAST is the opposite of SIMILARITY. If
 direction similarity exists to a marked degree, the effect
 type is monotony. The facade of a building may
3. CONTRAST OF SIZE consist of a simple, unadorned wall pierced with
4. CONTRAST OF TONE many uninteresting windows, and the effect
may be very monotonous. On the other hand, it
1. CONTRAST OF FORM is--possible to go to the other extreme and to
 In order for a shape to be interesting there have contrast which is too violent. Pilaster, belt
must be variety or contrast. Square and courses, and decoration may be used too
circular areas may create a diversified profusely. The result will be a restless
interest. disorganized design which lacks repose. It is
 If form is more properly conceived in three thus, necessary that contrast be present in and
dimensions, the architectural result is mass or just the correct amount: enough to give variety
volume. If contrasting bulks are combined, it but not an excess; which will cause confusion.
is possible that the resulting composition may CONTRAST IN ARCHITECTURAL SUBJECT:
be interesting and satisfying. 1. CONTRAST OF MASS
2. CONTRAST OF LJNE  This figure show an interesting combination
 Lines may vary with reference to direction. It of rectangular masses based upon
is possible to have a horizontal line opposing contemporary practice. Here there is
a vertical or diagonal lines may form a contrast of vertical and horizontal volumes
composition. giving a composition in abstract form which
 A line may also offer contrast on account of becomes capable of housing human
its change in type or character. It may be interests through the introduction of
curved or straight, regular or irregular, windows, doors, and floor levels. A pleasing
broken, or continuous. composition is secured chiefly by the
 In an architectural example, contrast of type relationship which exists between the
of line gives an interesting contour or various block-like units of the buildings and
silhouette to a building. by the disposition of the windows which
3. CONTRAST OF SIZE give interest to the surfaces of the masses.
 Deals with objects which may have the same  In this figure, attention should be called to
shape and direction but may vary in size. If the manner in which the eye is carried
this change in size is gradual and uniform, the along to the tower by means of a series of
result is called gradation. minor vertical units which prepare one for
 In the architectural example below, the the climax of the dominant element near
rectangular windows and door contrast with the centre. Consideration should also be
each other in the matter of size. given to the horizontal treatment of the
4. CONTRAST OF TONE windows on the left, which emphasizes the
 Tone may be secured by contrast of texture, direction of that portion of the building and
openings, or planes. opposes the vertical feeling of the forms
near the main entrances.
 The exterior of the building is given interest
on account of the contrast between the dark  It is well to remember that contrast is
roof and the light walls. This feeling is opposition. If verticals did not oppose
strengthened by the introduction of the darks horizontals, if openings did not differ from
of the openings and by the shadows cast by wall, and if accents did not successfully
the projecting wings of the building. Contrast compete for the interest of the observer,
of tone is secured in the examples below of contrast would not exist. There is also here
abstract design, by the use of black and white, a transition in the relationship between
or gray and white, areas. masses. This situation is shown where the
COMBINATIONS adjacent volumes prepare the observer for
the dominant vertical near the centre of the
 An architectural composition is presented which
composition.
illustrates in a combined way some of the
various types ot contrast. There is, first of all,
contrast of mass - not only with references to
whether it is cylindrical or rectangular, but also
2. CONTRAST OF DIRECTION and a vertical feeling is secured by the use of
 Here again is an interesting contrast between columns and pilasters. The arch entrance also
the horizontal direction of the composition and offers the quality of variety when used with the
the dominant vertical accent of the tower, rectangular door and windows, while contrast or
which is called the major contrasting element, opposition is secured by the upward thrust of the
while a minor vertical is to be seen at the left. columns against the inert weight of the
The termination of the tower gives additional entablature.
emphasis and contrast to that part of the b.contrast of pattern different materials
structure.  This face is based upon old Persian brickwork and
 There is also present in this connection contrast shows contrast of tone secured by the alternating
of tone, which is seen in the decorative pattems of brick and stone. Accents are also
treatment of the upper and lower portions of obtained by the change in direction of the
the tower. Interest in other parts of the facade voussoirs of the lower arches.
is secured by the contrast of the windows with c. contrast of area
the wall surfaces. In the wing at the right, the  The general direction of the building is horizontal,
upper windows are pointed and are larger than but the treatment of the exterior is given variety
the rectangular ones below, while at the left the by the introduction of vertical piers. In the roof,
arched openings with balconies are surrounded the lines of the tile oppose the horizontal
by large areas of wall space which again give direction of the roof itself. A satisfactory
variety and contrast. contrasting relation exists between the width of
 It is also necessary that the various units in plan the windows and that of the piers. The piers are
should vary in size and projection in order that a wider than the windows and provide for
monotonous exterior effect may be avoided. dissimilarity of surface, or an interesting
The different elements must be wide or narrow. proportion of parts.
long or short. so that some may be more  It is evident that contrast result from dissimilarity,
important than others. In addition, there should or the association of unlike masses, areas or
be a variation in the projections of the various tones. Contrast is also opposition -opposition by
parts of the plan, in order that the proper which one element wages a successful battle
emphasis may be secured. against competing elements. One shape or color
3. CONTRAST OF CHARACTER clearly dominates the others. This condition may
 The church and the parish house must be also be called emphasis, but this emphasis must
similar in general feeling, but the use of the be present in just the proper amount. If a
various architectural details must express the doorway, a window, or a panel seems to detach
different function of each particular structure. itself from the wall or appears to be unrelated to
The church must have ecclesiastical character the rest of the composition, it may be too
and the parish house must harmonize with the emphatic in its appeal. The element of contrast is
former, but not to such an extent that it might too strong.
be mistaken for a place of worship. This calls for  There is not a satisfactory transition between the
a subtle balance of contrast and similarity- the surrounding wall surface and the dominant
contrast of character. architectural motif. Therefore, although contrast
 Here the spire of the church which we associate is essential to a unified composition, transition
with ecclesiastical buildings gives a suggestion should always tend to alleviate the burden
of function, and the important entrance imposed by excessive and sudden changes in
indicates the public character of the structure. treatment. Mouldings and decorative details
The house has smaller windows than the should have structural or circulatory elements,
church, their size being regulated by the interior and belt courses, cornices, and quoins should help
which they are to light. The shutters and one surface to member gracefully with the next
chimneys impart a touch of domesticity and and assist in tying the entire arrangement
intimacy which would not be desirable in the together in a pleasing and interesting manner.
church and which is lacking therein. Contrast of
direction is also present. The church is vertical, PROPORTION …..relationships
whereas the parish house is horizontal. Contrast PROPORTION
of size is evident- the large church over the  Proportion is largely a matter of relationships. It
smaller dwelling. is evident by a comparison which the eye makes
4. CONTRAST OF TREATMENT between the size, shape, and tone of various
a. same material used in different treatment objects or parts of a composition. These are
 In this drawing, there is found contrast based, not certain geometrical forms which have very
on direction or mass, but upon the handling of definite proportions. These are the: circle,
the various surface. Interest is secured by triangle and the square
changing the character of the treatment of the  The eye judge them quickly and classifies them
upper and lower portion of the facade. The with no difficultly.
rustication of the lower floor is heavy in character  Just as a circle is more evident and less
and horizontal in direction_ The treatment of the intriguing than a freehand curve, so is a square
upper floors is more refined in its use of detail, less interesting than a rectangle. However a
 rectangle should very definitely take on the of a rhythmic repetition of motifs which
proportions of that particular shape. It should have a common geo· metric shape as a
not approach a square in its dimensions, base.
because a state of doubt will exist in the mind  Classical and renaissance buildings show that
of the observer as to its classification. arched and rectangular opening are two
 The eye will be unable to decide whether it is a diameters high.
square or a rectangle. On the other hand of the  The circle and square have been found to
rectangle becomes too long, it approaches the possess certain properties which recommend
area of two squares, and there is an them as a base upon which to begin a design.
unconscious tendency for the eye to divide it RELATIONS:
into two equal spaces. Thus there is  One of the most important phases of
competition between the two parts. To get the proportion and one which should be considered
most pleasing rectangular proportion. The in the development of a facade is the relation of
golden section or (Golden mean} was the solids to the voids, of the wall surfaces to
introduced. the openings. It is necessary that one clearly
THE GOLDEN SECTION dominate the other that the element of a
 Defined geometrically as a line that is divided contrast will be present. If there is a similarity
such that the lesser portion is to the greater as between the width of the windows and the
the greater is to be the whole. spaces between, indecision or competition will
exist.
 In classical, Romanesque, and Renaissance
buildings, where heavy stone construction
predominates. The windows and doors usually
occupy a minor portion of the facade and the
wall surfaces are quite dominant.
 When the Gothic builders learned the art and
science of transmitting the thrust or weight of
the vaults to isolated buttresses. the w alls of
the cathedrals became unimportant. Large
areas of stained glass took the place of these
walls, and regularly spaced piers carried the
load of the roof and vaults.
 In contemporary architecture, the cantilever of
concrete and steel f frees the designer from
many restrictions of masonry and construction
and there is a tendency to use openings freely.

Proportions May be Based on the Following Factors:

1. Natural Material Proportions
 All building materials in architecture have
distinct properties of stiffness, hardness and
durability. And they all have an ultimate
strength beyond which they cannot extend
themselves without fracturing, breaking or
SOME PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTION USED IN CLASSICAL collapsing.
ARCHITECTURE
 All materials have rational proportions that
The Equilateral Triangle are dictated by their inherent strengths and
 The equilateral triangle, or one with equal sides weakness. Masonry units like brick, are
and angles, has long been accepted as a form strong m compression and depend on their
with good proportions. It is static and stable. It's mass for strength, and are volumetric in
centre of gravity is low, and it tapers in a regular form logs are also volumetric in element and
manner from the base of the composition. a is used in log cabin construction. Wood is
triangular arrangement in a painting, in a flexible and is used as beams and posts steel
sculptural group, or in an architectural massing are strong both in compression and tension.
offers a satisfactory disposition of parts. It goes 2. Manufactured Proportions
so far in insuring good results that the privilege  Many architectural elements are sized and
of using it has been abused, and it is regarded proportioned not only according to their
as the easiest way out of a difficult situation. structural properties and function, but also
Gothic window using Equilateral Triangle by the process through which they are
 If the facade of a building is developed in manufactured. Because these elements are
such a manner that areas of similar shaped mass-produced in factories, they have
are repeated through the composition it standard sizes and proportions imposed on
may lead to a unity of treatment. A sense of them by the individual manufactures.
harmony will be the results of use is made
 3. Mode of Construction or Structural ones. They are predicated on the theory that
Proportions forms and spaces in architecture are either
 The size and proportions of structural elements containers or extensions of the human body
such as beams, columns, are directly related to and should, therefore, be determined by its
the structural tasks they perform and can be, dimensions.
therefore; visual indicators of the size and scale  The dimensions and proportions of the human
of the spaces they help enclose body affect the proportion of things we handle,
 Since beams transmit their loads horizontally the height and distance of things we must
across space to their vertical supports, its reach, the dimensions of the furniture we use
depth, therefore is the critical dimension and its to sitting, working, eating, and sleeping.
depth to span ratio, is a good indicator of its  In addition to these elements that we used in a
structural role. building, the dimensions of the human body
 The proportion of a column may depend upon also affect the volume of space we require for
the spacing or its height. movement, activity and rest.
 The proportion of a truss may depend upon its
type.
4. Requirements of the Program, Function or
Government Ordinances
a. The proportion of the height of a room is
controlled by local building ordinances,
logic and artistic sense.
b. Auditorium proportions are influenced by
visual and acoustical considerations.
c. Proportions between heights and areas of
rooms are controlled by the capacity and
lighting requirements of the room.
5. Traditions and Generally Accepted Taste
a. At the exterior, the height of an edifice should
be in proportion to the character that the
edifice demands.
b. Buildings of worship such as: churches and
temples usually have traditional proportions.
c. Classical buildings usually have proportions
based upon traditional rules.
Distinction between 'Relative' and 'Absolute'
Proportion.
1. Relative Proportion -deals with the
relationship between the parts of an object and
the whole example ratio between the diameter
of a Classical column and its height or the
relation of the panels of the door and the whole
door.
2. Absolute - deals with the relationship between
the different parts of an object or the whole to
the various parts.
Example
 ratio between the sizes of windows and
the blank walls.
 Proportion of a cabinet or appliance to
the room.

 The 'KEN' modular grid is a Japanese way of

proportioning the size of rooms where one MAT is
3.15 x 6.30 or 1 x 2 ken in Kyo-man method. The
standard Tatami floor mat is 3 x 6 shaku or 1/2 x 11.
 Proportions of Room Designs by Using the KEN
METHOD (Applicable in Mat, Tiles or Standard
Plywood Sizes).

ANTHROPOMORPHIC PROPORTIONS
 These systems are based on the dimensions and
proportions of the human body.
Anthropomorphic proportioning methods seek
not abstract or symbolic ratios, but functional
 and proper scale should be present when this
adaptation is made.
 While proportion refers to the mathematical
relationships among the real dimensions of a
form or space, scale refers to how we perceive
the size of a building element or space relative
to other forms. In visually measuring the size of
an element we tend to use other elements of
known-size in their context as measuring
devices. These are known as scale-giving
elements, and tall into two general categories.
a. Building elements whose size and
characteristics are familiar to us through
experience like doors, windows, tables,
chairs, stairs, etc.
b. Human figure.
In architecture, therefore, we are concerned with two
types of scale:
1. GENERIC SCALE-the size of a building element
relative to other forms in its context; (three
windows indicate three stories, the small
window indicate a small room inside).
2. HUMAN SCALE-the size of a building element or
space relative to the dimensions and
proportions of the human body.

 One must always remember that a small

building must necessarily contain few windows,
but that of a large structure may have many
openings. The above figures show how the
number of doors and windows give a definite
clue to the comparative sizes of the other. If the
top figure is about 15 meters long then the
figure below is about 30 meters long.
 Correct scale is then to bring all parts of the
building and landscape into proper relation with
each other. The various elements should be
correctly related to human uses. A door should
be of such a size that they may be entered
without fear of discomfort. While, the windows
should have a better relationship to the floor
levels, wall areas and functions of the interior.
SCALE …..size
 Scale is a fixed proportion used in determining Factors that affect SCALE:
measurements and dimensions. 1. Normal requirements of human beings.
 Scale has reference to proportions which are 2. Sizes of familiar materials and those of nature.
good for humans. Scale deals with the relation Example, the size of bricks or hollow blocks
of architectural motifs, such as doors, windows which is usually 0.20 height and 0.40 length or
or mouldings, to each other and the human the common plywood which is four feet (1.20
figure. Architecture must be adapted to human m} wide and eight feet long (2.40 m).
needs. Doors should be large enough to walk 3. Beauty or appearance- Scale is so subtle that it
through in comfort but not so gigantic that they affects even the smallest things that its mastery
require an almost impossible physical effort to must be acquired through cultivation of good
close them. taste and an instinct for harmony in
 Steps should be of such a size as to permit easy Architecture.
ascent and descent. Ceiling heights must be 4. Character-whether it is monumental,
properly proportioned to the size and function residential, rustic or formal.
of the room. In order to prevent one from 5. Function or purpose- usually, classroom areas
falling from one level to the next, a balustrade or theatre areas affect the design of a room.
should be related to the human figure in such a 6. Location or visual distance- mouldings, bas
way that safety is secured. Thus, design is a reliefs and statues outside the building should
matter of the adjustment of architectural be bigger than that is viewed from the inside.
elements to meet the needs of the human race,
 7. Economics- depends upon the budget of the weights, tones, values etc. are developed.
owner. A limited budget will provide a smaller Proper balance satisfies the eye with
building, a lower ceiling height. reference to the relative importance of ·the
 A building maybe in proper scale but is entirely various parts of the design.
out of proportion. Proportions are only  The notion of an axis can be reinforced by
referable to one another, and therefore, a defining edges along its length. Those edges
building may have good proportions and yet be can be simply lines on the ground plan, or
entirely out of scale or vice versa. vertical planes that define a linear space
 Ex. A well-proportioned door for a residence coincidental with the axis.
may be out of scale for" a huge cathedral. There are three {3) types of BALANCE in the study of
composition.
BALANCE and GRAVITATIONAL CURVES 1. SYMMETRICAL BALANCE -monumental effect
 Gravitational-natural tendency toward some  centralized
point or object of influence. The gravitation of  Formal
people towards suburbs.  radial
BALANCE or equalization… equilibrium 2. UNSYMMETRICAL BALANCE -informal
 In the temperate zone, the climatic changes 3. GRAVITATIONAL BALANCE -picturesqueness of
tend to balance each other. However, nature is surroundings.
variable. If there is marked lack of rain, a 1. SYMMETRlCAL
drought results. If there are too many people a. Central axis
for the food supply, there is famine. The proper  The easiest and simplest kind of balance in
balance between supply and demand has not which the elements are arranged in precisely
been maintained. A person should also have a the same manner on either side of a central axis
balanced diet in order not to be thin or stout or or line.
get sick. Furthermore, the books of accounts of  Not only is the arrangement similar but each
an office or business establishment is balanced object is exactly like the one occupying the
so as to have a clear view of the assets and corresponding position on the opposite side. In
liabilities. this kind of balance the eye catches at a glance
 If balance does not exist, there must necessarily the equality of attraction on each side of the
be lack of balance or inequality. Balance is centre of the composition.
equality. It is composition. It is the foundation  All elements are duplicated -shape for shape,
upon which arrangement, harmony and size for size, and tone for tone. The left half of
adjustment of weights, tones, values, etc. are the composition is identical with the right half.
developed. Proper balance satisfies the eye This type of balance gives a feeling of repose
with reference to the relative importance of the and order. It is straight forward and direct. The
various parts of the design. effect of monumentality is more readily secured
AXIS by the use of a symmetrical composition than
 The most elementary means of organizing by an informal grouping of units.
forms and spaces in architecture. It is a line b. Formal
established by two points in space and about  There is another type of balance which
which forms and spaces can be arranged in a approaches absolute symmetry but which lacks
regular or irregular manner. some of the essentials of this kind of
 Although imaginary and not visible, an axis is a composition. At first glance the elements on
powerful, dominating, regulating device. one side of the central axis appear to be
Although it implies symmetry. It demands identical with those on the opposite side, but
BALANCE. upon closer examination it is found that such is
 The specific disposition of elements about an Aot the case. The general mass and grouping of
axis will determine whether the visual force of parts may be similar, but there are
an axial organization is subtle or overpowering, dissimilarities in plan, elevation, or details. The
loosely structured or formal, picturesque Of volumes of the balancing units may correspond,
monotonous. but there may exist a difference in their shapes
 An axis has qualities of length and direction, and surface treatments. This type of
and induces movement and views along its composition is called 'Formal Balance’.
path. An axis must be terminated at both of its  Here the two units are located at equal
ends and can be reinforced by defining edges distances from the central shaft and are similar
along its length. in mass or bulk. However, they are unlike in
 The terminating elements of an axis serve to plan and in elevation, though the general effect
both send and receive its visual thrust. These is still one of simple balance.
terminating elements can be any of the c. Radial
following:  Is characterized by an arrangement where all
 Inequality, balance is equality. It is the parts radiate from a center like the spokes
composition. It is the foundation upon which in a wheel.
arrangement harmony and adjustment of
2. UNSYMMETRICAL (Informal)  There are several factors which, when
 Unsymmetrical or occult balance is more subtle combined with the elements to balance in a
and elusive, and is more difficult to attain. It work of art. These factors or variables are
attempts to satisfy the eye without any effort to position or placement, size, proportion, quality
place equal masses at similar distances from the and direction of the elements of these factors,
center of the composition. It is the grouping, in position plays the lead role. If two shapes of
an informal manner, of elements of varying equal physical qualities are placed near the
sizes and shapes. bottom of a picture frame, the work will appear
 The eye must be satisfied when one is working bottom· heavy or out of balance with the large
for unsymmetrical balance. But the eye must be upper space. Such shapes should be placed in
trained to perceive the accomplishment of this positions which will contribute to the total
result. A see-saw is used as an example wherein balance of all the involved picture parts.
a lighter weight is farther from the fulcrum and  In seeking balance, it should be recognized that
a heavier one nearer. In an informal the elements of art represent " moments of
arrangement the larger and heavier masses force". The eye, as it travels over the picture
should be nearer the centre of the group, while surface, pauses momentarily for significant
the lighter, lower and more horizontal elements picture parts which are contrasting in character.
may constitute the long arm. These contrast represent moving and
 In this unsymmetrical diagram, the room on the directional forces which must counterbalance
left carries up higher and thus forms a more one another sc that a controlled tension results.
important exterior mass. The centre of gravity RHYTHM, movement, repetition, spacing
of the composition is near the main entrance,  Music is an art that is heard. It is a combination
and one feels that the long, low mass to the of sounds arranged in such a manner as to
right is balanced about this fulcrum by the arouse various reactions of pleasure, interest or
heavier, more compact portion at the left. excitement. Architecture is an art which is seen.
3. GRAVITATIONAL or PICTURESQUE It is a composition of elements so arranged as
 This kind of composition is the complete to serve a utilitarian purpose and, in addition,
adaptation to its surroundings. This type of to have an emotional appeal. The music of the
composition is often far removed from western world is based upon rhythm, melody
conscious composition. Picturesqueness is the and harmony. Rhythm is the foundation of
opposite of symmetrical composition. music. Although it is necessary that there be
Essentially, it is a quality which is not composed tones of pleasing quality, still these tones must
but freely results from time and the forces of first be organized into some kind of time or
nature. spacing.
 One sense, rather than sees, a state of  Unorganized sounds result in discord or
equilibrium. The gravitational is typical dissonance; unorganized architectural forms
arrangement of nature, in which a landscape is cause confusion. Movement is the basis of
informal in its disposition of parts. Its rhythm. The movement in music may consist of
arrangement is accidental, and it may be good the time, which may be fast or slow, or it may
in its composition or it may be lacking in this be the Tempo or repetition of the theme
quality. Nature works in an unconscious manner through the composition, regular or irregular.
with no attempt to meet man-made rules.  There is the same feeling of movement in
 The artist puts upon canvas his interpretation of architecture. A building is, of course, static. It
the scene before him, modifying it to suit his remains indefinitely upon its foundations. But
own particular fancy. He moved trees, houses there is a movement of the theme as it travels
and even mountains about so that they will across the facade of the building- the eye
conform to a pattern which embodies the pausing here to look at this detail and then
principles of good design. He secures informal going on to the next.
balance in a number of ways. He may use small  An unbroken wall has no rhythm. There is
areas of bright colors on one side of the nothing except texture to arrest the attention;
painting to balance a large area of neutral tone nothing to be seen beyond the shape and
on the other, or he may create a feeling of contour of the surface.
movement in order to equalize a static quality TWO KINDS OF RHYTHM
in another part of the composition. 1. UNACCENTED RHYTHM -if equally spaced
 Balance suggests a gravitational equilibrium of a windows are introduced on the unbroken wall,
single unit in space, or of pairs symmetrically then regular repetition is present.
arranged with respect to a central axis or point. 2. ACCENTED RHYTHM -if the openings or details
 In picture-making, balance refers to a "felt" are arranged in such a manner that some are
optical equilibrium between all parts of the more important than others, then the eye
work. The artist balances forces horizontally, grasps the significance of this relationship and
vertically, radially, diagonally in all directions pauses longer in contemplating the larger
and positions. elements.
  Rhythm refers to the regular or harmonious There are at least seven (7) ways of producing an
recurrence of lines, shapes, forms, or colors. It effect of UNITY in a design.
incorporates the fundamental notion of 1. There must be a central motif, a theme, or a center
repetition as a device to organize forms and of interest. The attention of the observer must be
spaces in architecture. Almost all building types drawn to this focal point.
incorporate elements that are, by their nature, 2. The major masses of the building should dominate
repetitive. Beams and columns repeat the less important ones.
themselves to form repetitive structural bays 3. All the units should together form a compact and
and modules of space. coherent ensemble:
 Windows and doors repeatedly puncture a 4. The element of emphasis must be introduced. It
building's surface to allow light, air, views, and may be secured by the size, position, or treatment
people to enter its interiors. Spaces often recur of a particular motif which is to give the desired
to accommodate similar or repetitive functional importance to that particular part of the building.
requirements in the building program. This 5. By limiting the amount of treatment seen at one
section discusses the patterns of repetition that time.
can be utilized to organize a series of recurring 6. By selecting details, materials, colors, etc. in
elements, and the resultant visual rhythms harmony with the basic idea.
these patterns create 7. By selecting styles, furnitures and furnishings in
 Rhythm is ORGANIZED MOVEMENT. It must be harmony with the surroundings.
directed and controlled. If unrelated noises COMPETITION
occur, such as the din of the factory, there is no  When elements compete with each other for
organization and hence no rhythm. If windows the place of importance. There is competition.
and doors are thrown into the facade of a This causes 'DUALITY' or the presence of two
building in a haphazard manner, there is no strong conflicting personalities or masses
scheme or sense to the arrangement and again resulting in discord and redundancy. The towers
no rhythm. appear attenuated and unstable. The shared
Rhythm may be one of the following: element is too weak to counteract the
a. Rhythmic use of color- movement of the eye overturning force acting on the towers.
across a painting from spot to spot of similar CONFUSION
color.  Another kind of competition where dissimilarity
b. Rhythmic use of line-repetition of a similar is too pronounced. There is no harmonious
type of line in a piece of sculpture. treatment and dissimilarities in architectural
c. Rhythm of motion-the movement of dancers. elements such as door, windows are combined.
d. Rhythm of direction -continuity of a series of There is no definite architectural character and
arches forming an arcade. no central theme.
UNITY and HIERARCHY, harmony  Confusion of two towers. dormers, windows,
 Unity suggests harmony. If a structure has unity, tree
it must have contrast, rhythm and scale. To  In this figure, the pointed arches and the
have harmony, all the unrelated parts of an half-timber-the semi-ecclesiastical and the
architectural arrangement are brought into domestic qualities-are not in symphathy
proper relation to each other so that a with each other, and confusion prevails.
satisfactory composition is obtained. If unity  In the figure below an attempt has been
prevails, all the unimportant parts must be kept made to correct the faults which are
in their places and be made simply to assist the apparent in the confusing figure above.
major units in the roles which they are to play in There is simplicity. The two towers have
the development of the structure. This is similar been reduced to a single, important unit,
to a well-organized business group or a and emphasis has been increased by the
disciplined army. There must be the leaders and placing of the two trees so that the eye is
those who assist the leaders, each with his own more easily led to this dominant part of the
particular function to perform. composition.
 The simplest kind of unity dealing with motifs of
more than one member is to be found in  The principle of HIERARCHY implies that in
ordinary REPETITION. Like repetition of sound most architectural compositions, real
or beads of the same size and spacing. To give differences exist among their forms and spaces.
emphasis and interest, an accent is then These differences reflect in a sense, the degree
introduced. of importance of these forms and spaces, and
 In an architectural composition, the elements the functional, formal, and symbolic roles they
must be arranged in such a way as to insure the play in their organization. The value system by
domination of the less important parts by the which their relative importance is measured
major masses of the building. will, of course, depend on the specific situation,
the needs and desires of the users and the
decisions of the designer. The values expressed
may be individual or collective, personal or
cultural.
  in any case, the manner is which these 3. PERSONALITY, or the human quality or
functional or symbolic differences among a emotional appeal.
building's elements are revealed as critical to
the establishment of a visible, hierarchical order 1. FUNCTIONAL CHARACTER
among its forms and spaces.  The most important kind of character in
 For a form or space to be articulated as being architecture is that which results from the
important or significant to an organization, it purpose of the building or the reason for its
must be made visibly unique. This can be erection. The use of a structure naturally calls
achieved by endowing a form or shape with the for a certain disposition of parts, and this
following: arrangement affects the appearance of the
1. Exceptional SIZE exterior, by which we largely judge character.
 A form or space may dominate an  Examples:
architectural composition by being a. Museum-must have galleries with ample wall
significantly different in size than all other space and top light, which eliminates windows
elements in the composition. Normally, and necessitates the use of skylights.
the dominance is made visible by the b. A school building - must contain many windows
sheer size of an element. In some cases, to admit the necessary side light and to offer an
an element can also dominate by being interesting contrast with the possible monotony
significantly smaller than the other of the classroom walls.
elements in the organization and placed c. Shop - a structure with large show windows is
in a well-defined setting. usually a shop for the display and sale of
2. Unique SHAPE merchandise.
 Forms and spaces can be made visually d. Factory - readily seen from the exterior to
dominant, and thus, important by clearly express the efficient operation of the
differentiating their shape from that of. manufacturing within. The exterior shows often
the other elements in the composition. A only the structural members - which are
discernible contrast in shape is critical, stripped of all unnecessary decoration together
whether the diffe'rentiation · is based out with the enclosing expanses of the glass to light
a change in geometry or regularity. It is the interior. The building has little architectural
important that the shape selected for the show, it is simple since it is to raise revenue.
hierarchically important e_lement be e. Monument-serves to perpetuate a memory of a
compatible with its function and use to person or an important event. It does not
have unity. produce any revenue. It must be impressive and
3. A STRATEGIC LOCATION: Forms and spaces should have dignity and command respect. Its
may be: function, then, is to be monumental, usually
 Strategically placed to call attention to symmetrical. in arrangement and uses
themselves as being the important permanent materials like stone, steel, concrete,
elements in a composition. Hierarchically or some durable and heavy materials to
important locations for a form or space produce a feeling of lasting effect.
include the following: f. A Bank-should have dignity-it is a building
(a) the termination of a linear sequence or designed to house an activity which is very near
axial organization to the heart and mind of the average citizen-
(b) The centerpiece of a symmetrical that of caring for his money. The building
organization. should Inspire confidence in its integrity. This
(c) The focus of a centralized or radial building houses an activity which is work.
organization. g. Movie- Cinema House -a place of relaxation or
(d) Offset, above, below or in the recreation after a hectic day of discharging
foreground of a composition. one's obligations of the day. In this building
CHARACTER- expressiveness psychological use of color and decoration is
 Buildings have points of similarity, like walls, important. Bright colors and unusual or unique
doors and roofs but have different purposes architectural effects quicken the imagination
and appearances. In any architecture which is and cater to the holiday spirit. This building
worthy of the name, the exterior of a building houses an activity of man-that of relaxation.
expresses the internal function and so h. House - should reflect the informal intimacy of
MANIFESTED CHARACTER is the External home life.
Expression of Internal Qualities. The element of
character grows out of the function of the 2. ASSOCIATED CHARACTER
building and the consideration of all the  This comes from the influence of ideas and
creative principles of composition. impressions related to or growing out of past
Character in architecture is derived from three (3) experiences. We know by association and
types. They are characters from: experience that the various races have different
1. FUNCTION, of use of the building. physical characteristics and we are thus able to
2. ASSOCIATION or influence of traditional types. distinguish between an Oriental, a Negro, a
Caucasian, and an Indian. We often associate
 such features as color, eyes, height, nose and The oriental is a mystery to the Caucasian; the
others. Indian is stoical and taciturn. Individuals are gay
 In a similar manner, we have come to recognize or gloomy, sparkling or stupid, graceful or
buildings by features which have long been gawking.
associated with that particular structure. A spire  Buildings have qualities which are directly
atop a building with stained glass windows has related to their functions, but in addition, they
always told us that the edifice was a church. may possess characteristics which have to do
The use of the classical orders often indicates rather with the emotional reaction set up in the
the presence of a bank, and Collegiate Gothic mind of the observer. Like members of the
frequently discloses the identity of an human race, buildings may be stern and
educational institution. forbidding, light and playful, or sedate and
 However, when a mode of construction or type dignified, with reference to the impressions
of design is found to be antiquated, it may be which they are capable of giving.
discarded, provided that a worthy successor has  It is to these qualities of vitality, repose, grace,
been developed to take its place. The ultra- restraint, festivity, dignity, etc. that we give the
modernists would eliminate all association with name of personal character. If the building is
the past. They would allow the function of the designed. in the proper spirit, this type of
building to control the exterior regardless of the character will grow naturally from the structure
effect. itself. It is quite essential that this intangible
 The contemporary movement in architecture quality agrees with the function of the building.
has, however, caused many revisions in our Nothing could be more disastrous than to have
association of ideas. It has been necessary to a power plant look like an entertainment
adjust our points of view to the many influences pavilion -a substitution of festivity for efficiency.
which are now changing the character of our  Example:
modern buildings. New method of construction  A dilapidated warehouse has a feeling of
have grown out of new materials, and it is now humility. A magnificent city hall can take pride
possible to use openings in ways which were in its size and position.
not practicable according to our former  Personality in a building has more to do with
conceptions of the limitations of brick and the spirit of the building than its purpose-
stone. Our attitude toward physical comfort has They are abstract rather that concrete. A
been revolutionalized. building may display the quality of strength. It
 The home must be more efficient in operation may be simple or ornate, picturesque or
and more pleasant in its interior treatment. The formal.
museum is no longer a place in which to  A building in itself may be of good design but
contract museum fatigue by climbing out of place when transplanted to a setting
monumental stairways, and factories are now for which it is not intended. A mountainous
airy and cheerful. summer home would appear incongruous in
 If a building functions properly and is composed Makati, and a magnificent cathedral would
according to the rules of good design, it then look ridiculous on the lonely long
follows that the character shall or rather should superhighway. Character is thus also a matter
be satisfactory. A bank for example, need no of location.
longer be heavy and semi-fortified. Our bank  An exposition building designed and intended
architecture was borrowed from the temples of to convey the spirit of gayety and festivity.
Greece. The massive walls inspired the This is built for entertainment. The personal
depositors with confidence. Changing character is given through its lightness and
conditions have brought about a realization that spontaneity of the decoration and the use of
there is a little relation between thick stones, vertical accents, banners, etc. The walls are
barred windows , and the security of ·light in thickness, indicating perhaps, a
investments and savings. Only the conspicuous temporary structure. It also has a feeling of
vault doors remain to advertise the safety of openness which relates the interior to the
the deposits. Our banks have now become surrounding landscape treatment.
efficient places in which to work, and they  A custom-house - here a sense of strength
present cheerful and dignified interiors in which and solidity is required. Strong walls are
to transact business. deemed necessary and heavy masonry with
3. PERSONAL CHARACTER few openings is used to give the desired
 Personal character in architecture bears a character. Here all is business all is
certain relation to the same attribute in the life seriousness.
of an individual. It is found .that the element of  A large house- for those who want to display
personality plays an important part in the evidence of his wealth.
revealing of character both with man and with  A simple designed house-for the quiet and
architecture. Members of the various races unassuming people.
have different traits-some common to several
groups, some peculiar to a particular group. The
plantation Negro is often happy and carefree.
  Personality of character in a building can be
attained by the ingenious application of masses,
lines and color treatment,
1. Heavy masses -sedate (composed) {dignified)
2. Straight lines -sturdiness (masculine effect)
3. Horizontal lines -repose I rest, peace) stability,
comfort, and widening effect.
4. Vertical lines-strength (power, vitality, dignity,
inspirational emphasize height and
monumentality dynamic).
5. Diagonal lines-action (movement, vigor and
speed).
6. Irregular lines-informality (excitement).
7. Curved lines-grace (refinement, feminine
emotional, continuity, flexibility).
8. Bright colors-red, yellow, orange, et.)
conspicuous, cheerful, stimulating, attractive,
advancing effect.
9. Cool colors-blue green, violet, etc.
lunconspicuous, restful receding effect,
suggests distance) .

Character then maybe expressed in Architecture by the

following:
1. Scale - when increased, it gives a feeling of
grandeur, dignity and monumentality. However,
when scale is reduced, these characteristics are
lessened if not reversed.
2. Proportion - regarded to produce formality in
character when applied. Example is triangular
massing. The huge proportions applied in the
parts of the classical buildings give them the
formal character.
3. Style-many architects believe that style is
character expressive of definite conceptions as
for example-grandeur, gaiety or solemnity. On
account of traditions, certain styles of
Architecture were adapted for specific types of
buildings. This give the proper or good
"Ambience" say, for example, a neat and
orderly modern design of a beergarden as
compared to a beergarden with indigenous, all
local materials used.
 AMBIENCE -surrounding on all sides, an
environment or its distinct atmosphere; or
milieu.
 MILIEU -environment, social or cultural setting.