Vol 19 No 6 June 2020

IJLTER.
ORG
International Journal
of
Learning, Teaching
And
Educational Research
p-ISSN: 1694-2493
e-ISSN: 1694-2116
Vol.19 No.6
PUBLISHER International Journal of Learning, Teaching and
Society for Research and Knowledge Management Educational Research
Port Louis
Republic of Mauritius
www.ijlter.org The International Journal of Learning, Teaching
and Educational Research is an open-access
Chief Editor journal which has been established for the dis-
Dr. Antonio Silva Sprock, Universidad Central de semination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the
Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER
welcomes research articles from academics, ed-
Editorial Board
Prof. Cecilia Junio Sabio ucators, teachers, trainers and other practition-
Prof. Judith Serah K. Achoka ers on all aspects of education to publish high
Prof. Mojeed Kolawole Akinsola quality peer-reviewed papers. Papers for publi-
Dr Jonathan Glazzard cation in the International Journal of Learning,
Dr Marius Costel Esi Teaching and Educational Research are selected
Dr Katarzyna Peoples through precise peer-review to ensure quality,
Dr Christopher David Thompson
originality, appropriateness, significance and
Dr Arif Sikander
Dr Jelena Zascerinska readability. Authors are solicited to contribute
Dr Gabor Kiss to this journal by submitting articles that illus-
Dr Trish Julie Rooney trate research results, projects, original surveys
Dr Esteban Vázquez-Cano and case studies that describe significant ad-
Dr Barry Chametzky vances in the fields of education, training, e-
Dr Giorgio Poletti learning, etc. Authors are invited to submit pa-
Dr Chi Man Tsui
Dr Alexander Franco
pers to this journal through the ONLINE submis-
Dr Habil Beata Stachowiak sion system. Submissions must be original and
Dr Afsaneh Sharif should not have been published previously or
Dr Ronel Callaghan be under consideration for publication while
Dr Haim Shaked being evaluated by IJLTER.
Dr Edith Uzoma Umeh
Dr Amel Thafer Alshehry
Dr Gail Dianna Caruth
Dr Menelaos Emmanouel Sarris
Dr Anabelie Villa Valdez
Dr Özcan Özyurt
Assistant Professor Dr Selma Kara
Associate Professor Dr Habila Elisha Zuya
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
(IJLTER)
Vol. 19, No. 6 (June 2020)
Print version: 1694-2493
Online version: 1694-2116
IJLTER
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER)
Vol. 19, No. 6
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically those of translation, reprinting, re-use of illustrations,
broadcasting, reproduction by photocopying machines or similar means, and storage in data banks.
Society for Research and Knowledge Management

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational

Research is a peer-reviewed open-access journal which has been
established for the dissemination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the
fields of learning, teaching and educational research.
Aims and Objectives
The main objective of this journal is to provide a platform for educators,

teachers, trainers, academicians, scientists and researchers from over the
world to present the results of their research activities in the following
fields: innovative methodologies in learning, teaching and assessment;
multimedia in digital learning; e-learning; m-learning; e-education;
knowledge management; infrastructure support for online learning;
virtual learning environments; open education; ICT and education;
digital classrooms; blended learning; social networks and education; e-
tutoring: learning management systems; educational portals, classroom
management issues, educational case studies, etc.
Indexing and Abstracting

Research is indexed in Scopus since 2018. The Journal is also indexed in
Google Scholar and CNKI. All articles published in IJLTER are assigned
a unique DOI number.
Foreword
We are very happy to publish this issue of the International Journal of

Learning, Teaching and Educational Research.

Research is a peer-reviewed open-access journal committed to
publishing high-quality articles in the field of education. Submissions
may include full-length articles, case studies and innovative solutions to
problems faced by students, educators and directors of educational
organisations. To learn more about this journal, please visit the website
http://www.ijlter.org.
We are grateful to the editor-in-chief, members of the Editorial Board

and the reviewers for accepting only high quality articles in this issue.
We seize this opportunity to thank them for their great collaboration.
The Editorial Board is composed of renowned people from across the

world. Each paper is reviewed by at least two blind reviewers.
We will endeavour to ensure the reputation and quality of this journal

with this issue.
Editors of the June 2020 Issue

VOLUME 19 NUMBER 6 June 2020
Table of Contents
The Emergency Remote Learning Experience of University Students in Indonesia amidst the COVID-19 Crisis .... 1
Maila D.H. Rahiem
Examining the Fairness of Language Test Across Gender with IRT-based Differential Item and Test Functioning
Methods ................................................................................................................................................................................. 27
Burhanettin Ozdemir and Abdulrahman Hadi Alshamrani
Main Approaches of Business English Teaching to Future Lawyers: A Case Study of Ukrainian Higher
Institutions ............................................................................................................................................................................. 46
Oksana P. Bykonia, Iryna V. Borysenko, Tamila L. Gruba, Iurii L. Mosenkis and Dmytro O. Chystiak
Debate as a Tool for Learning and Facilitating Based on Higher Order Thinking Skills in The Process of
Argumentative Essay Writing ............................................................................................................................................. 62
Marzni Mohamed Mokhtar, Marni Jamil, Rohizani Yaakub and Fadzilah Amzah
Exploring Teachers’ Pedagogical Practices in Teaching Mandarin as a Foreign Language in MARA Educational
Institutions, Malaysia ........................................................................................................................................................... 76
Nuraini Jafri, Umi Kalthom Abd Manaf and Fazilah Razali
The Effectiveness of Differentiated Instruction by Streaming: A preliminary Study of Current Practices in the
UAE ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 95
Ibrahim Suleiman Ibrahim Magableh and Amelia Abdullah
Technology-Driven Self-Directed Learning of Graduate Pharmaceutists: Adding Value through Entrepreneurship

............................................................................................................................................................................................... 111
Iryna Nizhenkovska, Tatyana Reva, Oksana Chkhalo and Oksana Holovchenko
Teachers’ Covid-19 Awareness, Distance Learning Education Experiences and Perceptions towards Institutional
Readiness and Challenges ................................................................................................................................................. 127
Aris Alea Lapada, Frosyl Fabrea Miguel, Dave Arthur Roldan Robledo and Zeba F Alam
Enhancing Malaysian Primary Pupils’ Vocabulary Skills using Pocable Game and Pear Deck .............................. 145
Chai Kar Ni, Bonaventure Jong, Mary Anne Dison, Sylvia Anak Thomas, Melor Md Yunus and Ashairi Suliman
Content Validity of West African Examination Council Financial Accounting Questions ....................................... 161
Basil C. E. Oguguo, John J. Agah, Catherine U. Ene, Vivian N. ACholonu, Roseline N. Azubuike, Mary A. Okeke and
Lourita P. Agbo
Assessing the Relationship and Prediction of Manifold Facets of Analytic Relations to Academic Reading
Comprehension ................................................................................................................................................................... 179
Md Kamrul Hasan, Md. Didar Hossain and Abdul Karim
Towards a Principled Use of L1 – Observing an EFL Teacher’s L1 Use in Rural Sabah, Malaysia.......................... 206
J. W. Ong and A. J. Ahmad Tajuddin
A Study of Saudi Advanced Academic Writing Students’ Perceptions of Research Essays, and Gaps in Their
Knowledge ........................................................................................................................................................................... 223
Nida Qayoom and Mohammad Saleem
Mass Media Internships in Vocational Training of Students Majoring in Journalism............................................... 238

Nataliia A. Tsymbal, Nataliia M. Savchuk, Valentina I. Avramenko, Svitlana A. Sichkar and Iryna A. Denysiuk
Assessing the Efficacy of Extensive Reading during Study Abroad: A Time and Place for ER? ............................. 251
Byron O'Neill and Christopher Edelman
The Extent of Bullying Against Students with Learning Disabilities According to the Age Variable..................... 267
Mohamad Ahmad Saleem Khasawneh
Development of Instruments to Measure Mathematical Anxiety of Elementary School Students .......................... 282
Hafiziani Eka Putri, Mukhammad Ady Wahyudy, Aan Yuliyanto and Fitri Nuraeni
Situating "children-supporting-children" Platform in the Context of the Inclusive Agenda: A Phenomenological

Exploration .......................................................................................................................................................................... 303
Princess Zarla J. Raguindin and Li Yan Ping
The Impact of Educational Technologies on University Teachers’ Self-efficacy ........................................................ 323

Nataliia Saienko, Yuliana Lavrysh and Valentyna Lukianenko
UAE Elementary Teachers’ Use of ADHD Referral and Management Strategies...................................................... 337
Hala Elhoweris, Ahmed Mohamed, Osha Almuhairy, Rachel Takriti, Najwa Alhosani and Abdelaziz Sartawi
Exploring Accounting Teachers’ Views on the Quality of Accounting Prescribed Textbooks in South Africa ..... 353
Jabulisile C. Ngwenya and S’khumbuzo H. Mbili
Rurality and Exclusion in Ordinary Level Mathematics in Zimbabwe: A Document Analysis............................... 370
Simon Vurayai
Emergency Online Teaching in Economic and Management Sciences Necessitated by the COVID-19 Pandemic:
The Need for Healthy Relations in a Rural Schooling Context ..................................................................................... 387
Habasisa Molise and Bekithemba Dube
1

Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 1-26, June 2020
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.6.1
The Emergency Remote Learning Experience of

University Students in Indonesia amidst the
COVID-19 Crisis
Maila D. H. Rahiem
UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta
Jakarta, Indonesia
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5618-2486
Abstract. This study aimed to explore and interpret the lived experience
of Indonesian university students in emergency remote learning (ERL)
during the COVID-19. Methods of the investigation was a qualitative
phenomenological approach involving 80 students from the Social
Science Education Program at a public university in Jakarta.
Understanding their experience was achieved through a rigorous analysis
of the participants’ diaries and reflective essays and an online focus
group. Results revealed that the students’ experiences fell into two
overarching themes, each with related sub-themes. The two identified
themes and subthemes were: (a) blended learning, with the subthemes of
e-learning, m-learning and conventional learning, and (b) paradoxical
learning, with the sub-themes of flexible learning and challenging
learning. By studying how university students learned during COVID-19,
we could help ensure the efficacy of ongoing ERL and better incorporate
similar programs in the future if this ever happens again.
Keywords: emergency remote learning; online learning; higher

education; COVID-19
1. Introduction
The COVID-19 global pandemic has created entirely unprecedented situations
that have greatly affected people’s lives. With doubts remaining at present over
how and when it will end, the question remains whether things will ever go back
to the way they were before the pandemic began with many skeptics remaining
doubtful (Lee et al., 2010).The World Health Organization (WHO) has warned
that COVID-19 is likely to haunt the world for a long time and that the planet will
only return to normal once a viral strain vaccine has been discovered. There are
currently ten candidate vaccines in clinical trials worldwide and 126 candidate
vaccines in pre-clinical trials (World Health Organization, 2020b). Anthony Fauci,
MD, director of the US National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, said
that if all goes well, a vaccine might be available in November or December of this
©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

2
year (McCarthy, 2020; Reynolds, 2020). However, even after a vaccine has been
approved, there remains an immense challenge to generate enough of it for the
world's population (Felter, 2020).
Presently (Early June 2020), in Indonesia and some other countries, the number of
cases is still increasing at an alarming rate. The number of patients nationwide
who have tested positive is up to 36,406, with patients who have recovered
recorded as 13,213 people, and patients who have died totaling 2,048 people (Task
Force for the Acceleration of COVID-19, 2020). COVID-19 has spread to 34
provinces, meaning that it has spread to all of the provinces across the Indonesian
archipelago, and 391 out of 514 municipal districts have been infected (National
Agency for Disaster Management, 2020). So far, the percentage of Indonesia's
death rate, which is above 6 percent, is rated in the high category. The total
number of cases worldwide is also still increasing, with 7,127,753 confirmed cases
of COVID-19 spread across 216 countries, including 407,159 deaths, reported to
WHO (World Health Organization, 2020c).
As a result of the threat posed by COVID-19, educational institutions have hurried

to shift courses to virtual classrooms. Many institutions have chosen to cancel all
face-to-face classes, including laboratories and other learning activities, and have
required students to study remotely from home to help avoid the spread of the
virus that causes COVID-19. The UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization(UNESCO, 2020) estimated that 129 countries had implemented
national school closures (data from June 10, 2020). These nationwide closures have
impacted almost 63.3 percent of the world's student population or 1,109,020
learners. Several other countries have implemented localized closures impacting
millions of additional learners (approximately 488,198,235 learners). The total
number of affected learners due to nationwide closures and localized closures
totals 1,725,082,528. The trend of nationwide closures has decreased from
previous figures recorded on April 1 – 4, 2020, where 1,598,099,000 learners, or
91.3% of total enrolled learners, were recorded as being affected due to the
nationwide closures policy in 195 countries. However, the total affected number
(nationwide and localized) is relatively the same, starting from March 26, 2020.
This data indicates that although the national closures policy has begun to be
revoked in some areas and regions, schools and local governments have
continued to implement remote learning.
In Indonesia, nationwide school closures began on March 23, 2020, while localized
closures in some provinces, e.g., DKI Jakarta, Central Java, Banten, West Java, and
Aceh, started early on March 16, 2020 (Kumparan, 2020). The national school
closures have impacted 60.2 million learners and 2.3 million educators who study
or teach at 425,451 educational institutions from early childhood to higher
education.

3
Table 1: Number of affected academic institutions, learners and

educators in Indonesia
(Ministry of Education and Culture, 2019, 2020c, 2020a, 2020d, 2020b)
Academic
Level Learners Educators
Institutions
Early Childhood Education 202,991 6,543,758 666,678
Elementary School 149,435 25,203.371 556,969
Junior High School 40,559 10,112,022 302,116
Senior High School 13,495 4,976,127 212,715

Vocational School (Equivalent to Senior High
14,301 5,242,851 217,986
School)
College/University 4,670 8,043,480 294,820
TOTAL 425,451 60,121,609 2,251,284
School closures are based on the previous studies of influenza outbreaks that
resulted from social interactions between students and teachers that disrupted the
learning process (Jackson et al., 2016). Cauchemez et al., (2008, 2009) quantified
the role of schools in influenza epidemics and predicted the effect of school
closures during a pandemic in France. They found that sustained school closures
during a pandemic could reduce the total number of cases by 13–17 percent (18–
23 percent in children), while during the height of the attack the rate could be as
much as 39–45 percent (47–52 percent in children). The effect of school closures
would be minimized if it proved difficult to sustain low contact rates among
children for a prolonged time. Earn (2012) looked at the associations between the
occurrence of H1N1 (pH1N1) pandemic influenza in Alberta, Canada in 2009 and
school closures or weather changes, and calculated the impact of school closures
and weather changes on the transmission of pH1N1. Mathematical models
indicated that school closures decreased transmission among school-aged
children by more than 50 percent, which was a critical factor in interrupting
transmission. The models also showed that seasonal changes in weather
conditions had a significant effect on the epidemic's temporal structure.
School closure is one of the critical components of numerous non-pharmaceutical

prevention strategies in many countries to help reduce the number of cases and
slow the spread of the disease, mainly if vaccines or antivirals are not available or
are ineffective due to resistance (Glass et al., 2006; Institute of Medicine, 2006;
Moscona, 2005; Sadique et al., 2008). School closure policies in various countries
occur in quick succession as a measure to contain the COVID-19 virus. Lee (2020)
argues that school closures alone may not be enough to stop the outbreak, but that
if it continues for at least eight weeks, could delay the outbreak peak by up to a
week, providing adequate time for a second more successful intervention, such as
vaccination.
In this study, the researcher used the term "Emergency Remote Learning (ERL)" to
illustrate the education that took place during school closure, not online or virtual

4
learning, since well-planned online learning experiences are substantially

different from those that are delivered online in response to a crisis or catastrophe.
Hodges et al. (2020) call it Emergency Remote Teaching (ERT). ERT is a temporary
change from instruction delivery to alternative delivery due to crisis
circumstances. It requires the use of entirely remote teaching approaches for
instruction or education that would otherwise be provided face-to-face or as
blended or hybrid courses, and which will revert to that model once the crisis or
emergency has finished. The primary objective in this context is not to re-create a
stable educational environment, but rather to provide immediate access to
education and training in a manner that is easy to develop and easily accessible
during an emergency or crisis. Millman (2020) described the situation as
emergency remote teaching and learning — or "pandemic pedagogy."
This study focused on understanding how remote learning during COVID-19

pandemic has been conducted in a tertiary education institution by analyzing
university students' perspectives and experiences. The limited research was
conducted recently in Indonesia during the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Most of the existing research conducted is in Indonesian, published in Indonesian
journals, focuses on either primary or secondary education, or education in
general (the level of education is not explained). Examples of this include,
"COVID-19 impact on the implementation of online learning in primary schools"
(Aji et al., 2020); "Education during the COVID-19 pandemic" (Khasanah et al.,
2020); "Studying Mathematics in the COVID-19 era" (Abidin, 2020); and "Online
learning in the middle of the COVID-19 pandemic" (Firman & Rahayu, 2020).
There are also several articles on learning in higher education during the COVID-
19 pandemic. These articles are written in Indonesian, with limited data and have
not been published through peer-reviewed processes such as “Students’ learning
typology in online learning”(Ramdhan et al., 2020); “Google Classroom-online
learning of Biology education students during the COVID-19 outbreak”(Suhada
et al., 2020); “Ordinal Regression analysis to see the effect of online learning media
on students’ enthusiasm in the COVID pandemic era”(Meiza et al., 2020).
Some articles published in peer-reviewed Indonesian journals focus on online

learning of COVID-19 at the college level. However, they were published in April,
where the learning from home experience had only been in operation for a few
weeks. Experiences from a short implementation time are unlikely to offer a full
picture of home-based teaching and learning activities, while there was also
minimal use of references. The published articles are “The impact of COVID-19
online learning activities in a Christian university in Indonesia”(Windhiyana,
2020); “Implementation of the performance model of DeLone and McLean
Knowledge Systems For Zoom application-based learning systems during the
COVID-19 pandemic”(Hidayatullah et al., 2020); “Perception of students
majoring in Early Childhood Islamic Education towards online Lectures in the
COVID-19 pandemic period”(Anhusadar, 2020); and “Variations of models and
learning platforms for prospective teachers during the COVID-19 pandemic
period”(Gunawan et al., 2020).

5
Figure 1. Theoretical Model
The theoretical model outlined in Figure 1 shows what the related studies have
been performed, what this study was intended to do, and the research questions
raised by the context analysis and previous research. Recent studies have
described school closure as one of the key components of a range of non-
pharmaceutical prevention approaches aimed at minimizing the number of cases
and preventing the spread of disease. Some of the previous emergency remote
learning studies concluded that ERL is a temporary learning mechanism, a
transition from in-person instruction to substitute delivery due to an emergency.
Nonetheless, little is known on how to apply remote learning in higher education
during the outbreak of COVID-19 and how students perceived and experienced
ERL implementation.
Research on the implementation of home learning during COVID-19 in Indonesia

has been listed above. None of those papers use the term remote learning or ERL.
The use of the term affects the analysis and understanding that is predicated in
these studies. It is crucial to make a distinction, as the term refers to a unique and
specific event (Manfuso, 2020). This research filled the gap in knowledge (theory)
of ERL at the university level in Indonesia with insights and observations
collected from students who had been studying from home for an extended
period (more than ten weeks), had undergone an online mid-term exam, and was
at the end of the semester. Other than that, this research disseminated its
findings in English articles in international journals, so that more audiences could
read and learn from the research findings.

6
This research also filled the practical gap on how to successfully implement ERL
in higher education to meet learners' needs. This study's main question is: how
university students experienced ERL due to the COVID-19 crisis? Through
knowing how university students learned in the emergency COVID-19, we could
improve on in-going practice. The students' feedback is also critical to improve
the learning process in the future if such a situation was ever to occur again. It is
unknown how long ERL will continue or what kind of other problems we may
face in the future, so educational institutions and students alike must be better
prepared for any such eventuality.
2. Materials and Methods

The current study is presented as part of a larger project on ERL in tertiary
education in Indonesia during the COVID-19 outbreak. The overall aim of the
study was to explore the implementation of ERL in tertiary education in
Indonesia. The study employed a qualitative method of the phenomenological
approach. This phenomenological analysis aims to collect and examine the lived
experience of university students who have learned from home, due to the
COVID-19 crisis, for more than two months. These experiences provided a new
level of insight into ERL's implementation due to the outbreak of COVID-19.
A phenomenology is a philosophical approach to the analysis of phenomena that

are part of human awareness (Arbnor & Bjerke, 2011). In phenomenology, the
researcher attempts to provide a direct description of someone's experience as it
is, without considering his or her psychological origin and the causal explanations
that the scientist may be able to provide (Merleau-Ponty & Landes, 2013).
Phenomenology is equipped to understand the subjective interpretations of the
participants of the fundamental object of the study by throwing light on the
significance applied to their lived experience and exploring the specific meanings
underlying the empiric variants of a given phenomenon rather than merely
applying the technique (Casmir, 1983; MacDermott, 2002).
Participants in this research are 80 students who have studied social science
education at a public university in Jakarta. The researcher employed a purposive
sampling method to select the participants. The researcher understood the
purpose of the study in such a way that she relied on her judgment to classify
qualified participants in a particular profile. The various explanations why the
researcher chose the participants are as follows: the first reason was the ease of
access for the researcher to collect data due to the COVID-19 situation, which
restricted the researcher's ability to gather data. The second reason, they were
semester four students, which means that they were in the middle of their
course (undergraduate education usually takes eight semesters). These students
already have enough learning experience and were still taking compulsory and
additional courses (semester seven students practice teaching, and in semester
eight, write a thesis). Third, students at this university come from Jakarta and
other provinces and different backgrounds. This diversity will help enrich the
data further. Lastly, the researcher intentionally chose students from educational
programs because they were prepared to become teachers, and their opinions are
important because their answers address how an educator should teach at a time
like this.

7
These students are in the fourth semester and came from two classes, 4A and 4B.
These two groups have different concentrations, 4A is Sociology, and 4B is
Geography. The name of the university and the names of the students have been
hidden; to protect the identity of the participants and to provide them with the
opportunity to speak freely. Participants were aware of the scope and intent of the
study, and they were allowed to withdraw from the research anytime they chose
if they felt dissatisfied with it.
Data collection was carried out using creative methods because the researcher was
unable to conduct direct interviews due to the large-scale social restrictions that
were in place during the research period, data collection was completed by asking
participants to write a diary of their daily learning activities for two weeks (4 - 18
May 2020. See Appendix 1. Students’ Diary). They were then asked to compose a
reflective essay about ERL (collected on May 20, 2020. See Appendix 2. Reflective
Essay).
The researcher paid close attention to data triangulation to develop a

comprehensive understanding of the phenomena. Therefore, the researcher used
multiple methods or data sources, as suggested by Patton (Patton, 1999). The data
source utilized, other than diaries and essays, was focus group discussions using
the Google Meet application. These discussions were conducted twice; each
meeting was for 120 minutes and 40 participants (on May 26 and 27, 2020). The
focus group discussions were also aimed as a member check to increase the
precision, reliability, validity, and transferability of the findings. The researcher
presented the study's overall findings and then opened a discussion session.
Participants were free to question if any incorrect information had been recorded
and were allowed to add or remove details. The participants either confirmed that
the summaries represented their beliefs, feelings, and experiences or did not
reflect their experiences. The researcher concluded that the study seems credible
after the participants confirmed the accuracy and completeness of the study.
The complete elimination of non-response bias from the study is impossible.

Mixing data collection methods was one of the researchers' efforts to avoid non-
response impact from the sample. The researcher also sought to eliminate bias by
designing strategies that would promote the involvement of selected individuals.
The researcher used the NVivo program for data management and analysis.
NVivo is useful in organizing data and helped the researcher make sense of it
throughout the research since the data for this qualitative research was extensive
(80 participants). The researcher also made a memo in the NVivo system that
allowed for the possibility to document ideas and analyze thoughts, perspectives,
and observations of students on online learning. This analytical memo was
completed on an ongoing basis, every time data (journal or essay) was submitted.
Analytical memos provide a means for the researcher to record their thoughts
during the research process and to code memos as additional data for the study
(Saldaña, 2016).
In analyzing the data, the researcher adopted a two-stage coding model

conducted by Miles, Huberman and Saldaña (Miles et al., 2014) and Saldaña
(Saldana, 2009; Saldaña, 2016). The first cycle coding was initially assigned to the

8
data, followed by the second cycle codes in which the initial codes were grouped
into meaningful categories, themes, or constructs. The two stages of coding are
not a single linear event; the qualitative analytical process is cyclical. In practice,
in the first cycle, the researcher coded each essay and journal individually. After
that, the researcher compared the data and detailed the code into a sub-code if
necessary. In the second cycle, the researcher reorganized and re-analyzed the
data coded in the first coding cycle. The primary aim of second-cycle coding was
to establish a sense of categorical, thematic, conceptual, and theoretical structure
from the first-cycle code series. The researcher changed codes, added new codes,
and dropped a few codes to conclude themes of research findings. Finally, the
researcher made the summative synthesis assumptions and declarative claims.
The assertions are based on the researcher's insights and observations, supported
by evidence from the data corpus.
3. Results
How did university students experience ERL during the COVID-19 crisis? Results
revealed that students’ experiences fell into two overarching themes, each with
related sub-themes. The two identified themes and subthemes are: (a) blended
learning, with the subthemes of e-learning, m-learning, and conventional
learning, and (b) paradoxical learning, with the sub-themes of flexible learning
and challenging learning.
Emergency Remote Learning during

COVID-19 Outbreak
Blended Paradoxical
Learning Learning
Conventional Flexible Challenging

e-learning m-learning Learning Learning Learning
Figure 2. Research findings
The researcher classified 25 codes, in the first cycle coding, from the data gathered
from 80 diaries, 80 reflective essays, and two focus group discussions. The
researcher then grouped related codes into five groups, which included: e-
learning, m-learning, traditional learning, flexible learning, and challenging
learning. The researcher summarized two key themes of this study's results in this
second coding process: blended learning and paradoxical learning. The researcher
concluded that during ERL, students experienced blended learning approaches,
and their experiences were paradoxical. They enjoyed learning from home, but
also saw it as challenging too. The following is an illustration of the process
of codification, thematic discovery, and the construction of assertions.

9
Figure 3. Data analysis process

10
3.1 Blended Learning

Of the twenty-five codes found in the first coding cycle (as shown in Figure 2
above), thirteen are related to the media or methods used during the ERL. The
researcher then grouped codes that show similar meaning in categories: e-
learning, m-learning, and conventional learning. The researcher concluded from
the categories that learning remotely during the COVID-19 situation involved a
mix of technological learning media and conventional methods, or using blended
materials.
Table 2. Learning media/methods & frequency of being mentioned by participants
Media/Methods Frequency Categories
Reading E-book & E-Journal 56 e-learning & m-learning
YouTube & Video 52 e-learning & m-learning
Online Meeting (Zoom or Google Meet) 50 e-learning & m-learning
Browsing Internet 42 e-learning & m-learning
Educational Website 35 e-learning & m-learning
Podcast 33 e-learning & m-learning
Google Classroom 35 e-learning
WhatsApp 42 m-learning
Social Media 36 m-learning
Audio Call 32 m-learning

Assignments from Lecturers (exercises,
58 Conventional Learning
quizzes, and exams)
Making Notes 40 Conventional Learning
Module/Unit 33 Conventional Learning
From the coding of the data in the NVivo program, researchers have discovered
how many frequencies a single code of all the existing data appears. Table 2 shows
which media or methods are most mentioned repeatedly by students.
Reading e-books and e-journals was the most common learning methods
experienced by the students. Students also learned from YouTube and TV series
or movie documentaries. Usually, lecturers provided students with YouTube
links, asked them to study the video, and make a summary report. E-Books, E-
Journals, and YouTube videos were used to help explain learning about the
subject or giving instructions. Other platforms used to deliver the lecturers'
instructions or explanations were through WhatsApp (the lecturer recorded voice
notes and shared them in the WhatsApp group) and through the module or unit
of work being studied.

11
Three platforms were commonly used for classroom discussions: online meetings
in Zoom or Google Meet, WhatsApp, and Social Media. They interchangeably
used the term Social Media for WhatsApp also, while a few referred to Facebook
when mentioning about Social Media. Not all the lecturers arranged synchronous
discussions using online platforms. Many students complained about it; they felt
that learning was ineffective without discussion. WhatsApp was the most
preferred media for discussion. In WhatsApp, the discussion could be
synchronous or asynchronous. The discussion could be made using either voice
notes or texts.
In order to enrich learning, students have tried to browse for more reading
material online by searching the internet and by visiting educational websites. If
they did not understand the subject, they would invariably contact their
classmates, asking them to explain the subject. The respondents believe that
YouTube videos are a good source of learning. Some listened to podcasts and
explained that this was as a result of needing to be more creative in expanding
their understanding. In measuring student learning progress, lecturers have
delivered assignments and quizzes to students through WhatsApp and Google
Classroom. Also, conventional methods were used for evaluation. The most
common conventional tasks assigned to students are the memorization of texts
and the writing of a summary.
The data reveals that emergency remote learning has not always been entirely
conducted online using sophisticated information technology; students have
often learned using conventional media and methods. The students take notes,
use paper, and pens to help them understand learning materials more efficiently.
They took notes on the video, sound recordings, e-books, PowerPoint
presentations, and journals provided by the lecturers. They felt that, in general,
they had not learned anything if they did not write it in a book. They seemed to
be able to understand more quickly when they wrote down what they had learned
in a notebook. Participant 4B24 explained about making a summary of learning
using paper and colorful pens and markers:
"If the lecturer has given material in the form of power points, modules,
and so on. I put together a summary of the material. And if there was a
discussion on WhatsApp or Zoom, I try to write notes about things that I
thought were important. Just like the previous way of learning (before
the COVID-19 crisis), I used colored pens or markers to write notes, so I
wouldn't get bored while reading notes." (4B24)
Whereas 4B35 said that she had made a mind map of the content she had learned
in order to be able to pass the mid-term and final exam. She added that she placed
her notes on the wall, and every morning she memorized and learned them:
“Although the mid-term test and end semester exams will be done online,
I will still make a mind map to test my understanding of the material... for
the final exam, I will make keywords from each material that I have
studied, I will make notes in my paper and paste them on the wall, and
every morning I will memorize and learn.” (4B35)
Students also conventionally learnt using modules or units, not a printed version,
but an e-module in PDF format. Two lecturers provided these e-modules

12
containing discussions, quizzes, and a summary. The aim was to help students
learn independently. They can test their comprehension by answering the quiz in
the module and checking its accuracy by matching the answer key on the last page
of the module. The lecturers shared the module every 1-2 weeks. Some students
printed the modules or made a hand-written summary of the modules. The
students also explained that they felt more like they had studied when they have
paper, pen, and writing in a book.
"In the pandemic from the COVID-19 crisis, my learning is using
modules or PowerPoint presentations that I have obtained from lecturers
or notes from my colleagues." (4C27)
"I try to understand the tasks or modules provided, read all through them,
yet I still don't get it." (4C30)
Another conventional learning method is lecturers giving students assignments.

Students complained they actually had to finish too many assignments.
“Lecturers have been giving assignments online, a lot of them. Some
lecturers only give assignments continuously.” (4B21)
In ERL, blended learning was used for instruction and explanation, discussion,
evaluation, and enrichment. The researcher mapped out the thirteen
media/learning methods mentioned by the students in diaries and essays and the
purpose of their use. Here is the following map:
Figure 4. Blended media in ERL and their purpose of use

13
WhatsApp is a prevalent medium used for all these learning purposes.

WhatsApp is used to explain, discuss, evaluate and enhance learning. In addition,
WhatsApp is also used for almost all courses during the ERL period. Only one of
the eight courses in Class 4A and Class 4C did not use the WhatsApp. This
assertion is derived from tabulations made on the types of learning platforms
used for each subject.
Table 3. Courses and learning platforms

No CLASS 4A CLASS 4B
COURSES LEARNING COURSES LEARNING
PLATFORMS PLATFORMS
1. The New • YouTube The New • YouTube
Indonesian • Assignment via Indonesian • Assignment via
History WhatsApp History WhatsApp
• Assignment via • Assignment via
Email Email
2. Study & • Google Classroom Study & • Google Classroom
Learning • YouTube Learning • YouTube
• Google Meet • Google Meet
• WhatsApp • WhatsApp
3. Educational • Module Educational • Module
Psychology • Email Psychology • Email
• Google Meet • Google Meet
4. Regional • Reading Material Regional • Reading Material
Geography of • Academic Geography of • Academic
the World Instruction System the World Instruction System
• WhatsApp • WhatsApp
5. Learning • Assignment Learning • Assignment
Strategies • Google Classroom Strategies • Google Classroom
• WhatsApp Google • WhatsApp
Classroom
WhatsApp
6. Practicum • Assignment Practicum • Assignment
Reading the • WhatsApp Email Reading the • WhatsApp Email
Quran Quran
7. Entrepreneurs • Google Scholar Entrepreneur • Google Scholar
hip • WhatsApp Group ship • WhatsApp Group
• Voice note • Voice note
8. Sociology of • Email Cartography • Lecturing in Zoom
Religion • Voice Note Meeting
• WhatsApp • Google Meet
• PowerPoint • Assignment
Presentation • WhatsApp
During the semester, students from class 4 A and 4 B studied eight courses, seven
of which were the same for both classes and taught by the same lecturers. The
seven courses taught in Class 4A and Class 4B were: New Indonesian History,
Study and Learning; Educational Psychology; Regional Geography of the World;
Learning Strategies; Practicum Reading the Quran; and Entrepreneurship. The
distinctions were: Class 4A took Sociology of Religion, and Class 4A took
Cartography.

14
3.2 Paradoxical Learning

The second main theme of the findings is “paradoxical learning.” The researcher
used this concept to describe how students had paradoxical perspectives and
insights into learning. On the one hand, they saw ERL as flexible, but on the other
hand, they also saw it as challenging.
Table 4. Students’ insights & observations on Paradoxical Learning

Insights/Observations Frequency Reasons
Time Management (Flexibility) 83 Flexible Learning
Family Time 52 Flexible Learning
Exercising 51 Flexible Learning
Comfortable & Quiet Place 42 Flexible Learning
Break & Rest 40 Flexible Learning
Refreshing 36 Flexible Learning
Technology Barriers 85 Challenging Learning
Cost of Internet 83 Challenging Learning
Overload Assignments 73 Challenging Learning
Trouble Finding Materials 51 Challenging Learning
Tiring 49 Challenging Learning
Noisy & Disturbing 42 Challenging Learning
Table 4, we can see how many times students reported certain insights or
observations about ERL paradoxically of all the existing data. The researcher used
color codes to show how they saw learning as two polar opposite scales. The two-
yellow color coded cells are time management and overload tasks. The three-
orange color coded cells are family time, comfortable and quiet, and noisy and
disturbing. The three-green coded cells are exercising, break and rest, and are
tiring. Four-blue coded cells are refreshing, technology barriers, internet costs,
and trouble finding materials. The segregated color-coded data indicates how
students had paradoxical perspectives and insights into learning.
On the one hand, students saw ERL as flexible; on the other hand, they also saw
it as challenging.
Flexible Learning
Flexibility Overloaded
and time with
Challenging Learning
management assignments
Figure 5. Flexibility versus overloaded

15
Students said that learning remotely at home gave them the flexibility to manage
their time.
“The flexible learning schedule matches our lifestyle; young people.
Lecturers and students are increasingly turning to online learning as a
viable alternative to study anywhere, anytime.” (4B26)
Contradictory to the amount of flexibility, they also argued that the lecturers
overloaded them with assignments, and they, therefore, found it difficult to
manage their time.
"It's not necessarily online learning or lectures that we were given, but
now there are remote assignments (online). And the tasks that were given
never stopped every week, we were given assignments by each subject, and
we were chased by deadlines. In my view, it can make students
frustrated and depressed. As we now know that we need to retain our
body's immunity to avoid the virus, and the stress or pressure caused by
the assignments may, in my opinion, disrupt the students' immunity
from the body." (4C33)
Flexible Learning
Family Time Noisy and

Disturbing
Comfortable
& Quiet Place
Figure 6. Family time, comfortable & Quiet versus noisy & disturbing
The students said that during remote learning, they have a lot of family time and
could study in a comfortable and quiet place.
“Studying online makes it easy for us to find places that make it easier to
think about, such as open spaces, indoor rooms, and family rooms at
home.” (4B17)
In contrast to this, they also felt disturbed by their siblings and the noise at home.
“The home environment cannot be controlled when there is a live lecture
that uses applications such as Google Meet and synchronous conversation.
The situation of the house is crowded. It's very annoying, in my opinion,
and it makes me unable to focus.” (4B18)

16
Flexible Learning
Exercising Tiring
Break &
Rest
Figure 7. Exercising, break & rest versus tiring
Some students did some regular exercise at home. They spared extra time for self-
care.
"If there are no assignments, I will take the time to exercise and bask in
the healthy morning sun." (4B28)
"After I wake up, I do regular exercise or aerobic exercise. I'm doing this
regularly. Learning from home allows me to exercise more." (4C38)
Because the students were staying at home, they were able to take a break during
learning. They did not want to push themselves too hard to study. Their main
focus was to keep healthy and not be too tired.
“In addition, I also tried not to be too tired and forced to study because of
the consequences of the Covid-19 pandemic, I had to be careful not to fall
ill. I also don't push myself too much when I'm tired of studying.” (4B15)
Other respondents, however, felt that compared to face-to-face learning, remote

was much more tiring.
"I want to complain that this distance learning is very ineffective and
makes me even more exhausted." (4C20)
“A lot of tasks! The lecturer should consider the fact that a student is
staying at home to avoid illness or infection from happening. The lecturer
gave us lots of assignments excessively. It kills us. Not because of the
coronavirus that causes us to die. May Allah Amen protect us.” (4C18)
Flexible Learning
Refreshing Technological
barriers
Cost of the internet

Trouble finding
materials
Figure 8. Refreshing versus problems

17
The students said they tried to manage their time and refresh themselves
whenever they were tired. They said this is what made learning from home
more flexible.
“Learning activities must be interspersed with activities that are fun,
refreshing. In order not to be boring, I always prepare fun activities (in my
opinion). This activity can also be a reward or reward when I have
completed an assignment or studied material.” (4C21)
They also complained, however, about technological disruption while studying,

expensive internet costs and difficulties in obtaining learning materials during the
ERL.
"The difficulty of accessing the Internet, I was at home during this
distance learning process. This makes me experience delays in getting
information because access to the Internet in the village is a bit difficult,
the internet connection is bad in my area." (4B18)
"It's very pricey to spend money on the internet data plan. I'm a student
who gets minimal pocket money, especially on staying at home like this, I
don't get any income from being a Scoutmaster. That makes it hard for me
to buy a data plan. I'm also envious of campuses that provide a free data
plan of up to 150 thousand rupiahs per month." (4B12)
"This policy has a side where I don't like it, for example, because I can't
go anywhere, so I have trouble finding references that I need to complete
my assignments. Learning resources are also limited and can only refer to
the internet and journals that aren't always right" (4B19).
4. Discussion
Indonesia reported the first two confirmed cases of COVID-19 in a Jakarta suburb
on March 2, 2020 (World Health Organization, 2020a). The situation became
increasingly dangerous in mid-March. President Jokowi, in a press conference at
the Bogor Presidential Palace on Sunday, March 15, 2020, called on local
governments to issue policies to prevent the spread of the coronavirus. One of the
policies recommended was to temporarily halt teaching and learning in schools
and universities and encourage students to study at home. As a follow-up to the
president's direction, on March 20, 2020, the Minister of Education and Culture
issued a Circular Number 36962/MPK.A/HK/2020 concerning online learning
and working from home in the context of the prevention of coronary disease
spread. Following this rule, the campus, which was the focus of this research,
began to close on March 23, 2020.
Learning was suddenly moved to remote learning. Remote learning has not been
anticipated, and most of the course syllabus was not designed to be an online or
for a distance learning experience. Without preparation or training, lecturers
designed and implemented remote learning programs. Similarly, students did not
have the opportunity to be prepared for this transition in learning. Despite all of
these limitations, everybody has been trying their best to make the situation a
success, quick and reliable temporary access to education in unprecedented time.

18
Lecturers began using the media or the methods they were familiar with and
comfortable using. It may not be perfect, but students are resilient, the educator is
resourceful, and everyone has to make the most of what they have (Juliani, 2020).
This study reveals that learning remotely during the COVID-19 situation involved
a mix of both conventional and non-conventional methods. Technological
learning media was used combined with pen and paper methods. The use of
blended materials is what the researcher concluded as the first theme.
Blended learning is the application of more than one method, strategy, technique,
or media in education (Sadeghi et al., 2014; Thiele, 2003). It is a mixture of
conventional lectures or tutorials and web-based material (Concannon et al.,
2005); when delivering information, traditional face-to-face learning is combined
with technology (Farrel, 2006). In line with the government's policy of social
distancing, learning has taken place at home. Teachers and students separated by
physical distance but connected through technology, equipment, and resources.
Nonetheless, the data indicate that learning was not entirely online; students were
still studying in conventional ways. Conventional here does not mean that there
have been face-to-face lectures, but conventional learning methods for taking
notes, summarizing learning and memorizing notes.
In this study, the researcher distinguished between e-learning and m-learning

based on the devices used. E-learning means that the educational model used is
based on the use of electronic media and devices as tools for improving the
availability of training, communication, and interaction, and that helps to accept
new ways of understanding and learning (Salloum et al., 2019). An essential
element of e-learning is the use of electronic media, and e-learning is currently
explained as learning that is used through various computer devices, such as
computers, mobile phones, tablets, and virtual environments. M-learning focuses
on learning mobility, engagement with portable technology, and learning that
represents an emphasis on how society and its institutions could accommodate
and sustain an increasingly mobile population (Mehdipour & Zerehkafi, 2013). By
using mobile apps, learners can learn anywhere and anytime (Crescente & Lee,
2011). In Indonesia, internet users have reached 150 million people, with a 56
percent penetration spread across the region. There is only a small difference with
the number of mobile internet users, which amounts to 142.8 million people, with
a penetration percentage of 53 percent (Ministry of Communication and
Information Technology Republic of Indonesia, 2020). So, most people are linked
to the internet through mobile phones. Many homes do not have laptops or PCs,
but they are still connected online using mobile devices. The distinction between
e-learning and m-learning clarifies this phenomenon. In case of emergencies,
remote learning students have explained that they are connected using mobile
devices or tethered from a cell phone when they need to work from a laptop.
Blended learning is supposed to make learning more efficient by integrating

technology-based learning with traditional style learning. Some research has
identified many benefits of blended learning. Many studies have been carried out
to compare conventional teaching methods with blended learning, and different
results have been obtained. In some research, the participants' test scores did not
differ between the two groups (Khan, 2001). Thiele's study showed that the

19
student knowledge scores in the blended teaching method were higher than the
lecturing method, but that the difference was not statistically significant (Thiele,
2003). Sedeghi et al. contrasted students' learning and satisfaction with teaching
and e-learning with traditional teaching methods. The results showed that the
blended method is effective in increasing the student learning rate (Sadeghi et al.,
2014). McPhee and Pickern (2017) concluded how ICT could help international
students' learning experience. Kirkwood (2009) claimed that ICT could make
doable learning tasks or situations that would otherwise be extremely difficult to
achieve and encourage an incremental improvement in learning outcomes.
Stephenson, Brown, and Griffin (Stephenson et al., 2008) argued that most e-
learning seemed to mimic or complement established academic practices, mainly
when used in 'blended' contexts. Another study suggests that a combination of
face-to-face training with e-learning is more flexible than other methods (Garrison
& Kanuka, 2004).
This ERL might not have been the ideal one. Blended learning has been
questioned as to the best solution to studying during the pandemic when
universities are closed. The advantages of blended learning described in the
studies, as mentioned above, are in contrast to the experience of students.
Afterward, we must remember that this blended learning took place in an
emergency with limited resources. As highlighted in the introduction, the
researcher refers to it as "emergency remote learning," not just "remote learning"
using blended materials. Before COVID-19, the classes studied by the researcher
rarely used e-learning and m-learning. E-learning and m-learning have emerged
as one of the alternatives to the problems of education during an outbreak of
coronavirus. E-learning and m-learning offer expanded opportunities for learning
versatility when students and educators are under the stay-at-home order.
However, there were challenges in using technology in learning. Students talked
about the technical barriers that hindered their learning due to technical problems
or the inability to use technological resources.
Students also discussed the shift in learning styles. Students were already
accustomed to face-to-face conventional teaching approaches. They claimed in
their writings that they felt that they were not learning since there was no lecturer
to guide them to understand the lesson. E-learning and m-learning involve
students working interdependently, in groups or independently to solve
problems, to work on projects, to meet individual needs, and to encourage
students to speak and choose. Students complained about this kind of
independent learning, doing assignments, and reading on their own. They were
familiar with the teaching-learning model, where lecturers gave learning
materials; students listened and took notes.
Another thing to think about is the availability of learning resources in Bahasa

Indonesia. Students said that they have trouble getting learning materials since
the libraries are closed. Universities have no access to paid online journals. So,
students are only using open-access materials.
The findings of this study reveal that university and its community were not well
prepared to face an emergency, such as the closure of the campus due to a
pandemic. Courses designed for conventional learning, the unusual use of

20
technology in teaching and learning programs, students were not able to study
independently, limited access to learning materials in the native language of
learners, and lack access to high-quality reading resources (e.g., paid e-journals
and e-books). All of these issues need to be highlighted and addressed. Now and
in the future, the university should be more involved in information
communication technology. University learning should encourage students to
learn independently through a wide range of methods and media. Resources for
remote learning need to be strengthened, and students should get more access to
reading materials
Another theme that arose from this study is ERL during the outbreak of COVID-
19 is paradoxical. Paradoxical, according to the Cambridge dictionary 2020), is,
"Seeming impossible or difficult to understand because of containing two
opposite facts or characteristics." If something is paradoxical, it involves two facts
or qualities that seem to contradict each other (Collins Dictionary, 2020). The
university moved in-classroom-learning to online-based learning without enough
preparation. This rapid change was a test of organizational agility (Wu, 2020).
Students and lecturers were still adapting and looking for ways of teaching and
learning that were much better and easier. Educational planning in times of crisis
needs creative problem solving (Hodges et al., 2020). ERL needs much hard work,
but this is the only way forward. After some time, it is essential to review, develop
the current practice, and plan for future programs.
Learning from home might continue in the next few months, and this emergency
could happen again in the future. What are we supposed to do to make the ERL
better? Bao (2020) observed online teaching during the outbreak of COVID-19.
Bao has identified six educational strategies to improve student concentration and
engagement to achieve a smooth transition to online learning:
1. Preparing emergency preparedness plans for unexpected problems. If the

teaching plan A is not working because of a technical problem, try Plan B,
C, or any other plan.
2. Distributing the teaching content into smaller units to help the student
focus. The lecturers should divide the teaching content into several small
modules lasting approximately 20–25 minutes.
3. Emphasizing the use of "voice" in online teaching. Body language and
facial expressions are restricted in online instruction, and only the "voice"
is entirely functional. Therefore, in online teaching, the faculty should
properly slow down its speech to allow students to capture critical
knowledge points.
4. Working with teaching assistants and get online help from them. This
arrangement is also missing from the students' courses in this research.
There are no teaching assistants for the lecturers. Online teaching includes
the technology and professional expertise of those involved. Most faculties
at universities in Indonesia are not sufficiently trained or equipped to
operate online educational platforms, and support from teaching
assistants is especially relevant.
5. Strengthening the students' ability to learn outside the classroom. The
faculty has less control over online teaching. As a result, the progress of

21
online teaching and its learning efficiency depends mainly on high-level

active learning outside the classroom. To this end, the faculty should use
various methods to moderately modify students' homework and reading
requirements to strengthen students' active learning outside the
classroom. Students complained about assignments in this research.
Lecturers and students need a dialogue to address what is currently
expected and should be achieved by two parties, students and lecturers,
to make learning more productive.
6. Efficiently combining online learning and offline self-learning. In the
offline self-learning process, students are expected to read the course-
specific literature and submit short papers based on their reading of
essential materials before class. The faculty should provide feedback on
student assignments and learn about students' cognitive learning levels.
In the online teaching phase, the faculty should use the student discussion
section to exchange their understanding based on their reading. Thus,
students will not learn ambiguous, fragmented, and superficial
knowledge. Instead, deep learning will be experienced during the
discussion. Students in this research complained that not enough lectures
and lecturers had given them too many assignments until they felt
overloaded. This should be communicated as to why assignments are part
of learning. However, lecturers should give feedback on the work of
students, so that they know the progress of their learning.
Bao (2020) also stressed the need to provide psychological support to the
university community. In this research, students viewed remote learning in both
a positive and bad light. In their diaries, they wrote about confusion, depression,
a devastating feeling, and some negative emotions about being isolated and
learning remotely. These feelings have to be addressed. The university should
provide psychological support to help students and staff manage their emotions.
Their anxieties need to be relieved in a variety of ways to ensure that they can
engage in online learning actively.
5. Conclusion
This study concluded that students experienced an ERL that utilized blended
strategies of e-learning, m-learning, and conventional learning techniques. Their
response to the process was paradoxical as they had both positive and negative
experiences. Lecturers used significantly limited media and methods to
implement learning. Moving instruction online could make teaching and learning
accessible anywhere, at any time, but the speed at which this transition to online
instruction is expected to happen is unparalleled. After experiencing ERL for
almost a semester, and while currently waiting for government policies on how
to learn next semester, it is an excellent time to learn from multiple viewpoints,
including students, about their experience. Some of the feedback from this
research are: preparing teachers and students for emergency learning, training
lecturers on using blended resources, designing learning curricula that can be
converted into online learning, developing student-independent learning skills,
and providing access to a wide variety of digital reading materials. This study's
findings cannot be generalized because they were based on a relatively small
number of university students from one department at one university. However,

22
we assume that this work presents students' views and experiences on ERL in
several universities in Indonesia and probably in other countries, particularly in
developing countries. More research involving more students from various
universities should be initiated as a follow-up. It would also be useful to gain
insights from lecturers and students at different levels of education and discuss
the viewpoints of parents and other education stakeholders.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest in the design of

the study; in the collection, analysis, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the
manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.
6. References
Abidin, Z. (2020). Belajar Matematika di Era Covid-19 [Studying Mathematics in the COVID-
19 era]. OSF Preprints. Retrieved from https://osf.io/nrbu7/
Aji, W., Dewi, F., Kristen, U., & Wacana, S. (2020). Dampak Covid-19 Terhadap
Implementasi Pembelajaran Daring Di Sekolah Dasar [COVID-19 impact on the
implementation of online learning in primary schools]. Edukatif: Jurnal Ilmu
Pendidikan, 2(1), 55–61.
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.31004/edukatif.v2i1.89
Anhusadar, L. O. (2020). Persepsi Mahasiswa PIAUD terhadap Kuliah Online di Masa
Pandemi [Perception of students majoring in Early Childhood Islamic Education
towards online Lectures in the COVID-19 pandemic period]. KINDERGARTEN:
Journal of Islamic Early Childhood Education, 3(1), 44–58.
Arbnor, I., & Bjerke, B. (2011). Methodology for Creating Business Knowledge. In
Methodology for Creating Business Knowledge.
https://doi.org/10.4135/9780857024473
Bao, W. (2020). COVID ‐19 and online teaching in higher education: A case study of
Peking University. Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies, 2(2), 113–115.
https://doi.org/10.1002/hbe2.191
Cambridge Dictionary. (2020). Paradoxical.
Casmir, F. L. (1983). Phenomenology and hermeneutics: Evolving approaches to the study
of intercultural and international communication. International Journal of
Intercultural Relations, 7(3), 309–324. https://doi.org/10.1016/0147-
1767(83)90035-4
Cauchemez, S., Ferguson, N. M., Wachtel, C., Tegnell, A., Saour, G., Duncan, B., & Nicoll,
A. (2009). Closure of schools during an influenza pandemic. The Lancet Infectious
Diseases, 9(8), 473–481. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(09)70176-8
Cauchemez, S., Valleron, A.-J., Boëlle, P.-Y., Flahault, A., & Ferguson, N. M. (2008).
Estimating the impact of school closure on influenza transmission from Sentinel
data. Nature, 452(7188), 750–754. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature06732
Collins Dictionary. (2020). Paradoxical.
Concannon, F., Flynn, A., & Campbell, M. (2005). What campus-based students think
about the quality and benefits of e-learning. British Journal of Educational
Technology, 36(3), 501–512. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2005.00482.x
Crescente, M. L., & Lee, D. (2011). Critical issues of m-learning: design models, adoption
processes, and future trends. Journal of the Chinese Institute of Industrial Engineers,
28(2), 111–123. https://doi.org/10.1080/10170669.2010.548856

23
Earn, D. J. D. (2012). Effects of School Closure on Incidence of Pandemic Influenza in

Alberta, Canada. Annals of Internal Medicine, 156(3), 173.
https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-156-3-201202070-00005
Farrel, M. (2006). Learning differently: e-learning in nurse education. Nursing
Management, 13(6), 14–17. https://doi.org/10.7748/nm.13.6.14.s12
Felter, C. (2020). What Is the World Doing to Create a COVID-19 Vaccine? Retrieved from
https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/what-world-doing-create-covid-19-
vaccine
Firman, F., & Rahayu, S. (2020). Online learning in the middle of the COVID-19 pandemic
(Pembelajaran Online di Tengah Pandemi Covid-19). Indonesian Journal of
Educational Science (IJES), 2(2), 81–89. https://doi.org/10.31605/ijes.v2i2.659
Garrison, D. R., & Kanuka, H. (2004). Blended learning: Uncovering its transformative
potential in higher education. The Internet and Higher Education, 7(2), 95–105.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2004.02.001
Glass, R. J., Glass, L. M., Beyeler, W. E., & Min, H. J. (2006). Targeted social distancing
design for pandemic influenza. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(11), 1671–1681.
https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1211.060255
Task Force for the Acceleration of COVID-19. (2020). Infografis COVID-19 (12 Juni 2020).
Retrieved from https://covid19.go.id/p/berita/infografis-covid-19-12-juni-
2020
Gunawan, Suranti, N. M. Y., & Fathoroni. (2020). Variations of models and learning
platforms for prospective teachers during the COVID-19 pandemic period.
Indonesian Journal of Teacher Education, 1(2), 61–70.
Hidayatullah, S., Khouroh, U., Windhyastiti, I., Patalo, R. G., & Waris, A. (2020).
Implementasi Model Kesuksesan Sistem Informasi DeLone And McLean
Terhadap Sistem Pembelajaran Berbasis Aplikasi Zoom Di Saat Pandemi Covid-
19 [Implementation of the performance model of DeLone and McLean
Knowledge Systems For Zoom application-based learning systems during the
COVID-19 pandemic]. Jurnal Teknologi Dan Manajemen Informatika, 6(1).
https://doi.org/10.26905/jtmi.v6i1.4165
Hodges, C., Moore, S., Lockee, B., Trust, T., & Bond, A. (2020). The Difference Between
Emergency Remote Teaching and Online Learning. Educause Review.
Institute of Medicine. (2006). Modeling Community Containment for Pandemic Influenza.
National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/11800
Jackson, C., Vynnycky, E., & Mangtani, P. (2016). The Relationship Between School
Holidays and Transmission of Influenza in England and Wales. American Journal
of Epidemiology, 184(9), 644–651. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kww083
Juliani, A. J. (2020). THIS IS NOT ONLINE OR DISTANCE LEARNING. Retrieved from
http://ajjuliani.com/this-is-not-online-or-distance-learning/
Khan, F. A. (2001). Problem-based Learning Variant: Transition Phase for a Large
Institution. National Library of Medicine, J. Pak Med Assoc, 51(8), 271–274. Retrieved
from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11715887/
Khasanah, D. R. A. U., Pramudibyanto, H., & Widuroyekti, B. (2020). Pendidikan Dalam
Masa Pandemi Covid-19 [Education during the COVID-19 pandemic]. Jurnal
Sinestesia, 10(1), 41–48.
Kirkwood, A. (2009). E‐learning: you don’t always get what you hope for. Technology,
Pedagogy and Education, 18(2), 107–121.
Kumparan. (2020). Anies Tutup Sekolah di DKI Jakarta Selama 2 Minggu untuk Cegah Corona
[Anies closes school in DKI Jakarta for 2 weeks to prevent Corona]. Retrieved from

24
https://kumparan.com/kumparannews/anies-tutup-sekolah-di-dki-jakarta-
selama-2-minggu-untuk-cegah-corona-1t1V7X57VID
Lee, B. Y., Brown, S. T., Cooley, P., Potter, M. A., Wheaton, W. D., Voorhees, R. E.,
Stebbins, S., Grefenstette, J. J., Zimmer, S. M., Zimmerman, R. K., Assi, T.-M.,
Bailey, R. R., Wagener, D. K., & Burke, D. S. (2010). Simulating School Closure
Strategies to Mitigate an Influenza Epidemic. Journal of Public Health Management
and Practice, 16(3), 252–261. https://doi.org/10.1097/PHH.0b013e3181ce594e
Lee, T. H. (2020). Innovations in Care Creating the New Normal: The Clinician Response
to Covid-19. NEJM Catalyst, 19–21. https://doi.org/10.1056/CAT.20.0076
MacDermott, A. F. N. (2002). Living with angina pectoris - A phenomenological study.
European Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-
5151(02)00047-6
Manfuso, L. G. (2020). From Emergency Remote Teaching to Rigorous Online Learning. Ed
Tech. Retrieved from
https://edtechmagazine.com/higher/article/2020/05/emergency-remote-
teaching-rigorous-online-learning-perfcon
McCarthy, M. (2020, June). Dr. Anthony Fauci: COVID-19 Will End and We Will Get Control
Over It. Healthline. Retrieved from https://www.healthline.com/health-
news/dr-anthony-fauci-this-will-end-and-we-will-get-control-over-it#6
McPhee, S., & Pickren, G. (2017). Blended learning with international students: a
multiliteracies approach. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 41(3), 418–433.
https://doi.org/10.1080/03098265.2017.1331208
Mehdipour, Y., & Zerehkafi, H. (2013). Mobile Learning for Education: Benefits and
Challenges. International Journal of Computational Engineering Research, 03(06), 93-
101.
Meiza, A., Hanifah, F. S., & Natanel, Y. (2020). Analisis Regresi Ordinal untuk melihat
Pengaruh Media Pembelajaran Daring terhadap Antusiasme Mahasiswa Era Pandemi
Covid [Ordinal Regression analysis to see the effect of online learning media on students’
enthusiasm in the COVID pandemic era]. Retrieved from
http://sinta.ristekbrin.go.id/covid/penelitian/detail/361
Merleau-Ponty, M., & Landes, D. A. (2013). Phenomenology of perception. In
Phenomenology of Perception. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203720714
Miles, M. B., Huberman, M. a, & Saldana, J. (2014). Drawing and Verying Conclusions.
Qualitative Data Analysis: A Methods Sourcebook.
Milman, N. B. (2020). Pandemic pedagogy. Phi Delta Kappan.
Ministry of Communication and Information Technology Republic of Indonesia. (2020).
Penggunaan Internet di Indonesia. Ministry of Communication and Information
Technology Republic of Indonesia.
https://aptika.kominfo.go.id/2019/08/penggunaan-internet-di-indonesia/
Ministry of Education and Culture. (2019). The 2019/2020 Early Childhood Education Statis.
Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004
Ministry of Education and Culture. (2020a). 2019/2020 Junior High School Statistic.
Ministry of Education and Culture. (2020b). 2019/2020 Primary Education Statistics.
Retrieved from http://statistik.data.kemdikbud.go.id/index.php/page/sd
Ministry of Education and Culture. (2020c). 2019/2020 Senior High School Statistic.
Ministry of Education and Culture. (2020d). 2019/2020 Vocational School Statistic.
Moscona, A. (2005). Oseltamivir Resistance — Disabling Our Influenza Defenses. New
England Journal of Medicine, 353(25), 2633–2636.
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp058291

25
National Agency for Disaster Management. (2020). Infeksi COVID-19 Telah Menyebar di 34
Provinsi di Indonesia, Total Positif Jadi 3.512 Kasus [COVID-19 infections have
spread in 34 provinces in Indonesia, a total of positive to 3,512 cases]. Retrieved
from https://bnpb.go.id/berita/infeksi-covid19-telah-menyebar-di-34-
provinsi-di-indonesia-total-positif-jadi-3-512-kasus
Patton, M. Q. (1999). Enhancing the quality and credibility of qualitative analysis. Health
Services Research.
Ramdhan, D., Nasihudin, Rohaniawati, D., & Pratiwi, I. M. (2020). TIPOLOGI BELAJAR
MAHASISWA PADA PEMBELAJARAN DARING [Students’ learning typology in
online learning]. Digilib UIN Sunan Gunung Djati. Retrieved from
http://digilib.uinsgd.ac.id/30594/1/Artikel KTI dadan f ramdhan dkk .pdf
Reynolds, K. A. (2020). Coronavirus: Fauci says vaccine possible by end of 2020. Medical
Economics. https://www.medicaleconomics.com/news/coronavirus-fauci-
says-vaccine-possible-end-2020
Sadeghi, R., Sadaghat, M. M., & Ahmadi, F. S. (2014). Comparison of the Effect of Lecture
and Blended Teaching Methods on Students’ Learning and Satisfaction. J. Adv
Med Ed Prof, 2(4), 146–150.
Sadique, M. Z., Adams, E. J., & Edmunds, W. J. (2008). Estimating the costs of school
closure for mitigating an influenza pandemic. BMC Public Health, 8(1), 135.
https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-8-135
Saldana, J. (2009). An Introduction to Codes and Coding. The Coding Manual for Qualitative
Researchers. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181ddfd0a
Saldaña, J. (2016). The Coding Manual for Qualitative Researchers (No. 14). Sage.
Salloum, S. A., Qasim M. A. A., Al-Emran, M., Abdel M. A., & Shaalan, K. (2019).
Exploring Students’ Acceptance of E-Learning Through the Development of a
Comprehensive Technology Acceptance Model. IEEE Access, 7, 128445–128462.
https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2939467
Stephenson, J. E., Brown, C., & Griffin, D. K. (2008). Electronic delivery of lectures in the
university environment: An empirical comparison of three delivery styles.
Computers & Education, 50(3), 640–651.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2006.08.007
Suhada, I., Kurniati, T., Pramadi, R. A., & Listiawati, M. (2020). Google Pembelajaran Daring
Berbasis Google Classroom Mahasiswa Pendidikan Biologi Pada Masa Wabah Covid-19
[Classroom-online learning of Biology education students during the COVID-19
outbreak]. Retrieved from
http://sinta.ristekbrin.go.id/covid/penelitian/detail/363
Thiele, J. E. (2003). Learning Patterns of Online Students. Journal of Nursing Education,
42(8), 364–366.
UNESCO. (2020). COVID-19 Impact on Education. Retrieved from
https://en.unesco.org/covid19
Windhiyana, E. (2020). DAMPAK COVID-19 TERHADAP KEGIATAN
PEMBELAJARAN ONLINE DI PERGURUAN TINGGI KRISTEN DI
INDONESIA [The impact of COVID-19 online learning activities in a Christian
university in Indonesia]. Perspektif Ilmu Pendidikan, 34(1), 1–8.
https://doi.org/10.21009/PIP.341.1
World Health Organization. (2020a). Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) Situation
Report – 42. World Health Organization. Retrieved from
https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-
reports/20200302-sitrep-42-covid-19.pdf?sfvrsn=224c1add_2
World Health Organization. (2020b). Draft landscape of COVID-19 candidate vaccines -
15 May 2020. World Health Organisation. Retrieved from

26
https://www.who.int/who-documents-detail/draft-landscape-of-covid-19-
candidate-vaccines
World Health Organization. (2020c). World Health Organization COVID-19 Dashboard.
Retrieved from https://covid19.who.int
Wu, Z. (2020). How a top Chinese university is responding to coronavirus. World Economic
Forum.
Appendix 1. Students’ Diary

Write every day about your daily learning routine. Illustrate and describe your
experiences in 300-500 words a day. If you like, you can add a picture.
Name:
Day/Date Learning Activities
Monday/4 May 2020
Tuesday/5 May 2020
Wednesday/6 May 2020
Thursday/7 May 2020
Friday/8 May 2020
Saturday/9 May 2020
Sunday/10 May 2020
Monday/11 May 2020
Tuesday/12 May 2020
Wednesday/13 May 2020
Thursday/14 May 2020
Friday/15 May 2020
Saturday/16 May 2020
Sunday/17 May 2020
Monday/18 May 2020
Appendix 2. Reflective Essay

Write your thoughts on the implementation of emergency remote learning that has been
going on for more than 2 months in 500-1000 words. Write down what you like and do
not like about ERL.

27

Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 27-45, June 2020
Examining the Fairness of Language Test Across

Gender with IRT-based Differential Item and
Test Functioning Methods
Burhanettin Ozdemir
Prince Sultan University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7716-2700
Abdulrahman Hadi Alshamrani

National Center for Assessment, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Abstract. Test fairness is an important indicator of the validity of test

results. The fairness and equity require ensuring that the background
characteristics of test-takers, such as ethnicity and gender, do not affect
their test scores. Differential item functioning (DIF) methods are
commonly used to detect potentially biased items that lead to the unfair
assessment of the performance of test-takers with the same ability levels
coming from the different cultural, social, demographic, and linguistic
backgrounds. This study aims at detecting potentially biased items
across gender and examining their effect on test scores to ensure the
fairness of test results for each domain and the entire test. Item response
theory (IRT) based Lord’s chi-square DIF method at item level and
Mantel-Haenszel/Liu-Agresti differential test functioning (DTF) method
at test level were implemented to the English Placement Tests (EPT)
administered to high school graduates by the National Center for
Assessment. The results show that 6 items of the EPT exhibit DIF for the
entire test. Two of them are related to reading comprehension and four
to the structure domain, while none of the compositional analysis
methods shows DIF. These results indicate the existence of content
specific DIF effect. Additionally, two items exhibit uniform DIF, one of
which shows DIF favoring male students and the offer favoring female
students. The small to moderate DTF effect associated with sub-domains
and the entire test imply that DIF effects cancel each out, assuring the
fairness of results at test level. However, the items with substantially
high DIF values need to be examined by content experts to determine
the possible cause of DIF effects to avoid gender bias and unfair test
outcomes. We also suggest conducting further studies to investigate the
reasons behind the content specific DIF effects in language tests.
Keywords: test fairness and validity; gender bias; language testing;

differential item functioning; differential test functioning
©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

28
1. Introduction
The major concern of the stakeholders in education and test-takers is to ensure
the fairness tests. The best way to provide fairness regarding the decision made
upon a test is to increase the validity and reliability of test results. Therefore, any
effort to minimize confounding factors such as random and systematic errors,
and increase validity and reliability of test will serve the purpose of developing
fair tests and valid test scores for examinees belonging to different groups.
Examining the factorial structure of a test and differential functioning at the item
level and test level are commonly used methods to assess the reliability and
validity of test scores. Differential functioning may occur when items and tests
produce different results for different groups consistently and therefore lead to
invalid test scores and decisions made based on these scores.
The stakeholders that take part in educational test development and assessment
processes explicitly emphasize the importance of fairness in test results
regarding different subgroups. They put a substantial amount of effort to detect
irrelevant factors threatening the construct validity of the test. They are aware of
the necessity and importance of collecting evidence to justify the validity and
fairness of the tests and change the testing policies accordingly. Recently, the
European Federation of Psychological Association has proposed a model for
collecting evidence of construct validity (Evers, Muñiz, Hagemeister,
Høstmælingen, Lindley, Sjöberg, & Bartram, 2013; Hope, Adamson, McManus,
Chris, & Elder, 2018) in which using differential item functioning (DIF) is
considered as an important method for assessing the quality of the test.
Moreover, the Test Commission of the Spanish Psychological Association has
emphasized the critical role of DIF analysis in the context of test fairness
(Hernández, Tomás, Ferreres, & Lloret, 2015; Hope et al., 2018).
A common definition of differential item functioning (DIF) is that an item is said

to exhibit DIF when the probability of correct response to an item differs across
subgroups with the same ability level (Hambleton & Rogers, 1989). DIF types are
classified into two groups that are uniform DIF and non-uniform DIF. An item
exhibits uniform-DIF when the difference in item performance is consistent and
in favor of certain subgroups across the entire range of ability. However, if this
difference between subgroups is not consistent, then DIF is identified as non-
uniform (Hambleton, Clauser, Mazor & Jones, 1993).
The existence of DIF is an indicator of item bias and the presence of the
secondary latent trait besides the primary latent trait that an item aims to
measure. However, this secondary latent trait does not always imply bias or
cause unfair assessment. If the secondary latent trait is related to the primary
trait and occurs due to the nature of the measured structure, then the item is not
labeled as unfair regardless of the differing performance of sub-groups. This
situation was illustrated in a study conducted by Drabinová and Martinková
(2016). They found that one DIF item related to childhood illness in which
females showed better performance than males. However, a detailed
investigation of content experts revealed that this performance difference
occurred since women are more experienced than men since they spend more
time with their children in the Czech Republic (Martinková et al., 2017).

29
Therefore, the performance difference between women and men in this example
reflects the true ability difference and does not cause unfairness. Therefore, an
item may display DIF, however, this finding does not provide enough evidence
to classify this item as a biased item. Bias is related to systematic error in test
administration and contents and relies on both statistical tests and expert
opinions (Camilli & Shepard, 1994; Clauser & Mazor, 1998; Wiberg, 2006), while
DIF only relies on statistical tests.
Although there are many different parametric and non-parametric methods to

detect DIF, which method to utilize is a main concern of researchers, since each
method has advantages and shortcomings (Anastasi & Urbina, 1997; Hunter,
2014). For instance, some methods fail to detect non-uniform DIF but effective
when the sample size is small, such as the Mantel Haenszel and Rasch methods,
while some methods are capable of detecting non-uniform DIF but requires
large sample size (Ferne & Rupp, 2007; Lai, Teresi, & Gershon,2005) such as IRT
based Raju’s area method and Lord’s chi-square method. These aforementioned
methods are the most commonly used exploratory methods utilized to identify
differential item functioning for categorical variables that represent existing
subgroups such as gender, nationality, and age groups (Aryadoust & Zhang,
2016). The next step after detecting items exhibiting DIF is to investigate the
possible source and cause of occurrence of DIF (Zhu & Aryadost, 2020).
The EPT is administered to high school graduates by the National Center for
Assessment (NCA) in Saudi Arabia. The results of the EPT has been used by
several colleges, universities, and institutes to measure students’ language skills,
to screen their improvements across different levels or to determine their
required language proficiencies (Education & Training Evaluation Commission
[ETEC], 2020). Luo and Al-Harbi (2016) examined the factorial structure of the
EPT with unidimensional and DIMTEST methods. They found strong evidence
supporting the unidimensionality of the EPT which justified the usage of the
IRT-based models instead of the classical test theory method (CTT).
1.1. Literature review

There have been many studies conducted to ensure test fairness across different
subgroups and to define the potential source of DIF effects. Drabinová and
Martinková (2016) conducted a study to determine the potential sources of DIF
effects concerning the presence of the secondary latent trait besides the primary
latent trait. They concluded that the existence of the DIF effect for some items
did not mean that these items were biased because some of the DIF effects
reflected the relationship between the secondary latent trait and the primary
latent trait. Thus, they suggested that one should avoid labeling DIF items as
biased items without the investigation of the content experts.
Chubbuck et al. (2016) studied DIF effects in the context of differing contents
across gender groups. They employed the Mantel–Haenszel and standardized
DIF methods to detect DIF items for each content domain. They found that the
males showed better performance than females in reading comprehension items.
They also defined the lack of sufficient context in the sentence completion items
as a potential source of DIF effects. Finally, they recommended utilizing more
than one DIF methods to increase the accuracy of the results. Wedman (2018)

30
examined if the language ability of non-native test takers that took the test in a
language other than their mother tongue affected their performance compared
to the native speakers. It was found that the deficiency in the language skill of
non-native test takers caused the DIF. Moreover, He defined the failure in
wording the content clearly in an item as a potential source of DIF effects.
(Siegel, 2007, Wedman, 2018).
In one study, Stage (2005) investigated the SweSAT test items administered in
spring concerning DIF across gender groups. The Mantel–Haenszel DIF method
was employed to detect DIF items and It was found that 21 out of 122 items
exhibited DIF across gender groups. Among these DIF items, 10 items related to
the quantitative and verbal domains were in favor of female students. However,
this study did not find any patterns among DIF items and did not suggest
anything about the potential source of DIF effects. Federer and her colleagues
(2016) employed the Mantel-Haenszel DIF method for detecting potential DIF
items in the context of natural selection across gender groups. They specifically
focused on open-ended questions. It was found that women outperformed men
for the items that require applying the knowledge to the new conditions.
Admitting the fact that the developed measurement instrument showed gender
bias and, they did not suggest anything about the potential source of DIF effects
due to the complex nature of DIF structure.
Similarly, Lin and Wu (2003) used DIF and differential bundle functioning (DBF)
to detect items that function differently across gender on the EPT administered
to Chinese EFL learners. For this purpose, they used the SIBTEST methods to
detect DIF items. The results of this study indicated that the testlets (item
bundles) containing the listening comprehension items showed DIF in favor of
females, while the testlets containing the grammar and vocabulary exhibited DIF
in favor of males. Thus, these findings provide strong evidence about content
specific DIF. Pae (2012) studied the trends in the magnitude of DIF on the
English subtest administered to the Korean students across gender groups for
the nine-year period. He used the Mantel-Haenszel and IRT-based likelihood
ratio test methods to detect the DIF items. Moreover, the study examined the
effects of reading strategies and perceived interest on the magnitude of DIF. The
results of this study showed the strong evidence about the relationship between
the type of items and DIF, and a substantial interaction between the test takers
interest in the items and the magnitude of DIF across gender.
It is substantially important to run DTF analyses along with DIF since items are
small and unreliable compared to the test (Gierl, Bisanz, Bisanz, Boughton, &
Khaliq, 2001) and the total amount of DIF provides an overall effect of DIF on
test scores even when there is no item detected as DIF in a test (Hunter, 2014;
Shealy & Stout, 1993). Additionally, DTF values can be negligibly small when
these DIF items are in favor of different subgroups or in a different direction
where DIF effects cancel each out (Borsboom, 2006; Zhu & Aryadoust, 2020).
DTF is also important since decisions about examinees are not made at item-
level, but test-level (Ellis & Raju, 2003; Roznowski & Reith, 1999; Pae & Park,
2006; Zumbo, 2003). More detailed information about the DIF and DTF methods
is provided in the following sections.

31
1.2. IRT based DIF methods

The IRT based DIF methods are suggested in the case of a large sample size. The
latent variable (ability estimate-θ) estimated by IRT models is used as a
matching variable for subgroups rather than observed scores. There are many
different IRT based methods to detect DIF items, some of which are test of b
difference, Lord’s chi-square, Raju’s area method, likelihood ratio test (LRT
method), and item drift method. The Lord’s chi-square DIF method (Lord, 1980)
is an extension of the test of b difference and takes the other parameters into
account. The major shortcoming of Raju’s area method is that the exact areas
between ICCs are infinite when guessing parameters are not equal (Hunter,
2014). In this project, Lord’s chi-square DIF method was used to detect DIF
items, because it takes more than one parameter into account when calculating
DIF statistics and capable of detecting both uniform and non-uniform DIF in the
presence of large sample size. The “difR” package installed in the R program
was used to run DIF analyses. The formula for Lord’s chi-square DIF methods is
as follows:
Q j = ( v jR − v jF ) (  jR −  jF ) ( v − v jF ) (1)
 −1
jR
where VjR = (ajR, bjR, cjR) and VjF = (ajF, bjF, cjF) are the vectors of item parameters
related to the reference group and focal group, respectively. Besides, the
variance-covariance matrices of reference and focal groups are denoted by ∑ 𝑗𝑅
and ∑ 𝑗𝐹, respectively. The 𝑄1 -statistic has chi-square distribution and its
degrees of freedom is equal to the number of estimated parameters (Camilli,
2006; Lord, 1980). Previously research show that DIF results obtained from
Lord’s chi-squared test and Raju’s unsigned area method are highly correlated
(Millsap & Everson, 1993; Shepard, Camilli, &Williams, 1985). The most
important disadvantage of the Lord’s chi-squared test is that it tends to reject the
null hypothesis of no DIF even when the discrepancy between ICCs of sub-
groups is small in the presence of a large sample size (Camilli & Shephard,1994;
Wiberg, 2006). Thus, a more stringent criterion should be used in the presence of
a large sample size.
1.3 Differential test functioning (DTF)

Differential test functioning (DTF) values correspond to the total amount of DIF
for the entire test. Therefore, it is equal to the sum of item DIF statistics in a test
(Donovan, Drasgow & Probst, 2000; Ellis & Mead, 2000; Hunter, 2014;
Nandakumar, 1993). There are different methods to calculate DTF such as Raju’s
DFIT (Raju, van der Linden & Fleer, 1995), and Mantel-Haenszel/Liu-Agresti
method (Penfield & Algina, 2006). Raju’s DFIT estimates DTF through
calculating the squared difference between test characteristic curves, while the
Mantel-Haenszel/Liu-Agresti method is based on variance estimates and tend to
have higher DTF rates than Raju’s DFIT (Hunter, 2014). Penfield (2005, 2013)
developed a program called DIFAS which enables us to calculate both DIF and
the Mantel-Haenszel/Liu-Agresti statistics. In this study, the MH-LA method
was used to evaluate DTF associated with the EPT tests.

32
The formula for MH-LA DTF method proposed by Camilli and Penfield (1997) is
as follows:
 (1 −  )2 −  i =1 si 2
I I
 2
= i =1
(2)
I
where “I” represents the number of items; 𝜓 ̂𝑖 denotes MH log-odds ratio

2
statistics; µ represents mean and 𝑠𝑖 represent the error variance of ψ. Some
studies report weighted 𝜏 2 statistics along with 𝜏 2 statistics. The formula for
weighted 𝜏 2 is as follows:
 W 2 (1 −  )2 −  i =1Wi
I I
2 = i =1 i
(3)

I
W
i =1 i
where 𝑤𝑖 is equal to 𝑠𝑖−2 .
1.4 The purpose of the study

This study aims at examining the presence of items that function differently for
the entire test and across different sub-domains for gender in English Placement
Tests (EPT) to ensure the fairness of the test. For this purpose, item response
theory (IRT) based Differential Item Functioning (DIF) at the item level and
Differential Test Functioning (DTF) methods at the test level were implemented,
respectively, to examine whether items function differently across different
subgroups.
Considering the findings of previously conducted studies, this study aims to test
five different hypotheses. The first hypothesis is that the factorial structure of the
EPT remains unchanged across gender groups. The second hypothesis is that
some of the EPT items are likely to exhibit DIF across gender. The third
hypothesis assumes the existence of content specific DIF items at the item level.
The fourth and fifth hypotheses are that the existence of DIF items affects the test
scores for the entire test and each subdomain.
1.5 Research questions

1. Do the factorial structure of EPT for the entire test and each gender group
support the unidimensionaliy?
2. Do items of the EPT function differently across gender (female vs. male)?
3. What is the distribution of DIF items across sub-domains (Reading
Comprehension, Structure, and Compositional Analysis), when each domain is
treated as a separate test?
4. Do test scores of the EPT exhibit differential test functioning (DTF) across
gender (Female vs. Male)?
5. Do test scores of the EPT exhibit differential test functioning (DTF) across
gender, when each domain is treated as a separate test?

33

2.1 The instrument and data
The EPT consist of three sub-domains that are reading comprehension, structure,
and compositional analysis, respectively. It consists of 85 dichotomously scored
items in which 22 items are related to reading comprehension, 43 items are
related to structure and 20 items are related to compositional analysis,
respectively. After the preliminary IRT-based item analyses, 2 items related to
the reading comprehension domain, and 3 items related to the structure domain
that showed misfit to the test were excluded. The final version of the EPT
consists of 80 dichotomously scored items in which 20 items are related to
reading comprehension, 40 items are related to structure and 20 items are related
to compositional analysis, respectively.
The data for this study come from EPT 0105 test forms which were administered
to 11,362 high-school graduates including 5665 females (49.85%) and 5,697 males
(50.15%) in 2017. A relatively small sample data with 1000 cases were randomly
drawn from the population and used to conduct the DIF and DTF analyses. The
sample data comprise of 506 females (50.6%) and 494 (49.4%) males,
respectively. The reason behind using the relatively small sample size is that the
chi-square statistics are affected by the large sample size that increases the
probability of committing Type-I error. In other words, some non-DIF items
might be flagged as DIF items when the sample size is large.
2.2. Statistical analysis

This study used the quantitative descriptive research design to investigate the
structure of the test, to detect the items that function differently across gender
groups and the effect of these items on test scores at the test level. The first
research question requires examining the factorial structure of EPT data. It is
also necessary to see whether the assumption of unidimensionality is met since
the IRT based DIF method will be implemented. A test is said to be
unidimensional when there is one dominant factor (or latent variable) that
underlies the scores obtained from the test. Thus, a one-factor CFA model was
tested and fit measures of this one-factor CFA model were compared to see if the
one-factor model fits the data. Besides, the one-factor CFA model was tested for
both males and females to see whether the factorial structure remained the same
across gender. A combination of data fit measures (goodness of fit statistics)
such as the chi-square statistics, CFI (the comparative fit index), TLI (the Tucker-
Lewis index) and RMSEA (root mean square error of approximation) for CFA
models provides insight into the degree of data fit for the pre-specified model.
After checking the assumption of the IRT model, Lord’s chi-square DIF method
was used to detect items that exhibit DIF. The more stringent criterion for
detecting DIF was favored and DIF analyses were employed to the sample data.
Thus, the significance level of 0.01 (α=0.01) was used (rather than 0.05) with the
detection threshold equal to 9.210. Along with Lord’s chi-square DIF method,
the Mantel-Haenszel/Liu-Agresti differential test functioning (DTF) method was
employed to test the effects of DIF items at the test scores that might lead to
unfair assessment. Penfield (2013) has suggested a set of criteria to assess the

34
degree of DTF for the Mantel -Haenszel/Liu-Agresti DTF method. Since it is

based on the variance of DIF items, DTF statistics (t2) smaller than 0.07 are
considered to be negligibly small, while DTF values (t2) between 0.07 and 0.14
indicate medium DTF effect and DTF values larger than 0.14 indicate large DTF
effect, respectively. Hunter (2014) claims that the Mantel -Haenszel/Liu-Agresti
DTF method is more stringent in general and shows higher rates of DTF
compared to Raju’s DFIT method. Therefore, DTF statistics larger than 0.14 is
adopted as an indicator of substantial DTF for the test.
3. Results
In this section, firstly, CFA results that indicate the unidimensionality of each
test are provided. Additionally, descriptive statistics and reliability coefficients
of entire EPT tests and each subdomain of these tests are presented. Secondly,
the results of the IRT-based Lord’s Chi-square DIF method used to determine
the items that function differently across gender for the entire test and each
domain, are presented. Finally, the results of the Mantel -Haenszel/Liu-Agresti
differential test functioning (DTF) method used to examine DIF effects across
gender at the test level are provided in the following sections, respectively.
CFA results of the one-factor model and three-factor model, where each domain
is treated as a factor, for the entire EPT, and each gender category are presented
in Table 1.
Table 1. CFA results of the One-Factor CFA model of EPT Data Across Gender
90% for
Models Group χ2 df CFI TLI RMSEA RMSEA
LL UL
ALL 19376.905 3080 0.964 0.963 0.30 0.30 0.31
Females 10385.585 3080 0.969 0.968 0.28 0.28 0.29

One-factor
Model Males 9731.157 3080 0.961 0.960 0.28 0.27 0.29
According to the goodness of fit statistics given in Table 1, both CFI and TLI
statistics are above 0.95 indicating a good fit between model and data as Hu and
Bentler (1999) suggested for both one-factor. Besides, the RMSEA values for the
whole data set and each gender group are below the 0.06 criterion, and the 95%
confidence interval of RMSEA is also below 0.06 indicating a good fit for both
factors. However, chi-square values are statistically significant which are
expected to be not statistically significant. The main reason behind this
significant result might be the large sample size since the chi-square test results
tend to be significant as the sample size increases. These results indicate that the
one-factor CFA model shows a good fit to the data. Therefore, the EPT can be
considered as unidimensional where all items load on one factor.
Table 2 presents descriptive statistics and reliability coefficients associated with

the entire EPT test and with each subdomain. Two different reliability

35
coefficients, that are Cronbach’s reliability coefficient and composite reliability

coefficients (or latent variable modeling -LVM based reliability) were calculated.
Composite reliability is calculated with factor loadings obtained from CFA,
provided that the test is unidimensional. It provides more accurate reliability
coefficients if essentially tau-equivalence does not hold and tends to yield higher
reliability results when this assumption is violated.
Table 2. CFA results of the One-Factor CFA model of EPT Data Across Gender
Test/ Domain Mean SD r Crombach- a a-LL a-UL
EPT-ALL 49.38 17.68 0.96 0.95 0.95 0.95
Reading
Comprehension 12.27 4.51 0.852 0.83 0.82 0.83
Structure 25.07 9.5 0.932 0.92 0.93 0.93
Compositional
Analysis 12.04 4.46 0.844 0.83 0.84 0.84
According to results in Table 2, Cronbach – coefficients are substantially high

with 0.95 for the entire test, 0.83 for reading comprehension (RC), 0.92 for
structure, and 0.83 for compositional analysis. On the other hand, composite
score reliability coefficients are somewhat higher compared to Cronbach
coefficients. However, the discrepancy between composite reliability and
Cronbach is negligible small indicating that the assumption of essentially tau-
equivalence holds for EPT. Additionally, yielding substantially high-reliability
coefficients is also an indicator of unidimensionality.
3.1 DIF and DTF results of the EPT

Table 3 provides the DIF results of the entire test regardless of different
domains. The first column presents item numbers along with “rc”, “st” and “ca”
abbreviations that stand for each subdomain that are reading comprehension,
structure and compositional analysis, respectively. The second and third column
presents Lord’s chi-square DIF statistics and corresponding significance test
results (p-values) for each item.
Table 3. DIF statistics of all items in EPT test 0105

Item no Statistics p-value Item no Statistics p-value
rc1 0.983 0.612 st21 4.383 0.112
rc2 0.030 0.985 st22 1.389 0.499
rc3 1.454 0.483 st23 4.193 0.123
rc4 30.521 0.000 st24 12.239 0.002
rc5 2.054 0.358 st25 0.778 0.678
rc6 0.036 0.982 st26 1.482 0.477
rc7 22.769 0.000 st27 1.487 0.476
rc8 7.114 0.029 st28 2.788 0.248
rc9 2.710 0.258 st29 1.666 0.435

36
rc10 4.799 0.091 st30 0.345 0.841

rc11 7.335 0.026 st31 0.241 0.887
rc12 7.093 0.029 st32 1.479 0.477
rc13 2.741 0.254 st33 5.823 0.054
rc14 2.736 0.255 st34 0.681 0.712
rc15 0.330 0.848 st35 6.295 0.043
rc16 4.843 0.089 st36 5.957 0.051
rc17 2.439 0.295 st37 0.706 0.703
rc18 3.727 0.155 st38 8.474 0.015
rc19 1.034 0.597 st39 11.021 0.004
rc20 5.446 0.066 st40 2.700 0.259
st1 0.517 0.772 st41 1.671 0.434
st2 7.003 0.030 ca1 3.237 0.198
st3 12.894 0.002 ca2 0.041 0.980
st4 1.212 0.545 ca3 3.856 0.145
st5 2.028 0.363 ca4 0.593 0.744
st6 4.257 0.119 ca5 3.949 0.139
st7 1.478 0.478 ca6 4.428 0.109
st8 0.129 0.938 ca7 0.816 0.665
st9 0.065 0.968 ca8 1.269 0.530
st10 5.662 0.059 ca9 1.066 0.587
st11 1.397 0.497 ca10 2.331 0.312
st12 0.720 0.698 ca11 2.348 0.309
st13 5.954 0.051 ca12 5.999 0.050
st14 2.261 0.323 ca13 3.566 0.168
st15 2.651 0.266 ca14 7.381 0.025
st16 11.778 0.003 ca15 1.725 0.422
st17 0.338 0.845 ca16 0.566 0.754
st18 2.831 0.243 ca17 1.043 0.594
st19 4.721 0.094 ca18 1.059 0.589
st20 0.054 0.974 ca19 7.728 0.021
According to results in Table 3, six items (rc4, rc7, st3, st16, st24, st39) out of 80
items of EPT had Lord’s chi-square statistics greater than DIF detection
threshold (9.21) and are detected as DIF items. Although chi-square statistics
associated with rc4 and rc7 are substantially high, the other four items’ chi-
square statistics are around 12 and are close to the DIF detection threshold. DIF
results also indicate that 2 out 6 DIF items are associated with reading
comprehension, while 4 out 6 DIF items are associated with the structure
domain. None of the items of the compositional analysis domain are detected as
DIF. Figure 1 depicts item characteristic curves (ICC) of focal (male) and
reference (female) groups for each item detected as DIF. The straight-line
represents ICC associated with the focal group, while the dotted line represents
ICC associated with the reference group. The lines in the ICCs represent the
probability of answering an item correctly across the ability range (θ) for each
gender group. The discrepancy between the lines indicates the existence and the
amount of DIF effect.
One can observe from ICCs given in Figure 1 that item 4 (rc4) and item 23 (st3)
exhibit uniform DIF meaning that the discrepancy of ICCs between males and
females is consistent across the entire range of abilities (Hambleton et al., 1993).

37
Moreover, item 4 shows DIF favoring male students, while item 23 shows DIF
favoring female students. On the other hand, the other 4 items exhibit non-
uniform DIF indicating that discrepancies between ICCs of DIF items are not
consistent across the ability distribution. Moreover, one can observe that male
students perform better at low ability levels, while female students perform
better at high ability level for each non-uniform DIF items.
Figure 1. Item Characteristic Curves for DIF items of the EPT

38
3.2 DIF results across sub-domains

Table 4 provides DIF results of each subdomain: reading comprehension,
structure, and compositional analysis. The first 3 columns present item no,
Lord’s chi-square DIF statistics, and corresponding significance test results (p-
values) related to reading comprehension. DIF results of structure are followed
by reading comprehension and compositional analysis domains.
Table 4. DIF statistics across sub-domains of EPT

Structure Reading comprehension Compositional analysis
Item Item Item
no Statistics p-value no Statistics p-value no Statistics p-value
st1 0.542 0.763 rc1 1.249 0.536 ca1 4.305 0.116
st2 7.942 0.019 rc2 0.089 0.956 ca2 0.558 0.757
st3 11.870 0.003 rc3 1.559 0.459 ca3 2.700 0.259
st4 0.346 0.841 rc4 24.107 0.000 ca4 1.110 0.574
st5 1.950 0.377 rc5 0.762 0.683 ca5 3.525 0.172
st6 4.641 0.098 rc6 0.158 0.924 ca6 4.757 0.093
st7 1.052 0.591 rc7 16.801 0.000 ca7 2.479 0.290
st8 0.317 0.854 rc8 6.881 0.032 ca8 0.267 0.875
st9 0.162 0.922 rc9 2.559 0.278 ca9 2.063 0.357
st10 4.603 0.100 rc10 3.028 0.220 ca10 4.878 0.087
st11 0.700 0.705 rc11 5.228 0.073 ca11 0.549 0.760
st12 0.419 0.811 rc12 2.969 0.227 ca12 6.212 0.045
st13 7.077 0.029 rc13 5.676 0.059 ca13 3.670 0.160
st14 2.632 0.268 rc14 2.039 0.361 ca14 2.390 0.303
st15 3.283 0.194 rc15 0.134 0.935 ca15 2.725 0.256
st16 11.177 0.004 rc16 2.469 0.291 ca16 0.747 0.689
st17 0.050 0.975 rc17 1.526 0.466 ca17 2.577 0.276
st18 3.760 0.153 rc18 0.690 0.708 ca18 0.274 0.872
st19 3.601 0.165 rc19 2.021 0.364 ca19 6.162 0.046
st20 0.000 1.000 rc20 4.331 0.115
st21 3.772 0.152
st22 1.390 0.499
st23 5.243 0.073
st24 13.468 0.001
st25 0.770 0.681
st26 1.505 0.471
st27 0.247 0.884
st28 0.941 0.625
st29 0.652 0.722
st30 0.920 0.631
st31 0.433 0.805
st32 1.498 0.473
st33 3.856 0.145
st34 0.390 0.823
st35 7.801 0.020
st36 5.763 0.056
st37 0.779 0.678
st38 8.422 0.015
st39 9.671 0.008
st40 3.021 0.221
st41 0.970 0.616

39
DIF results in Table 4 indicate that 2 items (rc4, rc7) in reading comprehension
and 4 items (st3, st16, st24, st39) in structure domains are detected as DIF.
Additionally, none of the items of the compositional analysis domain are
detected as DIF. One can notice that those same items are detected as DIF items
for the entire test and each subdomain. Moreover, chi-square statistics associated
with each DIF item across sub-domains tend to decrease somewhat compared to
DIF results of the entire test in Table 3. Especially, decrements in DIF statistics
are quite obvious for rc4 and rc7 and the DIF statistic of st39 (9,671) is close to
the DIF detection threshold (9.21).
3.3 Differential test functioning (DTF) Results

In this study, the Mantel-Haenszel/Liu-Agresti differential test functioning
(DTF) method (Penfield, 2013) which is based on variance estimates of DIF
items, was used to examine DIF at test level. Table 5 provides DTF statistics
including variance estimates (t2), weighted variance estimates (Weighted t2),
associated standard errors (SE), and z-scores for each DTF statistic for the entire
test and each subdomain.
Table 5. DTF results for the entire test and each subdomain
Test/domain Statistic Value SE Z
t2 0.068 0.012 5.667
EPT-All
Weighted t2 0.06 0.01 6.000
t2 0.097 0.032 3.031
Reading Comprehension Weighted t2 0.072 0.024 3.000
t2 0.067 0.016 4.188
Structure
Weighted t2 0.06 0.015 4.000
t2 0.032 0.012 2.667
Compositional Analysis
Weighted t2 0.03 0.011 2.727
According to results in Table 5, the DTF variance associated with the entire test
(0.068) is less than 0.07 indicating that the DTF effect of EPT is negligibly small.
Moreover, this indicates that test scores do not function differently across gender
at test level. Although 6 items detected as showing DIF, DTF results indicate that
DIF effect cancels each out at test level, because some of them show DIF in favor
of males, while some of them are in favor of females. When it comes to DTF
variance associated with sub-domains, structure and compositional analysis
domains yield DTF variance less than 0.07 indicating that DTF statistics
associated with these domains are negligibly small. Moreover, DTF associated
with reading comprehension (0.097) falls within 0.07 and 0.14 indicating a
moderate DTF effect. However, the weighted variance associated with the
reading comprehension domain (0.072) is close to 0.07 and can be considered as
negligible small. The DTF variance of the compositional analysis domain (0.032)
is relatively small compared to the other two domains since one item is detected
as DIF supporting the DIF results at the item level. Thus, both negligible small
DTF effects of the entire test and each domain indicate that DIF effects cancel
each other at the test level. 4.

40
4. Discussion
In this study, the IRT-based Lord’s Chi-square DIF method was utilized to
determine the items functioning differently in the English Placement Test (EPT)
across gender for the entire test and each subdomain. Moreover, the Mantel -
Haenszel/Liu-Agresti (MH-LA) differential test functioning (DTF) method was
used to examine the DIF effect at the test level. The results of DIF and DTF
analyses for the EPT were evaluated and compared at the item and test level.
DIF analysis results indicate that 6 items (rc4, rc7, st3, st16, st24, st39) in EPT
exhibits DIF regardless of test domains. When it comes to the distribution of DIF
items across sub-domains, two DIF items are associated with the reading
comprehension domain and the rest are associated with the structure domain.
Moreover, none of the items of the compositional analysis domain is detected as
exhibiting DIF. The DIF results across sub-domains, where each subdomain is
treated as an independent test, yield parallel results with the entire test.
Moreover, the number of DIF items, items detected as DIF, and the distribution
of DIF items across sub-domains are identical with the entire test. However, the
chi-square statistics associated with each DIF item across sub-domains tend to
decrease somewhat when compared to the DIF results of the entire test. These
results signal the existence of content specific DIF effect for the entire test. In
other words, some domains, such as reading comprehension and structure,
appear to be more prone to the DIF. These content-specific DIF effects might
occur due to unintended latent traits (Ercikan et al., 2010) item contents such as
cultural background or item properties. These unintended content-related
factors increase the likelihood of occurrence of DIF (Martinkova et al., 2017).
Item characteristic curves (ICCs) related to DIF items given in Figure 1 for focal
(male) and reference (female) groups provide information about the type of DIF
(uniform or non-uniform DIF) and behavior of items across ability levels. The
ICCs associated with each gender group reveal that two items (item 4 and item
23) exhibit uniform DIF. For these two DIF items, the male students perform
better than female students on item 4, while female students show better
performance on 23 compared to male students. Moreover, the other 4 items of
EPT exhibit non-uniform DIF indicating that discrepancy between ICCs of DIF
items are not consistent across the ability distribution. For these non-uniform
DIF items, male students perform better than female students at low ability
levels, while female students perform better than male students at high ability
levels for each non-uniform DIF items. These types of items require revision of
content experts to define the source of DIF and to decrease the unfair effects of
DIF on the evaluation process in large scale assessments (Penfield & Lee, 2010;
Martinkova et al., 2017).
Differential functioning at item level and test level appear to be associated and
DTF is considered to be the sum of DIF for compensatory DIF defined by Raju
and his colleague (Raju & Ellis, 2003). DTF results for the entire test of EPT show
that the DIF variance associated with the entire test is less than 0.07 indicating
that the DTF effect of EPT is negligibly small. Although 6 items detected as
showing DIF, DTF results indicate that DIF effect cancels each out at test level,

41
because for some of them females outperform males, while males outperform
females for the others. For compensatory DIF, there is a cancellation effect in
which the DIF effect may cancel each out in the presence of items favoring
different subgroups at test level (Flora, Curran, Hussong, & Edwards, 2008;
Hunter, 2014; Nandakumar, 1993; Takala & Kaftandjieva, 2000). These results
assure that EPT test scores does not function differently across gender and
supports the fairness and validity of the test results at the test level.
When it comes to DTF effects across sub-domains, structure, and compositional

analysis domains have DTF variance less than 0.07 indicating that DTF effects
associated with these domains are negligibly small. However, DTF associated
with reading comprehension falls within 0.07 and 0.14 indicating moderate DTF
effect, while weighted variance associated with reading comprehension domain
is close to 0.07 and could be considered as negligible small. The relatively larger
DTF effect associated with the reading comprehension domain might be an
indicator of the existence of a construct-irrelevant latent factor such as the degree
of vocabulary knowledge of test takers that have a benign effect on test results
(Jang & Roussos, 2009). Moreover, the relatively larger DTF effects associated
with reading comprehension and structure domains reveal that the existence of
DIF effects at item level influences the DTF results. These results might also
imply the existence of content specific DTF effect.
Chubbuck and his colleagues (2016) examined the performance of gender

groups on sentence-completion and reading comprehension questions using the
Mantel–Haenszel and standardized DIF methods. They found out the content
specific DIF in sentence-completion items in which males outperformed females
in reading comprehension items (Wedman, 2018). The findings of the
aforementioned studies support the results of this study concerning the
occurrence of content specific DIF. Another factor that might cause DIF is the
language skills of non-native test takers that take a test in a language other than
their mother tongue. The deficiency in their language skill or failure in wording
the content clearly in the item might lead to DIF between sub-groups (Siegel,
2007, Wedman, 2018). The results of DIF and DTF induce item bias and violation
of test fairness when a large number of items are in favor of a certain group and
when unintended construct irrelevant factors are defined as a source of DIF (Zhu
& Aryadoust, 2020). The relatively small number of DIF items and negligibly
small DTF effects of the entire test indicate that the fairness of test scores is
achieved for the EPT. However, it is of great importance to use methods such as
DIF and DTF to examine the fairness of the test across gender groups and to
ensure equality between males and females. On the other hand, the results of
this study showed that unintended factors, such contents favoring a certain
group, might lead to the DIF effects which can only be controlled by content
experts. Thus, another way of ensuring test fairness requires selecting the
contents that are relevant to each gender group.

42
5. Conclusion
DIF analysis is one of the most important methods employed to ensure the
validity of the test and fairness of test score interpretation (Zumbo, 2007). The
First step in DIF is to use statistical methods to determine DIF items. This step is
followed by deciding whether to remove or to revise these items since
statistically significant DIF results do not always indicate biased items. It
requires a comparison of differential functioning results at item and test level
and involvement of content experts for the final decision. There are different
approaches to deal with items detected as DIF. Some researchers suggest
removing DIF items to reduce DTF effect (Raju et al., 1995) while others suggest
consulting test developers and content experts to examine the structure of test
and items before removing DIF items and try to determine what exactly caused
differential functioning (Martinkova et al., 2017; Penfield & Lee, 2010).
Therefore, items with substantially high DIF values (rc4 and rc7 items) should be
examined by content experts. Because, removing DIF items without any
evaluation does not ensure the fair test (Clauser & Mazor,1998; Gierl et al., 2001;
Hunter, 2014), specifically, when DTF effects of test forms are negligibly small
and DIF effects cancel each out at test level.
Some researchers who claim that removing DIF items may lead to weaker tests
(rather than fair test) regarding the representation of constructs and variance
explained by these items (Roznowski & Reith 1999). Therefore, consulting with
test developers and content experts before removing the DIF items is suggested.
It is also suggested to investigate the effects of other potential factors on DIF
such as item order and mother tongue effects along with unintended content
specific factors to explain DIF effect in the context of language testing. It is
acknowledged that detecting DIF items might require using a combination of
DIF methods to increase the accuracy of the results. This study is limited to
detecting items that function differently across the gender groups for each
content domain. The existence of DIF across other subgroups, such as native vs
non-native speakers and across nationalities could be studied. Although this
study provided evidence about the existence of content-specific DIF effect as a
potential source of DIF, it was not possible to examine the content of each DIF
item with content experts since the EPT items were not released. Another
limitation is that the unidimensionality of test was addressed with the first
research question, while the effect of the multidimensionality and the existence
of unintended latent factor on DIF and DTF results were not taken into account.
6. References
Anastasi, A., & Urbina, S. (1996). Psychological Testing. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice
Hall.
Aryadoust, V., & Zhang, L. (2016). Fitting the mixed Rasch model to a reading
comprehension test: Exploring individual difference profiles in L2 reading.
Language Testing, 33(4), 529-553. doi:10.1177/0265532215594640
Borsboom, D. (2006). When does measurement invariance matter? Medical Care, 44(11),
176-181. doi:10.1097/01.mlr.0000245143.08679.cc
Camilli, G. (2006). Test fairness. In R. L. Brennan (Ed.), Educational Measurement (4th ed.,
pp. 221-256). Westport: American Council on Education & Praeger Publishers.

43
Camilli, G., & Penfield, D. (1997). Variance estimation for differential test functioning
based on Mantel-Haenszel statistics. Journal of Educational Measurement, 34(2),
123-139. doi:10.1111/j.1745-3984.1997.tb00510.x
Camilli, G., & Shepard, L. (1994). Methods for identifying biased test items. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage publications.
Chubbuck, K., Curley, W. E., & King, T. C. (2016). Who’s on first? Gender differences in
performance on the SAT test on critical reading items with sports and science content
(Report No. RR-16-26). Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.
Clauser, B., & Mazor, K. (1998). Using statistical procedures to identify differentially
functioning test items. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 17(1), 31-44.
doi:10.1111/j.1745-3992.1998.tb00619.x
Donovan, M. A., Drasgow, F., & Probst, T. M. (2000). Does computerizing paper-and-
pencil job attitude scales make a difference? New IRT analyses offer insight.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 85(2), 305-313. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.85.2.305
Drabinová, A., & Martinková, P. (2016). Detection of differential item functioning with
non-linear regression: Non-IRT approach accounting for guessing. Retrieved
from http://hdl.handle.net/11104/0259498
Ellis, B. B., & Mead, A. D. (2000). Assessment of the measurement equivalence of a
Spanish translation of the 16PF questionnaire. Educational and Psychological
Measurement, 60(5), 787-807. doi:10.1177/00131640021970781
Ellis, B., & Raju, N. (2003). Test and item bias: What they are, what they aren’t, and how
to measure them. In J. E. Wall & G. R. Walz (Eds.), Measuring up: Assessment
issues for teachers, counselors, and administrators. (pp. 89-98). Greensboro, N.C.:
CAPS.
Ercikan, K., Arim, R., Law, D., Domene, J., Gagnon F., & Lacroix S. (2010). Application
of think aloud protocols for examining and confirming sources of differential
item functioning identified by expert reviews. Educational Measurement: Issues
and Practice, 29(2), 24-35. doi:10.1111/j.1745-3992.2010.00173.x
Education & Training Evaluation Commission. (2020). Language Test. Retrieved from
https://etec.gov.sa/en/productsandservices/Qiyas/lingual/Pages/default.aspx
Evers, A., Muñiz, J., Hagemeister, C., Høstmælingen, A., Lindley, P., Sjöberg, A., &
Bartram, D. (2013). Assessing the quality of tests: Revision of the EFPA review
model. Psicothema, 25(3), 283-291. doi:10.7334/psicothema2013.97
Federer, M. R., Nehm, R. H., & Pearl, D. K. (2016). Examining gender differences in
written assessment tasks in biology: a case study of evolutionary explanations.
CBE—Life Sciences Education, 15(1), ar2. doi:10.1187/cbe.14-01-0018
Ferne, T., & Rupp, A. A. (2007). A Synthesis of 15 Years of Research on DIF in Language
Testing: Methodological Advances, Challenges, and Recommendations.
Language Assessment Quarterly, 4(2), 113–148. doi:10.1080/15434300701375923
Flora, D., Curran, P., Hussong, A., & Edwards, M. (2008). Incorporating measurement
nonequivalence in a cross-study latent growth curve analysis. Structural
Equation Modeling, 15(4), 676-704. doi:10.1080/10705510802339080
Gierl, M., Bisanz, J., Bisanz, G., Boughton, K., & Khaliq, S. (2001). Illustrating the utility
of differential bundle functioning analyses to identify and interpret group
differences on achievement tests. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice,
20(2), 26-36. doi:10.1111/j.1745-3992.2001.tb00060.x
Hambleton, R. K. (2006). Good practices for identifying differential item functioning.
Medical Care, 44(11), 182-188. doi:10.1097/01.mlr.0000245443.86671.c4
Hambleton, R. K., Clauser, B. E., Mazor, K. M., & Jones, R. W. (1993). Advances in the
detection of differentially functioning test items. European Journal of Psychological
Assessment, 9, 1-18. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED356264

44
Hambleton, R. K., & Rogers, H. J. (1989). Detecting potentially biased test items:
Comparison of IRT and Mantel-Haenszel methods. Applied Measurement in
Education, 2(4), 313-34. doi:10.1207/s15324818ame0204_4
Hambleton, R. K., Swaminathan, H., & Rogers, H. J. (1991). Fundamentals of item response
theory. Newbury Park. Calif.: Sage Publications.
Hernández, A., Tomás, I., Ferreres, A., & Lloret, S. (2015). Tercera evaluación de test
editados en España [Third evaluation of tests published in Spain]. Papeles del
Psicólogo, 36(1), 1-8. Retrieved from
http://www.papelesdelpsicologo.es/pdf/2484.pdf
Hope, D., Adamson, K., McManus, I. C., Chris, L., & Elder, A. (2018). Using differential
item functioning to evaluate potential bias in a high stakes postgraduate
knowledge based assessment. BMC Medical Education, 18, 1-7.
doi:10.1186/s12909-018-1143-0
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure
analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation
Modeling, 6, 1-55. doi:10.1080/10705519909540118
Hunter, C. (2014). A simulation study comparing two methods of evaluating differential
test functioning (DTF): DFIT and the Mantel-Haenszel/Liu-Agresti variance
(Doctoral Dissertation). Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, United States.
Jang, E. E., & Roussos, L. (2009). Integrative analytic approach to detecting and
interpreting L2 vocabulary DIF. International Journal of Testing, 9(3), 238–259.
doi:15305050903107022.
Lai, J. S., Teresi, J., & Gershon, R. (2005). Procedures for the analysis of differential item
functioning (DIF) for small sample sizes. Evaluation & the Health Professions,
28(3), 283-294. doi:10.1177/0163278705278276
Lin, J., & Wu, F. (2003). Differential performance by gender in foreign language testing [Poster
presentation]. The annual meeting of the National Council on Measurement in
Education, Chicago, United States.
Lord, F. M. (1980). Applications of item response theory to practical testing problems.
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Luo, Y., & Al-Harbi, K. (2016). The Utility of the bifactor method for unidimensionality
assessment when other methods disagree: An empirical illustration. Sage Open,
6(4), 1-7. doi:10.1177/2158244016674513
Magis, D., & Facon, B. (2012). Angoff’s Delta method revisited: improving the DIF
detection under small samples. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical
Psychology, 65(2), 302-321. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8317.2011.02025.x
Martinková, P., Drabinová, A., Liaw, Y., Sanders, E. A., McFarland, J. L., & Price, R. M.
(2017). Checking Equity: Why Differential Item Functioning Analysis Should Be
a Routine Part of Developing Conceptual Assessments. CBE—Life Sciences
Education, 16(2), 1-13. doi:10.1187/cbe.16-10-0307
Millsap, R. E. (2006). Comments on methods for the investigation of measurement bias
in the Mini-Mental State Examination. Medical Care, 44(11), 171-175.
doi:10.1097/01.mlr.0000245441.76388.ff
Millsap, R., & Everson, H. (1993). Methodology review: Statistical approaches for
assessing measurement bias. Applied Psychological Measurement, 17(4), 297-334.
doi:10.1177/014662169301700401
Nandakumar, R. (1993). Simultaneous DIF amplification and cancellation: Shealy-
Stout’s test for DIF. Journal of Educational Measurement, 30(4), 293-311.
doi:10.1111/j.1745-3984.1993.tb00428.x
Pae, T. (2012). Causes of gender DIF on an EFL language test: A multiple data analysis
over nine years. Language Testing, 29(4), 533–554. doi:10.1177/0265532211434027

45
Pae, T., & Park, G. (2006). Examining the relationship between differential item
functioning and differential test functioning. Language Testing, 23(4), 475-496.
Penfield, R. D. (2005). DIFAS: Differential item functions analysis system. Applied
Psychological Measurement, 29(2), 150-151. doi:10.1177/0146621603260686
Penfield, R. (2013). DIFAS 5.0: Differential item functions analysis system. User’s
manual. Retrieved from https://soe.uncg.edu/wp-
content/uploads/2015/12/DIFASManual_V5.pdf
Penfield, R., & Algina, J. (2006). A generalized DIF effect variance estimator for
measuring unsigned differential test functioning in mixed format tests. Journal of
Educational Measurement, 43(4), 295-312. doi:10.1111/j.1745-3984.2006.00018.x
Penfield, R., & Lee, O. (2010). Test-based accountability: potential benefits and pitfalls of
science assessment with student diversity. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,
47(1), 6-24. doi:10.1002/tea.20307
Raju, N., & Ellis, B. (2003). Differential item and test functioning. In F. Drasgow & N.
Schmitt (Eds.), Measuring and analyzing behaviour in organizations: Advances in
measurement and data analysis. (pp. 156-188). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Raju, N., van der Linden, W., & Fleer, P. (1995). IRT-based internal measures of
differential functioning of items and tests. Applied Psychological Measurement,
19(4), 353-368. doi:10.1177/014662169501900405
Roznowski, M., & Reith, J. (1999). Examining the measurement quality of tests
containing differentially functioning items: Do biased items result in poor
measurement? Educational and Psychological Measurement, 59(2), 248-269.
doi:10.1177/00131649921969839
Shealy, R., & Stout, W. (1993). A model-based standardization approach that separates
true bias/dif from group ability differences and detects test bias/DTF as well as
item bias/DIF. Psychometrika, 58(2), 159-194. doi:10.1007/BF02294572
Shepard, L. A., Camilli, G., & Williams, A. F. (1985). Validity of approximation
techniques for detecting item bias. Journal of Educational Measurement, 22(2), 77-
105. doi:10.1111/j.1745-3984.1985.tb01050.x
Siegel, M. A. (2007). Striving for equitable classroom assessments for linguistic
minorities: Strategies for and effects of revising life science items. Journal of
Research in Science Teaching, 44(6), 864–881. doi:10.1002/tea.20176
Stage, C. (2005). Socialgruppsskillnader i resultat på högskoleprovet [Social group differences in
scores on the Swedish Scholastic Assessment Test]. (Report No. BVM 11:2005).
Umeå: Umeå University.
Takala, S., & Kaftandjieva, F. (2000). Test fairness: A DIF analysis of an L2 vocabulary
test. Language Testing, 117(3), 323-340. doi:10.1191/026553200678030346
Wedman, J. (2018). Reasons for Gender-Related Differential Item Functioning in a
College Admissions Test. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 62(6), 959-
970, doi:10.1080/00313831.2017.1402365
Wiberg, M. (2006). Gender differences in the Swedish driving-license test. Journal of
Safety Research, 37(3), 285-291. doi:10.1016/j.jsr.2006.02.005
Zhu, X., & Aryadoust, V. (2020). An investigation of mother tongue differential item
functioning in a high-stakes computerized academic reading test. Computer
Assisted Language Learning, 33, 1-24. doi:10.1080/09588221.2019.17047884
Zumbo, B. D. (2003). Does item-level DIF manifest itself in scale-level analyses?
Implications for translating language tests. Language Testing, 20(2), 136-147.
doi:10.1191/0265532203lt248oa
Zumbo, B. D. (2007). Three generations of DIF analyses: Considering where it has been,
where it is now, and where it is going. Language Assessment Quarterly, 4(2), 223–
233. doi:10.1080/15434300701375832

46

Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 46-61, June 2020
Main Approaches of Business English Teaching

to Future Lawyers: A Case Study of Ukrainian
Higher Institutions
Oksana P. Bykonia and Iryna V. Borysenko

Academy of the State Penitentiary Service, Chernihiv, Ukraine
Tamila L. Gruba
Academician Stepan Demianchuk International University of Economics and
Humanities, Rivne, Ukraine
Iurii L. Mosenkis and Dmytro O. Chystiak

Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Kyiv, Ukraine
Abstract. The paper examines the difficulties teachers and students face
while teaching and learning Business English in Ukrainian higher
institutions; identifies and evaluates the problems of teaching English to
future lawyers; determines the main methods and methodological
approaches in teaching English for Specific Purposes and Business
English to future lawyers. The authors describe a project recently piloted
at the Academy of the State Penitentiary Service (Chernihiv, Ukraine) in
which law students participated in the attitude survey toward learning
the English language. In this study, feedback and quantitative methods
were used to analyse the data of surveys. The teachers’ and students’
responses to survey questions were examined. The results showed a
shift from a teacher-centred to a student-centred approach in university
teaching and student preferences in learning English. The study calls for
the enhancement of teaching the essential professional skills in English
that students need to succeed in making their pathway choices and
enable continuous growth throughout a legal career. Research findings
are discussed with due regard to the surveyed students’ needs and
personality-oriented principles in legal education. The results indicate a
need for methodological innovations that will support meaningful
learning and boost the students’ and cadets’ productivity and efficiency
of teaching and learning process. Despite the experimental group
involving only the cadets and students majoring in "Law" and "Law
enforcement", this methodology could be applied to teaching Business

47
English and English for Specific Purposes to a number of other

specialities, in particular Economics, Psychology, Business, and
International Relations.
Keywords: approaches; methods; Business English; English for Specific

Purposes; teaching future lawyers; student-centred learning
1. Introduction
In recent years, the educational system of Ukraine is facing the dramatic changes
aimed at implementing the agenda of large-scale reforms in professional
training. The basic functions of the higher educational system are being tailored
to suit the needs and expectations of the learner’s personality as the main subject
of the teaching process. However, in view of various challenges facing the
teaching and learning of Business English in Ukrainian higher educational
institutions, the consistent high failure rates in final, entrance or external
evaluation examinations has reached a disturbing proportion. Every year an
overwhelming number of students consider the English language to be one of
the most difficult subjects. Needless to say, the cases of the students’ poor
performance at the examinations in English and Business English are not
infrequent nationwide. This has obviously become an issue in higher education
of Ukraine, as an examination in the English language is an important
prerequisite for the students to pass at a certain level (B1, B2, C1) for applying to
a higher educational institution and being eligible to be enrolled in the
Bachelor’s and Master’s programmes. Our research is based on the principle
which the Ministry of Education of Ukraine holds that a particular higher
educational establishment has the institutional freedom to decide on its foreign
language teaching aims and objectives and to design the optimal curricula to
best meet the needs of its circumstances.
1.1. Literature Review

Contemporary researchers extensively dwell on various methods and
methodological approaches as well as autonomy in teaching English for Specific
Purposes and Business English context (Belcher, 2017; Bieliauskaitė, 2014;
Stefanowicz-Kocoł & Djordjevic, 2017; Selama, 2018). The scholars that have
studied the problems of teaching English to future lawyers are Harvey (2000),
Northcott and Brown (2006), Harper and Widodo (2018), etc. Thus, Northcott
(2009) overviews a pedagogical perspective of teaching legal English, giving
important insights about developing effective links between the employers and
universities. Furthermore, Northcott and Brown (2006) focus on the legal
translators and English law teachers, analyse legal seminar discourse,
emphasising the high value of collaboration between language specialists and
law lecturers that is beneficial for legal English educators in both teaching and
law. Harvey (2000) points out the legal vocabulary as one instance of specialised
language with a special focus on culture-specific terminology. Bilová (2016)
suggests teaching students to focus on the indispensable parts of the lawsuit and
use legal vocabulary practicing the case studies, which can enhance students’
performance and motivation. However, partial issues of the problem of
elaborating the efficient methodology for teaching English for Specific Purposes

48
and Business English to the law students are not sufficiently addressed, leaving
the gaps to be investigated. In this connection, the present paper examines the
pedagogically-driven urge for the methodological innovations and effective
teaching and learning technologies to bring the legal education in Ukraine in line
with the worldwide standards. Also, the paper aims to bridge the gap between
the collective learners’ framework and the individual framework of knowledge
acquisition that teachers’ have to tackle.
In this regard, the role of the English language in law education is one of the key
aspects of the quality training of students majoring in law. The quality training
of efficient lawyers empowers them to cooperate with foreign legal entities,
integrating the best legal practices into the Ukrainian context. This view is
supported by the recent research in Nagovitsyn, Saltykova and Maksimova
(2018). As for the learners’ needs and incentives to study legal English, the
researchers emphasise that the future lawyers study the English language to be
competent in their work as to interact with their colleagues, clients, partners, to
make use of the appropriate legal vocabulary, to explain legal contents in
English, to conduct negotiations on legal issues; to draft contracts, to write
claims, letters, emails on legal matters; to listen and watch the court proceedings;
to be knowledgeable in English legal system; to process legal documents, papers,
bulletins, reference literature in English; to prepare presentations and reports in
English (Nagovitsyn, Saltykova & Maksimova, 2018).
Teaching English to future lawyers is grounded on such educationalist

approaches as the differential, the synergistic, the axiological, the cognitive, the
communicative, the contextual, the professionally-oriented, the systemic, the
competency-based, the reflexive, the psychoeducational (personality-oriented),
etc. As for the differential approach in teaching English, it provides pedagogical
differentiation of teaching, learning and a special way of organising an engaging
educational process for the learners. Within the framework of this approach, the
educational activity is managed taking into account typological, personality-
specific, individualised characteristics of the learners, including the interrelation
of biological, psychological and socio-cultural factors in their dynamic
combination. The teachers should assess the students’ preferences and
inclinations while organising their educational activity and rely on the learners’
feedback. We agree with Yaroshenko (2019), that the main task of differentiation
is not to bring all students to the unique standard at the end of the course, but to
get them achieve the best possible results according to their abilities, individual
peculiarities, interests and needs. Thus, Druzhchenko (2018) in her research
shows the efficacy of the system of assignments designed to enhance in law
students the English-language monological skills. It is shown that the
application of the differentiated approach draws heavily on the personality
developing of the law specialists. In fact, our study found that such a perspective
concerns a close interplay of the learners’ individual characteristics and their
communicative skills, a way of thinking, mentality, motivational sphere, and
professional standards.

49
As maintained by Hall and Howard (2008), the fundamentals of this approach

are synergic ideological unity of diversity and uniqueness, the value of the
educational research in a sustainable society. This perspective is of a generally
scientific nature, because all of its developing systems have the property of
synergy, which presupposes a qualitative assessment of information; laying a
special emphasis on creativity to promote the integration of knowledge, practical
skills, and hands-on experience (The Law Society, 2018). So, both Ukrainian and
foreign scholars consider that synergistic approach to be of great value in
teaching English for Specific Purposes to future lawyers (Stojković, Tošić &
Nejković, 2017; Popova & Petrova, 2017).
The axiological approach ensures maintaining, transferring, reproducing and

developing culture by experience and education; contributes to the creation of
optimal conditions for the integration of cultural, ethical and moral values,
raising awareness of the learners’ cultural needs, interests and abilities;
contributes to the ability to perceive common features and differences between
different cultures (Lehtonen, 2017; Valeev & Kondratyeva, 2015). Within the
framework of the axiological approach, the transfer of future lawyers’ value
standards as well as preserving their cultural and ethnic diversity in the process
of learning the English language is seen as a pedagogically-enriching experience.
The cognitive approach provides students with the comprehension of the
English lexical units, the formation of the ability to explain the selection and
using words and word combinations in the process of English communication;
students' ability to distinguish the techniques they use and evaluate their
effectiveness, etc. (Kurbakova, 2015; Sereda, 2017). To this end, Sereda (2017)
maintains that this approach makes it possible to carry out the complex analysis
of communication in view of the factors, revealing its nationally-specific
components. It is important to emphasise that the English language plays an
essential role in shaping the cognitive structures and their involvement in
interaction, while preserving national and cultural identity and language
diversity.
The communicative approach involves independent learning activities, aimed at

setting and solving students’ specific learning tasks using role/business games,
problem situations, using various communication strategies. This approach
contributes to expanding the objective of 'real-life' interaction in the classroom;
enhancing language fluency; generating on-the-spot language performance;
facilitating lifelong language learning. The renowned researchers that
contributed to the elaboration of this approach in teaching the English language
are Swan (1985), Savignon (1987), Nunan (1991), Ridge (1992), Richards (2006),
Richards and Rodgers (2014), and others.
The contextual approach realises the students’ gradual transition from

educational activity to a quasi-professional activity (through business games,
project work, etc.), then to a professional activity (through design and
production practice). The strategies of the students’ study help them to focus on
problem-solving, using the context of law situations such as negotiating on legal
issues; drafting contracts, discussing cases in English, etc.

50
The professionally-oriented approach takes into account the future profession

and interests of students of law specialities in the course of their learning English
(Diachkova, 2014). A considerable attention is paid to the professionally-oriented
texts for speaking, writing, listening and reading to teach Business English to the
students.
It is important to stress that the systemic approach is an essential one in our

study. This approach in to teaching a foreign language is used in a number of
current researches. The systemic approach is oriented on the analysis of
methodology as a certain structure. The essence of this approach is that studying
Business English is a pedagogical system that incorporates structural and
functional components. To successfully solve the problems of the future lawyers’
vocational training, the systemic approach is a relevant one to organise students'
curricular activity, which belongs to the category of systems as holistic entities
consisting of interrelated elements.
In our research, we refer to the functional components of teaching Business

English to future lawyers as organisational (i.e. organisational skills to
implement an activity plan), constructive (i.e. constructive skills to create a real
model of the planned activity), design (i.e. project skills to predict, to create an
object as a certain integrity in the imagination, to determine the prognosis of
professional activity), communicative (i.e. communication skills to interact with
foreign partners in English), research (i.e. gnostic skills of analysing, studying,
evaluating, etc.) and creative (i.e. creative skills to make up oral and written
text), which are interdependent for the subjects of the educational activities
(Figure 1).
Figure 1: Functional components of teaching Business English to future lawyers
According to this approach, we maintain that the teacher and student interact
both directly and indirectly. This interaction is carried out throughout the entire
scope of independent mastering of the English-language competencies. Thus, the

51
systemic approach allows to consider teaching Business English, in particular,

the business rhetoric as a meaningful educational activity.
The systemic approach involves the system management of students'

independent extracurricular learning activities in improving English. It is
possible to plan this activity effectively, introduce and manage new learning
technologies. Moreover, it is necessary to take into account the purpose and
structure of the entire syllabus of learning English. However, monitoring and
assessing the students’ performance in adjusting their Business English speaking
and writing competencies to the needs of their future profession should be
conducted from the initial stage through the final one.
The competency-based language teaching develops in students a set of key

competencies through the performance of language activity; it is considered to
be one of the key approaches that expands, deepens, and complements the other
ones. Thus, Zenya (2011) relates the competency-based approach to a
personality-oriented approach, since the important pedagogical condition for
achieving the goal of education is the acquisition of certain competencies in
teaching the academic subjects based on individual experience.
One of the key concepts of the process of updating the Ukrainian higher
education context is the concept of competence as a person's system of
knowledge, skills and abilities and personal attitude to the subject of the
learning activity. The level of competence of a specialist should ensure his/her
harmonious interaction with society. The level of the foreign language
competence of a specialist in this area depends on the further development of
professional skills to use a foreign language, in particular, English for Specific
Purposes, in real intercultural communication.
The fundamental element of the reflexive approach is the concept of reflection,

which is interpreted differently in philosophical, pedagogical, sociological and
psychological perspectives. It is interpreted as the process of lifelong
development; the special ability of the human mind to construct world views;
awareness of the personality as perceived by the communication partners, for
rethinking the ideas concerning professional activity (Popovska & Pirsl, 2017).
One of the important approaches to addressing the task of teaching English to
law students is referred to as the personality-oriented approach, which has
personal and activity components that are interrelated (Sayitova, 2020). As the
researcher maintains, it is crucial to devote more effort to the learners’
individual and psychological features, their age, national peculiarities and
interests; developing a system of individualised tasks to enhance the student’s
performance.
In sum, with due regard to all of the above-mentioned approaches, in

accordance with the subject of our research, we aimed at determining what
approaches of Business English teaching to future lawyers should be used in the
university context of Ukrainian legal higher institutions.

52
1.2. Research Objective

The purpose of the article is to determine the methods and methodological
approaches in teaching English for Specific Purposes and Business English to
future lawyers in the Ukrainian legal higher educational institutions. To
effectively address this purpose, the problem statement is formulated as follows.
The role of English for Specific Purposes in the development of essential skills
for a legal career requires a closer attention to enable the future lawyers’
continuous growth. To this end, the research aims at highlighting what should
the educational process in general and the Business English in particular be
centred on so as to enable each student choose their own educational trajectory
and take into account their feedback.
From the practical perspective, the paper aims at distinguishing specific

methods in teaching English for Specific Purposes at higher educational
institutions in Ukraine to enhance the students’ personal performance
opportunities and to ensure the future lawyers’ sustainable success in the labour
market. From the theoretical perspective, the paper dwells on the range of
variables to improve the quality of the future lawyers’ training with due regard
to the need to analyse the functional changes in further professional activity. To
achieve this objectives, the following tasks were set to outline the approaches of
teaching Business English to future lawyers that can be used in the university
educational context; to analyse the attitudes and opinions of the future lawyers
toward studying Business English using different methods and technologies; to
assess the students’ needs and render their opinions towards learning Business
English and having obtained the experimental results, to devise the
recommendations for a study model sensitive to needs of the future lawyers in
higher educational institutions.
The hypothesis of our paper is grounded on the presumption that the utilisation
of the specific pedagogically-driven approaches and methods outlined in the
study and specified in students’ surveys and feedback, will boost the learners’
motivation and performance thus contributing to sustainable growth throughout
a legal career.
2. Methodological Framework
The study was a continuous succession of the three stages: 1) the empirical stage
– to study the current state how the teachers instruct the future lawyers in
Business English at legal higher institutions, the current state of the students’
learning English and Business English; 2) the experimental stage – to do
questionnaires in needs analysis; (3) the analytical stage – to process the
collected experimental data. First, we conducted the surveys among the fifty-
three teachers of English from Ukrainian legal higher institutions to find out
what methods and approaches they use in teaching English, Business English
and English for Specific Purposes to future lawyers. A sample Size Calculator
(Raosoft, n/d) was used to determine the size of a representative sample to
ensure the quality and reability of the experiment results given that n
(population size) = 206, confidence interval =2.34, and e = 0.05 if confidence
level=95%.

53
To ensure reability of the observation reports, behavioural code description was

developed and three assessors were hired to take records. Data was
simultaneously collected be all assessors on each separate session. Kappa Online
Calculator (n./d.) was used to assesses the inter-rater reliability of three raters
drawn from the observation reports, evaluation sheets, student attendance
records. The kappa coefficient was 0.74 which was substantial and proved that
the measurements were reliable (Raosoft, n/d). The data were calculated in
percents as presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Shift in teachers’ preferences in teaching English
approaches used teachers/tutors of English, %
✓ differential 35%
✓ synergistic 42%
✓ axiological 44%
✓ cognitive 47%
✓ communicative 94%
✓ contextual 51%
✓ professionally-oriented 100%
✓ systemic 69%
✓ competency-based 78%
✓ reflexive 59%
✓ personality-oriented 44%
✓ other 35%
The following stage of our research was to determine what approaches of

teaching Business English to future lawyers should be used in the university
educational context. Also, it was necessary to analyse the attitudes and opinions
of the future lawyers toward studying Business English using different methods
and technologies. The sample of this study comprised 98 first-year students and
cadets studying in the Academy of the State Penitentiary Service (Chernihiv,
Ukraine). We surveyed two groups of the cadets and students at the first
(bachelor) level of higher education in the field of "Law" and "Law enforcement".
The first group consisted of 48 cadets (37 males and 11 females) who studied
English at the Law department. The second group consisted of 50 students (34
males and 16 females) who studied English at the Law enforcement department.
The sample comprised only first-year cadets and students at the first (bachelor)
level of higher education in the field of "Law" and "Law enforcement" who
studied English in the Academy of the State Penitentiary Service. The
questionnaire was distributed to the sample of all the first-year cadets and
students (n=98) in the Academy.

54
To assess the students’ needs and render their opinions towards learning
Business English, an attitude scale was used as the main tool of the study. The
obtained data of teaching Business English to future lawyers were viewed in the
present study as the independent variables, whereas the future lawyers’
achievements were analysed as the dependent variables.
We prepared several sets of questions focusing on the students’ interests,

challenges, creative ability, proficiency, learning ability, effectiveness,
performance and practical relevance regarding English and Business English as
academic subjects in the Academy of the State Penitentiary Service. We focused
on the attitudes of the students to the English language as an academic subject,
and the methods and approaches designated to be applied at the English classes
(see Table 2).
Table 2: The attitude of the students to learning English

Positive, Negative,
# Items
% %
1 Do you prefer fulfilling some differentiated tasks,
assignments, exercises while learning English and 59 41
Business English?
2 Would you rather be taught according to your
peculiarities such as creativity, trainability, interests,
proficiency, performance, according to which the forms 76 24
and methods of teaching English are selected and
differentiated?
3 Do you have any difficulties in the process of
adaptation and socialisation at the English classes? 46 54
4 Do you develop your tolerance to social, cultural, and

personal differences while studying English in the 44 56
Academy?
5 Do you develop your ability of teamwork skills and
readiness for active interaction with the other students
53 47
and cadets, especially while interacting in oral and
written English?
6 Is it important to study the culture of English-speaking
63 37
lawyers?
7 Would you prefer to study the differences between
English-speaking and Ukrainian cultures in the legal 74 26
sphere at your English classes?
8 Should you have the ability to explain the selection and
the usage of the words and word combinations in the
57 43
process of English communication, in particular in
professional situations?
9 Do you often have difficulties to understand English
62 36
legal terminology, vocabulary, specialised lexical units?
10 Do you frequently use various speech strategies while
71 27
communicating in English for Specific Purposes?
11 Do you often solve problem situations connecting with
56 44
legal profession in English?
12 Do you use the strategies to focus on problem solving? 59 41

55
13 Is it difficult to understand the context of legal oral and

68 32
written situations in English?
14 Does the contextual instruction correlate your English
67 33
learning materials and 'real-life situations?
15 Is it important to focus on your future profession
81 19
during your English language classes?
16 Would you like to be a participant in business and
92 6
professional situations at your English classes?
17 Do you prefer to study English according to a certain
82 18
system including patterns, units, steps, etc.?
18 Do you want to be taught English in a structured,
100 0
creative, and meaningful way?
19 Does the teacher of English explain how you should
51 49
develop English competence?
20 Do you know any English competences? 32 68
21 Do you usually check your homework using keys (if
71 29
there are keys after the tasks and exercises)?
22 Can you analyse and evaluate the process of your
43 57
independent study in English?
23 Do you prefer doing tasks in English according to your
56 44
individual and psychological features?
24 Do you agree that your teacher of English should take
into account the individual characteristics of each 80 20
student in teaching English and Business English?
3. Results
Thus, the questionnaire comprising 24 questions on the 2-point scale ranging
from “Strongly agree” to “Disagree” was developed. The survey questions were
designed so as to include perspectives on several methodological approaches in
teaching English and Business English, in particular, the differential approach
(Questions 1-2), the synergistic approach (Questions 3-5), the axiological
approach (Questions 6-7), the cognitive approach (Questions 8-9), the
communicative approach (Questions 10-11), the contextual approach (Questions
12-14), the professionally-oriented approach (Questions 15-16), the systemic
approach (Questions 17-18), the competency-based approach (Questions 19-20),
the reflexive approach (Questions 21-22) and the personality-oriented approach
(Questions 23-24) (See Table 2).
The sample represents the students and cadets from the Academy of the State
Penitentiary Service (Chernihiv, Ukraine). The researchers selected the subjects
focusing on the areas perceived as significant to the study of English and
Business English. Furthermore, the attitude scale was analysed for the future
lawyers studying in Ukrainian higher institutions. While conducting the survey,
it was assumed that the students and cadets were able to understand English to
a sufficient degree to interpret the attitude scale and maintain academic integrity
in answering the questionnaire. The questions on the scale asked the students
and cadets to describe their attitudes toward learning English and how they see
the syllabus design of this subject in the Academy. The survey was conducted in
September and October 2019. A statistically significant difference was found at
the level of p< 0.05.

56
According to the results of this survey, we found out that a number of students
and cadets prefer to be taught according to their individual peculiarities such as:
creativity, trainability, interests, proficiency, performance in accordance to
which the forms and methods of teaching English are tailored (76%); to develop
their ability of teamwork skills and readiness for communication with the other
students and cadets, especially while interacting in oral and written English
(63%); to study the culture of English-speaking lawyers (74 %); to be capable of
explaining the usage of English words and word combinations in professional
situations (57 %). The surveyed students and cadets pointed out the importance
of focusing on their future profession at the English classes (81%) and the desire
to engage practicing business and professional situations (92%). The surveyed
students and cadets emphasised that they wanted to study English according to
a structured system including patterns, units, steps, etc. (82%) and to be taught
English in a systemic, creative, and meaningful way (100%). The surveyed
students expressed an opinion that the teacher of English should explain how
students can develop English competency (51 %). At the same time, they did not
know much about English competencies (66%). Fifty-four percent of the
surveyed supported the idea of the necessity to develop their tolerance to social,
cultural, and personal differences while studying English in the Academy. The
interviewees mentioned that they had difficulties to understand English legal
vocabulary (62%) and the context of legal oral and written proceedings in
English (68%) and in the process of their adaptation and socialisation at the
English classes (46%).
We point out the fact that they usually checked their homework using keys (if
available after the tasks and exercises) (71 %). However, we emphasise that only
43 % of them could analyse and evaluate the process of their independent study
of the English language. Fifty-six percent of the students and cadets agreed that
their teacher of English should take into account the individual peculiarities of
each particular student while teaching English and Business English and assign
the learners with individualised tasks in the subject according to their
psychological abilities and features (80 %). The results indicated statistically
significant differences in being motivated to use differentiated tasks,
assignments, exercises while learning English and Business English (59%);
various communicative strategies while interacting in English for Specific
Purposes (71%) and the strategies to focus on problem-solving (59%). Following
that, the population size of 98 (e = 05) 100% of confidence level was calculated
by the Sample Size Online Calculator (Raosoft, n/d).
4. Discussion
This research utilises both empirical and statistical methods for the study of
what methods and approaches of teaching English and Business English to
future lawyers are used in Ukrainian legal higher education institutions. The
mixed-method approach was utilised in order to fulfill the research objective.
With this in mind, we drew on the quantitative features to yield the results as for
the overall statistics and obtained qualitative particulars to highlight the details.
The research deals with the organisation of teaching English to future lawyers

57
drawing on such approaches as the differential (the differentiating content of

teaching English, the learning process, aids and products, or the creation of an
integrated and intercultural learning environment, monitoring student progress,
ongoing assessment, helping students develop the competences to achieve their
goals), the synergistic (giving students considerable chances to gather, collate and
validate their learning experiences which are realised by various methods and
techniques), the axiological (involving the transfer of students value samples in
studying foreign language on the basis of cultural values), the cognitive
(increasing students' motivation to study professional vocabulary), the
communicative (involving in real oral and written communication
contexts/situations), the contextual (constructing meaning/definition based on
their own experiences, anchoring teaching in the diverse life context), the
professionally-oriented (supplying the students with professionally-oriented
texts for speaking, writing, listening and reading in Business English), the
systemic (organizing students' learning activity which belongs to the category of
systems, as holistic entities consisting of interrelated elements), the competency-
based (developing a set of key competences through the performance of
language activity), the reflexive (personality-oriented) (engaging the student and
stimulating reflection on their activity).
The present study determined that in teaching English to future lawyers, the
teachers predominantly prefer to use professionally-oriented, communicative,
contextual, systemic, competency-based and reflexive approaches. As mentioned
above, one of the key goals of teaching legal English is sensitivity to the needs to
develop the syllabi aimed at providing a specific group of students with the
specifically tailored tools which they need or desire. Presumably, such
methodological moves will support meaningful learning and boost the students’
and cadets’ productivity and efficiency of teaching English. With this current
study, we determine that the students and cadets feel more positive when the
teacher of English takes into account the individual characteristics of each
student while teaching English and Business English and adjusts the English
assignments according to the individual and psychological features of the
particular group of students. Besides, the effective and efficient instruction in
English calls for the teacher to highlight how to develop English competencies;
the course-related content should consider the differences between English-
speaking and Ukrainian cultures in the legal sphere, drawing on the learners’
individual peculiarities, such as creativity, trainability, interests, proficiency,
performance, etc. Thus, the surveyed prefer to be taught English and Business
English with the application of the differential, axiological, communicative,
professionally-oriented, systemic, reflexive and personality-oriented approaches.
To compare the study of the teachers’ and students’ opinions about learning and
teaching English, we made up Table 3.

58
Table 3: Shift in approaches to learning and teaching English

students and
approaches teachers/tutors of English, %
cadets
differential ✓ ✓
synergistic ✓ -
axiological ✓ ✓
cognitive 47% -
communicative ✓ ✓
contextual ✓
professionally-oriented ✓ ✓
systemic ✓ ✓
competency-based ✓
reflexive ✓ ✓
personality-oriented - ✓
other 35%
Overall, the teachers, students and cadets in both groups chose the same
approaches as differential, axiological, communicative, professionally-oriented,
systemic, reflexive and personality-oriented ones. Furthermore, the students and
cadets’ results indicated the importance of taking into account the individual
characteristics of each student while teaching English and Business English and
preparing the assignments in English according to their individual and
psychological peculiarities; explaining how to develop English competencies;
showing the differences between English-speaking and Ukrainian cultures in the
legal sphere during English classes.
5. Conclusions
To fully realise the goals and objectives of the challenges of today's society, the
effective functioning of the lawyer in the labour market calls for the search of
effective technologies for teaching English. The findings obtained from this
study indicate that teachers do not consistently use the differential, synergistic,
axiological, cognitive, personality-oriented approaches. The surveyed
maintained that it was difficult to ensure more attention to individual and
psychological peculiarities, age, national specificity and interests of students,
and creating a system of exercises and tasks that take into account the students’
individual characteristics to enhance their performance opportunities.
Research findings are discussed with due regard to the surveyed students’ needs
and personality-oriented principles in teaching law students. The results appeal
for certain methodological innovations that will support meaningful learning

59
and boost the students’ and cadets’ productivity and efficiency of teaching and
learning process. In the light of the findings of the current study, the training of
a modern specialist calls for the adaptation of the syllabus and overall
educational process to individual peculiarities of each student, enabling them to
choose an educational trajectory. University teachers have to deal with the
controversy of conducting the educational process in the collective learners’
framework and the obviously individual framework of knowledge acquisition.
Therefore, as our research has showed, the differentiated approach to learning a
foreign language is aimed at making the most of the individual psychological,
cognitive, motivational characteristics of the future lawyers. Furthermore, the
most effective prerequisites for the development of professional determination,
self-awareness, legal skills and abilities are achieved optimally and consistently
by way of applying the personality-oriented principles in teaching law students.
6. Limitation and Study Forward

The overriding limitation of this study was an involvement in the research of
one institution only. Another limitation was the specialisation of the cadets and
students who majored in law. In the further research, we will study the level of
English of students and cadets to measure their progress in Business English,
create an entry test and a final test to measure their English communicative
competency and prepare exercises and tasks focusing on the interest, difficulty
and effectiveness toward learning Business English in legal higher institutions
according to the above-mentioned methods and approaches.
7. Acknowledgements
This research design was elaborated with the involvement of the English
language teachers from the universities in Chernihiv, Kyiv, Lvyv, Nizhyn,
Dnipro, Odesa, and Ternopil (Ukraine). Furthermore, the English language
instructors from the Academy of the State Penitentiary Service of Ukraine
conducted this research. We maintain that the further study with varied cohorts
of participants (junior as well as senior cadets and students, university tutors
and lecturers broken down by the study programme, etc.) could yield new
representative data. Also, more extensive quantitative research could further
enrich this study.
8. References
Belcher, D. (2017). Recent developments in ESP theory and research: Enhancing critical
reflection and learner autonomy through technology and other means. In N.
Stojković, M. Tošić, & V. Nejković (Eds.), Synergies of English for Specific Purposes
and Language Learning Technologies (pp. 2-19). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
Scholars Publishing.
Bieliauskaitė, J. (2014). On the way to professionalism – the promotion of law students’
academic integrity. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 116, 4229-4234.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.922
Bilová, S. (2016). Case briefs in legal English classes. Studies in Logic, Grammar and
Rhetoric, 45(58), 7-20. https://doi.org/10.1515/slgr-2016-0012
Diachkova, Y. O. (2014). The criteria of assessment of the level of formation of the
professional English speaking skills of the future lawyers. Science and Education a
New Dimension. Pedagogy and Psychology, 8, 62-66.

60
Druzhchenko, T. (2018). Teaching English monologic oral production to law students:

differentiated approach. Аrs Linguodidacticae, 2(1), 76-82.
Hall, B., & Howard, K. (2008). A synergistic approach: conducting mixed methods
research with typological and systemic design considerations. Journal of Mixed
Methods Research, 2(3), 248-269.
Harper, J., & Windodo, H. P. (2018). 10 On the design of a global law English course for
university freshmen: a blending of EGP and ESP. The European Journal of Applied
Linguistics, 7(1), 2018, p. 173-190.
Harvey, M. (2000). A beginner's course in legal translation: the case of culture-bound terms.
Retrieved from http://www.tradulex.com/Actes2000/harvey.pdf
Kurbakova, S. (2015). Cognitive aspect of intercultural communication. Journal of
Language and Education, 1(3), 52-62.
Lehtonen, T. (2017). “You will certainly learn English much faster at work than from a
textbook.” – Law students learning English beyond the language classroom.
System, 68, 50-59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2017.06.013
Nagovitsyn, R., Saltykova, M., & Maksimova, M. (2018). A synergistic approach to the
promotion of foreign students’ socialization and adaptation to the educational
environment of higher educational institutions. Novosibirsk State Pedagogical
University Bulletin, 8(6), 7-22. http://dx.doi.org/10.15293/2226-3365.1806.01
Northcott, J. (2009). Teaching legal English: Context and cases. In D. Belcher (Ed.),
English for specific purposes: Theory and practice (pp. 165-185). Ann Arbor, MI:
University of Michigan Press.
Northcott, J., & Brown, G. (2006). Legal translator training partnership between teachers
of English for legal purposes and legal specialists. English for Specific Purposes, 25,
358-375.
Nunan, D. (1991). Communicative tasks and the language curriculum. TESOL Quarterly,
25(2), 279-295.
Popova, N. O., & Petrova, O. B. (2017). English for law university students at the epoch
of global cultural and professional communication. Oberih, 138, 237-246.
Popovska, S., & Pirsl, D. (2017). ESP teacher’s transforming profile. In N. Stojković, M.
Tošić, & V. Nejković (Eds.), Synergies of English for Specific Purposes and Language
Learning Technologies (pp. 152-164). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Scholars
Publishing.
Raosoft. (n/d). Sample size Calculator. Retrieved from
http://www.raosoft.com/samplesize.html
Richards, J. C. (2006). Communicative language teaching today. New York, NY: Cambridge
University Press.
Richards, J., & Rodgers, T. (2014). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching (3rd ed.).
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Ridge, E. (1992). Communicative language teaching: Time for review? Stellenbosch Papers
in Linguistics Plus, 21, 95-108. https://doi.org/10.5842/21-0-533
Savignon, S. J. (1987). Communicative language teaching. Theory into Practice, 26(4), 235-
242. https://doi.org/10.1080/00405848709543281
Sayitova, K. H. (2020). The role of personality-oriented approach in the process of
education. Theoretical and applied science, 3(83), 190-192.
Selama, S. A. (2018). Autonomous learning in an ESP context: students' attitudes,
readiness and efforts: A case study. Cahiers de Linguistique et Didactique, 1(7), 177-
200.

61
Sereda, A. (2017). Cognitive-discourse approach as a methodology for the analysis of

intercultural communication. The Journal of V. N. Karazin National University.
Series: Theory of Culture and Philosophy of Science, 57, 48-52.
Stefanowicz-Kocoł, A., & Djordjevic, D. (2017). Changing needs of the ESP students. In
N. Stojković, M. Tošić, & V. Nejković (Eds.), Synergies of English for Specific
Purposes and Language Learning Technologies (pp. 20-22). Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Stojković, N., Tošić, M., & Nejković, V. (Eds.). (2017). Synergies of English for Specific
Purposes and Language Learning Technologies. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
Scholars Publishing.
Swan, M. (1985). A critical look at the Communicative Approach (1). ELT Journal, 39(1),
2-12. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/39.1.2
The Law Society. (2018). Future skills for law. Retrieved from
https://www.lawsociety.org.uk/support-services/research-trends/horizon-
scanning/future-skills-for-law/
Valeev, A. A., & Kondratyeva, I. G. (2015). Axiological Approach to the Development of
Students’ Intercultural Competences by Foreign Language Means. Procedia,
Social and Behavioral Sciences, 191, 361-365.
Yaroshenko, O. (2019). On the necessity of implementing the differentiation approach to
teaching foreign languages at higher educational institutions. Pedagogy of
formation of creative personality in higher and secondary schools, 64(2), 161-167.
Zenya, L. (2011). Theoretical and methodological bases of future teachers’ preparation for
teaching of foreign languages to students of profile school. Horlivka, Ukraine: State
Pedagogical Institute.

62

Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 62-75, June 2020
Debate as a Tool for Learning and Facilitating

Based on Higher Order Thinking Skills in The
Process of Argumentative Essay Writing
Marzni Mohamed Mokhtar

Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
Marni Jamil
Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM) Cawangan Pulau Pinang, Penang Malaysia
Rohizani Yaakub
Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang Malaysia
Fadzilah Amzah
School of Educational Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang Malaysia
Abstract. This study was conducted to examine how teachers carried

out teaching and learning (T&L) based on higher-order thinking skills
(HOTS) in the process of argumentative essay writing. To obtain a
holistic overview of the methods used by teachers in T&L, a qualitative
case study approach was being employed as the research design of this
study. Secondary school teachers were involved voluntarily in this
study, and it was conducted at a boarding school in a district in
Selangor, Malaysia. To collect meaningful data from both research
participants, in-depth interviews, classroom observations, and
document analysis were used until saturated data was achieved. The
findings were analyzed to form the criteria and themes in discovering
the use of HOTS in T&L of argumentative essay writing. It was found
that debate is a viable method to implement HOTS in argumentative
essay writing. The method can attract and inspire students to use HOTS
in constructing their arguments and in completing their writing
assignments.
Keywords: debate; HOTS; case study; argumentative essay; teaching

and learning

63
1. Introduction
The education curriculum in Malaysia is unbalanced due to the neglect of the
right brain developmental potential (language, literature, aesthetics, sports,
creativity, and artistic talents). This neglect occurred due to excessive inclination
towards the left-brain developmental potential (the academic part that includes
analytical and mathematical logic aspects) that creates an educational
curriculum which greatly focuses on abstract facts that are challenging for
students’ mastery (Aminah, 2003). The pedagogy practiced by the teachers is
found to be didactic (teacher-centered) as compared to thematic (student-
centered). This requires a change in the teacher’s practice by implementing
learning elements that encourage students to think and apply the information
that may be associated with daily life (Aminah, 2003; Abd Rahman, Scaife &
Yahya, 2010).
This change in pedagogical practice is in line with the recommendation of

Maimunah (2004), which explains that thinking practices need to be
continuously embedded in individuals and given early emphasis in schools and
tertiary institutions. Cultivation of thinking skills is possible with the support of
a conducive environment to provide more excellent opportunities for
exploration, experimentation, training, and enhancement and ultimately
enabling constant improvement of individual capabilities (Abdul, 2016; Abd
Rahman & Scaife, 2012). Among the initiatives in the cultivation of high-order
thinking is the use of teachers’ teaching methods to produce quality students
with quality thinking (Jumaliah & Zamri, 2016; Ibrahim, Ayub, Yunus, Mahmud
& Bakar, 2019). Changes in teachers’ pedagogical practices also involve teachers’
efforts to prepare group thinking activities that can enhance students’ cognitive
abilities. This can be steered by the preparation of various plans, exercises, and
alternatives discussed so that students can comprehend the meaning underlying
an issue in question. As a result, students can think in multiple ways by looking
at a case from various perspectives. Instead of being knowledge consumers, they
are taught to be seekers of diverse knowledge.
2. Literature Review
Debate activity is understood as a formal discussion that requires an individual
to argue, propose, and oppose verbally. This formal discussion requires the
involvement of two sides discussing or debating on a project, with one side
going for the proposition and the other side for the opposition. The discussion
can be made either in the form of a competition or non-competition (Norhasni,
2014). The debate is also defined as the utterance of either proposing or
opposing a view on logical grounds conveyed by the use of structured ideas
(Nurhidayu, 2012). Debating skills can make an individual reject and refute
others’ accusations, reasons, assumptions, and opinions. Debating skills have
also been found to enable an individual to be critical, able to present ideas on a
case, the weakness of others’ points, and the theoretical debate made by others
on a matter (Mohd, 2001).
It is vital to cultivate debating skills as part of the teaching methods to enhance

students’ cognitive mastery. In the context of the education system, the skills can

64
be used as teachers’ assessment towards students’ capacity to use their

intellectual ability to argue with effects, evidence, and relevant information in
making a statement (Mohd, 2001). Furthermore, the debate can serve as a form
of training for a group of participants to generally discuss the advantages or
disadvantages of an idea and to develop the students’ ability so that they feel
comfortable in playing their role, either as the proponent or the opposition to
solve an issue or a topic (Norhasni, 2014).
This is reinforced by Nurhidayu (2012) who stated that debating skills benefit
students, especially high school students, because communication skills can (i)
develop practical communication skills; (ii) train students to think quickly and
produce thoughts properly and in an organized manner; (iii) master language
skills by using the correct sentence structure and appropriate language level; (iv)
present argument rationally, critically and creatively and (v) practice listening,
analyzing, debating and refuting skills. Looking at the opportunities and
benefits of using the debate method in T&L, it is an effective medium for
applying T&L based on HOTS especially in encouraging students to think in the
process of argumentative essay writing. Students can hone their thinking skills
at a high level to generate and develop ideas, insights, or knowledge with
classmates that are linked together with relevant arguments, support, evidence,
and description (Mohd, 2001) to find standard solutions to issues in
argumentative essay writing assignments.
The development of debating skills will lead to the development of language

skills, positive mental development, knowledge enhancement, and the
development of leadership qualities in the student if the debating skill becomes
a part of the T&L process continuously (Nurhidayu, 2012). In this study,
Toulmin’s Argumentative Writing Model (1958) and Argumentative Discourse
Model (Ali, 2005) were used as necessary frameworks to examine how teachers
use the debate method as a tool for T&L based on HOTS in the argumentative
essay writing process. The selection of these two models was very coincidental
with the context of writing argumentative essays in schools, which often
discusses factors, causes, reasons, impact, and steps for an issue explained.
Toulmin's Argumentative Writing Model (1958) consists of six elements which

are data, claim, warrant, backing, qualifier, and rebuttal (Toulmin, 1958;
Nureeyah, 2015). The key elements that underlie the model’s construction are
data, arguments, and assumptions in examining the process of argumentation.
Arguments and assumptions usually have a relationship derived from data
(Mayberry, 2002). Subsequently, the supporting elements, refutation of evidence,
and clarification elements serve as additional elements to support a statement of
the premises to be debated. The supporting element plays a role in clarifying the
supporting case in the absence of a general agreement. The fifth component,
which is clarification, uses the word such as to strongly suggest a concrete idea
to reinforce the case made. The final component, which is argument rebuttal is
used to reject and clarifies any premise of the argument which it opposes. The
relationship between these six writing elements is shown in Figure 1:

65
Data Qualifier Claim

A1 B3 A2
Warrant
A3
Rebuttal
B2
Backing
B1
Figure 1: Argumentative Writing Model (Toulmin, 1958)
The Argumentative Discourse Constructions Model (Ali, 2005) was built by local
scholars. This model is a refined idea from Toulmin's Writing Model to suit local
needs. This model has two main constructs, namely argumentative construct
and language aspects aimed at helping teachers to teach argumentative writing
procedures in schools. Table 1 details how this model is used in argumentative
essay writing.
Table 1: Argumentative Discourse Construction (Ali, 2005)
Component Detailing
A. Introduction
Topic sentence
Supporting sentence
Closure
A. Argumentative B. Main Idea (Main Argument)
Essay Construct Detailed supporting sentence –
- Evidence
- Examples
- Points
C. 2nd Main Idea
D. 3rd Main Idea
E. 4th Main Idea
F. 5th Main Idea
G. Closure
- Concluding sentence
- Suggesting sentence
- Expressive sentence - argumentative closure
A. Sentence structure: Singular and plural sentences
B. Language Aspect B. Grammar structure
C. Semantic structure
D. Rhetoric, argumentative and persuasive structure
E. Sentence perfection
(FN +FN; FN +FK; FN + FA; FN + FS) or (SUBJECT
+ PREDICATE)

66
F. Has a discourse marker

G. Has cohesion and coherence
H. Has the beauty of language
I. Has strong diction
J. Has a smooth continuity
3. The Emphasis on HOTS Elements in Teaching and Learning (T&L)

The issue of teacher pedagogical practice in T&L is not recent to educational
research. Teachers play an essential role in planning the T&L process to provide
knowledge input to students while providing meaningful experiences for them.
It also depends on the ability of teachers to use a variety of teaching methods
and approaches to convey knowledge to students and keep their attention in the
classroom. The emphasis on HOTS elements also requires teachers to apply
effective T&L strategies and methods in the T&L process to develop students’
minds (Wan & Norkhairiah, 2011; Sharifah, Nor, Mohd & Aliza, 2012). However,
in terms of implementation, particularly involving HOTS in the Malay language,
it is still less practiced (Rahman, Jamaludin & Zamri, 2015). Issues closely related
to the implementation of T&L based on HOTS can be realized through two key
issues, namely teachers’ teaching practices and students’ mastery of HOTS.
Teachers were found to be less prepared from the aspects of knowledge,

pedagogical skills and attitudes to teach HOTS, besides not imparting
knowledge according to the level of cognitive taxonomy, feeling more
comfortable with conventional teaching practices such as chalk and talk
compared to the two-way teaching method recommended by the Ministry of
Education. There were issues related to the engagement of students, the
utilization of educational resources as well as the quality of training and
assignments, which became the contributors to the T&L quality based on HOTS
of teacher-led practice (Baharuddin, 2006; Yusof, 2006; Nooriza & Effandi, 2015).
It was easier for teachers to teach students to remember facts, which was then
followed by the assessment of their knowledge through a multiple-choice test. It
was difficult for teachers to prepare students to analyze, synthesize, and
evaluate the content of a lesson (Musliha Salma, 2010). This situation is opposing
the set of learning objectives that require teachers to focus on high-order
thinking that includes levels such as application, synthesis, and analysis, critical
thinking, and opportunities to formulate ideas.
In the context of argumentative writing pedagogy that requires students to think

in HOTS manner, it is crucial for teachers need to master and convey this
knowledge effectively because, in every phase, teachers need to provide
students with the task of designing, translating ideas, revising, refining and
perfecting the work repeatedly by engaging in very complex cognitive activities
to produce high-quality writing (Rajendran, 2000, 2001a, 2001b, 2001c, 2002 &
2008). Apart from that, the mastery of argumentative essay writing skills can
enable teachers to overcome constraints in T&L based on HOTS, in the
argumentative essay writing process such as students facing difficulties in
completing the argumentative essay writing assignments (Wolfe, Britt & Butler,
2009). Students were also found to be confused in choosing the assignment title

67
(Wei Zhu, 2001) and were confined by the required number of pages to be
written for the argumentative essay (Wei Zhu, 2001).
Students were also found to face difficulties in structuring and organizing ideas
(Hyland, 1990; Abdul et al., 2008; Wei Zhu, 2001), using inaccurate discourse
markers for beginning new paragraphs (Wei Zhu, 2001) and facing problems
such as the ability to link evidence with arguments and assumptions in an
argumentative essay writing (Cho & Jonassen, 2002; Brudvik, Hong & Chee,
2006; Moore & MacArthur, 2011). Moreover, the inability to draw conclusions on
the issues debated (Wei Zhu, 2001) or to diversify accurate diction and use
grammatical sentences in argumentative writing to support the argument (Wei
Zhu, 2001; Abdul et al., 2008 & Yusfaiza & Mohd Isha, 2012) were also the
difficulties which they faced. In addition, the format and guidelines were not
followed, and the sentences constructed were structured irregularly in the essay
writing and required the teachers’ guidance to meet the requirements of the
question (Rahman, Jamaludin & Zamri, 2015). Sahlan, Shalinawati & Saemah
(2013) also found that some students wrote only one or two statements about the
title, but did not elaborate the title with current issues, and wrote an
introductory paragraph that was not relevant to the content paragraph.
Hence, to address these issues, by using qualitative research design, it is vital for
studies related to the exploration of how Malay language teachers conduct T&L
based on HOTS in the process of writing an argumentative essay in school in the
actual context to be carried out. The qualitative study enables the researchers to
get a clear picture of students' different cognitive abilities due to diverse
methods of observation, information processing, abstract understanding of
lessons, or concrete arguments. The degree of acceptance and cognitive
readiness of the students vary based on various socio-economic and educational
backgrounds.
4. Purpose and Research Questions

This study aimed to explore how Malay Language teachers implement T&L
based on HOTS in the process of writing an argumentative essay in secondary
school. The following is the research question of this study:
How do Malay Language teachers implement T&L based on HOTS in the
process of argumentative essay writing?
5. Methodology
5.1 Research Design
The selection of qualitative research design is very relevant in this study. The
understanding of a phenomenon can be conducted precisely and in a detailed
manner to form a meaning (Faridah & Rohaida, 2013). Qualitative research also
offers researchers the opportunity to clearly understand the social and cultural
contexts that underlie aspects of personal opinion, experience, and
understanding rather than merely trying to bridge the relationship between
variables (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008). The selection of qualitative case study design
is also based on the consideration that the researcher can perform meaning
construction process, is allowed to express feelings of agreement or

68
disagreement with the views of the research participants, and to express the
tension encountered while exploring a subject (Koo, Wong, Kemboja & Mohd,
2011). Thus, the case study design is relevant for this study to answer the
research questions about the Malay language teachers’ understanding, their way
of implementing T&L based on HOTS in the process of argumentative essay
writing, and the importance of HOTS implementation process in T&L.
Researchers generated new information in addition to the existing knowledge
and created inherent connections between various objects, the components, and
elements in the case study.
5.2 Research Participant

This study involved the participation of two Malay language teachers who were
teaching in a boarding school in Banting, Selangor. The teachers who were
labeled as GA and GB respectively volunteered in this study to provide the
research data. The researchers used a purposive sampling technique because the
research participants are experts as they have valuable information on the topic
studied (Mason, 2002; Maxwell, 2008 & Merriam, 2009).
5.3 Data Collection

To reach the rich and thick data from the participants, 9 months were allotted to
complete the data collection process. The data collection process involved in-
depth interviews (labeled as TB1) between the two research participants and the
researchers, classroom observations (labeled as BP1), and document analysis of
students’ essays. Data triangulation occurred in this study through a variety of
data collection techniques to ensure the data reached a saturation point before
the final theme was developed for the research questions related to how teachers
implement T&L based on HOTS in the argumentative essay writing process
(Cresswell & Miller, 2000).
5.4 Data Analysis

In this study, some data pilings would be problematic to deal with (Anderson,
2004); hence the researchers analyzed the findings of the study immediately after
the completion of the semi-structured interview as well as the observation
activities and collected all the required documents as secondary data. The
process of data analysis performed in this study began with the process of data
organization, filtering, and coding, theme construction, data saturation, drawing
conclusions, and data exhibition. For findings validation, members checking
technique, audit trail, prolonged engagement, and a coefficient of Cohen Kappa
were used to validate the constructed themes. Three inter-rater were appointed
for this purpose.
6. Research Findings
Teachers need to use the best techniques in conducting T&L based on HOTS in
the argumentative essay writing process. In this study, one of the T&L
techniques used by both research participants was the debate technique. The
technique was used five times out of 13 T&Ls conducted in the classroom. Two
sub-themes were constructed as a result of the research finding concerning the
use of debate technique as a T&L procedure based on HOTS in the process of

69
argumentative essay writing. These two sub-themes consisted of (i) simulations

of the debate in the classroom and (ii) writing the full-text of the debate.
6.1 Simulation of Debate Competition in the Classroom

Both participants in this research used the debate method as a T&L tool based on
HOTS in the process of writing an argumentative essay. The debate method
used involved the simulations of the competition in the classroom. The
simulations were conducted to train and provide a platform for students to come
up with ideas and defend them before they were formulated in full essay form.
Table 2 shows the research findings of how the teachers conducted simulation
competitions in the classroom.
Table 2: Research Findings Details for Debate Competition Simulation
Debate Competition Simulation Research Findings Details

The Procedure of Debate Competition The teacher re-explained the number of cases
required, which included four cases for essay
writing, debate according to the situation:
whether it was a parliamentary competition,
with two arguments, or an open debate with
three cases. The teacher also described the time
frame given for the cases to be between 7 to 8
minutes according to the competition,
situation to allow the judge to evaluate the
debaters’ evidence (BP10GB).
Debater Turn in Competition It depends on how well he can deny. If he
refutes much, we set him third
(TB1GAGB/line 593596)
Little refute, we place as a second. If it’s lesser,
we place him as the first, but usually, we have
a formula, that formula is based on experience.
Normally, according to experience, usually the
best students, we will place as a second
(TB1GAGB/line 598-601).
Video Show of Debate Competition The teacher then asked the students to
examine the second video show of a friendly
competition carried out by the debate group.
The teacher also encouraged students to apply
the debating method after watching the
second video. The teacher then explained that
in the debate competition, the debater is
required to start the argument session by
presenting the definition of the given proposal
or title. The teacher then asked the students to
try to apply the method, intonation, voice of
the debate activity through the example debate
text provided. The teacher demonstrated the
style before asking the student to use it
(BP9GB).

70
6.2 Writing Complete Text of Debate Essay

The second sub-theme of the debate method is the full-text debate essay writing.
Both research participants have a strong belief that students needed to
understand the question’s instruction first and master the format of debate essay
writing before the student can produce a full-text of the debate essay. Table 3
elaborates on the findings of the study on how GA and GB guided the students.
Table 3: Detailed Research Findings for the Full-Text of the Debate Essay
Full-Text Writing of Details of Study Findings
Debate Essays
Comprehension of Students responded in favor or not of the given issue.
instruction – To propose The teacher validated the students’ answers to whether
or oppose the proposition or not the student proposed the issue, which is the
importance of preserving the heritage city. The teacher
then asked what is meant as proposing and opposing.
The teacher explained that students were allowed to
choose whether to propose or to oppose, but needed to
depend on the instruction of the questions of whether
students needed to propose or oppose (BP7GA).
Format of debate essay The teacher asked students about the form of debate
writing essay writing. Students listed the concerning format,
which included the forewords, definitions, bring forth
the topic, and closure. The teacher gave a hint to the
students about a matter using the letter H. Students
answered the argument (BP10GB).
GA developed a framework for the use of the debate essay writing format in
T&L during the observation of BP11GA. The construction of a debate essay
format includes the mode of the argumentative essay (facts, comparison,
persuasion, and argument); the development of paragraphs (introduction, 5
main ideas, and conclusion); and the way to use words of wisdom, personages,
and proverbs in an argumentative essay as an added value in their writing skills.
Both research participants, GA and GB chose the topic for the debate essay
writing to ensure that students can master the full-text debate essay writing.
Table 4 is a list of debate essay titles discussed during classroom observations.
Table 4: Selection of Debate Essay Titles by GA and GB

Date of Classroom
Research Participants Debate Essay Title
Observation (T&L)
1. Assume your group has been 24 August 2016
selected to represent the Association of
GA Malaysian Heritage Friends to debate
the following title: Preserving Heritage
Cities is More Important Than
Building A Modern City. (BP7GA)
2. Historic Places Encourage Level of 7 September 2016
Patriotism Among Students. (BP11GA)
1. The Use of the internet Does More 25 August 2016
Good Than Harm. As an opposition
side, discuss this title. (BP8GB)
2. You have been selected to 25 August 2016

71
participate in a school debate

competition. The title of the debate is
The Internet Does More Good Than
GB Harm. State your argument as a
proponent. (BP9GB)
3. Assume your group has been 6 September 2016
selected to represent the Association of
Malaysian Heritage Friends to discuss
the following title: Preserving Heritage
Cities Is More Important Than
Building A Modern City. (BP10GB)
7. Discussions
After reviewing all the findings, the researchers found that the justifications of
the two research participants in providing the data were based on the
knowledge, understanding, and practice as the debate side coach (GA) and the
debate side manager (GB). Both participants used the disclosures gained as a
result of their involvement in the debate competition as one of the T&L methods
to train students in thinking using HOTS. This is because both research
participants were actively involved in training their school debate team to
participate in debate competitions at school, district, state, and national levels
and ultimately being crowned the winner of the Prime Minister Cup in 2016.
Both research participants, GA and GB, used the debate as a method to
incorporate the elements of HOTS by allowing students the opportunity to
express their views in debate form, and debated plans were converted to the
full-text essay writing form.
7.1 Adaptation of Argumentative Writing Model in T&L

The findings of this study are in line with the ideas presented by Toulmin's
(1958) in the Argumentative Discourse Writing Model and Argumentative
Discourse Construct Model by Ali (2005). Through the simulation of debate
competition, the research finding, which is the debate competition simulation
matches the six elements of Toulmin's Model. In the competition simulation,
students were found to use the main elements of the model which model, which
are data, arguments, and assumptions to discuss the proposition in the
classroom. Students then used the support elements, refutation of argument, and
clarification elements to respond to the arguments presented by the opponents
during the debate in the classroom. This had implications for students’ thinking
because students had to find the right facts to support their argument. The
findings of this study are in line with the views of Mohd (2001), Norhasni (2014),
and Nurhidayu (2012). The high-order thinking activities can be applied through
debate skills as students can express their ideas as well as defend their ideas and
arguments to reach common ground on issues discussed. Debate activities can
serve as a medium for sharpening students' minds and talents in defending an
argument.

72
7.2 Acculturation of Debate Methods in T&L Essays

Next, the debate method used by both research participants included exposure
and guidance made by GA and GB regarding the full-text debate essay. Debate
essay writing is a formative essay. After the students were given the experience
of simulating a debate competition to hone their debating talent, they were then
instructed by the two research participants to prepare a complete debate essay.
Both research participants repeatedly asked the students to comprehend the
essay instruction: they had to either propose or oppose the topic before
beginning to write the full-text debate essay. The research participants were
found to have provided a debate framework format to be made as a guide for
students to produce the debate essay. The debate essay preparation was found
to be the same as the Argumentative Discourse Construct Structure (Ali, 2005).
Both research participants emphasized the language aspect because students

needed to use appealing language to get readers’ support or approval to accept
the views expressed in the debate essay. The use of the debate method was able
to engage the students in maintaining as well as increasing their attention and
thinking ability. They were expected to be prepared with questions or to clarify
questions posed by their teachers or peers during the debate activity in the
classroom. The implication of using debate is students are found to be more
prepared by making preliminary reading and eager to defend their ideas in a
group. To ensure the debate method is successfully carried out as a T&L tool
based on HOTS, teachers must choose the topics that follow the students’
cognitive level, and have a close relationship with the students’ environment
while tapping on the current issues.
8. Conclusion
In planning the T&L process based on HOTS, teachers must first understand and
live the philosophy and aim of the curriculum, structure, and organization of the
curriculum, and the syllabus of the Malay language subject. Teachers also need
to have competent knowledge about their option subject and teaching skills
including integrating knowledge, skills, and values. Besides, they should be able
to teach students with multiple abilities and have positive and creative teacher
characteristics to conduct the T&L process (Mok, 2012). Teaching effectiveness
depends on the teachers’ ability to facilitate students’ learning activities and
create motivation for their learning. Thus, the success of this approach depends
mainly on the teachers’ ability in the classroom. Teachers also need to consider
the limitations in T&L such as the mastery of students' reading skills, teaching
resources and elaborations of the content proposed. Therefore, it is particularly
relevant if various studies are conducted regularly to examine the best ways to
be applied by teachers in doing meaningful T&L processes and give a positive
impact on the formation of student’s high-order cognitive abilities in total.
Hence, the application of HOTS in T&L teaching of essays should not be
overlooked by teachers as HOTS can open up space and opportunities for
students to improve their thinking ability. Teachers should make HOTS a major
aspect of their attention during the T&L process.

73
9. References
Abdul, H. A. (2016). Kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi dari aspek kurikulum, pedagogi dan
pentaksiran [Higher-order thinking skills: The aspects of the curriculum,
pedagogy, and assessment]. In S. Johari, I. Nor Hasniza, H. A. Abdul & B. Yusof
(Eds.) Kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran, (pp. 127-
149). Johor, Skudai: Fakulti Pendidikan Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Abdul, J. O., Mahzan, A., & Rahmad, S. A. (2008). Penggunaan kohesi gramatikal dan
leksikal dalam mod penulisan argumentatif dan ekspositori [The use of
grammatical and lexical cohesion in argumentative and expository writing
mods]. Masalah Pendidikan, 31(1), 135-146.
Ali, H. M. (2005). Kesan latihan wacana secara sistematik terhadap kemahiran menulis esei
argumentative [The effect of systematic discourse exercises in argumentative essay
writing skills] (PhD’s Thesis). Universiti Putra Malaysia.
Aminah, A. (2003). Permbelajaran berasaskan minda dan implikasinya kepada
pendidikan. Siri Syarahan Umum Pelantikan Profesor Pelantikan 2003/Bil.2. Tanjung
Malim: Penerbit Universiti Sains Malaysia.
Anderson, L. W. (2004). Inquiry, data and understanding: A search for meaning in educational
research. Columbia: Routledge Falmer Taylors & Francis Group.
Armstrong, W. S., & Fogelin, R. (2010). Understanding arguments an introduction to
informal logic (8th Ed). Virginia: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Baharuddin, J. (2006). Perspektif pelajar terhadap pengajaran kemahiran berfikir aras
tinggi dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran sejarah di sekolah menengah: Satu
kajian kes di daerah Hilir Perak. [Students perspective towards high-order
thinking skills in teaching and learning history in secondary schools: a case
study in hilir perak district] (Research Grant Report). Fakulti Sains Sosial dan
Kemanusiaan, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris.
Brudvik, O. C., Hong, K. H., Chee, Y. S., & Guo, L. (2006). Assessing the impact of a
structured argumentation board on the quality of students' argumentative
writing skills. Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Computers in
Education (pp. 141- 148). Amsterdam, IOS Press.
Buchman, A. D., & Jitendra, A. K. (2006). Enhancing argumentative essay writing of
fourth-grade students with learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 29,
39-54.
Cho, K. L., & Jonassen, D. H. (2002). The effects of argumentation scaffolds on
argumentation and problem solving. ETR & D, 50(3), 5-22.
Creswell, J. W., & Miller, D. L. (2000). Determining validity in qualitative inquiry. Theory
in Practice, 39(3), 124-130.
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2008). The landscape of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks,
CA: SAGE Publications Inc.
Faridah, D., Rohaida, S., & Razak, A. Z. (2013). Transformasi guru dalam pengajaran dan
pembelajaran mengenai kemahiran membuat hipotesis dalam kalangan murid
sekolah rendah. [Teacher information in teaching and learning about life
makes hipotesis in the middle school of school schools]. Jurnal Kurikulum &
Pengajaran Asia Pasifik (JUKU), 1(3), 47-57.
Hyland, K. (1990). A genre description of the argumentative essay. RELC Journal, 21(1),
66-78. doi:10.1177/003368829002100105
Ibrahim, N. N., Ayub, A. F. M., Yunus, A. S. M., Mahmud, R., & Bakar, K. A. (2019).
Effects of higher-order thinking module approach on pupils' performance at
primary rural school. Malaysian Journal of Mathematical Sciences, 13(2), 211-229.
Jumaliah, M., & Zamri, M. (2016). Pengetahuan pelajar sekolah menengah tentang
penggunaan peta pemikiran dalam pembelajaran Bahasa Melayu. [Knowledge
of secondary school students on the use of mat mapping in Malay language
learning]. Jurnal Pendidikan Bahasa Melayu, 6(2), 22-32.

74
Koo, Y. L, Wong, F. F., Kemboja, I., Chang, P. K., & Mohd, S. M. Y. (2011). Literasi
kritikal dalam konteks pendidikan tinggi: suara dari sebuah bilik darjah di
Malaysia. [Critical literacy in higher education: voices from a Malaysian
classroom]. GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies, 11(2), 99-119.
Lamn, R., & Everett, J. (2007). Dynamic argument. New York: Houghton Mifflin
Company.
Maimunah, O. (2004). Kemahiran berfikir Siri pengurusan INTAN. Kuala Lumpur:
Institut Tadbiran Awam Negara (INTAN).
Mason, J. (2002). Qualitative researching. London: SAGE Publication, Inc.
Maxwell, J. A. (2008). Designing a qualitative study. In L. Bickman & D. J. Rog (Eds.) the
SAGE handbook of applied social research methods (pp. 214-253). California: SAGE
Publications Inc.
Mayberry, K. J. (2002). Everyday arguments: A guide to writing and reading
effectivearguments. New York: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.
Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research a guide to design and implementation: Revised and
expanded from qualitative research case study application in education. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass A Wiley Imprint.
Mohd, A. A. H. (2001). Pengenalan pemikiran kritis dan kreatif. Skudai: Penerbit Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia.
Mok, S. S. (2012). Prinsip teras guru mata pelajaran. Puchong: Penerbit Multimedia Sdn.
Bhd.
Moore, N. S., & MacArthur, C.A. (2011). The effects of being a reader and of observing
readers on fifth-grade students' argumentative writing and revising. Reading and
Writing, 25(6), 1449-1478. doi:10.1007/s11145-011-9327-6
Musliha, S. M. R. (2010). Aplikasi kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi melalui pembelajaran
berasaskan masalah. [The application of higher-order thinking skills through problem-
based learning] (Phd Thesis). Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Nimehchisalem, V. (2011). Determining the evaluative criteria of an argumentative
writing scale. English Language Teaching, 4(1), 58-69.
Norhasni, Z. A. (2014). Reka bentuk metodologi dan penilaian latihan. Serdang: Penerbit
Universiti Putra Malaysia.
Nooriza K., & Effandi, Z. (2015). Integrasi kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi dalam
pengajaran dan pembelajaran matematik: Analisis keperluan guru. [Integrating
high-level thinking skills in teaching and learning mathematics: An analysis of
teacher needs]. Jurnal Pendidikan Matematik, 3(1), 1-12.
Nureeyah, M. (2015). Enhancing students’ argumentative writing performance and
critical thinking skills through incorporation of concept mapping and
content-based instruction (PhD Thesis). Universiti Sains Malaysia.
Nurhidayu, S. (2012). Pendekatan teknik perbincangan dan perbahasan dalam proses
pembelajaran dan pengajaran pendidikan moral [The technique of discussion
and debate approach in the process of teaching and learning moral education].
In S. Nurhidayu, Koleksi penulisan amalan terbaik pemantapan pendidikan berasaskan
hasil (No.1, pp. 37-47). Melaka: Politeknik Melaka.
Rahman, A. H., Jamaludin, B., & Zamri, M. (2015). Kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi dalam
salak didik dengan elemen nyanyian dan elemen pantun [Higher order thinking
skills (hots) in salak didik singing and pantun elements]. Jurnal Pendidikan Bahasa
Melayu, 5(1), 53-60.
Rahman, F., & Scaife, J. A. (2012). Pre service teachers' development of pedagogic
content knowledge: A multifaceted case study. Pertanika Journal of Social Science
and Humanities, 20(3), 615-634.
Rahman, F., Scaife, J., & Yahya, N. A. (2010). Pre-service teachers' voices while learning
to teach: What can be learned from England? Pertanika Journal of Social Science
and Humanities, 18(1), 187-198.

75
Rajendran, N. S. (2000). Teaching higher-order thinking skills in classrooms: Learning

from the experiences of Malaysia. Proceedings of Thinking Qualities Initiatives
Conference Hong Kong 2000 (pp. 1-20). Hong Kong Baptist University, Centre
for Educational Development.
Rajendran, N. S. (2001a). The teaching of higher- order thinking skills in Malaysia.
Journal of Southeast Asian Education, 2(l), 42-65.
Rajendran, N. S. (2001b). Amalan berdaya fikir pengajaran pembelajaran Bahasa Melayu
di dalam bilik darjah [The practices of thinking skills in teaching and learning
the Malay Language in the classroom]. Proceedings of Konvensyen Pendidikan
Ke-10 (pp. 1-20). Kuala Lumpur, Institut Bahasa Melayu Malaysia.
Rajendran, N. S. (2001c). Pengajaran kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi: Kesediaan guru
mengendalikan proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran [Teaching higher-level
thinking skills: Teachers' readiness to control the teaching and learning process].
Proceedings of Seminar/Pameran Projek KBKK: Poster Warisan-Pendidikan-
Wawasan (pp. 1-13). Putrajaya, Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum.
Rajendran, N. S. (2002). Bahasa Melayu: penyumbang ke arah kemahiran berfikir aras
tinggi [The contributing of Malay language towards higher-order thinking skills
development]. Proceedings of Persidangan Antarabangsa Bahasa Melayu
Kedua. Persidangan Antarabangsa Bahasa Melayu Kedua (pp. 1-12). Beijing,
China.
Rajendran, N. S. (2008). Teaching and acquiring higher-order thinking skills theory and
practice. Tanjong Malim: Penerbit Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris.
Shahlan, S., Shalinawati R., & Saemah R. (2013). Sumbangan elemen metakognitif
terhadap pencapaian penulisan karangan. [The contribution of meta-cognitive
elements on essay writing performance]. Jurnal Pendidikan Bahasa Melayu, 3(2),
79-91.
Sharifah, N. P., Nor, A. G., Mohd, M. T., & Aliza, A. (2012). Keprihatinan guru Bahasa
Melayu dalam melaksanakan kemahiran berfikir secara kritis dan kreatif.
[Malay language teachers’ concern towards implementing critical and creative
thinking skills]. Jurnal Pendidikan Bahasa Melayu, 2(2), 19-31.
Toulmin, S. E. (1958). The uses of argument. London: Cambridge University Press.
Wan, M. S., & Norkhairiah H. (2011). Aplikasi kemahiran berfikir dalam pengajaran
pengetahuan ugama Islam. [Application of thinking skills in teaching Islamic
knowledge]. Journal of Applied Research in Education, 15(1&2), 43-58.
Wei, Z. (2001). Performing argumentative writing in English: Difficulties, processes and
strategies. TESL Canada Journal, 19(1), 34-50. doi:10.18806/tesl.v19i1.918
Wolfe, C. R., Britt, M. A., & Butler, J. A. (2009). Argumentation schema and the myside
bias in written argumentation. Written Communication, 26(2), 183-209.
doi:10.1177/0741088309333019
Wood, (1998). Perspectives on argument. (2nd Ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall
International.
Yusof, B. D. (2006). Mengajar kemahiran berfikir dalam mata pelajaran Bahasa Melayu di
sekolah rendah: Satu kajian di sebuah sekolah di Mersing, Johor. [Teaching thinking
skills in the subjects of Malay language in primary schools: a study in a school in
Mersing, Johor] (Phd Thesis). Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris.

76

Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 76-94, June 2020
Exploring Teachers’ Pedagogical Practices in

Teaching Mandarin as a Foreign Language in
MARA Educational Institutions, Malaysia
Nuraini Jafri, Umi Kalthom Abd Manaf and Fazilah Razali

Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
Abstract. In recent years, it has become evident that pedagogical practices

used by teachers significantly contribute to ensuring the quality of
students’ learning. However, the existing literature on teachers’
pedagogical practice reveals that there are very few qualitative
explanatory studies on teaching Mandarin as a foreign language,
specifically in Malaysia. Hence, this research aimed to explore teachers’
pedagogical practices in teaching Mandarin as FL, including their
perceptions of the research. This qualitative case study collected data
through six semi-structured interviews with Mandarin teachers working
under MARA colleges. These informants were chosen by using a
convenience purposive sampling method. The data analyzed using Atlas.
ti revealed that teachers are still using a traditional teaching style, as well
as the pre-established beliefs that the teachers had in knowledge
constructions and 21st-century skills. Beyond that, the findings also
indicated the Mandarin teachers need professional development
opportunities as the majority of them described the signs of job burnout.
After careful data analysis, the researcher proposed this research to be
further explored from the perspectives of language learners. Besides that,
it is recommended to explore the inculcation of 21st-century pedagogy,
including grounding the theory of Mandarin teachers’ pedagogical
practices.
Keywords: language teacher; pedagogical practices; Mandarin language;

foreign language
1. Introduction
“It matters not what someone is born, but what they grow to be!”. This is Albus
Dumbledore was berating Cornelius Fudge, the Minister of Magic for blindly
ignoring one’s fault because of one’s family background. This particular scene
from Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire book (2002) highlighted the nature of a
teacher through the role of Professor Albus Dumbledore for treating the students

77
equally, without choosing any favorites. A real teacher does not look out for who
a person’s parent is, where, or what their lineage looks like, or how much natural
talent they may possess. Instead, the teacher will focus more on growing and
developing the existing talent that one has because mighty oaks from little acorns
grow. Furthermore, there is a countless number of amazing teacher stories that
portrayed the importance of a strong teacher-student relationship (Marzano, 2003;
Baker, 2006; Hallinan, 2008). It is the teacher that makes the difference in a
student’s life and not the classroom. The beliefs and practices that the teachers
uphold are vital in understanding and improving the educational processes
(Ciliers, 2017). These beliefs are very important in teaching the new Generation –
Generation Z, a generation that surpasses the classical, conventional teaching-
learning approaches. Teaching the new millennial generation require teachers to
explore various ways to apprehend the understanding, interest, and imagination
of this “connected” Generation Z.
Teachers’ responsibilities are beyond academic achievement. By forging a strong

relationship, teachers are the most influential persons for developing students’
potentials. It is closely related to the methodologies on how teachers dealt from
their general well-being to professional daily life, to the extent of shaping
students’ learning environment, as well as influencing the students’ motivation
and achievement. The teachers can virtually affect their students’ lives in every
aspect, particularly teaching them the essential life experience which will help and
prepare them to successfully thrive beyond test papers and standardized
examinations. According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO), producing a lifelong learner is the ultimate
goal of education in the 21st century (Collins, 2009). All of the scenarios described
above are the act of teachers in cultivating and ensuring a lifelong learning
environment among the students.
Problem Statement
Teachers’ pedagogical practices are crucial, especially in addressing the quality of
students’ learning. The beliefs that instilled within the teachers are a very
compelling force, especially in making the decision and taking actions that also
may influence the student’s achievement (Fullan, 2001; 2003). These beliefs may
be affected by teachers’ educational background, experiences, certificate
credential, leadership expertise, persistence, preparedness course work, etc.
(Darling-Hammond, 2000; Milanowski, 2004; Kane, Rockoff & Staiger, 2008).
Throughout the last decade, the existing literature has shown that teachers have
significant influences on students’ academic enrichment, including lifelong
success (Nye, Konstantopoulos & Hedges, 2004; Chetty, Friedman & Rockoff,
2014). According to a study based in Germany, students’ outcomes are positively
associated with the teacher content knowledge (Baumert et al., 2010). It was
claimed that teacher quality is a fundamental element in student performance.
Like any other occupations in the world, including lawyers, doctors, architects,
and accountants, teachers also have to understand and master their disciplines to
be competent in their careers. However, it is insufficient for the teachers to only

78
know and understand their subject matter (Labaree, 2000). The whole language
teaching process requires teachers’ deep understanding of the entire aspects of the
curriculum (Richards, 2008). In this context, language teachers are required to
equip themselves with various teaching pedagogical competencies, especially in
promoting the willingness of students to use the Mandarin language (Jafri &
Manaf, 2020).
Comparatively, the existing literature on teachers’ pedagogical practice reveals

that there are very few qualitative explanatory studies on teaching Mandarin as
FL specifically in Malaysia (Siti Martini and Ros Aizan, 2013; Lee & Chow, 2015;
Lew, 2020). Without defining the proper role of foreign language teachers who
are responsible for arranging cognitive activities and students’ development
process, the development of a successful student’s intellectual and creativity
cannot take place. Thus, it is pertinent to develop a further understanding of
teachers’ pedagogical practices in teaching Mandarin as a foreign language, along
with the perceptions that they have in ensuring the success of students’ learning.
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions

The present study was aimed to describe the perceptions of language teachers in
teaching Mandarin as a foreign language in MARA Educational Institutions. The
exploration continues deeply in explaining the teachers’ pedagogical practices in
teaching Mandarin as a foreign language. In that regard, the mentioned research
purposes have led to the formulation of the following research questions, which
were:
1. What are the perceptions of MARA Educational Institutions teachers in
teaching Mandarin as a foreign language?
2. What are the MARA Educational Institutions teachers’ pedagogical practices
in Mandarin language classroom instructions?
The findings of this study are practical. It includes the similarity of affective
features and strategies used by a language teacher that affecting the learners’
learning experiences and learning environments.
Significance and Limitations of the Study

This study significantly provides empirical evidence on how non-native
Mandarin teachers teach the Chinese language to non-native learners. This
includes the language teachers’ perceptions and understanding of their choices of
pedagogical practices. The results of this research may bring about further
research on exploring the best practices that a language teacher can use during
the processes of teaching and learning.
However, this research was constrained by certain limitations. This case study
was limited to the data gained from the interview sessions only. The current study
did not use any observation and document analysis to collect data. The semi-
structured interview was conducted with the Mandarin teachers who were
willing to participate and share their insights into the study. The consistency of
their responses was considered before making the conclusions. In addition to that,
this study was restricted to the input of language teachers’ pedagogical practices
who teach Mandarin subjects in MARA Educational Institutions only.

79
This study was designed to focus on MARA language teachers’ perceptions and
pedagogical practices through the lens of the ‘actions’ of Mandarin as a foreign
language. To explore these propositions, it was essential to take into account
different attributes of the nature of a language teacher, along with the aspects of
Standards for Foreign Language Teaching and foreign language teaching
approaches. The literature review ends with a look at relational approaches to
conducting the research.
The Nature of Language Teacher

According to Cohen (1988), teaching is a practice of human improvement. In the
context of educational change, there seems to be an increasing pattern of interest
regarding the teachers’ role in classroom settings, and their contribution to the
desired success in preparing creative, critical, and humanistic students
determined by the curricular guidelines (Borg, 2006; Madeira & Lima, 2010).
Williams and Burden (2007) indicated that:
“If the teacher-as-educator is one who is constantly re-evaluating in the
light of new knowledge his or her beliefs about language, or about how
language is learned, or about education as a whole, then it is crucial that
teachers first understand and articulate their own theoretical
perspectives” (p. 57)
Hence, it is compulsory for the teachers to have an in-depth understanding of the

subject contents before projecting it through the instructional and pedagogical
practices. Teacher content knowledge is categorized into three types, which are
Subject Matter Knowledge, Pedagogical Content Knowledge, and Curricular
Knowledge (Shulman, 1986). Shulman described Subject Matter Knowledge
(SMK) as a teacher’s understanding of their subject’s structures, concepts, and
facts. In contrast, Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) illustrates the elements
of subject matter knowledge, particularly the necessary features for teaching.
Meanwhile, Curricular Knowledge (CK) delineates the needs for teacher’s
knowledge to sequence the curricular accordingly based on the concepts or
topics, including determining the suitable resources or materials for a particular
topic.
When the focus of education is to enhance students’ learning, the quality of a

teacher’s pedagogical content knowledge plays a prominent role. Based on the
explanation discussed above, PCK is chosen to answer the research questions.
PCK is a mixture of both content and instructions to develop one’s understanding
regarding the particular problems, topics, or how to organize the issues,
delineated, including a thorough arrangement to cater students’ multiple levels
of abilities and diverse interests (Shulman, 1987; Palanisamy & Marzita, 2014).
Although Pedagogical Content Knowledge is not a teaching skill, it, however,

influences teachers’ teaching practices. Teaching ability must be nurtured to
further develop students’ competencies and dispositions, in a way that will train
students to be resourceful, creative, and collaborative life-long problem solvers.

80
Communicative Language Teaching

Foreign language research is a dynamic, ever-changing subject. Throughout the
decades, studies on this field continue to evolve particularly in meeting the
intended academic goals efficiently, as well as to help the learners to apprehend
the language learned in a more comprehend manner (Richards & Theodore, 2001;
Jafri & Manaf, 2020). The trends in exploring the language pedagogical started
by facilitating the learners with cognitive-based approaches and the Audio-
Lingual Approach (Larsen-Freeman, 2000). Grounded in behaviorist theories of
linguistics, foreign language learning previously involved the activity of
repetition and imitation of new knowledge (Skinner, 1957; Chomsky & Skinner,
1959).
Nevertheless, in today’s linguistic community, a more prominent study focuses

on multilingualism among language learners, including the interplay of various
linguistic systems in the language learner (Moeller & Catalano, 2015). Among the
approaches is Communicative Language Teaching (Hinkel, 2005). Instead of
concentrating on the mastery of structures, several linguists and language
teachers emphasized the demand for communicative proficiency among the
language learners (Widdowson, 1978; Candlin, 1981; Richards & Rodgers, 1986;
Galloway, 1993). Hence, it is imperative for the teachers to provide the learners
with the skills to decide when and where to use the language, or with whom to
talk about, and by what means (Hymes, 1972; Richards & Rodgers, 2001).
The concept of communication is divided into three main modes: interpersonal,

interpretive, and presentational (American Council on the Teaching of Foreign
Language’s National Standards, 1999). Given a situation, a student engages in a
conversation (interpersonal communication mode) and interpret the
conversation (interpretive communication mode), before presenting his or her
viewpoints (presentational communication mode). These three communication
modes are in line with the Communicative Language Teaching framework.
Through this framework, language is viewed as a means to sustain social
interaction in everyday life (Hendrickson, 1991).
Under the umbrella of Communicative Language Teaching, there are four

significant features of communicative competence, which are sociolinguistic
competence, grammatical competence, discourse competence and strategic
competence (Larsen-Freeman, 1986; Brown, 1994; Thompson, 1996; Savignon,
2002, 2006; Burke, 2010; Theisen, 2011). Such a notion embraces the great
diversity of learners’ skills, learning a language is more towards student-centered
language teaching practices, as it focuses on task-oriented that will equip the
students with extensive use of the language learned (Richards, 2006).
Standards for Foreign Language Teaching

Principally, language is regarded as foreign under two conditions which are the
language is taught in a classroom and is not widely spoken in the society where
the teaching takes place (Moeller & Catalano, 2015). Foreign language teaching and
learning have experienced a dramatic change. There is extensive research that has
broadened the theoretical and scientific knowledge-base, particularly ways on

81
how the students discover new information and apprehend the language learned
(Richards, 1978; Ellis, 1994; ACTFL, 2006; De Angelis, 2007; NSFLEP, 2014).
Back in 1996, the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages

(ACTFL) first released a framework of Standards for Foreign Language Learning
in the 21st Century. This framework provides a set of goals for foreign language
learning, which are communication, cultures, connections, comparisons, and
communities (ACTFL, 2012; 2013). These five standards serve as a guideline for
language educators to create and develop a language curriculum, as well as
assessing language performance.
Likewise, language learners are also equipped with fundamental skills to achieve
language proficiency. Learners are expected to communicate using the language
learned, acknowledge the global issues including multicultural subjects, able to
make connections across discipline, and comparing with the pre-established
beliefs and new information and engaging in global communities. Consequently,
foreign language learning allows learners to connect to a real-life situation. Hence,
language learning should be emphasized on creating and developing meaningful
communication (Lightbrown & Spada, 2006).
3. Research Methodology
This case study aimed at exploring Mandarin teachers’ perceptions and their
pedagogical practices during teaching and learning processes. Hence, the current
study was conducted qualitatively to obtain an in-depth understanding of the
scenarios (Denzin & Lincoln, 2003). The researchers also employed the case study
design in understanding Mandarin teachers’ perceptions and describing their
pedagogical practices in specific circumstances (Stake, 1995; Yin, 2001).
This case study was carried out in Majlis Amanah Rakyat (MARA) Educational
Institutions. Mandarin courses are being offered widely under MARA
Educational Institutions, since 2013, from secondary education till higher
education (Jafri & Manaf, 2020). Currently, there are six MARA Professional
Colleges and three MARA Junior Science Colleges (The Bitara Programme) which
offer Mandarin courses. All the students under these colleges are compelled to
take up Mandarin subjects throughout their studies.
At present, there are thirty-eight (38) Mandarin teachers working under these
colleges. Through convenience purposive sampling, only six Mandarin teachers
were selected as the informant of the current research. The data collection phase
stopped at the sixth informant as the data had reached its saturation point.
According to Introduction to Educational Research: A Critical Thinking Approach
book (2012), Suter states that the saturation point is achieved when the data is
exhaustive and there is little need for more sampling (pp. 350).
Data Collection and Analysis Procedures

The primary data for this case study were gained from multiple semi-structured
interviews. The researchers used Patton’s approaches (2001) as a guideline in
designing the interview protocol. The formulation of the interview protocol was

82
guided by the research purposes and questions. The interview protocol was
submitted to the expert in ensuring the questions formulated is in line with the
research purposes and research questions. The expert also reviewed the interview
questions pertaining to its relevance, wording, and language. At this stage, the
expert’s review and evaluation also contributed to the validity of this research.
Altogether, there are thirty-eight Mandarin teachers under MARA Educational

Institutions, and eleven teachers responded favorably with interest. From these
eleven teachers, only six Mandarin teachers from five colleges were purposefully
chosen upon their willingness and availability to participate. The researchers
conducted individual semi-structured, audio-taped interviews at a time that was
convenient for each teacher’s schedule and each interview session lasted for 30 to
45 minutes. The interview sessions were conducted privately in the presence of
the researchers and teachers. Member checking occurred during the interview
session (Creswell & Clark, 2007; Merriam, 2009; Creswell & Poth, 2018).
A total of six interviews were transcribed for this study. Transcriptions resulted
in 42 pages and 35,498 words that were coded, combined into codes, categorized,
and thematized using Atlas. ti software version 8.1. Later, the analyzed data
underwent a peer examination method in ensuring the credibility of the research,
especially concerning the bias issue (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Creswell & Poth,
2018).
Establishing Trustworthiness
Compared to quantitative research, qualitative research design enables the
researchers to comprehend and grasp the phenomenon in specific context
settings, in particular “real-world setting where the researcher does not attempt
to manipulate the phenomenon of interest” (Patton, 2001). With this in view, the
researchers are the instrument of this study. The validity and credibility of this
case study depend on the capability and efforts of the researchers. Thus, it is very
critical to establish the trustworthiness of the collected data. To validate the
findings, the researchers engaged actively in peer examination, member checks,
and providing rich and thick descriptions (Creswell & Poth, 2018).
4. Results and Discussion

Based on the initial purposes, the current research intended to explore the
perceptions of MARA teachers and their pedagogical practices in teaching
Mandarin as a foreign language. Hence, the researchers identified the informant’s
criteria that will provide a comprehensive input into the study. Accordingly,
based on the data gained from semi-structured interview sessions, the researchers
constantly referred to the guiding research questions in the development of
themes. In exploring teachers’ perceptions in teaching Mandarin, there is one
emergent theme which is the role of a language teacher. Meanwhile, under the
exploration of teachers’ pedagogical practices in teaching Mandarin as a foreign
language, there are three themes developed, which are 1) “chalk and talk” style of
teaching, 2) knowledge constructions and 3) the understanding of 21st-century
skills.

83
Role of Language Teacher

Teacher perceptions and beliefs strongly influence teaching, as feelings and
attitudes underlie behaviors (Smith & Skarbek, 2013). During the in-depth
interviews, all six research informants described their beliefs and roles in teaching
Mandarin as a foreign language. The main role of a language teacher is to
encourage and motivate the learners’ love in learning Mandarin. As three
informants explained:
RI 4: “It ends up you become a motivational speaker. Instead of teaching,
you are more likely need to motivate the students to continue their
studies”.
RI 2: “Whenever students questioned why they need to learn Mandarin,

I will explain why learning Mandarin is very important nowadays, and I
will encourage them by sharing the experiences from graduated students
who are currently working”.
RI 3: “After for a while, I have no choice but to cultivate the students’

interests from time to time”.
Besides, one informant believed that “as a Mandarin teacher, one needs to be a
passionate and high spirit to inspire the students to learn a foreign language” (RI 5).
Another informant further explained that “creating an environment that loves to
learn Mandarin is the ultimate role of a language teacher. Language teachers must
converse in Mandarin between them, to encourage the students to apply their knowledge
even outside of the classroom setting” (RI 3).
The findings above showed that most of the teachers agreed with the primary
teaching role they held, especially in encouraging and motivating the students to
learn the language, including creating a conducive environment for the learning.
These responses were given due to their experiences in dealing with students’
reactions in Mandarin classes.
RI 1: “The students did not feel the need to learn Mandarin language.
They don’t understand why they need to learn Mandarin”.
RI 2: “The biggest issue in teaching Mandarin is when the students did

not understand why they need to learn Mandarin”.
RI 4: “Sometimes what makes me taken aback is that when the students

have no interest in learning”.
RI 6: “The number of students who are interested in learning Mandarin

is not many, and many of them did not see the importance of learning
Mandarin”.
Instead of preparing and focusing to teach the language and its content, the
teachers must first deal with the problem faced during the process of teaching and
learning. They need to arouse learners’ interest in learning Mandarin, as well as
making the learners understand the reasons they must learn the Mandarin
language.

84
The “Chalk and Talk” Style of Teaching

The analyzed data showed that all the informants use the “chalk and talk” style
of teaching, which is more towards teacher-centered. They believed that in
knowledge transmission, teachers provide primarily frontal instruction to the
students. Learning is teacher-structured as the teacher is the authority in the
language class. Following are the responses given when asked what kind of
instructional approaches that are often used during teaching and learning
processes:
RI 3: “More towards teacher-centered. The most common style is “chalk
and talk”. 70% of teaching hours will be the lecture-based class”.
RI 1: “For the theoretical part, I still traditionally teach the students using
a whiteboard - lecturing”.
RI 2: “Usually, I will teach first. The weightage for teacher-centered to

student-centered is 70/30”.
RI 4: “It is a combination of both teacher-centered and student-centered.

Here, the Mandarin class is 3 hours per week, so usually, the first two
hours will be lecturing mood and the last one hour will more towards
students’ activities such as games”.
RI 5: “Teacher-centred because this is a foreign language. In learning

Mandarin, students need to listen to the teacher first”.
RI 6: “The class will be in lecture mood because of the time constraint.

One schooling year, we can only afford to finish up to five chapters. This
is due to the school holidays and a lot of school activities throughout the
year”.
In conclusion, all the informants are comfortable using a teacher-centered method

during the teaching and learning processes. There are two main reasons why they
prefer teacher-centered teaching style, which is: time constraint, and theoretically,
foreign language requires the students to listen and pay attention to the language
teacher.
Knowledge Constructions
Another important theme that emerged during the interview sessions was
knowledge constructions. Knowledge construction is a process that relates to the
extent how the teachers facilitate the students in understanding, exploring, and
determining the cultural assumptions, as well as framing the perspectives,
references, and biases across disciplines that might affect the knowledge
construction within it (Peter & Armstrong, 1998; Banks, 2002). There are three
primary practices highlighted in knowledge constructions. Firstly, the application
of “听说读写” (Tīng shuō dú xiě), which is defined as listening-speaking-reading-
writing.
RI 6: “Students must first listen a lot. Listen to what the teacher said. In
learning Chinese, we have tīng – listening, shuō – speaking, dú – reading,

85
and xiě – writing. Within these four skills, why listening skill must be
mastered first? This is because we need to listen first before able to project
what we heard. Like a small baby, they listen first to their surrounding
before imitating what they heard. Same goes to the learning of new foreign
language”.
This type of teaching skills stress on the development of learners’ listening,

speaking, reading, and writing skills (Spencer, 2015; Jafri & Manaf 2019). It is from
the linguistic perspectives that describe the process of how speaking skills derive
from listening, and simultaneously enhance the students’ ability of reading, and
later followed by writing skills (Poole, 2015; Jafri & Manaf, 2019). Secondly, is the
VAK Learning Styles (Flemming, 1995; 2006). This model emphasized three main
learning styles, which are visual, auditory, and kinesthetic. It is claimed that most
of the people have dominant or favorite styles of learning, while some others have
a combination of two or three learning styles or an evenly balanced blend of these
three learning styles.
RI 4: “One thing that I will make sure in my class, I will try to cater at
least one teaching method to entertain each type of student. For instance,
visual learners will be attracted to something they see, so I will make sure
I will have prepared a PowerPoint slide or anything physical that they can
see. While for the auditory learners, they learn the best by listening to
what they hear, so I will give at least a short lecture or singing, and these
types of students enjoy group discussions. Lastly is the kinesthetic
learners. Sometimes at the end of the chapter, I will ask the students to
make a role play or play something physical that they can move around”.
Besides, that is the inculcation of Chinese culture during the teaching and learning
process. The culture teaching in a foreign language classroom is an essential
supplement as it enhances students’ excitement in language learning (Jafri &
Manaf, 2019). One of the informants (RI 2) believed that “Mandarin is not just about
learning the content only. I prefer the students to immerse themselves in the culture. For
instance, when learning Chinese characters, I will prepare the Chinese calligraphy brush
and let the students feel how the Chinese people write on paper, especially during the
ancient dynasty”.
In summary, language teachers must identify the right approaches with the right
students at the right moment. Marzano (2007) stated that teaching is said to be
effective when it dynamically combined the expertise of a vast range in
pedagogical approaches with a deep understanding of students’ individuality
and needs during classes, at a particular point in time.
The Understanding of 21st Century Skills

21st-century skills have become inevitably significant in the 21st century. 21st-
century skills are a set of abilities and skills that needed to be developed within
the students for them to succeed in life (Maria & Kamisah, 2010; Yan, Jari & Kirsi,
2018). However, through the data from interview sessions, it seemed that all five
informants did not wholly understand the concept of 21st-century skills.
RI 1: “21st-century skills? All I know is technology. Am I right?”.

86
RI 2: “21st-century skills are about technology and the internet”.
RI 3: “I am not a tech-savvy; till to the point that I’ll be using 100%

technology in class”.
RI 4: “21st-century skills is to integrate technology to improve the

teaching and students’ understanding”.
RI 6: “21st-century skills? Hmm... That is the problem. If the teacher itself

did not have a clear understanding of the 21st century, then how to apply
during the teaching and learning processes?”.
Nonetheless, there is only one informant (RI 5) who understands the concept of
21st-century skills. Her response was “People always assume that the 21st century is
all about ICT and technology. But for me, it is not. If I am not mistaken, it is about 4C’s
right? The 21st century is more towards student-centered. We act as a facilitator only and
let the students direct their learning”. She even added she learned about 21st-century
skills during her master’s class.
From the findings discussed above, it can be concluded that the majority of the
informants have less understanding of the concept of 21st-century skills. They
assumed that 21st-century skills are about incorporating technology in teaching
pedagogy. Clearly, this is something that needs to be worried about. As a teacher,
one needs to have a clear understanding of particular concepts before being able
to apply them during the teaching and learning processes.
Language Teachers’ Conflict of Interests

According to Shmitt (2005) and Massey (2011), the researchers are required to
apply vigorous synthesizing and data probing during the entire process of
analysis, including the theme development from the unintended and emergent
theme. Therefore, throughout the data analysis phase, there are two emerging
themes identified, which are a) the need for professional development
opportunities, and b) burnout symptoms.
a) The Need for Professional Development Opportunities

Research has proved that pre-established beliefs in teaching and learning
restricted teacher’s capability to generate and embrace new views, and
subsequently their grammar-based-beliefs in education dominate their classroom
settings (Horwitz, 1988; Freeman, 2002). This is also in line with the findings of
the interview sessions. The data reported that the majority of the informants felt
they were inadequately competent. The informants believed that they need to
improve themselves, especially regarding teaching techniques and pedagogical
practices.
RI 2: “Actually, I am not satisfied with myself. I think I need to improve
my teaching technique. I am still figuring which pedagogy is the best and
interesting for the students”.

87
RI 5: “I think there’s a lot of things that I need to improve. A lot, especially

in terms of my teaching pedagogy. I need to be more creative to attract
students’ interests”.
RI 3: “I definitely need to improve my teaching. Teaching excellent

students is not a big deal; the real deal is when dealing with less bright
students”.
RI 4: “For now, I don’t think I am satisfied with my teaching. Because I

think I can do better. I definitely need to attend more courses, especially
regarding the 21st-century learning or any courses related to teaching
foreign language”.
The findings demonstrated that language teachers have varying principles about
their teaching. Although the majority of them agreed that they need to improve
themselves, the reasons behind that issue were varied depending on individual
perspectives. In response to the findings, well-designed professional
development courses or training may affect teachers’ beliefs, and particularly
concerning their in-class practices. It is also pertinent to consider teachers’
backgrounds and diversify their curricula when designing a course or workshop.
b) Burnout Symptom
Burnout is commonly portrayed as a manifestation of emotional, physical, and
interactional activities, specifically emotional exhaustion, depersonalization of
clients, and a sense of lacking personal accomplishment (Maslach & Jackson,
1981). The authors further explained that burnout consists of three features:
‘emotional exhaustion’, precisely explained as feelings of being emotionally
overextended, ‘reduced personal accomplishment’, that is suffered by low spirits
achievement teachers, meanwhile ‘depersonalization’ is illustrated as the
progress of negative feelings and attitudes towards their careers. During the
interview sessions, five informants stated that their job satisfaction has gone as
they have reached the job burnout phase. The informants described their job
burnout as follows:
RI 1: “Actually, I stop wondering. I just teach. I have lost interest in
teaching Mandarin. To be honest, I did not see the good ending of this
subject. I do not foresee how the students are going to use the knowledge
for the future. Usually, when they have to finish Mandarin for a few
semesters, it is done. Done. Done. And then it is all gone. And my interest
in teaching also gone”.
RI 2: “During the early involvement in this teaching field, I keep doing

everything that I could for every class. I also continuously preparing all
new things just to stimulate students. But then entering the third year,
the fourth year, the fifth year, and currently, it is going down. Nowhere
to be found. All I did is just prepare the students to score well in the
examination”.
RI 3: “In a wider context, I did not see the future of Mandarin. Because
the students themselves did not foresee the future of Mandarin, when the

88
students felt like that, it somehow affecting the teachers which made the
teachers feel like… there’s no need to do anything extra for the students.”.
RI 4: “To be honest, I have been teaching for more than six years. I could
not see where I am in the next 5 to 10 years except quitting this job. I feel
like my teaching passion is no longer there. I am not what I used to be,
not progressing, stagnant at the very same place. Sometimes you lose
focus just because of the need to deal with other things such as the
homeroom, doing series of intervention sessions with the problematic
students, not including all the positions that you have like unit or clubs.
I mean, our students are big enough, why we should treat them like they
are still in high school like MRSM students”.
RI 6: “This is my sixth year of teaching, and I already burn out. I used to

teach diploma students. Although they are not cream students, I love the
teaching environment there. Now I am teaching high school students, the
chosen and bright students. My teaching satisfaction is no longer here
because these students are busy focusing on their SPM examination.
When I assigned them homework, they will say they have a lot of other
homework, add maths, physics, etc. Since I entered MRSM, I nonstop
counting days for retirement. Plus with a lot of work burden that is not
related to teaching”.
It can be concluded that the factor most described by the informants as influencing
their job satisfaction and instruction planning was the work burden. It is crucially
necessary to acknowledge the burnout symptoms among teachers, for the reason
that burnout has substantial implications for teacher’s motivation, mental health,
job satisfaction, along with students’ learning and behavior (Pyhalto et al., 2011).
5. Conclusion
Although this study involves only six key informants and the findings are, by all
means, not generalizable, they, however, are beneficial to other teachers.
Specifically, in the sense that every teacher is uniquely different individuals that
have their teaching approaches; every teacher has different manifestations of their
beliefs in teaching, and they engaged in change, as it is proposed to implement
innovation towards the language curriculum. Theoretically, from the
communicative approaches point of view, learner (student) is the key player in
the foreign language process while teachers only act as a facilitator. Nonetheless,
the students’ necessities are challenging and demanding that teachers need to
play a more active role that of the learners. This kind of scenarios that make
teachers withstand stress over the language curriculum, and even worst to meet
the expectation from stakeholders over the students’ outcome from the Mandarin
language classroom. After a thorough exploration and analyzing the data gained,
the result of this study implies that there is a need for a more effective and
sustainable teacher education and professional development program. These
courses will inform the teachers about their beliefs and practices, which later
enable them to develop new sets of beliefs and methods under educational
reforms.

89
Generally, it requires years of practice and classroom real-life experiences to make

true expertise. However, it is astounding that the majority of the informants’
reactions were contradictory and opposite the expectation, as most of them have
been teaching for more than five years. Too often, the teachers were burdened
with non-academic and clerical jobs which cause the focus and job satisfaction
being ripped off from one’s soul. Simultaneously, studies like the present one
reveal the need for further classroom-based research. The findings provide insight
for the teachers, administrators, teacher educators, and researchers, which later
will help them to make decisions on how to improve Mandarin language
instructions, language policy, educational training programs, and foreign
language research at educational institutions.
6. Recommendations for Future Research

In reference to the outcomes and further discussions, the researchers found a
glimpse into the implementation of Mandarin language learning; synthesizes
existing research, as well as identifying possible areas for further exploration. The
recommendations for future research are issues that might need to be tackled,
especially, in enhancing teachers’ pedagogical practices in teaching Mandarin.
Exploring the Practices of Mandarin Teachers’ Pedagogies from the Learners’

Perspectives
An analysis of Mandarin teachers’ pedagogical practices from the eye of the
students is an endeavor to reclaim voices in shaping and determining the quality
of teachers’ practices that learners thrive in. Input from the students’ perspectives
will enhance and improve teachers’ pedagogical practices and quality of teaching,
as well as ensuring that the pedagogical practices are relevant and prevalent to
the current scenarios.
The Inculcation of 21st Century Pedagogy

Many researchers have investigated the use of technology in teaching, however,
there are few research which have explored other 21st century skills in the
language classroom environment (Young, 2003; Warwick & Kershner, 2008;
Ghavifekr & Wan Athirah, 2015). Therefore, extensive research on the teachers’
understanding of 21st-century skills and how they exercise their competencies
throughout classroom instructions are very important. Consequently, for the
interest of improving teacher education programs, qualitative studies are
suggested to have a deeper and in-depth understanding of the domains that
teachers typically hold or incremental beliefs, as well as determining how these
beliefs affecting teachers’ pedagogical thinking and practices.
Grounding Theory for Language Teachers’ Pedagogical Practices

Approaches to accountability which involves a wider scope of active instructional
practices and classroom pedagogical are pertinent in ensuring the success of
student’s learning. Teachers’ pedagogical practices which are underpinned by the
ideas and values that they have in the respective fields provide a valuable
contribution role in enhancing the teachers’ quality. Thus, language teachers need
to understand their responsibilities, particularly on their active relationship
between teaching and learning in producing lifelong learners.

90
7. References
American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL). (2006). ACTFL
Performance Guidelines for K-12 Learners. Yonkers, NY: American Council on the
Teaching of Foreign Languages.
American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL). (2012). Alignment of
the national standards of language learning with the common core state standards.
Alexandria: American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages.
American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL). (2013). Program
Standards for the Preparation of Foreign Language Teachers (Initial Level –
Undergraduate & Graduate) For K-12 and Secondary Certification Programs. Council
for Accreditation of Educator Preparation (CAEP). Retrieved from
https://www.actfl.org/sites/default/files/CAEP/ACTFLProgramStandards20
13.pdf
Baker, J. A. (2006). Contributions of teacher-child relationship to positive school
adjustment during elementary school. Journal of School Psychology, 44(3), 211-229.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2006.02.002
Banks, J. A. (2002). An introduction to multicultural education (6th edition). United States, US:
Pearson Education.
Baumert, J., Kunter, M., Blum, W., Brunner, M., Voss, T., Jordan, A., et al. (2010). Teachers’
mathematical knowledge, cognitive activation in the classroom, and student
progress. American Educational Research Journal, 47(1), 133-180.
Berg, B. L. (1998). Qualitative research methods for the social sciences (3rd edition). Boston, MA:
Allyn and Bacon.
Borg, S. (2006). The distinctive characteristics of foreign language teachers. Language
Teaching Research, 10(1), 3-31. https://doi.org/10.1191/1362168806lr182oa
Brown, H. (1994). Teaching by principles - An interactive approach to language pedagogy. New
Jersey: Pretinence Hall.
Burke, B. M. (2010). Promoting communication in the target language with and among
students. The Language Educator, 5(5), 50 - 53.
Celce-Murcia, M. (1991). Grammar pedagogy in second and foreign language teaching.
TESOL Quarterly, 25, 459-480. https://doi.org/10.2307/3586980
Chetty, R., Friedman, J. N., & Rockoff, J. E. (2014). Measuring the Impacts of Teachers II:
Teacher Value-Added and Student Outcomes in Adulthood. American Economic
Review, 104(9), 2633 - 2679. https://doi.org/10.3386/w19424
Chomsky, N., & Skinner, B. F. (1959). Verbal behavior. Language, 35(1), 26-58.
Cilliers, E. J. (2017). The challenge of teaching Generation Z. PEOPLE: International Journal
of Social Sciences, 3(1), 188-198. Retrieved from
https://grdspublishing.org/index.php/people/article/view/322
Cohen, D. K. (1988). Teaching practice: Plus a change. In P. W. Jackson (Ed.), contributing
to educational change: Perspectives on research and practice (pp. 27-84). Berkeley, CA:
McCutchan.
Collins, J. (2009). Education techniques for lifelong learning: Lifelong learning in the 21st
century and beyond. Radiographics, 29, 613-622.
https://doi.org/10.1148/rg.292085179
Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2007). Designing and conducting mixed methods research.
London: Sage Publications.
Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. (2018). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five
approaches (4th edition). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Inc.

91
Darling-Hammond, L. (2000). Teacher quality and student achievement. Education policy

analysis archives, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.v8n1.2000
De Angelis, G. (2007). Third or additional language acquisition. Multilingual Matters:
University of California. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781847690050
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2003). The landscape of qualitative research: Theories and issues
(2nd edition). London: Sage Publications.
Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford, UK: Oxford University
Press.
Flemming, N. D. (1995). I'm different; not dumb. Modes of presentation (VARK) in the
tertiary classroom, In A. Zelmer (Ed.) Research and Development in Higher
Education. Proceedings of the 1995 Annual Conference of the Higher Education and
Research Development Society of Australia (HERDSA), pp. 308-313.
Flemming, N. D. (2006). V.A.R.K Visual, Aural/Auditory, Read/Write, Kinesthetic. New
Zealand: Bonwell Green Mountain Falls.
Freeman, D. (2002). The hidden side of the work: Teacher knowledge and learning to
teach. Review Article, 35(1). https://doi.org/10.1017/s0261444801001720
Fullan, M. (2001). The new meaning of educational change (3rd edition). New York, NY:
Teachers College Press.
Fullan, M. (2003). Changes forces with a vengeance. London, UK: Routledge Falmer.
Ghavifekr, S., & Wan Athirah, W. R. (2015). Teaching and learning with technology:
Effectiveness of ICT integration in schools. International Journal of Research in
Education and Science (IJRES), 1(2), 175-191. https://doi.org/10.21890/ijres.23596
Hallinan, M. T. (2008). Teacher influences on students’ attachment to school. Sociology of
Education, 81 (3), 271-283. https://doi.org/10.1177/003804070808100303
Hendrickson, J. M. (1991). On Communicative Language Teaching, Hispania, 74(1), 197-
Hinkel, E. (2005). Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning. Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Horwitz, E. (1988). The beliefs about language learning of beginning university foreign
language students. The Modern Language Journal, 72(3).
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.1988.tb04190.x
Hymes, D. J. (1972). Models of interaction of language and social life. In J. Gumperz & D.
Hymes (Eds.), Directions in sociolinguistics: The ethnography of communication (pp.
35-71). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Jafri, N., & Manaf, U. K. A. (2019). I am Hé: Creating Cultural Awareness in Teaching
Mandarin as a Foreign Language. In R. M. Rasdi, M. K. Omar, A. B. Razali, L.
Ismail, A. Abdullah, M. Yassin & S. Othman (Eds.), 5th International Conference on
Educational Research and Practice (ICERP) 2019, Educating the Digital Society:
Integrating Humanistic and Scientific Values (pp. 71-78). Selangor, Malaysia: The
Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia. Retrieved from
http://spel3.upm.edu.my/max/dokumen/ICERP_ICERP_2019_-
_PROCEEDINGS_(REVISED)_compressed.pdf
Jafri, N., & Manaf, U. K. A. (2020). Looking into Students' Willingness to Communicate: A
Case Study in Mandarin Language Learning. Universal Journal of Educational
Research, 8(1A), 123-131. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2020.081316
Kane, T. J., Rockoff, J. E., & Staiger, D. O. (2008). What does certification tell us about
teacher effectiveness? Evidence from New York City. Economics of Education
Review, 27(6), 615-631. https://doi.org/10.3386/w12155

92
Labaree, D. F. (2000). On the nature of teaching and teacher education: Difficult Practices
that look easy. Journal of Teacher Education, 51(3), 228-233.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (1986). Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. New York:
Oxford University Press.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (2000). Second Language Acquisition and Applied Linguistics.
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 20, 165-181.
https://doi.org/10.1017/s026719050020010x
Lee, P. L., & Chow, T. V. F. (2015). Research on attitudes of learning Chinese as a foreign
language learner in Malaysian University towards the Chinese language. The
Science Education Article Collects, 12, 44-46.
Lew, Y. L. (2020). A case study on the application of cognitive strategies to Malay
Mandarin learners. Jurnal Intelek, 15(1), -10.
Lightbown, P., & Spada, N. (2006). How languages are learned (4th edition). Oxford, UK:
Oxford University Press.
Lincoln. Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic Inquiry. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE
Publications.
Madeira, M. Z., & Lima, M. G. (2010). The significance of teaching practice in the
constitution of teaching knowledge among nursing course professors at the
Federal University of Piaui, Brazil. Texto & Contexto – Enfermagem, 19(1), 70-77.
Maria, A., & Kamisah, O. (2010). 21st century inventive thinking skills among primary
students in Malaysia and Brunei. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 9, 1646-
1651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.12.380
Marzano, R. J. (2003). What works in schools translating research into action. Alexandria, VA:
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Marzano, R. J. (2007). The art and science of teaching: A comprehensive framework for effective
instruction. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development.
Maslach, C., & Jackson, S. E. (1981). The measurement of experienced burnout. Journal of
Organizational Behavior, 2(2), 99-113. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.4030020205
Massey, O. T. (2011). A proposed model for the analysis and interpretation of focus groups
in evaluation research. Evaluation and Program Planning, 34(1), 21-28.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2010.06.003
Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative Research: A Guide to Design and Implementation 3rd edition).
San Francisco: Jossey-Basess Publishers.
Milanowski, A. (2004). The relationship between teacher performance evaluation scores
and student achievement: Evidence from Cincinnati. Peabody Journal of Education,
79(4), 33-53. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327930pje7904_3
Moeller, A. J., & Catalano, T. (2015). Foreign language teaching and learning. International
Encyclopedia for Social and Behavioral Sciences 2nd Edition, 9, 327-332.
https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.92082-8
Morrow, K., & Johnson, K. (1981). Communication in the Classroom: Applications and Methods
for A Communicative Approach. London: Longman.
National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project. (1999). Standards for Foreign
Language Learning in the 21st Century (2nd edition). Lawrence, KS: Allen Press.
National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project .(2006). Standards for Foreign
Language Learning in the 21st Century (3rd edition). Lawrence, KS: Allen Press.
National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project (NSFLEP). (2014). Alexandria,
VA: World-Readiness Standards for Learning Languages.

93
Nye, B., Konstantopoulos, S., & Hedges, L. V. (2004). How large are teacher effects?.
Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 26(3), 237-257.
Palanisamy, K. & Marzita, P. (2014). Effective teaching: Pedagogical Content Knowledge.
Proceeding of International Joint Seminar Garut, Garut, Indonesia. Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303940850_Effective_Teaching_Ped
agogical_Content_Knowledge
Patton, M. Q. (2001). Qualitative evaluation and research methods (3rd edition). Thousand Oaks,
CA: SAGE.
Peters, J. M., & Armstrong, J. L. (1998). Collaborative learning: People labouring together
to construct knowledge. In I. M. Saltiel, A. Sgroi & R. G. Brockett (Eds.), New
directions for adult and continuing education, 79, 75-85. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-
Bass.
Poole, F. J. (2015). Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language: A Foreigner’s Perspective. All
Graduate Plan B and other Reports, 457(5), 1-161.
Pyhalto K., Pietarinen J., & Salmela-Aro K. (2011). Teacher working - Environment Fit as
A Framework For Burnout Experienced By Finnish Teachers. Teaching and Teacher
Education, 27, 1101-1110.
Richards, J. C. (1978). Understanding Second and Foreign Language Learning: Issues and
Approaches. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, pp. 71-93.
Richards, J. C. (2006). Communicative Language Teaching Today. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (1986). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching (2 nd
edition). Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 153-177.
https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511667305.018
Rowling, J. K. (2002). Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. New York, NY: Scholastic.
Savignon, S. J. (2002). Interpreting Communicative Language Teaching. New Haven: Yale
University Press.
Savignon, S. J. (2006). Communicative Language Teaching. Encyclopedia of Language &
Linguistics (2nd edition), 2006, 673-679. https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-08-044854-
2/00610-6
Schmitt, R. (2005). Systematic metaphor analysis as a method of qualitative research. The
Qualitative Report, 10(2), 358-394.
Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational
Researcher, 15(2), 4-14. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x015002004
Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard
Educational Review, 57(1), 1-22.
https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.57.1.j463w79r56455411
Siti Martini, M., & Ros Aizan, Y. (2013). Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in
Malaysian context: It's implementation in selected community colleges. Procedia -
Social and Behavioral Sciences, 90, 788-794.
Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal Behavior. New York, NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Smith, R. L., & Skarbek, D. (2013). Professional teacher dispositions: Additions to the
mainstream. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education.
Spencer, W. A. (2015). Mandarin Chinese as a Second Language: A Review of Literature.
Honors Research Projects, 210, 1-47.
Stakes, R. E. (1995). The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

94
Suter, W. N. (2012). Introduction to Educational Research: A Critical Thinking Approach.

Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Thompson, G. (1996). Some misconceptions about communicative language teaching. ELT
Journal, 50(1), 9-15. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/50.1.9
Warwick, P., & Kershner, R. (2008). Primary teachers’ understanding of the interactive
whiteboard as a tool for children collaborative learning and knowledge building.
Learning, Media, and Technology, 33(4), 269-287.
Widdowson, H. (1978). Teaching language as communication. London: Oxford University
Press.
Williams, M., & Burdern, R. L. (2007). Psychology for Language Teacher. UK: Cambridge
University Press.
Yan, W., Jari, L., & Kirsi, T. (2018). Aims for learning 21st-century competencies in national
primary science curricula in China and Finland. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics,
Science and Technology Education, 14(6), 2081-2095.
https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/86363
Yin, R. K. (2011). Qualitative research from start to finish. New York, NY: The Guildford
Press.
Young, S. C. (2003). Integrating ICT into second language education in a vocational high
school. Journal of Computers Assisted Learning, 19, 447-461.
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0266-4909.2003.00049.x

95

Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 95-110, June 2020
The Effectiveness of Differentiated Instruction by

Streaming: A preliminary Study of Current
Practices in the UAE
Ibrahim Suleiman Ibrahim Magableh

USM, Universiti Sains Malaysia-Malaysia
USM, Gelugor, Penang 11800 -Malaysia
Amelia Abdullah
USM, Universiti Sains Malaysia-Malaysia
USM, Gelugor, Penang 11800 -Malaysia
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4055-699X
Abstract. Differentiated instruction is modifying teaching to suit one,

small group, or all learners. There are two ways to classify students into
differentiated classes. The first one is grouping students by mixed-ability
schoolrooms, and the other is to split by streaming. This qualitative
exploratory study explored the advantages and challenges of
differentiated instruction by streaming in the UAE. The authors aim to
search the benefits and disadvantages of streaming in the UAE context
because the UAE applied splitting instead of mixed-ability classrooms.
Twelve cycle two English teachers, and 20 cycle two EFL students, from
four different schools, which are applying differentiated instruction by
streaming, participated in a semi-structured interview to answer the
questions of the study based on a convenience sampling. The study
indicated that streaming helps all students’ proficiency levels. The
above-average students benefit the most from streaming, and some
profound benefits were suggested for the below-average students. The
most apparent advantages were having equal opportunity for
participation among all the three levels, having better achievement
grades, and the increase of independent learning. However, the
disadvantages suggested by the respondents were the use of native
language, classroom interruption, having negative behavioral issues, and
labeling the below-average as weak students.
Keywords: differentiation; streaming; mixed-ability classroom;

differentiated instruction

96
1. Introduction
The one-size-fits-all method is no longer acceptable in today’s classrooms
(Bondie, Dahnke & Zusho, 2019). Today’s classrooms vary in readiness,
interests, learning profile, family support, culture, socio-economic status, and
the technology that students use. Classroom diversity leads many researchers
(Tomlinson & Imbeau, 2010) to call for different trends in education and
explicitly call for differentiated instruction to solve the problem of various
classroom levels. Tomlinson (2017) defines differentiated learning as the
adaptation of curriculum components, in the areas of content, process, and
product, based on students’ needs according to their readiness, interests, and
learning profiles by the teachers in their classes whenever they want, during the
whole course, small groups or individual learners. Wesley-Nero (2007) explains
that in differentiated classrooms, teachers work to highlight students’ learning
styles and academic needs by using various modified instructional structures
like the use of small groups, pairs, individual and whole group education.
Teachers modify the content they are dealing with and the learning process they
are following to present the content and the expected outcome to fulfill the best
students’ needs (Aysin & Serap, 2017).
In modified instruction, teachers vary their teaching to suit whole learners, small
groups, pairs, or individual learners, in the areas of content, methods, product
and learning environment based on students’ readiness, interests and learning
profiles. Tomlinson (2014) explains the definition of each area. The content is the
knowledge, understanding, the principles, and the values that we want students
to learn. The content is what students learn and what teachers teach.
Differentiating the content does not mean having different content to various
learners or change the content itself; instead, teachers sometimes need to go back
to prerequisite content or go forward to specific students.
The process is the way students learn or the way the teachers teach. Tomlinson
states that the word “process” is another word for “activities.” According to
Tomlinson (2014), processes and activities are two terms referring to one thing;
the way the students learn, and the way the teacher teaches. The product is how
students demonstrate what they have come to know, understand, and able to do
after an extended period of learning. The product is what students show after
they have learned something. Teachers distinguish the product by giving
students various ways to express what they have studied from the lesson or unit
(Anderson, 2007). The environment is the place and the atmosphere of learning
and teaching, and it is the physical and emotional context in which learning
occurs. Readiness is the students’ proximity to knowledge, understanding, and
skills; it is the previous knowledge, not the ability (Pegram, 2019). Tomlinson
stated that willingness does not mean ability because it can change with the
quality of teaching. Interest is tied directly to that which engages the attention,
curiosity, and students’ involvement. Learning profile is a preference for taking
in, exploring, and expressing content.
Although distinguished learning is not a new approach in teaching, many

teachers are still adopting the traditional approach like the one-size-fits-all

97
method, all learners studied following the same means of training for all
students (Leblebicier, 2020). Planning for separated education would be the most
challenging part of differentiated instruction, which might lead many teachers
not to implement modified instruction in classrooms (Bondie, Dahnke & Zusho,
2019; Magableh & Abdullah, 2020b). Teachers can execute distinguished
instruction in two forms: the first is distinguished learning by setting students in
mixed-ability classes; students of the same grade are clustered within the same
classroom. Therefore, teachers have to meet all students’ needs and abilities and
modify instruction in the areas of content, process, and product at the same time
to suit a small group of learners, one learner or all learners. The second type of
differentiated learning is streaming by ability, where each level is disconnected
in different classrooms (Spina, 2019). The below-average, the average, and the
above-average students are not reading in the same classes; instead, they are
being clustered in different ability classrooms (Hallam & Parson, 2013). There
are many advantages when differentiated learning is applied. Students become
engaged, interaction increases, classes become more homogeneous and students
become responsible of their own learning.
2.1 Theories of Differentiated Instruction
Differentiated instruction is not a new term or a modern philosophy (Anderson,
2007; Kauchak, 2013; Valiandes & Neophytou, 2018). Anderson (2007) states that
it goes back to the one house schoolroom, where all students with different
levels used to sit all together, and teachers used to teach and differentiate
instruction based on their needs. Distinguished learning is constructed on many
theories like Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), Bloom’s
Taxonomy, and Gardner’ Multiple Intelligences (Dendup & Onthanee, 2020).
Vygotsky’s ZPD is the distance between what students can do and what they
can do with the help of an adult. In differentiated education, teachers provide
challenging activities to each level, to the below-average, to average, and to the
above-average (Magableh & Abdullah, 2019, Magableh & Abdullah, 2020b). The
below-average students would not find the offered tasks too complicated, which
might lead them to quit. The above-average students would not see the given
responsibilities too easy that might lead them to feel unchallenged and
disappointed (Anstee, 2014).
In Blooms’ Taxonomy, teachers have to plan and design activities to meet

students’ proficiency levels. Teachers have to make tiered activities from various
levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy to fulfill students’ levels. There are six levels in
Bloom’s Taxonomy; the lower three levels are remembering, understanding, and
applying; the upper three are analyzing, evaluating, and creating (Magableh &
Abdullah, 2020a). Teachers can prepare activities from recognizing and
understanding levels to below-average students, applying and analyzing levels
to ordinary students, and evaluating and creating standards to meet the above-
average students (Weselby, 2014). According to Gardner (2018), students learn in
different styles or “bits of intelligence.” Gardner identified eight bits of
intelligence. The eight bits of styles, as Gardner identifies, are the visual or the
spatial, interpersonal, intrapersonal, kinesthetic, logical or mathematical,

98
musical, linguistic, and natural. Teachers in differentiated direction have to

know their learners’ preference style of learning and distinguish instruction
based on students’ learning profiles (Kotob & Abadi, 2019; Magableh &
Abdullah 2020b). These three learning theories, Vygotsky’s ZPD, Bloom’s
Taxonomy, and Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences, form the foundations of
differentiated instruction.
2.2 Differentiated Instruction by Streaming

Differentiated instruction is not a method of teaching; instead, it is a philosophy
and takes many forms of strategies (Tomlinson, 2015). Separated education is a
must and a need in today’s classrooms. But whether to differentiate instruction
in mixed-ability classrooms or to stream them by ability is still debatable
(Mansor, Maniam, Hunt & Nor, 2016). Streaming means grouping students
based on their proficiency level in separate classes (Kumar, 2004; Macqueen,
2008). School administrations differentiate students by streaming by taking the
last years’ summative results to place students in three levels, or apply a
placement test at the beginning of the year. Based on the results, students
separate. The below-average, the average, and above-average students are
disconnected into three different levels at the beginning of the year in three
separate levels, where each group forms a different class (Sisk, 2019).
Differentiated learning teachers delivered instruction using three different
textbooks that suit the students’ levels. Students at the same level are
homogenous in proficiency and stay in this group till the end of the school year.
The below-average is taught necessary skills following the low-level outcomes of
Bloom’s Taxonomy of remembering and understanding. The ordinary students
are prepared following the middle level of Bloom’s Taxonomy of applying and
analyzing. In contrast, the above-average uses the upper level of Bloom’s
Taxonomy of evaluation and creation.
The setting puts putting students in mixed-ability classrooms, where all students
are in one classroom despite their diversity and ability (Westwood, 2018). In
mixed-ability classrooms, teachers distinguish instruction to the whole class,
small group, pairs, and individual learners at the same time at the same level
based on readiness, interests, and learning profile (Robb, 2008). However, in
streaming categories, students are separated in different levels and instructed a
diverse curriculum, and probably by different teachers. Hallam and Parson
(2013) examined streaming effects on students compared to setting students into
mixed-ability classrooms on both literacy and Math. There were 2500 students
participated in the study, which indicated that streaming had many adverse
effects on students compared to those who were sitting in mixed-ability
classrooms. The study stated that the use of streaming helped the high-ability
students the most, but it has minimal benefits on average or below-average
students. Besides, the study showed that streaming has adverse social effects on
students that the mixed-ability classrooms do not have. Richard (2014) indicated
that based on the findings of the study, streaming in London had faced many
criticisms by parents and many school teachers as well as students; therefore, the
government directed to cancel it and apply distinguished education by setting
students in mixed-ability classrooms instead.

99
Mansor, Maniam, Hunt, and Nor (2016) explored the advantages and
disadvantages of streaming in Malaysia from students’ and teachers’
perspectives. The authors conducted semi-structured interviews with teachers
and students to collect data. The study revealed that streaming has many
advantages, like the above-average can achieve more when they are in separate
classes, and they are getting A’s anyway. The teachers expressed that streaming
helped them get better results with both: the low-level and the high-level
students. However, many disadvantages appeared, like many complaints from
fathers and students like the below-average students’ needs were not taken into
consideration. The interviewees indicated that streaming helps the above-
average students, but not the below-average ones.
The literature of both differentiated instruction by streaming students, or by

setting them in mixed-ability groups, proved to enhance learning. On whether to
stream students by ability in which different grade levels are separated into
different classes, or to put them into mixed-ability classrooms, where all
students of the same grade level are learning together in the same courses is one
primary aim of the study. The UAE started the streaming project in 2018. All
public cycle two schools have to stream students by ability, and divide them into
three levels into separate classes instead of setting them in one mixed-ability
classroom. The below-average students are called literacy students and study
Literacy books based on the low level of Bloom’s Taxonomy. The average
students are called access and read Bridge to Success, Access Level, which mainly
matches the middle level of Bloom’s Taxonomy of synthesis and application.
However, the above-average students were studying Bridge to Success and
named the elite students. All the exams of all levels are also distinguished,
whether the ongoing assessments or summative assessments. Each level has a
separate and different review. The current study tries to explore the advantages
and disadvantages of this new method of classifying students in the UAE. This
study will be different than other studies because it is exploring a new trend in
separated learning in this country. Here, there are many opinions about the
benefits of this new implementation of this kind of differentiated instruction, so
this study aims to find the benefits and disadvantages of applying streaming in
the UAE. The study tries to answer the following two questions:
1/ What are the benefits of using streaming to differentiate instruction?
2/ What are the disadvantages of streaming to differentiate instruction?
3. Methods
3.1 Design
The researchers followed the qualitative exploratory quasi-experimental design.
The instruments consisted of two semi-structured interviews with both English
teachers and students who were in cycle two in Al Ain schools, United Arab
Emirates (UAE). The authors prepared the interview questions and validated
them by a panel of two UAE university lecturers, two English supervisors in Al
Ain, and three English teachers. The latter were outside the sample of the study.
Amendments were made on particular questions of the interview based on the

100
recommendation of the panel. Later, after the meetings, the researchers

discussed the results with the interviewees for results validity.
3.2 Participants
The sample of the study consisted of 12 English teachers based on a voluntary
and convenient sample and aging from 26 to 50 years old from both genders
teaching grade 8 and of 18 students of both sexes aging from 13 to 14 years old,
purposively selected from the three leveled classes of categories eight. The
students were chosen from four different public schools in Al Ain, UAE, which
are applying streaming in them. They were purposefully selected for
convenience to reach and conduct the interviews. There were 22 classes of grade
eight in the four schools and 12 English teachers teaching them. As an average,
types of grade 8 range between 25 to 28 students. There were six above-average
classes, eight ordinary levels, and eight below-average courses. All the English
teachers of grade eight, in the four schools, agreed to participate in a semi-
structured interview, and they were only 12 teachers in the 1st semester
2019/2020. The researchers interviewed the 12 teachers first and then
interviewed the 18 students, six students of each level, two from each gender.
The researchers followed the interview protocol to ask the questions of the
interview, and they recorded the interviewees’ responses after gaining the
consent of the school administrations, teachers as well as students.
3.3 Instrument
Two semi-structured interviews were conducted by the researchers to collect
data. The first instrument is the teachers’ semi-structured interview. It consisted
of six open-ended questions in which the responses were recorded on tapes and
transcribed on the word document file. The students’ semi-structured interview
also contained six questions. The researcher followed the interview protocol and
recorded the responses. For teachers, the conversations were steered using the
English language only because all teachers were teaching English and having
English language degrees. However, students had a choice on whether to
interview in English or Arabic, their mother tongue, because some students were
from the below-average and could not perform the interview in English. Later,
the recordings were sent to a specialist to convert them to word document, and
the responses in Arabic were also sent to translators to translate them into
English. The responses were transcribed and stored in a word document file
with a protected password on the researchers’ computer and could not be
reached by anyone, just by the researchers.
3.4 Procedures
The interviews took place during the 1st trimester of 2019/2020. Twelve teachers
and 18 students from four different schools contributed to the conversations for
over 15 days upon the availability of the teachers and the time of the researchers.
The researchers guaranteed Al Ain office consent, established the schools’
administrations’ clearance as well as the teachers’ and the students’ approval to
participate. Students’ contributions in the interviews depended on students’
voluntary basis, whether to participate or not. Each meeting took nearly 10 to 12
minutes to answer all the interview questions for both teachers and students.
The interview recordings with all the papers were sent to a specialist to translate

101
and transcribe them on the word document file. The researchers analyzed the
data qualitatively using the hand analysis method and used inter-rater reliability
to compare the results with an external validator using Cohen’s Kappa, K, which
was found to be K=0.77, which the authors considered a substantial agreement
between the two inter-raters. Then, the researchers discussed the results and the
findings with the participants for results validation.
3.5 Data Analysis

The interviews were analyzed qualitatively by the researchers with the help of
specialists. In both meetings, the teachers and the students responded to answer
the two questions of the study. After careful analysis and comparisons of the
sessions, the researchers produced the results of the two items of the research.
The process of data analysis depended on the content analysis method where
data was segmented, categorized into major themes, and reported. The
researchers validated the results by showing and discussing them with the
participants in focus groups.
4. Findings
The authors presented the research findings depending on the order of the
questions. Question one findings come first and then followed by question two
findings. The qualitative analysis depended on the content analysis method,
where the hand analysis was developed to analyze the results. First, the
interviews were recorded and then transcribed. The Arabic transcripts were
translated into English and typed into a word document file. After that, the data
were coded, segmented, and categorized into the major themes. Then inter-rater
reliability was ensured to compare the topics and categories with another
external validator who was considered an expert in qualitative data analysis.
Kappa was found to be 0.77 in Table 2 which is considered substantial reliability
as per Table 1. Table 1 shows the rating of Kappa.
Table 1: Interpretation of Kappa. Adopted from Viera and Garret (2005)
Kappa Agreement Kappa Agreement
<0 Less than chance agreement
0.01-0.20 Slight agreement
0.21-0.40 Fair agreement
0.41-0.60 Moderate agreement
0.61-0.80 Substantial agreement
0.81-0.99 Almost perfect agreement

102
Table 2: Cohen’s Kappa Results

Symmetric Measures
Asymp. Std.
Value Approx. Tb Approx. Sig.
Errora
Measure of Agreement Kappa .77 .208 2.064 .003
N of Valid Cases
a. Not assuming the null hypothesis.
b. Using the asymptotic standard error assuming the null hypothesis.
Finally, after reporting the results, they were validated by taking them back to
the respondents to discuss with them whether their responses match the results.
The findings of question one had two parts: first, the benefits of applying
streaming as indicated by teachers, and then followed by the advantages of
using splitting as signposted by students. There were four themes that appeared
on the strengths as specified by teachers. The most common ones were
streaming saves time, and planning for modified activities becomes easier;
above-average students achieve better; streaming helps student centered-classes,
and streaming gives equal opportunities for students to participate.
The first theme was related to planning and saving time. In streaming, teachers
are no longer preparing for the three levels simultaneously; instead, they are
planning just for one level of students. This way, planning becomes more
comfortable, and teachers are no longer consuming most of their time preparing
for the three levels. Teacher 1 and 7 talked about saving time. Teacher 7
indicated that “this year we started streaming, one advantage is timing. Streaming
saves time in the class because all students are at the same proficiency level.” Teacher 1
explained that “because the students level, now we can finish what we plan and prepare
in the same period. Streaming saves time in the classroom.” Teachers 2 and 5
remarked that streaming makes planning easier for differentiated education.
Teacher 2 reflects “planning now is easier because we do not have more than one level
in each class. The below-average students are all together, so one plan is enough for them
and the same for the other two levels.” Teacher 5 states that “planning used to take a
lot of time at home, now it takes less time and less effort.”
The second theme was related to above-average achievement. Nearly all

teachers who contributed to the conversation talked about the advantages of
streaming on above-average. Teacher 8 stated that “streaming benefits the above-
average the most because all the students are willing to participate. Their marks are
getting better.” Teacher 9 explained that “in order to compare the gains of the three
levels, streaming helped the above-average students more than the others because they do
not hinder classes, and do not interrupt classes like the low-level students.” The above-
average students get the most benefit of streaming because classes are not
interrupted. Moreover, teachers can pass the information quickly to the above-
average students in English without explaining in the mother tongue.
The third theme was that streaming drives classes to be more student-centered.
Students can direct their learning, and teachers just monitor. Most of the time,

103
students are learning based on their pace. Teacher 10 states that “in high ability
classes, learning is more like student-centered; rather than teacher-centered. Students
themselves are directing their learning.” Teacher 4 stated that “streaming is changing
the class to be more student-centered.” All students are working on activities that
make a challenge to them. So, streaming benefits all levels because it is more
student-centered, especially in the above-average classes.
The fourth theme was that streaming has benefits on the below-average student,
and the other levels, the average and the above-average. Teacher 4 indicated that
“all students get equal opportunities to participate because they are in separate classes,
and there is no dominance from the above-average over participation.” The below-
average students get an advantage from streaming in that they get rid of being
shy. Now they can answer the questions as any other student in the same class.
Teacher 12 stated that “because all the students are at the same level in the same
classroom, students are encouraged to answer without being afraid that the answers are
wrong.”
Streaming has also benefited students according to students’ interviews. Two

significant themes appeared from the interviews; streaming increases students’
interaction and participation, and streaming enhances students’ grades. All
students agreed that streaming develops students’ engagement and cooperation,
and streaming affects students’ learning. The first theme was streaming helps
students’ interaction and engagement and promotes cooperation. Students 11,
12, 14, 17, and 18 indicated that splitting enhances participation. Student 18
stated that “being in separate classes allows me to participate more.” Student 17
remarked, “I am in the low level, and I became good and always participated.” Student
14 states that “as an average student, I feel that I work better with students of my level,
and we participate more.” Student 11 said, “as an A level student, being with
different classes increased our chances to participate more. Students 7 talked
about increasing engagement. Student 7 states, “classrooms’ interaction and
student engagement increased.
The second theme was streaming enhances students’ scores. Student 3 remarked
“coursing helped me and gave me the motivation to move to high ability classes.”
Student 9 stated, “We should move to other classes if we get better, so I am working
hard so that I can move.” In general, students agreed that streaming affects
students’ learning. All students agreed that in some way, separation by
streaming affects learning positively. Student 16 reflects, “Definitely, learning in
this way affects results.” Student 6 stated that “dividing students into different levels
improves students’ marks.” Student 14 remarked, “Distinguished learning helps
students progress. Distinction by streaming helps students to increase their marks.”
Students 18 noted, “Questions of the exams are easy, and we get good marks.”
The findings of the 2nd question had two parts. The first part was the problems
that the teachers indicated, followed by the weaknesses identified by students
when applying to stream differentiated instruction. Four significant themes
appeared regarding the challenges that teachers face when using “streaming” in
differentiated classrooms. The most common issues of the disadvantages, as

104
shown by the teachers, were the lack of motivation among average and below-
average students, parents’ refusal to stream their children by ability, low self-
esteem among students, and finally increased behavioral issues in below-
average classes.
Concerning the first theme, splitting increases the lack of motivation among the
ordinary and the below-average. Teacher 1 remarked, “when streaming students,
the below-average did not like to be labeled as below-average. They did not like to be
separated from the average or above-average because they learn from them. Streaming
prevents them from learning from other students.” Teacher 12 stated that “the below-
average classes are so weak and students barely answer questions. Students lack
motivation because they do not have other ability students.” Teacher 10 mentioned
that “the below-average and even the average classes lack competition inside the
classrooms, which affects their motivation.” Streaming affected students’ motivation
among the below-average and average because they do not have other peers to
encourage them to participate or to compete with since all the students in the
same classrooms are within the same level.
Concerning the second theme, parents refused to stream their children by

ability. Teacher 5 mentioned that “many parents refused to stream their children
based on last years’ marks, or just one placement test. It is unfair to separate students
like this. Teacher 8 remarked that “many parents came to school, and they were able to
shift their children one level up.” Teachers said that parents declined to stream
students, and many parents denied putting their children in low-ability
classrooms. Teacher 1 stated that “many parents refused this streaming and
transferred their children to private schools, where streaming is not applied.”
The third theme is issues related to below-average classes. It has four sub-
themes, low self-esteem, increased behavioral problems, the use of mother
tongue, and little classroom interaction was all significant complications
happened because of streaming. Students of below-average showed low self-
esteem. Teacher 8 agreed with 12 on that the below-average students showed no
self-esteem. Teacher 12 stated that “the below-average students were not motivated
by streaming, even their self-esteem was at the bottom.” Most of the teachers talked
about classroom communication in below-average classes. They agreed that the
interaction was at the lowest limit. Teacher 10 said that “streaming prevented the
low-level students from classroom collaboration because they often do not understand
everything. They keep asking about everything, which sometimes hinders learning.”
The fourth theme is streaming by ability in separate classes instead of having

mixed-ability classrooms increases the misbehavior at schools. Most of the
teachers said that streaming increased negative behavior, interruptions, and
even misconduct. Teachers 4 and 6 ultimately agreed that streaming has adverse
effects on below-average students. Teacher 6 stated that” the below-average classes
misbehave compared to other courses. We did not use to have this issue in mixed-ability
classrooms.” Teacher 8 indicated that “below-average students always interrupt
teachers. Fact, streaming does not help the low-level students to get better.” Almost all
teachers who contributed to the conversation indicated that they sometimes use
their mother tongue to explain the tasks to students. While working on speaking
tasks, the below-average uses Arabic, which is their mother tongue, and little

105
English. Teacher 2 stated that “the use of Arabic is evident in the below-average
classes. Teachers sometimes use their mother tongue to explain tasks, and students keep
talking in Arabic.”
The second part of the 2nd question presents the disadvantages that the students
recognized in streaming classes for differentiated instruction. Five themes
appeared from students’ discussions. The problems that the students face were
that they do not like to be in separate classes. All grade levels should take the
same book but not different books. Teachers do not take care of the below-
average or even the average. So when the bad behavioral students are clustered
together, the below-average feels embarrassed and inferior to other level groups.
The first theme was that students of the same class refused to be separated based
on their ability. Student 1, 4, 15, and 18 explained their refusal to be separated
from other students. Student 4 explained that “I do not like to be in this class and to
learn like this. I want to be with the other students.” Student 15 stated that “I hate this
classification; I want to learn with other students.’ Student 18 remarked that neither
his father nor his mother liked him to be split from other students. They do not
like him to be in the below-average courses. He stated, “My mother was angry
with the school because of this classification. My dad declined to let me stay with the
below-average students.” Streaming leads to rejection, especially of the below-
average students. They do not like labeling them as below-average learners.
The second theme was related to remarks mentioned by three students 2, 8, and
14, which states that all students of the same class should take the same book,
not different books. If teachers want to differentiate, they modify learning within
the same level. Student 2 explained, “we take different books, why? We should take
the same book.” Student 8 stated, “I do not like our book; I want a book like the other
levels.” Student 14 remarked, “grade eight students have different books, why? We all
should get the same book.” When UAE started streaming, the students of the same
grade are not taking the same book, which leads them to wonder why they
receive different education to the other group of learners.
The third theme was that teachers take care only of the above-average students,
and the below-average or the ordinary do not get the same attention from
teachers. Student 13 stated, “I am an average student, but teachers do not take care of
our level; I hear from the above-average that teachers give them much attention.”
Student 10 stated that “I am a below-average student, and I think our teachers are
happier with the other levels.” Below-average and average felt that students of
above-average receive better education than they do, and teachers do not give
them much attention as the above-average.
The fourth theme is related to behavioral issues, as indicated by students. Nearly

most students talked about behavioral problems. Students of below-average still
interrupt classes, and always misbehave in classes. Student 1 stated that
“streaming helped students to behave negatively.” Student 12 indicated that “coursing
like this helped students to misbehave in classes.” Student 15 mentioned that “the
below-average students still act negatively and interrupt classes.” Behavior appeared
as a significant topic problem related to streaming. The below-average students

106
keep making lots of behavioral issues that inhibit them from making many
benefits from streaming.
The last theme was that all the below-average students, who contributed in the
meetings, felt embarrassed because they were being labeled as below-average all
the year. Student 3 said that “we started, and I still feel embarrassed. I want to move
to the other level.” Student 5 explained that “I always talk to my friends who are with
me in my class, we do not feel happy. I feel embarrassed.” The below-average students
felt that they were inferior to the other two groups of students because they were
labeled weak in English. Student 11 explained that “the other students of the other
groups always say that they are better than us, they are with the clever students. I feel
inferior; I do not like my class.” Student 13 said that “splitting is not good. Some
students feel that they are superior to others. Table 3 summarizes the themes of the two
questions.
Table 3: Summary of Themes
No Theme
1/streaming saves time, and planning for modified activities becomes
Q1 first part easier;
Advantages
from teachers’
2/above-average students achieve better; 3/streaming helps student
views centered-classes, 4/streaming gives equal opportunities for students to
participate.
Q1 second part
Advantages 1/streaming increases students’ interaction participation,
from students 2/streaming enhances students’ grades.
views
Q2 first part 1/the lack of motivation among average and below-average students,
disadvantages 2/parents’ refusal to stream their children by ability,
indicated by 3/low self-esteem among students,
teachers 4/increased behavioral issues in below-average classes.
1/they do not like to be in separate classes. 2/all grade levels should
Q2 second part take the same book but not different books.
Disadvantages 3/teachers do not take care of the below-average or even the average.
indicated by 4/bad behavioral students are clustered together,
students 5/the below-average feels embarrassed and inferior to other level
groups.
5. Discussion
Differentiated instruction by setting students into ability groups or streaming
them into different class levels seems to improve students’ learning. However,
the implementation of streaming has many advantages and disadvantages based
on teachers’ and students’ interviews. The study revealed numerous advantages
and benefits to streaming. It is easier to prepare for streaming than to plan for a
mixed-ability classroom because teachers are dealing with one plan per level.
Teachers do not have to spend most of their time preparing for separate
instruction to meet all students’ standards in one classroom; instead, they expect
one lesson plan per level, which saves time. The most benefit of streaming is for
above-average students. Both teachers and students of all levels agreed that
streaming is better for the above-average because they can read well, and learn
faster than others. Besides, streaming helps classes to be more student-centered.

107
The above-average students benefited the most from streaming probably

because they worked without interruption from the other groups; they can act
independently. Teachers are relaxed when explaining the lesson to them because
they understand everything easier. This level of students, the high-achievers, can
work faster than the other courses that gives them more time to anchor activities,
which can be challenging to them. Streaming helps all levels to have equal
opportunities to participate. In mixed-ability classrooms, it is the above-average
who always dominates over the class. The below-average felt that they could
involve and answer questions more when being streamed. When the below-
average was in mixed-ability classrooms, it is the above-average and the
ordinary who always engage, leaving the below-average with no chance.
The students’ interviews also indicated several advantages of streaming. The

above-average students were happier to be streamed because teachers are using
English all the time, and not being interrupted by the below-average. Besides,
the average and the above-average expressed that with streaming, the negative
behavioral issues disappeared from their classes because the below-average
were those who made the undesired behavioral issues. The above-average
witnessed no bad behavioral issues indicating that streaming is better for their
learning more than the mixed-ability classrooms. The below-average students
expressed that with streaming, their scores became higher since they had
different questions and different exams, although they are within the same
grade level.
The finding of the study revealed that streaming had various disadvantages
indicated by teachers’ and students’ interviews. The teachers signposted that
splitting decreased motivation among the below-average and the average
because they recognized that they were not equal to the above-average. The
below-average felt that the other groups were getting much benefit compared to
them because they receive different textbooks or even varied curriculum.
Teachers, as well as students, thought that both students’ interaction and
engagement were not very high in streaming compared to differentiated
instruction by setting. The minimal effect is on the below-average because both
teachers and students agreed that dividing students by ability in separate classes
would not help the below-average. Besides, many behavioral problems occurred
in the below-average courses that they have not witnessed in mixed-ability
classrooms. It is evident that teachers who teach the below-average encounter a
lot of difficulties regarding interruption. Most of the below-average students do
not understand the component of the lesson when teachers explain in English, so
they keep interrupting teachers and talk in the mother tongue, which is Arabic.
The teachers of the below-average use the native language to explain lessons in
the target language. Students always interrupt teachers using Arabic language,
which leads teachers to emphasize certain parts of the experience using their
mother tongue.
Nobody liked to label him/her as a failure; the below-average and their parents
refused to divide students in such a way that would leave their children
embarrassed by being awkward. The below-average expressed that when being
in below-average classes, it is a kind of classification that allows other children

108
to label them as failures. The below-average revealed that they did not like to be
in separate classes, and returning to mixed-ability classrooms would be much
better because they would not feel embarrassed since all students are in the
same class level. The findings of the students’ interviews were similar to the
results of teachers’ meetings. The below-average feels embarrassed and their
classes became worse than they were before.
Triangulating the teachers’ perspectives regarding the advantages and

disadvantages of streaming with students’ perceptions can give a more robust
insight on this type of distinction than taking one point of view, students’ or the
teachers’ perspectives alone. Triangulation confirms the validity of the results.
The results of the present study were inconsistent with Parson’s (2013) results in
that streaming has positive effects on above-average students and some adverse
impacts on below-average students. Moreover, the two studies are similar in that
splitting has an adverse social impact on students that the mixed-ability
classrooms’ students do not feel. Furthermore, the results of the current study
were in line with Ritchard’s (2014) study, in that parents refuse to stream their
children by ability. The results of the current study were comparable to Mansor,
Maniam, Hunt & Nor (2016)’s conclusions in the advantages of streaming on the
above-average students in that they achieved better when they cluster in
separate courses. Moreover, the two studies’ findings were equivalent in that
streaming helps all learners to get higher marks than when they were in mixed-
ability classrooms, and the above-average students got the most benefit as
indicated by both studies.
6. Conclusion
In conclusion, the paper aimed to explore the advantages and the challenges that
teachers and students face when applying differentiated instruction by
streaming. All agree that students learn differently (Magableh & Abdullah,
2020b). Different students learn in various methods depending on students’
interests, readiness, and learning profiles. Two ways of classifying students are
to follow in differentiated instruction: the first is the distinction by setting and
the other by streaming. Streaming students by ability is the core of the current
study. Like mixed-ability classrooms, streaming has many advantages and
disadvantages. The most evident power agreed upon by all the respondents was
streaming helps the above-average student more than the below-average or the
average. However, the most common disadvantage of streaming was the
interruption, and lack of interaction existed in the low-ability classrooms. With
streaming, participation increases, and grades become higher. Like any method
of teaching, streaming has many benefits and some challenges as indicated from
both students’ and teachers’ sessions. The researchers recommend further
investigations like a quantitative as well as a qualitative study to show which
has more efficient on student learning, setting students in mixed-ability
classrooms or streaming. The findings of the current study are limited due to the
instrument, which only consists of interviews with both teachers and students.
Moreover, the findings are limited due to the small sample size of teachers and
students. A Larger number of participants and more instruments would get
more reliable and valid results.

109
Conflict of interest:
The authors witness that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the
publication of this paper. The researchers received no direct funding for this
research that might cause conflict.
Acknowledgment
The researchers would like to thank the board of education and the teachers
involved for their support during the research. The acknowledgment extends to
the school administrations and the students who are part of this study.
7. References
Anderson, K. (2007). Tips for teaching: Differentiating instruction to include all students.
Preventing School Failure, 51(3), 49–54. https://doi.org/10.3200/psfl.51.3.49-54
Anstee, P. (2014). Differentiation Pocketbook. Management Pocketbooks.
Aysin, S., & Serap, E. (2017). The effects of differentiated foreign language instruction on
academic achievement and creativity of gifted students. Online Submission, 5(1),
276-287.
Bondie, R., Dahnke, C., & Zusho, A. (2019). How does changing “one-size-fits-all” to
differentiated instruction affect teaching? Review of Research in Education, 43(1),
336-362. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732x18821130
Dendup, T., & Onthanee, A. (2020). Effectiveness of cooperative learning on English
communicative ability of 4th-grade students in Bhutan. International Journal of
Instruction, 13(1) 255-266. https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2020.13117a
Gardner, H. (2018). Multiple approaches to understanding. In K. Illeris (Ed.)
Contemporary theories of learning (pp. 129-138). London: Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315147277-9
Hallam, S., & Parsons, S. (2013). Prevalence of streaming in UK primary schools:
Evidence from the Millennium Cohort Study. British Educational Research Journal,
39(3), 514-544.
Kauchak, D. (2013). Improving text simplification language modeling using un-
simplified text data. In ACL (1) (pp. 1537-1546). Susan Hallam, Samantha
Parsons. https://doi.org/10.1080/01411926.2012.659721
Kotob, M., & Abadi, M. (2019). The influence of differentiated instruction on academic
achievement of students in mixed ability classrooms. International Linguistics
Research, 2(2), 8-28. https://doi.org/10.30560/ilr.v2n2p8
Kumar, P. (2004). Ability grouping and academic achievement. Masalah Pendidikan Jilid,
27, 109-118.
Leblebicier, B. (2020). Learning through differentiated instruction: Action research in an
academic class (Doctoral dissertation). Middle East Technical University.
Macqueen, S. (2008). Between-class achievement grouping for literacy and numeracy: Academic
outcomes for primary students. In Proceedings of AARE 2008 Conference (pp. 1-
12). Brisbane, QLD: University of Technology.
Magableh, I., & Abdullah, A. (2019). The effect of differentiated instruction on
developing students’ reading comprehension achievement. International Journal
of Management and Applied Science (IJMAS), 5(2), 48-53.
Magableh, I., & Abdullah, A. (2020a). On the Effectiveness of Differentiated Instruction
in the Enhancement of Jordanian Students’ Overall Achievement. International
Journal of Instruction, 13(2), 533-548. https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2020.13237a
Magableh, I. S. I., & Abdullah, A. (2020b). Effectiveness of Differentiated Instruction on
Primary School Students’ English Reading Comprehension Achievement.

110
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 19(3), 20-35.

Mansor, A., Maniam, P., Hunt, M. C., & Nor, M. (2016). Benefits and disadvantages of
streaming practices to accommodate students by ability. Creative Education, 7(17),
2547-2558. https://doi.org/10.4236/ce.2016.717241
Pegram, M. E. (2019). Teachers' perceptions of implementing differentiated instruction for
English Language learners.
Robb, L. (2008). Differentiating reading instruction: How to teach reading to meet the
needs of each student. Education Review/Reseñas Educativas.
Richard, A. (2014). School streaming helps brightest pupils, but nobody else, say
researchers. The Guardian, Thu 25 Sep 2014. Last modified Friday, March 2016.
Sisk, D. (2019). Differentiation: Using teaching strategies that facilitate learning in the
inclusive classroom. In Cultivating Inclusive Practices in Contemporary K-12
Education (pp. 43-65). IGI Global.
Spina, N. (2019). ‘Once upon a time’: examining ability grouping and differentiation
practices in cultures of evidence-based decision-making. Cambridge Journal of
Education, 49(3), 329-348. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305764x.2018.1533525
Tomlinson, C. (2014). The differentiated classroom: Responding to the needs of all
learners. ASCD.
Tomlinson, C. (2015). Teaching for excellence in academically diverse classrooms.
Society, 52(3), 203-209. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12115-015-9888-0
Tomlinson, C. (2017). How to differentiate instruction in an academically diverse
classroom. ASCD.
Tomlinson, C., & Imbeau, M. (2010). Leading and managing a differentiated classroom.
ASCD.
Valiandes, S., & Neophytou, L. (2018). Teachers’ professional development for
differentiated instruction in mixed-ability classrooms: investigating the impact
of a development program on teachers’ professional learning and students’
achievement. Teacher Development, 22(1), 123-138.
Viera, A. J., & Garrett, J. M. (2005). Understanding interobserver agreement: The Kappa
statistic. Fam med, 37(5), 360-363.
Weselby, C. (2014). What is differentiated instruction? Examples of how to differentiate
instruction in the classroom. Teaching Strategies.
Wesley-Nero, S. (2007). A study of the effectiveness of an alternative licensure program for
urban elementary teachers of English Language learners (Ph.D. Dissertation). George
Mason University.
Westwood, P. (2018). Inclusive and adaptive teaching: Meeting the challenge of diversity in the
classroom. Routledge.

111

Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 111-126, June 2020
Technology-Driven Self-Directed Learning of

Graduate Pharmaceutists:
Adding Value through Entrepreneurship
Iryna Nizhenkovska, Tatyana Reva,

Oksana Chkhalo and Oksana Holovchenko
Bogomolets National Medical University, Kyiv, Ukraine
Abstract. The purpose of this study was to identify what effect the
entrepreneurship technology-driven environment has on the self-
directed learning skills of graduate pharmaceutists. This was quasi-
experimental research using quantitative and qualitative instruments to
collect and process data. The graduate students majoring in Pharmacy
were sampled to form the experimental and control groups. The self-
directed learning skills scale, the integrated achievement test, and a
retained knowledge test in Chemistry, the entrepreneurial potential self-
assessment questionnaire, the questionnaire on computer literacy, and a
semi-structured interview were the measurement instruments for the
study. The IBM SPSS Statistics software and effect size calculator for t-test
were used to process statistical data yielded from measurements. The
results suggested that a technology-mediated learning environment
combining the professionalism-related online course with an online
collaboration-based entrepreneurship project fosters self-directed
learning skills bringing substantial educational and professional benefits
like developed entrepreneurial skills, computer skills, and better
academic performance to the students majoring in Pharmacy.
Measurements results of the variables showed that the participants of the
experimental group who received project-based online training in
entrepreneurship showed ≈20% improvement in self-directed learning
skills, entrepreneurial potential, computer literacy, and academic
achievements. The intervention model was also perceived positively by
the participants. It is recommended that the teachers were trained in
Marketing before the delivery of the course.
Keywords: entrepreneurship; higher medical education; Masters in

Pharmacy; self-directed learning skills; technology-mediated learning
environment

112
1. Introduction
Fostering self-directed learning skills in students has become a dominant
academic goal in the curriculum at tertiary medical institutions in Ukraine
(Meretskyi, 2015; Maslak et al, 2017; Prokopenko & Titunova, 2019; Bobrytska,
2019). This complies with the trend of moving from the teacher-driven to the
learner-centred learning that is aimed at involving the students in the process of
creating their knowledge (Ramstedt et al., 2016). The process of training of those
skills of self-directed learning in the settings of the Chemistry course is
strengthened with the use of several pedagogical concepts such as of problem-
based learning (PBL), context-based learning and the technology-mediated
learning (Bobrytska & Protska, 2019; Burlaka & Fadi, 2016; Lezhenko et al., 2018;
Magwilang, 2016; Ramstedt et al., 2016; Solohub, 2019). Due to the bond of the
above concepts, the graduates in Pharmacy are expected to succeed in the
entrepreneurship-driven and digitalisation-driven environment in both academic
and job settings (Holovchenko, 2020). Moreover, Wang & Huang (2019) proved
that the entrepreneurial environment purposefully created at the institution
provides a positive effect on the students’ self-efficacy and self-assessment which
are also the components of self-directed learning.
Thought indirectly declared in the “Standard of higher education of Ukraine”

(specialty ref. 226 “Pharmacy”) (2016) only in the general context like ‘the
autonomous search, analysis, and synthesis of information from various sources
to solve typical problems of professional activity’, self-directed learning skills are
omitted in the context of entrepreneurial and computer competencies that are also
included as basic ones in that document (Alieksieieva, 2018). As a result, those
skills are underrepresented in the curriculum of medical institutions in Ukraine
including Bogomolets National Medical University, State educational institution
of Ukraine “Bukovynsky State Medical University”, Vinnytsia National Pirogov
Medical University and V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University that were
reviewed in this study. Additionally, the Socratic method (Roth, 2016) used to
deliver Chemistry and the students’ feelings of being professionally
disadvantaged in the future cause criticisms and the negative perception of the
students to Chemistry. This brought up the idea to ‘reload’ the pedagogical model
of the Chemistry course delivery paying emphasis on the entrepreneurial
dimension of self-directed learning.
Literature review
The literature review found that training self-directed learning skills in the
students majoring in Pharmacy from the entrepreneurial perspective using
technology is still beyond the research scope. However, there are some studies
revealing Chemistry teaching from the perspective of applying the context-based
approach (Magwilang, 2016; Çiğdemoğlu, 2012) and problem-based or project-
based learning (Seery & McDonnell, 2019). Learning in context is proved to
increase students’ motivation better compared to the conventional teaching
approaches as it adds meaning to the students’ learning. Majid and Rohaeti (2018)
showed that students who are trained in Chemistry using the context-based
approach have a better understanding of Chemistry concepts than those who are
taught using conventional methods of teaching. Seen as ‘side effects’, self-directed

113
learning skills, and positive attitudes towards Chemistry also develop (Kock et
al., 2016).
Learning through solving problems or doing projects facilitates students to

explore the ‘real world’ through either cooperation or individually (Purichia,
2015; Cervantes, Hemmer & Kouzekanani, 2015). Purichia (2015) associates this
type of learning with the cross-disciplinary integrated learning integrating
‘attitudes, knowledge, and skills into a coherent whole’ forming a new
phenomenon. This training approach provides the students with the experience
related to self-planning, self-implementation, and self-evaluation of the education
process. This experience leads to profound and long-lasting changes in the
students’ learning styles after the project is completed.
This study review also found that the above approaches agree with the principles
of the Sustainable Learning and Education (SLE) philosophy (Hays & Reinders,
2020) that suggests integrating a ‘sustainable environment, sustainable society,
and sustainable economy’ through the use of technology-mediated learning
environment. The prerequisite for the SLE is a high degree of the individuals’
computer literacy. They also comply with the concept of 21st Century Skills (2016)
(Haryono & Subkhan & Putra, 2017) introducing new trends like fostering
entrepreneurship skills and lifelong (self-directed) learning skills in the students.
They are related to the seamless learning concept (Durak & Çankaya, 2019) in
terms of ‘making learning more authentic’, ‘making it more tailored’, and
providing an environment for ‘learning via collaboration’.
Accordingly, the purpose of this study was to identify what effect the
entrepreneurship technology-driven environment has on the self-directed
learning skills of graduate pharmaceutists. The research questions were as
follows: 1) how the originally developed technology-mediated learning
environment influenced self-directed learning skills from the entrepreneurial,
computer literacy and academic achievement perspectives when teaching
Chemistry courses to Masters in Pharmacy; 2) what views, beliefs and experiences
the interviewed students associated with the educational intervention model
designed for the study.
2. Methods and materials

This was a mixed methods-based study of the convergent design relying on
quantitative and qualitative data (Creswell, 2014). The data were collected
throughout two interventions such as the experiment and the interview. The
quantitative data were collected repeatedly before, while, and after the
educational intervention. The qualitative data from the interview were collected
concurrently to the final stage of the experiment. The variables for the study were
students’ self-directed learning skills originating from their entrepreneurial
potential (comprised entrepreneurial motivation, aptitudes, and attitudes),
computer literacy of medical students, and academic achievements in Chemistry
courses. The interviewed students’ perceptions of the course delivery approach
and experiences were studied through the semi-structured interview to increase
the validity of the research results.

114
Research design
The study lasted 2 years, from September 2017 to the end of May 2019. The pre-
test‒post-test quasi-experimental design was employed to monitor changes in the
above variables. Students seeking a Master’s Degree in “Pharmacy” and
“Technology of perfumes and cosmetics production” of Bogomolets National
Medical University were chosen to be the experimental population for the study.
The reason being was that according to Classifier of Economic Activities (2020),
those graduates are mostly employed for the commercial activities like medical
and healthcare products distribution (retail and wholesale sales, B2B),
management of chemist’s shops, testing and licensing of newly developed
pharmaceutical drugs and cosmetics products.
The technology-mediated learning environment relied on the NEURON

information system that was integrated into the MOODLE LMS. It was used to
train students in “Analytical Chemistry” through doing self-study labs.
Additionally, the experimental group students collaborated on the web to design
a purchase funnel serving a pipeline for several medical and healthcare products
at the request of Ametrin FK Co., Ltd, Ukraine. The projects were of information-
sharing purposes and used social media (copywriting, blogging, streaming,
advertising), YouTube, the software for the photo and video content design and
development, the platforms for online written consulting, and the Mom’s online
school.
The tutor with both medical and marketing backgrounds supervised the students,
provided feedback and assessment of their projects. The representative of
Ametrin FK Co., Ltd, Ukraine were involved in the assessment as well.
Before Intervention While Intervention After

intervention
•Review of the literature •Running Chemistry
from the scientific and courses using •Post-testing
practical domains conventional e-learning •Conducting semi-
•The educational model in the CG and the structured
intervention model technology-mediated interview
design learning environment to •Data consolidation
•Instruments selection, foster self-directed and processing
design and validation learning skills
•Sampling for EG and • For the EG students, the
CG entrepreneurship
•Pilot study of the activities based on the
Academic Achievent use of the web were used.
and Retained
Knowledge tests
•Pre-testing
Figure 1: The abstract research flow.

115
Outline of the Intervention Model

This was the originally developed technology-mediated learning environment
integrating two occupational domains. These were: students’ knowledge and
skills in Analytical Chemistry and their entrepreneurship skills and knowledge
that were used as a means of training students’ self-directed learning skills.
Analytical Chemistry is a core curriculum course for Master’s Degree students. It

is a 6.0-credit (ECTS) course including three modules. These are: “Qualitative
analysis”, “Quantitative analysis” and “Instrumental methods of analysis”. The
content delivery relies on theoretical and practical domains of the discipline. The
distribution of hours is as follows: 30 hours are dedicated to the theory, and 140
hours are supposed to be spent on self-study laboratory work. It consolidated the
students’ knowledge and skills in previously studied courses in “Instrumental
methods of analysis”, “Fundamentals of chromatographic analysis”, “Organic
chemistry”, “Inorganic chemistry”, “Physical chemistry”, special courses on
concentration and separation of micro components, and spectroscopic methods of
analysis.
Both groups received training in entrepreneurship.
The course for the CG was delivered conventionally, through Moodle. It was a 1-
credit course (30 hours) covering such topics as: “Basics of using social media to
form public opinion about certain medical and healthcare products”, “Methods of
promotion and advertising of medical goods”, “Creation and design of the sales
videos and written content”.
The course for the EG was delivered as a practical online training based on a
specific order. It also lasted 30 hours and covered the same topics as mentioned
above. Compared to the CG, the delivery was shaped as if it was on-the-job
training with some required high standard outcome.
Sampling
The population for the study was 154 participated in the educational intervention.
Sixty-three of them were randomly hired from Vinnytsia National Pirogov
Medical University and V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University for the
piloting of the achievement and retained knowledge tests. The rest of the students
(𝑛 = 91) were sampled from Bogomolets National Medical University to form the
experimental (EG, 𝑛 = 46) and control (CG, 𝑛 = 45) groups for the experiment.
The results of the pre-intervention homogeneity test based on the t-test and
Fisher’s exact test are presented in Table 1.

116
Table 1: The results of the pre-intervention homogeneity test based on the t-test and
Fisher’s exact test
EG, 𝑛 = 46 CG, 𝑛 = 45
Test Variable 𝑛 ꭓ 2 or 𝑡 𝑝 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
n (%) or 𝑀 ± n (%) or 𝑀 ±
𝑆𝐷 𝑆𝐷
Males 32 (35.16%) 22.58 ± 1.45 22.45 ± 1.49
Age ‒0.08 0.627
Females 59 (64.84%) 22.18 ± 1.39 22.32 ± 1.51
t-test
‒
SDLS 71.14 73.09 0.762
0.157
EP 23.91 27.21 2.617 0.899
CL 41.63 46.25 1.378 0.693
Sufficient 7 (15.21%) 5 (11.11%)

32 (69.56%) 34 (75.55%)
FET
AP Good 0.62 0.789
Excellent 7 (15.23%) 6 (13.34%)
Note: FET – Fisher’s Exact Test; AP ‒ Academic Performance; SDLS ‒ self-directed

learning skills; EP ‒ entrepreneurial potential; CL ‒ computer literacy.
The scores for the groups were approximately the same for all variables which
showed that the groups could be considered homogeneous.
Instruments
The t-test and Fisher’s exact tests were used as the pre-intervention test of
homogeneity of the EG and CG.
Quantitative and qualitative research tools were utilised in the study to monitor
the variables. Those tools were as follows: the self-directed learning skills scale
(Aşkin, 2015), the integrated achievement test, and a retained knowledge test in
Chemistry, the entrepreneurial potential self-assessment questionnaire (n.d.), the
questionnaire on computer literacy, and a semi-structured interview.
The Integrated Achievement Test in Analytical Chemistry (IAT AC) was

administered in both groups to monitor the educational value of the course. A
Retained Knowledge Test (RKT) was used as a follow-up measurement of how
occupationally-friendly was the educational intervention model. Both drafts of
the tests comprised 90 items supposing that the students should take one minute
per question to answer. The questions complied with the curriculum learning
outcomes. Three experts ‒ 1 expert with a Doctorate degree in Chemistry, 1 expert
with a Ph.D. in statistics and 1 expert in Languages with a Ph.D. degree ‒ were
involved in the procedure of examining the content (face) validity, difficulty level
appropriateness (construct validity), and criterion validity of both tests. Both tests
were piloted in Vinnytsia National Pirogov Medical University and V. N. Karazin
Kharkiv National University. The pilot study population involved 63 Master’s
students who were encoded as S1, S2, Sn, etc. When obtained, reliability studies
were performed using the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Test (KMO), Distinguishing Power
Index of the Items (𝑟), Item Difficulty Index (𝑝), and the Kuder-Richardson 20 (KR-

117
20). The SPSS Statistics software was used to process the above data. The value
obtained for the KMO test was 0.83 which is good according to Glen (2016). The
mean value for 𝑝 of the item difficulty was 0.516. It was interpreted as “Medium
(moderately) difficulty” (Thompson, 2017). The 𝑟 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 was 0.371 which was
interpreted as “good difficulty level” considering that if the 𝑟 = 0.40 or higher it
means “Very Good” if 𝑟 = 0.30 𝑡𝑜 0.39 is “Good” if 𝑟 = 0,20 𝑡𝑜 0,29 is “It must
be corrected”, and if 𝑟 = 0 𝑡𝑜 0,19 means “It must be excluded” (Thompson, 2017).
The internal consistency reliability of the tests was measured using the Kuder-
Richardson 20 method (Allen, 2017). The value of 0,881 was obtained as a result
of the measurement, which showed the developed tests were reliable.
An entrepreneurial potential self-assessment questionnaire (n.d.) was used to

monitor the entrepreneurial potential of the sampled students. The inter-rater
reliability measurement of the questionnaire was based on judgements of three
experts with a background in sociology and psychology. The Krippendorff’s 𝛼
was applied to measure their agreement on every item of the questionnaire. The
coefficient was 0.8432 (St.Err.=0.1891; Confidence Interval=95%) which showed
good reliability (Krippendorff, 2011).
The originally developed questionnaire on computer literacy was self-

administered by Masters in Pharmacy (see Appendix 1). Its structure was partially
borrowed from Taher and Ahmed (2014) and comprised four sections: 1)
computer skills; 2) application of computer skills; 3) perception of the educational
use of computers, and 4) the use of the Internet in medical education. The
questionnaire included 20 questions. The first five of them covered elementary
computer skills like document processing, making videos or presentation slides,
web navigation skills, etc. The next five questions assessed the skills related to the
use of such learning management systems (LMSs) as NEURON and MOODLE.
Five more questions addressed the skills of using software and information
systems of the pharmaceutical enterprise, skills of using electronic
communication and electronic marketing (e-marketing) of pharmaceutical
products and skills of performing statistical analysis of pharmaceutical and
medical data of the company. The final five questions were intended to explore
the attitudes of the students towards the use of technology-mediated learning
compared to conventional learning in Chemistry courses. The criterion validity,
construct validity, and face validity of the questionnaire was proved by three
experts in the field of statistics. The students’ responses were coded and analysed
using IBM SPSS Statistics software. The differences between groups were
analysed using Chi-square for qualitative data and the Kruskal-Wallis H test for
quantitative data. The quantitative data were considered to be statistically
significant if 𝑝 > 0.05.
The semi-structured interview was conducted as recommended by Adams (2015).

The respondents for the interview were randomly selected from the EG students.
To avoid the biasing effect, the interviewers were hired from the members of the
Alumni Association and were instructed beforehand. The interviewees were
informed about the purpose of the interview. The anonymity was guaranteed. The
interviews were recorded and transcribed. The answers were categorised under

118
the topics. The coding procedure was performed. The consolidated data was
analysed using IBM SPSS Statistics software. The probability value of ≤ 0.05 was
considered significant.
1. What was your overall impression of the Chemistry course design and delivery?
Explain your reasoning.
2. What learning experiences encouraged you to succeed in the course? Why?
3. What challenged you when doing the course? Explain your reasoning.
4. How did you cope with those challenges? What efforts did you find effective?
5. What would you advise to the instructors to do so that the course brought more
benefits to the students? Would your suggestions bring a significant improvement or
slight improvement?
Free online statistical tools like t-test calculator (n.d.) and effect size calculator for
t-test (n.d.) were used to process statistical data yielded from measurements.
3. Results
Overall, the originally developed technology-mediated learning environment
bought a more profound effect on the self-directed learning skills of the EG
students than on the CG students’ seen from the entrepreneurial, computer
literacy, and academic achievement perspectives when teaching chemistry
courses to Masters in Pharmacy.
The pre-test‒post-test measurements of students’ self-directed learning skills,

entrepreneurial potential, computer literacy, and academic achievements in
Chemistry courses obtained through two tests (IAT AC and RKT) are presented
in Table 2.
Table 2: The mean results of pre-test‒post-test measurements of the variables
Pre-test Post-test
Group 𝑡 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑝 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Mean SS Mean SS
EG 52.44 1706.93 82.61 625.59 ‒2.16362 .036854
CG 54.70 1472.95 65.14 1072.74 ‒0.71678. .250222
As can be seen in Table 2, forty-six participants of the EG who received project-

based online training in entrepreneurship showed significant improvement – by
approximately 20%, the result is significant at 𝑝 < .05 ‒ in self-directed learning
skills, entrepreneurial potential, computer literacy, and academic achievements
compared to the results of forty-five students of the CG that appeared to be
not significant at p < .05.

119
AA
CL CG after intervention
EG after intervention
CG before intervention
EP
EG before intervention
SDLS
0.00 20.00 40.00 60.00 80.00 100.00 120.00
Note: SDLS ‒ self-directed learning skills; EP ‒ entrepreneurial potential; CL ‒ computer

literacy; AA ‒ academic achievements.
Figure 2: The distribution of mean and SD values for the variables obtained from pre-
test‒post-test measurements
The results in Figure 2 that supplies additional data to Table 2 suggest that the
values for self-directed learning skills increased in both groups but they were
greater by 10 points in the EG. There was a marked increase in the figures for the
entrepreneurial potential and computer literacy – by 21% in the students of the
EG, compared to 13% in the CG students.
The calculation of the effect size (n./d.) also proved that the intervention model
had a statistically significant effect on the variables in the EG.
𝐶𝑜ℎ𝑒𝑛′𝑠 𝑑 = (65.14 ‒ 82.61) ⁄ 1.649719 = 10.589683
𝐺𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠′𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑎 = (65.14 ‒ 82.61) ⁄ 1.876 = 9.312367
𝐻𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒𝑠′ 𝑔 = (65.14 ‒ 82.61) ⁄ 1.652434 = 10.572286
The results of the semi-structured interview, (𝑛 = 23)
Question 1. Seventeen respondents were generally positive about the educational

intervention. Their reasons for their approval were as follows: 1) the course was
much more engaging than the other ones; 2) the theory was delivered through
practical assignments usually performed in teams. 3) it helped to improve
computer, search (learning strategies), analytical, and persuasion skills. Three
students were neutral in their judgements reporting that the content was useful
and the format was challenging. Two students expressed negative feelings related
to the increased workload they had when participating in the projects and they
felt exhausting.
Question 2. Twenty students found that they could self-plan, self-manage, and
self-reflect their learning activity. Three respondents additionally mentioned the
professionalism-related knowledge and skills that were gained through the on-

120
the-job training. The students reported that they had more responsibility for the
results and quality of their work.
Question 3. Fifteen students mentioned that the felt challenged by the quality
requirements of the content when designing a purchase funnel. The respondents
confessed that combining knowledge in Chemistry with marketing was quite a
problem for them. Five students informed that their computer skills were
insufficient for doing assignments in both labs on the NEURON and the
entrepreneurship-purpose projects. Three respondents faced problems with
procrastination. Concerning the reasons, the common one was the inability to
work under pressure.
Question 4. All the students used checklists to comply with the quality
requirements of the content. To deal with combining Chemistry with marketing,
the students attended additional online courses in SMM, copywriting, and self-
studied related software, literature, and best practices. All participants used My
Study Life App to schedule their work. All the above students considered effective.
Question 5. Five students suggested that incorporating business incubator

practice into the curriculum would be helpful and promising. Eleven students
advised using the practice of creating international cross-functional teams. They
were confident that those teams could serve as a kind of benchmarking tool for
them to adjust to. Seven students suggested changing curriculum shifting focus
from conventional theory-driven learning to 21st-century learning that is based on
self-directed learning through technology and entrepreneurship skills.
The results of the above interview increased the reliability of this study that
proved that the educational intervention improved students’ self-directed
learning skills, specifically those related to entrepreneurship, and enriched their
learning experiences that are of their occupational appropriateness.
Limitations
The use of the only online format to influence self-directed learning skills, the
number of sampled students, and institutions involved in the experiment can be
considered limitations to the study.
4. Discussion
The novelty of the study lies in combining context-based and project-based
learning of the graduate pharmaceutists, and pedagogical tools to implement the
entrepreneurship technology-driven environment which boosts the existing
research in teaching Chemistry to tertiary students of Çiğdemoğlu (2012),
Magwilang (2016), and Seery and McDonnell (2019).
The study aimed at defining how the originally developed technology-mediated

learning environment influenced self-directed learning skills. The
entrepreneurial, computer literacy, and academic achievement perspectives were
focused on when teaching Chemistry courses to Masters in Pharmacy. The
students’ views, beliefs, and experiences the interviewed students associated with
the educational intervention model designed for the study were also studied. It

121
was found that the participants of the EG who received project-based online
training in entrepreneurship showed significant improvement – by
approximately 20%, the result is significant at 𝑝 < .05 ‒ in self-directed learning
skills, entrepreneurial potential, computer literacy, and academic achievements
compared to the results of forty-five students of the CG that appeared to be
not significant at p < .05. These findings were then supported by the students
participating in the interview. They proved that they could self-plan, self-manage,
and self-reflect their learning activity better, they gained professionalism-related
knowledge and skills and had more responsibility for the results and quality of
their work. The values for self-directed learning skills increased in both groups
but they were greater by 10 points in the EG. There was a marked increase in the
figures for the entrepreneurial potential and computer literacy – by 21% in the
students of the EG, compared to 13% in the CG students. The effect size was also
statistically significant.
The interview was of the confirmatory purpose. It was chosen because the
interviews are appropriate for exploring people’s perceptions and experiences
(Adams, 2015), to reconstruct the students’ thought processes while dealing with
the assignments. The use of the open-ended questions was intended to identify
the most common views, beliefs, and experiences that could be categorised under
certain themes and rated. Following that, students’ responses in the interview
were used to determine whether they perceived the educational intervention
positively or negatively and whether they perceived the model to be appropriate
for their future occupation. Overall, the interview results showed that the EG
students found the Chemistry course much more engaging and practical in terms
of computer, search (learning strategies), analytical, and persuasion skills. It meets
the students’ demand for incorporating business incubator practice into the
university curriculum.
The study complies with the previous research. It agrees with the theory of
enterprise education (Turner & Mulholland, 2018) advocating embedding
enterprise education in university and college programmes. It goes in line with
the conclusions of Maloney et. al. (2013), Sirkemaa and Varpelaide (2018) and
Gune, More and Supriya (2018) stating that the online resources should be time-
efficient for both students and instructors, engaging, linked to the students’
professional context and stimulate discussion among the students. The results of
the study are also consistent with the views of Toit (2019) claiming that the
challenging environment accelerates the process of fostering self-directed
learning skills that is related to students’ previous learning experience, their
learning styles, and their positive attitude towards challenges.
Since fostering self-directed learning skills in the students majoring in Pharmacy

from the entrepreneurial perspective using technology is still beyond the research
scope, this study might be considered a noteworthy contribution.
5. Conclusion
The results of the study suggest a technology-mediated learning environment
combining the professionalism-related online course with an online collaboration-
based entrepreneurship project foster self-directed learning skills bringing

122
substantial educational and professional benefits like developed entrepreneurial

skills, computer skills, and better academic performance to the students majoring
in Pharmacy. It was supported by measurements of the variables showing that the
participants of the EG who received project-based online training in
entrepreneurship showed significant improvement – by approximately 20%, the
result is significant at 𝑝 < .05 ‒ in self-directed learning skills, entrepreneurial
potential, computer literacy, and academic achievements compared to the results
of forty-five students of the CG that appeared to be not significant at p < .05. The
intervention model was also perceived positively by the participants. The
reloaded training model in Chemistry engaged students in the students’
professional context learning. They substantially improved their self-directed
learning skills by doing specifically arranged problem-solving purposes activities.
The positive change in students’ perceptions of the Chemistry course occurred
due to the pedagogical refinements and refurbishments made to it.
The study implies that a technology-mediated challenging environment that

combines knowledge in Chemistry with marketing can accelerate the process of
fostering self-directed learning skills in terms of self-planning, self-managing, and
self-reflecting their learning experience. It was found that there are several
prerequisites to implementation of the model such as teacher training in
Marketing before the course based on this model is delivered, or outsourcing
training in Marketing from the alumni network; or buying the online course in
Marketing from Udemy (the English language delivered) or Eduget (the
Ukrainian language delivered) or any other learning platform. However, the
course in Marketing should be tailored to the students’ specialism. It is also
important that the students build the Telegram or What’s up or Viber community
to share their experiences.
Further studies are needed in methods of training Master’s Degree Pharmacy

students in Marketing.
Acknowledgement
We express our sincere appreciation to those who supported the research team
and contributed to the experiment so that the study ran smoothly.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors have no conflicts of interest associated with this research to declare.
6. References
Adams, W. (2015). Conducting Semi-Structured Interviews. In J. Wholey, H. Hatry &
K. Newcomer (Eds.), Handbook of Practical Program Evaluation, Edition: 4, Chapter:
Conducting Semi-Structured Interviews. Jossey-Bass.
https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119171386.ch19
Alieksieieva, І. M. (2018). National standards of pharmaceutical education in the context
of reforming legislation of higher education. Current issues in pharmacy and
medicine: science and practice, 1. https://doi.org/10.14739/2409-2932.2018.1.123727
Allen, M. (2017). The SAGE Encyclopedia of Communication Research Methods.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781483381411.n493

123
Aşkin, I. (2015). An Investigation of Self-directed Learning Skills of Undergraduate Students.

[Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation]. Hacettepe University, Institute of
Education.
Bobrytska, V. I. (2019). Currently conducted educational reforms in Ukraine:
achievements and new challenges. Proceedings of the National Aviation University.
Series: Pedagogy, Psychology, 14. https://doi.org/10.18372/2411-264x.14.13707
Bobrytska, V. I., & Protska, S. (2019). Organisational and pedagogical conditions of e-
learning course using in the higher education process in Ukraine. Proceedings of
the National Aviation University. Series: Pedagogy and Psychology, 15.
https://doi.org/10.18372/2411-264x.15.14394
Burlaka, B. S., & Fadi, A. Z. (2016). Use of modern communications technology
optimization for independent work of students at the department of drug
technology. Medical Education, 3. https://doi.org/10.11603/me.2414-
5998.2016.3.6880
Cervantes, B., Hemmer, L., & Kouzekanani, K. (2015). The impact of project-based
learning on minority student achievement: Implications for school redesign.
NCPEA Education Leadership Review of Doctoral Research, 2(2), 50-66. Retrieved from
https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1105713
Çiğdemoğlu, C. (2012). Effectiveness of Context-Based Approach Through the 5E
Learning Cycle Model on Students’ Understanding of Chemical Reactions and
Energy Concepts, and Their Motivation to Learn Chemistry [Doctoral Theses].
Retrieved from
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.633.4529&rep=rep1
&type=pdf
Classifier of Economic Activities ‒ State classifier 009:2010. (2020). Document ref. vb457609-
10, amended on 24.02.2020. Retrieved from
https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/rada/show/vb457609-10
Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches.
SAGE Publications. Retrieved from http://fe.unj.ac.id/wp-
content/uploads/2019/08/Research-Design_Qualitative-Quantitative-and-
Mixed-Methods-Approaches.pdf
Curriculum of higher vocational education (CHVE). (2018). State educational institution of
Ukraine “Bukovynsky State Medical University”, Masters’ degree, specialty ref. 226
‘Pharmacy’. Retrieved from https://www.bsmu.edu.ua/wp-
content/uploads/2019/06/3_OPP-magistr-226-Farmacziya.pdf
Durak, G., & Çankaya, S. (2019). Seamless Learning: A Scoping Systematic Review Study.
Journal of Education and E-Learning Research, 5(4), 225-234.
https://doi.org/10.20448/journal.509.2018.54.225.234
Effect Size Calculator for t-test. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.socscistatistics.com/effectsize/default3.aspx
Entrepreneurial potential self-assessment. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.bdc.ca/en/articles-tools/entrepreneur-toolkit/business-
assessments/pages/entrepreneurial-potential-self-assessment.aspx
Glen, S. (2016). Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) Test for Sampling Adequacy.
StatisticsHowTo.com: Elementary Statistics for the rest of us! Retrieved from
https://www.statisticshowto.com/kaiser-meyer-olkin/
Gune, A. R., More, S. S., & Supriya, P. S. (2018). Perception of First Year MBBS Students
on Self-Directed Learning in Anatomy: Improves Concept, Retention, and
Communication skills. Journal of medical science and clinical research, 6(4), 478-482.
https://doi.org/10.18535/jmscr/v6i4.79

124
Haryono, H., Subkhan, E. & Putra, G. (2017). 21 st Century Competencies and Its
Implications on Educational Practices. Proceedings of the 9th International Conference
for Science Educators and Teachers (ICSET 2017), 606-610.
https://doi.org/10.2991/icset-17.2017.100
Hays, J., & Reinders, H. (2020). Sustainable learning and education: A curriculum for the
future. International Review of Education, 66, 29–52.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-020-09820-7
Holovchenko, A. I. (2020). Specifics of organising self-study work of the future
pharmacists when training them in Organic Chemistry using the MOODLE
system. Educational Discourse, 21(3), 51-66.
https://doi.org/10.33930/ed.2019.5007.21(3)-5
Kock, Z. J., Taconis, R., Bolhuis, S., & Gravemeijer, K. (2016). Supporting Teachers to
Transform Their Classes into a Context-Based Learning Environment. In R.
Taconis, P. Brok, A. Pilot (Eds.), Teachers Creating Context-Based Learning
Environments in Science. Advances in Learning Environments Research.
SensePublishers, Rotterdam. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6300-684-2_9
Krippendorff, K. (2011). Agreement and Information in the Reliability of Coding.
Communication Methods, and Measures, 5(2), 93-112.
Lezhenko, G. O., Pashkova, O. E., Lebedynets, O. M., Sidorova, I. V., & Kraynya, H. V.
(2018). The initiative of online training as the way of improvement of the
individual work of students at the pediatrics department. Medical Education, 3.
https://doi.org/10.11603/me.2414-5998.2018.3.8870
Magwilang, E. B. (2016). Teaching Chemistry in Context: Its Effects on Students’
Motivation, Attitudes, and Achievement in Chemistry. International Journal of
Learning, Teaching, and Educational Research, 15(4), 60-68. Retrieved from
https://www.ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter/article/view/670
Majid, A. N., & Rohaeti, E. (2018). The Effect of Context-Based Chemistry Learning on
Student Achievement and Attitude. American Journal of Educational Research, 6(6),
836-839. https://doi.org/10.12691/education-6-6-37
Maloney, S., Hong-Meng, T. J., Paynter, S., Lo, K., & Ilic, D. (2013). Self-Directed Online
Learning Modules: Students’ Behaviours and Experiences. Pharmacy 2013, 1(1), 8-
15. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmacy1010008
Maslak, G. S., Dolgich, G. V., Tsokur, N. I., & Shevtsova, K. V. (2017). Independent work
of students – the basis of the high professional level of a specialist (doctor). The
experience of the department of biochemistry and medicinal chemistry of
Dnipropetrovsk Medical Academy. Medical Education, 1.
https://doi.org/10.11603/me.2414-5998.2017.1.7621
Meretskyi, V. M. (2015). Role of independent work of students in the educational process
organisation. Medical Education, 3. https://doi.org/10.11603/me.v0i3.4989
Prokopenko, I., & Titunova, V. (2019). Information and communication technologies as an
effective means of organising students’ self-study work. Proceedings of “The results
of the scientific mind’s development: 2019”
https://doi.org/10.36074/22.12.2019.v2.14
Purichia, H. (2015). Problem-Based Learning: An Inquiry Approach. Interdisciplinary
Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.7771/1541-5015.1522
Ramstedt, M., Hedlund, T., Björn, E., Fick, J., & Jahnke, I. (2016). Rethinking chemistry in
higher education towards technology-enhanced problem-based learning.
Education Inquiry, 7(2), 115–135. https://doi.org/10.3402/edui.v7.27287
Roth, R. L. (2016). The Socratic Method Reloaded: A Rereading to Improve a
Technologically Sound Education. International Journal of Learning, Teaching, and

125
Educational Research, 15(6), 1-32. Retrieved from

https://www.ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter/article/view/647
Seery, M. K., & McDonnell, C. (2019). Teaching Chemistry in Higher Education: A Festschrift
in Honour of Professor Tina Overton. Creathach Press.
Sirkemaa, S., & Varpelaide, H. (2018). The Need for Digital Learning Environments.
International Journal of Learning, Teaching, and Educational Research, 17(6), 167-181.
Solohub, V. A. (2019). Student independent work organisation as a component of
professional training of future pharmacists. Art of medicine, 2(10), 136‒139.
https://doi.org/10.21802/artm.2019.2.10.136.
Standard of Higher Education of Ukraine (SHEU) (2016). Field of knowledge ref. 22
“Healthcare”, Specialty ref. 226 “Pharmacy”.
Taher, E., & Ahmed, D. (2014). The Extent of Computer Literacy among Medical Students
at Cairo University and their Attitudes towards its Use in Medical Education.
International Public Health Forum, 1(1).
Thompson, N. (2017). What is a classical item difficulty (P-value)? [Blog post]. ASC
website. Retrieved from https://assess.com/2017/11/06/classical-item-
difficulty-p-value/
Toit, A. (2019). Constructive congruencies in self-directed learning and entrepreneurship
education. In E. Mentz, J. Beer & R. Bailey (Eds.), Self-Directed Learning for the 21st
Century: Implications for Higher Education (MWU Self-Directed Learning Series,
Vol. 1). OASIS, Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4102/aosis.2019.bk134.10
t-test Calculator. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.socscistatistics.com/tests/studentttest/default2.aspx
Turner, J. J., & Mulholland, G. (2018). International Enterprise Education: Perspectives on
Theory and Practice. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315518213
Wang, L.-Y., & Huang J.-H. (2019). Effect of Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy on the
Entrepreneurial Intentions of Students at a University in Hainan Province in
China: Taking Social Support as a Moderator. International Journal of Learning,
Teaching, and Educational Research, 18(9), 183-200.

126
Appendix 1
Self-administered questionnaire to self-assess the computer skills
Section Question
Elementary 1 I use approximately 65% of all functions of MS Word and 30% of
computer the functions of the computerised spreadsheets (MS Excel) when
skills processing documents.
2 I use more than 75% of all functions of MS PowerPoint when
designing presentation slides.
3 I am a confident user of at least one video editor (producing)
software.
4 I find information on the Internet quickly and easily using at least
three web-search strategies.
5 I am a confident networking person who purposefully uses social
media.
Application 6 I navigate the course placed on the NEURON or MOODLE easily.
of computer 7 I can use all the materials and linked apps easily/intuitively.
skills 8 I catch up with my computer skills due to learner support.
9 I fail to do the assignments because of my computer skills.
10 I need extra training to be more computer literate for the course
delivered through NEURON or MOODLE.
Perception 11 I am sure that the students should learn how to use software such
of the as Hortor, Ecofin, Expertus used in pharmacy.
educational 12 I am confident that students should learn how to use electronic
use of communication channels and electronic marketing (e-marketing)
computers to promote pharmaceutical products.
13 I believe that the statistical analysis of pharmaceutical and medical
data of the company should be a part of our curriculum.
14 I am sure that NEURON and MOODLE-based courses meet the
students’ needs in qualitative occupational training.
15 The use of computers makes my medical education more
competitive.
The internet 16 The Internet-based and technology-mediated learning appeals
in medical more to me and my friends than the conventional mode of study.
education 17 Internet-based and technology-mediated learning has more
advantages and brings more benefits than the conventional
learning of Chemistry courses.
18 Internet-based and technology-mediated learning changes
improve my academic self-efficacy.
19 Internet-based and technology-mediated learning provides me
with access to the latest advances in the medical field.
20 Internet-based and technology-mediated learning better suits my
learning styles.

127

Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 127-144, June 2020
Teachers’ Covid-19 Awareness, Distance

Learning Education Experiences and Perceptions
towards Institutional Readiness and Challenges
Lapada Aris Alea

Eastern Samar State University, Eastern Samar, Philippines
Miguel Frosyl Fabrea

Ramon Magsaysay High School, Manila, Philippines
Robledo Dave Arthur Roldan

St Jude Catholic School, Manila, Philippines
Alam Zeba Farooqi

De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines
Abstract. Amidst the threat of COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines, the

educators, students, and the school are still coping and adjusting to the
distance learning education. This study explored teachers' awareness
about the COVID-19 pandemic and their opinion on their respective
schools’ readiness, as well as their response to the challenges of
conducting distance learning education in the Philippines. A validated
questionnaire was developed to collect the relevant data for this study.
The initial reliability test obtained 8.9 Cronbach’s alpha. Data gathering
procedure was done through Google forms, which, after validation from
the respective DepEd divisions and universities, were subsequently sent
to the teachers via email. The results show that the teachers were highly
aware of the presence and consequences caused by the COVID-19
pandemic. The correlation between teacher’s demographic profiles and
awareness to COVID-19 shows no relationship at all. Nevertheless, the
length of teaching experience and specialization is very strongly
correlated to readiness to distance learning education. Simultaneously,
the teachers’ geographic location is strongly correlated to readiness to
adapt to distance learning education. Furthermore, only the teachers’
gender has a significant difference in their awareness of the COVID-19
pandemic. In contrast, teachers’ gender, length of teaching experience,
and geographic location have significant differences with their readiness
to distance learning education. This study can be used as a basis for

128
further research particularly in developing institutional plans to better

understand the status of their teachers and educational organizations,
and schools’ readiness to teach and learn through distance learning
approach; hence, preserving and continuing educational mission during
the current or future pandemic as well as be prepared for any natural
disasters.
Keywords: COVID-19 pandemic; teachers’ awareness; readiness;

distance learning education
1. Introduction
The newly identified β-coronavirus was first named the 2019-novel coronavirus
first occurred at Wuhan, China, in December 2019. On February 11, 2020, the 2019-
novel coronavirus was officially named SARS-CoV-2 by the World Health
Organization (WHO), also known as the COVID-19 (Guo et al., 2020). The COVID-
19 is not just causing health crises around the world, but it is also affecting all
spheres of life, including the field of education. Educators resorted to online
platforms to reach out to students, webinars became a temporary classroom,
parents were called for monitoring at home, and students got deprived of social
interaction among peers. The WHO advised educators and students to conduct
alternative learning due to the COVID-19 outbreak to mitigate school cancellation
of classes through providing a resource list of the World Bank’s Edtech teams to
provide some online materials that can be used during the pandemic. The
program aims to elevate the loss of learning and provide remote learning
opportunities while schools are closed. Furthermore, the mandate provides
guiding principles and delivery of online classes and approaches to be given by
stakeholders like teachers and parents (World Bank, 2020a).
Various countries around the world, Colombia, Italy, Japan, Poland etc., including
the Philippines, responded to the call of WHO through their respective Ministry
of Education. Various educational platforms were utilized like YouTube, learning
management system (LMS), digital library, internet streaming or broadcast,
repositories like Open Educational Resources (REA), and the like based on their
availability in a particular country. Higher education makes use of Zoom and
Google Hangouts, while teachers were encouarged to take advantage of various
websites, such as Facebook, WhatsApp, Google forms. EdTech Hub, UNESCO
Education Alliance, Learning Keeps Going (U.S. consortium), Inter-Agency
Network for Education in Emergencies (INEE ), Commonwealth of Learning, and
many others (World Bank, 2020b).
Responding to the call of WHO, the Department of Education (DepEd,

Philippines), created a series of DepEd Memorandum (DM) No. 15, 21, 23, 31 and
34 in the first quarter of 2020 entitled “Creation of a Task Force for the
Management of Department of Education Response to Novel Coronavirus Acute
Respiratory Disease (2019-nCoV ARD)” (Department of Education, 2020a). The
DepEd, Philippines, also created a learning website called DepEd Commons
catering for Alternative Learning School (ALS) students, Out-of-School-Youth
(OSYA), regular learners from Kindergarten to Grade 8. The online learning hub

129
is available both for public and private schools all over the country. The website
aims to reinforce education anytime and anywhere suitable for learners who have
access to the internet using equipment such as smartphones, tablets, laptops, and
desktop computers (Department of Education, 2020b).
The Technical Education Skills Development Authority (TESDA), has recorded

19,598 enrollees in technical-vocational courses that use various platforms online
in the first three weeks of enforced Luzon-wide lockdown (Esguerra, 2020). As the
students studying in the major cities moved to the provinces as persons under
monitoring or persons under investigation for at least 14 days, the majority of
families and households had to adjust to community quarantine that eventually
modified into Enhanced Community Quarantine (ECQ). The ECQ became an
opportunity for many people to enroll in various technical-vocational courses
online, such as the overseas Filipino workers (OFW) around the world. The latter
was also affected by massive lockdown. In the global context of the work stoppage
eventually, fast track adoption of digital transformation led to unprecedented
changes like work from home and widespread use of online learning applications
(Quimba et al. (2018). When the community quarantine started, it was almost the
end of the school year among the K to 12 learners; hence, teachers used the
Learners’ Information System (LIS) online to finish their classes to submit the last
quarter grades of their students. School year and semester had ended within the
ECQ, which led the basic education schools and universities to adapt the distance
learning education.
The COVID-19 pandemic led educators to online education readiness. According

to Phan & Dang (2017), factors such as training, attitude, technical competence,
time constraints, pedagogy, and methodology were among the major distance
learning education elements. In a study conducted by Ventayin (2018) on the
readiness of DepEd Teachers to online teaching, showed that despite the limited
experience in distance education such as technical skills, time management,
knowledge and attitude in online education, they were still able to cope with the
trends in distance learning. Moreover, readiness and satisfaction levels were also
found among prospective teachers in other countries like Turkey and Thailand in
terms of web-based education (Ozturk, Ozturk & Ozen, 2018; and Akarawang,
Kidrakran & Nuangchalerm, 2015). Further, in the study on the response from 205
online faculty of higher institutions in the United States in terms of readiness,
attitude and ability to teach online in terms of course design, course
communication, time management and technical aspects most of the responses
were rated high (Martin, Budhrani & Wang, 2019).
Furthermore, another study on distance education readiness found 90% of the

total special education and preschool teachers surveyed got motivated to
implement distance education despite having diverse students, lack of specialists,
home-schooled, under long medical treatment, attending short stay with group or
family and private school (Fedina et al., 2017). Likewise, in another study, higher
education mentors show a positive attitude and motivation to teach university
students special needs like hearing and visually impaired despite the risk and
challenges in learning materials, pedagogy, monitoring, implementation and

130
psychological understanding (Movkebayeva et al., 2018). As this pandemic is

slated to exist until the preventive vaccine is discovered, it is essential to know
how the educators who are the prime facilitators of the education adjusted to this
transition and what challenges they faced while adapting to this transition as their
preparedness for the coming times.
This study aimed to find the factors and determinants that can facilitate a smooth
transition to distance learning in the Philippines. It is already being predicted that
it will be used as a primary mode of imparting education during the pandemic
(Dill, et al., 2020).
2. Methodology
The descriptive research design was adapted in realizing this pursuit (Nassaji,
2016). This study assessed teachers' awareness of COVID-19 pandemic, readiness
to distance learning education, and the perceived challenges of distance learning
education during the ECQ in the Philippines. Data gathering procedure was done
through Google forms, which were sent to the respective DepEd divisions and
universities and subsequently sent to the teachers via email. The random
sampling technique was utilized to gather responses from teachers regardless of
their gender, length of teaching experience, location of school (urban or rural),
school type (public or private), and level of affiliated institution (Elementary,
Secondary, Senior High School and College). A total of 2300 responses were
received in two weeks' time from the different schools’ divisions and universities
in the Philippines.
2.1 Research Instruments

The instrument, “Questionnaires on Teachers Awareness, Readiness and Online
Learning Experience During COVID-19 ECQ,” is a researcher-made
questionnaire. This instrument was divided into four parts: (1) collecting
information about the demographic profile of respondents, (2) teachers’
awareness of COVID-19 tailored from the “Coronavirus Disease 2019 Report”
(WHO, 2020), (3) teachers’ readiness and school preparedness to distance learning
education tailored from the “Distance Education Models and Best Practices”
(Academy Administration Practice, 2011) and (4) challenges in distance learning
education during the enhanced community quarantine in the Philippines tailored
from the study of Musingafi, Mapuranga, Chiwanza and Zebron, (2015). The
questionnaire was face and content validated by the experts in distance learning
education and experts in health to ensure that items about COVID-19 are
scientifically correct and relevant. The final evaluation was done by five more
experts, which consisted of a high school teacher, two university Professors, and
two Department of Education Public School District Supervisor (PSDS). The
suggestions and corrections were incorporated in the final format of the
instrument before disseminating it online. Furthermore, the survey tool got 8.9
Cronbach’s alpha in the initial reliability test conducted two weeks before the
study commenced.
2.2 Data Analysis

All data collected and tabulated from the Google form within the first two weeks
of ECQ was considered part of the study. Descriptive statistics was used to

131
describe the demographic profile, teachers’ awareness about COVID 19, distance
learning education readiness, and its challenges. Non- parametric tests were also
used to draw inferences on the data collected. The Mann Whitney U test and
Kruskal Wallis test were utilized to compare the means of teachers’ demographic
profile to awareness of COVID-19 and readiness to distance learning education.
Moreover, Spearman Rho was calculated to correlate the teachers’ awareness of
COVID-19 and readiness to distance learning education as well as their
demographic profile to teachers’ awareness of COVID-19 and readiness to
distance learning education. Table 1 shows Spearman’s Rho correlation
interpretation adapted from Dancey and Reidy (2004).
Table 1. Interpretation table of Spearman rank-order correlation coefficients
Spearman p Correlation
≥ 0.70 Very strong relationship
0.40-0.69 Strong relationship
0.30-0.39 Moderate relationship
0.20-0.29 Weak relationship
0.01-0.19 No or negligible relationship

*This descriptor applies to both positive and negative relationships.
3. Results
3.1 Teacher’ demographic profile

Around 2300, teachers all over the country participated in this study. As it is
shown in Table 2, teachers from Luzon (43%) dominated the population size of
the study followed by Mindanao (29%) and the least in number is Visayas (28%);
likewise, dominated by teachers who are teaching in urban areas and teachers
who are teaching in the high school level. In terms of the gender of the
participants, most of the teachers were females and mostly with teaching
experience of six (6) to ten (10) years. More responses from female-teacher
respondents than male-teacher respondents were expected because, according to
Esplada (2010), DepEd records showed that 86 percent of the total population of
teachers in the Philippines are female.
In terms of the teaching specialization, the participants were divided according to

strands currently used by the Senior High School program in the Philippines.
Most of the participants were teaching subjects under the Science Technology
Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) strand, whereas the Technical Vocational
Livelihood strand majors were the least in terms of numbers. A few teachers from
private and international schools (0.09%) also participated in the study.

132
Table 2. Teachers’ Demographic Profile

Percentage
Frequency
(%)
Teachers’ Schools Location Urban 2104 91
Rural 196 9
School Type Public 2297 99
Private 21 1
Teachers’ Geographic Location Luzon 995 43
Visayas 650 28
Mindanao 656 29
Teachers’ Gender Male 383 17
Female 1917 83
Teachers’ Teaching Experience Below 5
299 13
years
6-10 years 1370 60
11-15 years 496 21
16-20 years 86 4
21 years
49 2
and above
Teachers’ Specialization STEM 1134 49
HUMMS 588 26
ABM 439 19
TECH
141 6
VOC
Level of Education Taught Elementary 698 60
High
1443 63
School
College 159 7
3.2 Teachers’ COVID-19 awareness and readiness to distance learning

education
Table 3 shows the percentage of teachers’ awareness of the COVID-19 pandemic,
which consisted of a five-statement survey. Most of the respondents
acknowledged that they were aware of COVID-19 being a global pandemic that
can easily transmit in populated areas like schools. The fact that news and
information about the COVID-19 pandemic can be easily accessed through
various media such as the internet, TV, radio, and social media; however, 28 out
of 2300 teachers are not aware that Luzon is under ECQ.

133
It can be gleaned from these results that almost all of the teachers who
accomplished the survey are aware of the COVID-19 pandemic and its effect on
the studies of their students. This information is vital as this survey was
conducted during the initial stages of pandemic spread and lockdown where a lot
of chaos and confusion was rampant not only in the Philippines but all over the
World.
Table 3. Percentage of teachers’ and schools’ readiness to distance education

due to COVID-19 Pandemic
Teachers’ Awareness to COVID-19 YES (%) NO (%) Maybe (%)
1 Aware that COVID-19 is a global
2299 (99) 1 (0) 0 (0)
pandemic.
2 Aware that the government declared
the Enhanced Community 2256 (99) 28 (0) 16 (0)
Quarantine in Luzon.
3 Aware that the government declared
Quarantine in Luzon.
4 Aware of the Dos and Don'ts during
Quarantine.
5 Aware of the importance of social
distancing to prevent the spread of 2289 (99) 5 (0) 1 (0)
COVID-19.
Table 3 shows the percentage of teachers’ and schools’ readiness to distance

education due to the COVID-19 pandemic. This part of the survey was composed
of two parcels, the first parcel was the teachers’ readiness to distance learning
education. In contrast, the second parcel was the schools’ readiness to distance
learning education. Almost 99% of respondents answered “YES” when asked if
they were ready to conduct distance learning education during difficult times;
however, only 69% confirmed in affirmative when asked if they were prepared to
use the printed module as a tool for distance learning. 58% of the respondents
were ready to use online modules or learning materials available on the internet,
such as Youtube, Ted Talk and Khan Academy and learning management systems
like Edmodo, Canvas, Google Classroom, and Zoom as means of online or
distance learning education. To the question, if they are well-equipped and ready
for distance learning, the respondents' response was not equally divided, with
51% of respondents giving their answers in affirmative. These results imply that
the lack of facilities, equipment, and capacity building to distance learning
education hinder the teachers in offering distance learning education.
3.3 Readiness of Educational Institutions and Schools

The respondents' schools were also surveyed by asking their opinions on the
readiness of their respective institutions. 62% of the respondents answered YES
when asked if their school has an information dissemination system to
communicate with the parents and the learners during the COVID-19 outbreak
(Table 4). However, in terms of the capacity building on distance learning
education offered by the school to teachers (40%) and if it has a designated

134
workforce for the COVID-19 (45%), only a few answered “YES.” Moreover, 51%
of the respondents replied “YES” when asked if their school has provided the
regulations and policies on distance learning to protect students' identity and data
privacy. Still, only 37% answered “YES” when asked if their school has provided
supplementary materials for distance learning such as subscriptions to online
libraries and the procurement of online learning management systems.
Based on the responses regarding their schools' readiness on distance learning

education, though most of the respondents are teaching in urban areas, there are
still several basic education schools that are not equipped with the facilities,
amenities and training to distance learning education during difficult times.
Since the education system is going to avoid face to face interaction, the
school/institutions will have to play a vital role in this journey of transition since
they are the ones who provide training and workshops for the teachers to be
equipped with the skills and knowledge in distance learning education.
Furthermore, the schools/insitutions are the ones who plan, implement and
evaluate a school activity or program like distance learning education to ensure
their success.
Table 4. Percentage of teachers’ and schools’ readiness to distance education due to

COVID-19 Pandemic
Teacher’s Readiness to Distance Learning YES (%) NO (%) Maybe (%)
Education Due to COVID-19
1. Ready to conduct distance learning 2299 (99) 0 (0) 0 (0)
education to my students in times of COVID-
19
2. Ready to use the printed module as a tool for 1589 (69) 238 (10) 473 (21)
learning at home.
3. Ready to use online modules or learning 1331 (58) 526 (23) 443 (19)
materials available on the internet such as
Youtube, Ted Talk, and Khan Academy.
4. Ready to utilize learning management 1330 (58) 525 (23) 444 (19)
systems like Edmodo, Canvas, Google
Classroom, or Zoom as a means of online or
distance learning education.
5. Well-equipped and ready for distance 1170 (51) 526 (24) 568 (25)
learning since I attended a training or
workshop on distance learning education
management.
Schools’ Preparedness to Distance Learning Yes (%) No (%) Maybe (%)
Education Due to COVID-19
6. The school has a system of information 1415 (62) 397 (17) 488 (21)
dissemination to communicate with the
parents and the learners during the CoVid-19
outbreak.
7. The school has provided capacity building 917 (40) 744 (32) 639 (28)
on distance learning education management
for teachers.
8. The school has a designated workforce for 1026 (45) 656 (30) 568 (25)
the COVID-19.

135
9. The school has provided the regulations and 1165 (51) 556 (24) 579 (25)
policies on the use of distance learning to
protect student’s identity and data privacy.
10 The school has provided supplementary 851 (37) 748 (33) 701 (30)
. materials for distance learning such as
subscriptions to online libraries,
procurement of online learning management
systems.
3.4 Teachers’ Challenges in Distance Learning education

The mean (M) and standard deviation (SD) were the bases of determining the
teachers’ perceptions of the challenges in delivering distance learning education
(Table 5). The SD pertains to how the data were spread out. A high standard
deviation means that the data looks spread out. The values are interpreted as 0.0-
1.0 = Strongly Disagree; 1.1-2.0= Disagree; 2.1-3.0= Agree; and 3.1-4.1=Strongly
Agree.
The problems encountered by teachers in offering distance learning education are

the challenges on knowledge and skills required in delivering distance learning
education classes (M= 2.71; SD= 0.88), problems on establishing communication
with students (M=2.75; SD=0.89), challenges on having stable internet access
intended for distance learning education (M=2.69; SD=0.99), challenges on the use
of phones, laptops, and tablets or any devices for distance learning education
(M=2.67; SD= 0.88), and challenges on the use of any Learning Management
System (M=2.71; SD= 0.86).
In addition, the respondents also agreed that they encountered challenges in the
use of social media, emails and other platforms of distance learning education (
M=2.66; SD= 0.90), giving instruction and responding to queries through email
and messages (M=2.68; SD= 0.90), encouraging participation and utilization of
features in online classes (M= 2.72; SD=0.89), time management in the conduct of
classes, monitoring of responses, availability of students and other online classes
issues (M=2.73; SD=0.89) and the sudden shift from face to face to online classes
(M=2.69; SD= 0.88).
Lastly, respondents also agreed that they faced problems managing the stress
caused by community quarantine at home and in between online classes demands
(M=2.71; SD=87). As well as beating the deadlines and requirements set by the
school administrators (M=2.60; SD=0.88), establishing a network of
communication among stakeholders such as parents for support at home (M=
2.74; 0.85), checking and evaluating students output from the email of an online
learning Management System (2.67; 0.88) and building a positive environment in
online classes through emotional support among students aside from content-
based teaching and learning (M= 2.70; SD=0.88).
Such problems would be easily solved if adequately addressed. The school should
carefully plan how they will offer a distance learning education to students. Also,
continued monitoring and evaluation of the program would significantly help
enhance the system of distance learning education.

136
Table 5. Perceived challenges in distance learning education

ITEM MEAN SD Verbal
(N= 2300) Interpretation
1 Challenges on Knowledge and skills 2.71 0.88 AGREE
required in delivering distance learning
education classes
2 Challenges on establishing communication 2.75 0.89 AGREE
with my students
3 Challenges on having stable internet access 2.69 0.99 AGREE
intended for distance learning education
4 Challenges on the use of phones, laptops, 2.67 0.88 AGREE

and tablets or any devices for distance
learning education
5 Challenges on the use of any Learning 2.71 0.86 AGREE
Management System (LMS)
6 Challenges on Use of social media, e-mails, 2.66 0.90 AGREE
and other platforms of distance learning
education.
7 Challenges on Giving instruction and 2.68 0.90 AGREE
responding to queries through e-mail and
messages.
8 Challenges on Encouraging participation 2.72 0.89 AGREE
and utilization of features in online classes
9 Challenges on Time management in the 2.73 0.89 AGREE

conduct of classes, monitoring of
responses, availability of students, and
other online classes issues.
10 Challenges on the sudden shift from face 2.69 0.88 AGREE
to face to online classes.
11 Challenges on Managing the stress caused 2.71 0.87 AGREE
by community quarantine at home and in
between online classes demands.
12 Challenges on Beating the deadlines and 2.60 0.88 AGREE

requirements set by the school
administrators.
13 Challenges on Establishing a network of 2.74 0.85 AGREE
communication among stakeholders such
as parents for support at home.
14 Challenges on Checking and evaluating 2.67 0.88 AGREE
students’ output from the e-mail of an
online Learning Management System.
15 Challenges on Building a positive 2.70 0.88 AGREE
environment through online classes
through emotional support among my
students aside from content-based teaching
and learning.

137
3.5 Testing differences and relationships between teachers’ demographic

profile and teachers’ awareness of COVID-19 and readiness in distance
learning education
Inferential statistics was used in testing relationships and differences among
variables. Since the data drawn from this study are not normally distributed and
have unequal variances, non-parametric tests were used in drawing inferences.
Such as the Spearman rho correlation for testing relationships between variables,
Mann Whitney U tests for testing difference for two independent variables and
Kruskal Wallis test for testing difference for three or more independent variables.
The correlation between teacher’s demographic profiles and awareness to

COVID-19 shows no relationship at all (Table 6). This result entails that teachers’
awareness of the COVID-19 pandemic has nothing to do with their demographic
profile since the pandemic facts are learned mostly through the media. However,
in terms of the correlation between teachers’ demographic profiles and readiness
to distance Learning education, the length of teaching experience and
specialization are found to be very strongly correlated (“Very Strong
Relationship”) to readiness to distance learning education. In contrast, the
teachers’ geographic location is moderately correlated (“Strong Relationship”) to
readiness to distance learning education.
Table 6. Correlation between teachers’ demographic profile and awareness of

COVID-19 pandemic and Readiness to distance learning education
Teachers’ Teachers’
Category Awareness Interpretation Readiness Interpretation
of COVID- to Distance
19 Learning
Education
Length of Correlation -.0.39 Moderate 0.70** Very Strong
teaching Coefficient Relationship Relationship
experience Sig. (2-tailed) .057 .001
School Type Correlation -.029 No -.021 No

(Private/ Coefficient Relationship Relationship
Public) Sig. (2-tailed) .158 .316
School location Correlation .004 No -.004 No

(Urban/rural) Coefficient Relationship Relationship
Sig. (2-tailed) .865 .849
Teachers’ Correlation -.039 No 0.72** Very Strong

Specialization Coefficient Relationship Relationship
Sig. (2-tailed) .056 .001
Teachers’ Correlation -.029 No 0.62** Strong

Geographical Coefficient Relationship Relationship
location Sig. (2-tailed) .157 .003
* p ≤ 0.05; ** p≤ 0.01; N= 2300

138
Tables 7 and 8 show the difference between respondents’ demographic profile and
awareness of the COVID-19 pandemic and the readiness to distance learning
education. Among the respondents' demographic profiles, only their gender
(U=358415; p= 0.008) has a significant difference with their awareness of COVID-
19. Likewise, teachers’ gender (U= 346415; p= 0.006), length of teaching experience
(X2(4)=19.093; p=0.001) and geographic location (X2(2)=10.937; p=0.004) have
significant differences with their readiness to distance learning education. Since
most of the respondents are female teachers, it can be gleaned that female teachers
are more aware of the facts about COVID-19 and its effects on their students'
studies than male teachers.
Table 7. Mann-Whitney U test between teachers’ demographic profiles and awareness

of COVID-19 and readiness to distance education
Teachers’ Teachers’ Readiness to
Category Awareness of Distance Learning
COVID-19 Education
School Type Mann-Whitney U 202368.000 196414.500
(Private/ Public)
Z -1.411 -1.004
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .158 .316
Gender Mann-Whitney U 358415.000 346415.000

Z -2.638 -2.528
School location Mann-Whitney U 202368.000 196414.500

(Urban/rural)
Z 1.411 -1.004
Table 8. Kruskal Wallis test between teachers’ demographic profiles and

awareness of COVID-19 and readiness to distance education
Category Teachers’ Teachers’ Readiness to
Awareness of Distance Learning
COVID-19 Education
Length of teaching Chi-Square 6.035 19.093
experience df 4 4
Asymp. Sig. .197 .001
Teachers’ Chi-Square 3.688 3.688
Specialization df 4 4
Asymp. Sig. .450 .450
Teachers’ Chi-Square 1.837 10.973
Geographic location
df 2 2
Asymp. Sig. .399 .004
Teachers’ level of Chi-Square 2.282 8.061

education handled df 2 2
Asymp. Sig. .320 .068

139
4. Discussions
This study aimed to gather data on the awareness of teachers in the Philippines
on COVID-19 pandemic and the challenges they have faced during the sudden
shift from face to face classes to distance learning education. Teachers were aware
that the Philippines had declared ECQ due to COVID-19 pandemic as well as the
rules and regulations during the ECQ like the social distancing measures, which
were strictly observed and implemented in schools and institutions based on
observational modeling to alleviate school’s closure (Viner et al., 2020). In the case
of China, the “One Stop Learning” was launched during the COVID-19 outbreak
which aimed to develop an approach or program about the updates on COVID-
19, public health issues, online education announcement, teachers preparation,
academic research hub and logistic operation to pursue undisrupted learning
(Huang, Liu, Tlili, Yang & Wang, 2020).
Based on the response made by the respondents on the readiness of their schools
to distance learning education, and though most of the respondents are in the
urban areas, there are still more basic education schools that are not equipped
with the facility and training to distance learning education during difficult times.
To keep abreast of distance learning education trends, the teachers should be
equipped with the knowledge and skills in distance learning education (Rhini,
2018). The creation of audio-visual materials are viewed as very effective in
increasing academic performance (Tang & Intai, 2017; and Lapada, 2017).
Institutions can do this by providing sets of training and workshops; likewise,
schools should invest more in the facilities and equipment for distance learning.
It is continuously evolving; it is a must to be updated to cater to a changing
learning environment (Bozkurt, 2019).
Today, the DepEd Philippines is slowly providing computers, tablets, and smart
boards to schools which are center of excellence or central schools. These
innovations are needed for distance learning education and for embracing the
trend in education 4.0, which promotes the use of the E-instruction system,
enabling learners' autotomy achievement and implementing a task-based and
performance-based on a specific learning goal (Chen & Huang, 2018; and Hussin,
2018). With regard to communicating with students, teachers may plan a strategy
on how to keep in touch with students like the use of online platforms; however,
due to unstable internet connection in rural areas, providing print-based modules
will also be useful. For elementary teachers, it is possible to communicate with
their pupils through their parents. However, for students in high schools, teachers
may use online platforms since they are tech-savvy using technologies such as
email and social media (Uslo, 2018). However, building a positive attitude in
doing activities through distance learning should also be taught to students to
work at their own pace. The students' activities and homework should also be
interactive and suited to the learners to catch their interest (Mascreen, Pai, & Pai,
2012; and Harackiewicz, Smith & Priniski, 2016).
The length of teaching experience affects the readiness to distance learning

education since teachers who have taught for several years have more experience
dealing with difficult times like the pandemics or natural calamities (Kini &

140
Podolsky, 2016). However, the teachers with more number of years of teaching
experience are by default in the older age group and hence are relatively less tech
savy. This group of teachers particulary need more assitance in using the online
tools to deliver their lessons. However, teachers who have served for a long time
have had the opportunity to attend seminar workshops needed in offering
distance learning education. Teachers’ specialization may also affect the teachers'
readiness to distance learning education because some specialties under the
Technical Vocational Livelihood (TVL) strand have better experiences in using
technological materials used in teaching (Yunus et al., 2017). Moreover, the
teachers’ geographical location may also affect distance education (Rivza &
Bogdan, 2017). Luzon has the highest number of urbanized cities with stable
internet connections and accessible roads compared with Mindanao and the
Visayas; this is one of the reasons why teachers from urban areas are more ready
to distance learning education than teachers from rural areas.
Furthermore, female respondents are more ready to offer distance learning

education to their students. These results agree with other studies where it was
reported that as per the international technology education standards in higher
institutions, female respondents significantly differ in terms of technology
literacy, which is a requirement for offering distance learning education
(Alwraikat, 2017). Further, teachers with more years of teaching experience were
also found to be more ready for distance learning education; moreover, the
College teachers were the best in terms of their readiness to offer distance learning
education compared to the basic education teachers. Teachers in college and
university have more advanced facilities and equipment for teaching and
learning. This is commendable as it is already known that support from
stakeholders, accessibility, and culture-based learning objectives are critical
factors in institutional leadership and management among higher educational
institutions that are adopting e-learning (Singh et al., 2017).
For these challenging times, teachers have to re-think of an intervention to deliver

their lessons rather than face to face encounters. The school plays a vital role in
this journey since they are the ones who provide training and workshops for the
teachers to be equipped with the skills and knowledge in distance learning
education (Darling-Hammond et al., 2019). Distance learning education could
build access for learners in college education. However, distance learning
education might be hard to execute in the laboratory classes, yet they can boost
technology utilization (Mahlangu, 2018). And lastly, the schools must know how
to plan, implement and evaluate a school activity or program like distance
learning education to ensure its success.
5. Conclusion
This pursuit is intended to accumulate information on teachers' awareness in the
Philippines on COVID-19 pandemic and the difficulties they have experienced
during the abrupt shift from face to face classes to distance learning education.
Almost all the teachers who participated in this study were highly aware of the
COVID-19 pandemic and how it is going to impact the education of their students.
The information is essential as the survey for this study was done during the

141
pandemic's initial period, which points to the overall higher levels of awareness
among the teaching community. The teachers expressed their readiness to switch
to distance learning education; however, they felt hampered due to lack of
facilities, equipment, and capacity building to distance learning education. The
correlation between teacher’s demographic profiles and awareness to COVID-19
showed no relationship at all. Nevertheless, the length of teaching experience and
specialization were very strongly correlated to readiness to distance learning
education while the teachers’ geographic location was strongly correlated to
readiness to distance learning education. Furthermore, the teachers’ gender had a
significant difference in their awareness of COVID-19. In contrast, teachers’
gender, length of teaching experience, and geographic location had significant
differences with their readiness to distance learning education. Overall, the
teaching community is mentally prepared to adapt to new and innovative ways
of imparting knowledge, provided their institutions well support them.
6. Recommendations
The awareness of educators on the risk posed by the COVID-19 pandemic and the
implementation of the enhanced community quarantine dictates a call for action
for an alternative mode of learning. The adaptation of various online education
institutions in the first two weeks of ECQ is a good indicator of good practices in
the teaching and learning process.
To prevent the second wave of the pandemic, it is recommended by this study

that the schools should opt for distance learning for the coming school year along
with providing teachers' capability building for distance learning education.
Likewise, investing in the facilities and equipment needed for distance learning is
an excellent idea to enhance the institution's capability in delivering distance
learning to the students.
It is further recommended to restructure the course syllabus that is simple and

attainable in the learner's level of limited capacity restricted by social distancing.
Specific measures such as adopting remote (Dixon & Kirmes, 2020) and flexible
learning (Huang, Liu, Tlili, Yang & Wang, 2020) be considered for those who lack
access to the internet connection and other resources. The feasibility of the
delivery of printed materials through the local courier should also be taken into
account. It will be beneficial to harness various media to feature academic lessons
in audio, printed, and visual like TV and radio with schedule and monitoring
based on conducive learning time. In terms of on-the-job training and practical
laboratory works, contextualization of learning design and output can be
considered. It will also be an advantage if there will be parent line communication
or a portal (Miguel & Abulon, 2016) for the interest of completion, progress, and
mental health monitoring at home. Furthermore, continued monitoring and
evaluation of the distance learning education program would be a great help to
enhance the system of delivering education.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to extend their deepest gratitude to all the teachers in the
Philippines who participated in the survey for this study.

142
7. References
Academy Administration Practice. (2011). Distance Education Models and Best Practices. DC:
Washington, Imperial Valley College. Retrieved from
https://www.imperial.edu/ivc/files/Distance_Education_Models_and_Best_Pr
actices.pdf
Akarawang, C., Kidrakran, P., & Nuangchalerm, P. (2015). Enhancing ICT Competency
for Teachers in the Thailand Basic Education System. International Education
Studies, 8(6). https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v8n6p1
Alwraikat, M. (2017). A glimpse at international technology education standards in higher
education institutions, International Journal of Instructional Technology Distance
Learning, 8(5). https://doi.org/2014.10
Bozkurt, A. (2019). From Distance Education to Open and Distance Learning. (January), 252–
273. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-8431-5.ch016
Chen, J. F., & Huang, H. F. (2018). An empirical study on the factors influencing the web-
based teaching effect. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology
Education, 14(5), 1635–1643. https://doi.org/10.29333/EJMSTE/85035
Dancey C., & Reidy J. (2004). Statistics without maths for psychology: using SPSS for windows.
London, England: Prentice-Hall.
Darling-Hammond, L., Flook, L., Cook-Harvey, C., Barron, B., & Osher, D. (2020).
Implications for educational practice of the science of learning and development.
Applied Developmental Science, 24(2), 97-140.
Department of Education. (2020a). Creation of a Task Force for the Management of Department
of Education Response to Novel Coronavirus Acute Respiratory Disease (2019-nCoV
ARD). Retrieved from: https://www.deped.gov.ph/category/issuances/deped-
memoranda/
Department of Education. (2020b). Towards A Sustainable and Working DepEd Commons Part
II: A Framework. Retrieved from: https://commons.deped.gov.ph/deped-
commons-framework.pdf
Dill E., Fischer K., McMurtrie B., & Supiano B. (2020). As Coronavirus Spreads, the Decision
to Move Classes Online Is the First Step. What Comes Next? The Chronicle of Higher
Education. Retrieved from: https://www.chronicle.com/article/As-Coronavirus
Spreads-the/248200
Dixon, B. M., & Kirmes, J. L. (2020). Remote Learning Recommendations During Covid-19
Emergency, 62. Retrieved from: https://www.isbe.net/Pages/covid19.aspx
Esguerra, D. (2020. April 3). Nearly 20K avail of TESDA free online courses amid Luzon
lockdown. Inquirer.net. Retrieved from:
https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1253335/nearly-20k-avail-of-tesda-free-online-
courses-amid-luzon-lockdown
Esplada, J. (2010). Male teachers in the Phillipines. Philippine Daily Inquirer Online.
Retrieved from:
http://www.menteach.org/news/male_teachers_in_the_phillipines#:~:text=
Women%2DpoweredDepEd%20records%20furnished%20to,over%20the%20cou
ntry%20were%20women
Fedina, N. V., Burmykina, I. V., Zvezda, L. M., Pikalova, O. S., Skudnev, D. M., & Voronin,
I. V. (2017). Study of educators’ and parents’ readiness to implement distance
learning technologies in preschool education in Russia. Eurasia Journal of
Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 13(12), 8415–8428.
https://doi.org/10.12973/ejmste/80802
Guo, Y., Cao, Q., Hong, Z., Tan, Y., Chen, S., Jin, H., Tan, K., Wang, D., Yan, Y. (2020). The
origin, transmission and clinical therapies on coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-

143
19) outbreak – an update on the status. Military Med Res, 7(11).

Harackiewicz, J. M., Smith, J. L., & Priniski, S. J. (2016). Interest Matters: The Importance
of Promoting Interest in Education. Policy insights from the behavioral and brain
sciences, 3(2), 220–227. https://doi.org/10.1177/2372732216655542
Huang, R. H., Liu, D. J., Tlili, A., Yang, J. F., & Wang, H. H. (2020). Handbook on
facilitating flexible learning during educational disruption: The Chinese
experience in maintaining undisrupted learning in COVID-19 Outbreak. Smart
Learning Institute of Beijing Normal University UNESCO, 1–54. Retrieved from:
https://iite.unesco.org/news/handbook-on-facilitating-flexible-learning-
during-educational-disruption/
Hussin, A. A. (2018). Education 4.0 Made Simple: Ideas For Teaching. International Journal
of Education & Literacy Studies. http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijels.v.6n.3p.92
Kini, T., & Podolsky, A. (2016). Does Teaching Experience Increase Teacher Effectiveness? A
Review of the Research. Palo Alto: Learning Policy Institute. Retrieved from:
https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/sites/default/files/product-
files/Teaching_Experience_Report_June_2016.pdf
Lapada, A. A. (2017). Audio-visual aided instruction in science among high school
students in the Philippines. International Journal of Education and Research, 5(7),
139–156.
Lu, H., Stratton C. W., & Tang Y. W. (2020). Outbreak of pneumonia of unknown etiology
in Wuhan, China: the mystery and the miracle. Journal of Medical Virology, 92(4),
401–402. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25678
Mahlangu, V. P. (2018). The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly of Distance Learning in Higher
Education. IntechOpen. http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.75702
Malipot, M. H. (2020). DepEd expands online learning platforms for out-of-school learners.
Retrieved April 1, 2020, https://news.mb.com.ph/2020/04/01/deped-expands-
online-learning-platform-for-out-of-school-learners/
Martin, F., Budhrani, K., & Wang, C. (2019). Examining faculty perception of their
readiness to teach online. Online Learning Journal, 23(3), 97–119.
https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v23i3.1555
Mascreen, C., Pai, P. Y., & Pai, R. Y. (2012). Identifying Factors for the Enrollment of
Students towards Distance Education for Master’s Course: A Student’s
Perspective. International Journal for Digital Society, 3(3), 689–694.
https://doi.org/10.20533/ijds.2040.2570.2012.0084
Miguel, F. F., & Abulon, E. L. R. (2016). Teacher-Parent Collaborative Efforts in Facilitating
Students’ Homework. The Normal Lights- Journal on Teachers Education Special Issue
2016, 18–32.
Movkebayeva, Z., Derijan, I., Khamitova, D., & Akhmetova, A. (2018). Teacher Readiness
For Distance Education Of Disabled Students. International Journal - Knowledge In
Practice, 28, 1011–1014. https://doi.org/10.35120/kij28031011Z
Musingafi, M. C. C., Mapuranga, B., Chiwanza, K., & Zebron, S. (2015). Challenges for
Open and Distance learning (ODL) Students: Experiences from Students of the
Zimbabwe Open University. Journal of Education and Practice, 6(18), 59–67.
Nassaji, H. (2016). Qualitative and descriptive research: Data type versus data analysis
Qualitative and descriptive research: Data type versus data analysis. Language
Teaching Research, 19(2) 129–132. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168815572747
Ozturk, D. S., Ozturk, F., & Ozen, R. (2018). The relationship between prospective teachers’
readiness and satisfaction about web-based distance education. Turkish Online
Journal of Distance Education, 19(1), 147–162.
https://doi.org/10.17718/tojde.382791

144
Phan, T. T. N., & Dang, L. T. T. (2017). Teacher Readiness for Online Teaching: A Critical
Review. International Journal Open Distance E-Learn. IJODeL, 3(1), 1–16.
Quimba, F. M. A., Dumaua-Cabauatan, M., Calizo, S. C., & Pacio, L. C. (2018). E-Education
in the Philippines: The Case of Technical Education and Skills Development
Authority Online Program. Discussion Papers No. 2018-08, 1–45. Retrieved from:
https://pidswebs.pids.gov.ph/CDN/PUBLICATIONS/pidsdps1808_rev.pdf
Rivza, B., & Bogdan, R. (2017). Evaluation of Readiness for Distance Education of Students
in European Universities Evaluation of Readiness for Distance Education of
Students in European Universities. BRAIN: Broad Research in Artificial Intelligence
and Neuroscience, 8(1). Retrieved from:
https://www.edusoft.ro/brain/index.php/brain/article/view/673
Rhini, F. (2018). Teaching Practice in Distance Education Context. SHS Web of Conferences,
42, 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/20184200099
Singh, G., Naz, R., & Narayan, J. (2017). Investigating critical factors for adoption of e-
learning in the South Pacific region. Instructional Technology and. International
Journal Of Instructional Technology Distance Learning, 8(5). https://doi.org/2014.10
Tang, D. K. H., & Intai, R. (2017). Effectiveness of audio-visual aids in teaching lower
secondary science in a rural secondary school. Asia Pacific Journal of Educators and
Education, 32, 91–106. https://doi.org/10.21315/apjee2017.32.7
Uslu, Ö. (2018). Factors Associated with Technology Integration to Improve Instructional
Abilities: A Path Model. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 43(4).
http://dx.doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2018v43n4.3
Ventayin, R. J. (2018). Teachers’ Readiness in Online Teaching Environment: A Case of
Department of Education Teachers. Journal of Education, Management and Social
Sciences, 2(1). Retrieved from www.psurj.org/jemss
Viner, R. M., Russell, S. J., Croker, H., Packer, J., Ward, J., Stansfield, C., … Booy, R. (2020).
School closure and management practices during coronavirus outbreaks,
including COVID-19: a rapid systematic review. The Lancet Child and Adolescent
Health, 4(5), 397–404. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(20)30095-X
World Bank. (2020a). Remote Learning, Distance Education and Online Learning During
the COVID19 Pandemic. eLearning World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/33499
World Bank. (2020b). How countries are using Edtech (including online learning, radio, and
television, texting) to support access to remote learning during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Retrieved April 8. 2020, https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/edutech/brief/
WHO. (March,2020). Coronavirus disease 2019 Report (COVID-19), Situation Report – 59.
Retrieved from: https://www.who.int/docs/default-
source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200319-sitrep-59-covid-
19.pdf?sfvrsn=c3dcdef9_2
Yunus, F. A., Tun, U., Onn, H., Alias, M., Tun, U., Onn, H., ... Onn, H. (2017). Vocational
pedagogy among technical vocational education and training teachers.
Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Industrial Engineering and
Engineering Management (IEEM), (pp. 150-154). Singapore.
https://doi.org/10.1109/IEEM.2017.8289869

145

Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 145-160, June 2020
Enhancing Malaysian Primary Pupils’

Vocabulary Skills using Pocable Game and
Pear Deck
Chai Kar Ni, Bonaventure Jong, Mary Anne Dison, Sylvia Anak Thomas,
Melor Md Yunus* and Ashairi Suliman
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
Abstract. The importance of teaching English as a second language has

been given emphasis as stated in the Malaysian Education Blueprint
(2013-2025). Previous studies had proven that it was extremely draining
to teach vocabulary to pupils using conventional chalk and talk methods.
Pupils were demotivated and they could not remember the words
learned. Hence, this research was carried out to enhance and encourage
pupils to learn vocabularies. Pocable is a form of game-based learning
and is initiated based on the concept taken from two popular games
known as “Scrabble Board Game” and “Chinese Play Card Game”. Pear
Deck was incorporated as an interactive online platform used to engage
pupils in individual and social learning. In this quasi-experimental
research, pre-test, post-test, and survey questionnaire were applied to
collect data from 40 Year Four pupils of four rural schools in Sarawak
ranging from Subis and Bintulu districts. The data collected were
analysed descriptively. The findings of the research showed that
majority of the respondents had improvements in their vocabulary skills
and 4C’s (cooperation and collaboration, communication, creative and
critical thinking skills) and 1V (value). They were also encouraged to
learn more vocabularies. This research had also shone some light on the
potential use of Pocable Game as ESL learners had better memory
retention of the vocabularies learned.
Keywords: Pocable Game; education; vocabulary; game-based learning;

primary pupils

146
1. Introduction
English language is the lingua franca of the modern world as it is the dominant
language in international affairs (Thirusanku & Yunus, 2012). In fact, English is
the lingua franca for different levels such as local, regional, national and
international. English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) is also the study of the type of
language that is used when different second language speakers interact (McKay,
2018). English as a lingua franca (ELF) is the teaching and learning of English
language as the medium of communication for different native languages
speakers. However, English is the second language in Malaysia. Lie and Yunus
(2018) also mentioned that English is the global language of interaction. It is
crucial for a person’s competencies development. This is because when a person
is well proficient in English, this will enable them to excel in the Fourth
Industrial Revolution. According to Reddy (2016), the market for English as a
Second Language is booming. This is seen from the increased demand from the
whole world towards both literacy and proficiency in the English language.
According to Yunus and Ek Hern (2011), due to globalisation in the world today,
the Malaysian government has taken different steps to maximise the usage of
English in our education system. Thus, the learners opt to take English to enable
them to become part of the global economy who can communicate effectively
with others.
In Malaysia, the nation must acquire and learn English as a second language
starting from the pre-school level. In fact, vocabulary is one of the core elements
of language aptitude and reflects how well listeners listen, speak, read and write
(Kunnu, Uiphant & Sukwises, 2016). The importance of teaching English as a
second language had been given emphasis in Malaysia so that pupils who are
able to read and understand different English texts for information and
enjoyment can be produced.
Bakhsh (2016) stated that vocabulary is fundamental to learn any language. With
these vocabulary words, pupils are able to read and understand a reading
passage in their textbook. However, it was undeniable that the pupils were
demotivated and they were unable remember the spelling and meaning of the
words learned. As asserted by Lim, Yunus and Amin (2017), the academic
performance and dominant use of mother-tongue language had undeniably
limited the pupils’ experience in learning English and thus, affected their
vocabulary exposure. Since the use of English vocabulary is limited within the
school period, the pupils of Primary 4 had limited opportunity to use and learn
the language naturally. Therefore, this had indirectly impacted the learning of
English vocabulary, especially in remembering the spelling of the vocabulary. In
the Primary 4 English Language textbook and Dokumen Standard Kurikulum
dan Pentaksiran (DSKP), pupils are targeted to master and learn a list of High
Frequency Words which are crucial for their language development within the
six years of primary schooling. These stipulated words are vital in assisting
pupils to acquire the necessary vocabulary insights that are related to the
various themes and contents introduced in the syllabus.

147
Thus, games would help the pupils to memorise and utilise new vocabularies
more efficiently. According to Chirandon, Laohawiriyanon and Rakthong (2010),
learning vocabularies through games could provide opportunities for target
language practice, encourage the pupils to communicate by using all four
language skills and create a real life situation for using language. The learning
process could be enhanced through the use of technology. Incorporating
Information and Communications Technology (ICT) in pupils’ learning is
undoubtedly a better teaching method as compared to the conventional chalk
and talk method as learners were able to focus more through a fun and relaxing
atmosphere of learning (Hashim, Rafiq & Yunus, 2019). Hence, our aims for this
research were to enhance Year Four pupils’ vocabulary skills and to encourage
learners to learn vocabularies using Pocable Game and Pear Deck.
2.1 Teaching and Learning of Vocabulary

Vocabulary is an important aspect in English language learning. It is the
component that connects the four skills which are listening, speaking, reading
and writing skill. In order to communicate well in the target language, pupils
need to have enough number of words and they need to know how to apply
them. Undoubtedly, it is a challenging task for English language teachers to
equip primary pupils with adequate vocabulary even though many teaching
strategies have been used to assist them in learning vocabulary (Yunus et al.,
2020).
According to Indriyani and Sugirin (2019), vocabulary is imperative to be

acquired by the learners. Recent studies in second and foreign language
acquisition emphasised that non-native speakers need a good foundation of
vocabulary knowledge in order to become successful English language users
(Viera, 2016). Within the Malaysian context, the teaching and learning process of
vocabulary in English language begins as early as Primary 1 and onwards to
Primary 6 (Ministry of Education, 2017). The English language textbook has been
the main source to teach and learn vocabulary through the different learning
skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing. One of the criteria to teach and
learn vocabulary is highlighted in the Standard Document for Primary School
Curriculum, where after six years of primary schooling, pupils will be able to
talk to their friends fluently in both formal and informal situations. They are also
expected to be able to read and understand various English texts for information
(Ministry of Education, 2017).
Through vocabulary, pupils will be able to comprehend and express language in

better form. Learning vocabulary helps pupils to know words and use them in
the correct context. Pupils must acquire vocabulary skill in order to get other
skills such as listening, speaking, reading and writing. Even though pupils
realised the importance of vocabulary, most of them find it challenging to
acquire this skill due to the difficulties in remembering and retaining the new
words learned. For a primary school English learner, acquiring vocabulary

148
might be one of the concerns they faced. Hence, the use of teaching strategies to
help improve this issue was imperative.
2.2 Integrating ICT in Language Classroom

Currently, the use of technology in the field of education has brought great
impact to the process of teaching and learning. According to Yunus et al. (2014),
the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in education
varies the teaching methods used in the class. In Malaysia, the use of technology
has helped educators to adapt and develop several learning materials for the
pupils to enrich their vocabulary. According to Noureddine (2017), the use of
technology in a language classroom would contribute to positive language
learning among learners. Therefore, many educationists have started using ICT
to complement their teaching and learning activities. Similarly, many
researchers agreed that technology provides children with a chance to learn four
English skills not only within the class but also outside it by social interactions
(Gee, 2005; Wang et al., 2008). In this paper, Pear Deck is used as a reinforcement
tool to assist pupils in acquiring vocabulary skill. Pear Deck is an online learning
site which was created by educators in order to support active learning among
the pupils. It would also help to maximise the pupils’ achievement and to
improve interpersonal relationships as well as their self-esteem. The use of Pear
Deck has been tested in thousands of real-world classrooms. Pear Deck has
eased teachers’ burden in creating active and collaborative learning
environments in a language classroom. Thus, in this context, Pear Deck is used
to support vocabulary learning in a fun and meaningful way.
2.3 Using Game in Vocabulary Learning

The use of games can facilitate the learning activities that teachers bring into
their classroom. According to Taghiadeh et al. (2017), the use of games enables
children to learn vocabulary better than using traditional ways. Shahriarpour
and Kafi (2014) stated that using games makes pupils participate actively in the
21st century technological society. Playing games which are educational to pupils
would give a chance for them to experience a more positive and encouraging
learning environment (Takeuchi & Vaala, 2014). This is supported by Pomerantz
and Bell (2007) who asserted that introducing educational games to pupils
would create a fun and creative environment in the classroom. In fact, these
elements are utterly important, especially in the case of language learning
sessions where learners could easily lose their concentration due to short
attention span. This is commonly seen during long periods of second language
learning classes. Thus, using language learning games that contain detailed
linguistic contents can be helpful. This can also motivate pupils who are driven
by external components to use these games in proper contexts (Godwin-Jones,
2014).
Moreover, past researchers also believed that games can help teachers to create
various meaningful contexts in which pupils can apply the usage of the
language for communication in terms of exchanging information and expressing
their own ideas especially in the spelling of new vocabularies (Derakhshan &
Khatir, 2015). Therefore, it is evident that by combining learning and playing
through games and using other technologies in their learning environments,

149
great impacts on pupils can be seen in their learning process. Kalaycioglu (2011)
clearly stated that games used are always pupil-centered and they can be
adjusted to be in sync with the learning objectives, age of learners and the
children’s level of proficiency. In short, through vocabulary games, learners will
be more enthusiastic in learning vocabulary as games provide a multimedia
context that engages the learners in vocabulary and key sentences (Derakhshan
& Khatir, 2015; Segal-Drori et al., 2010).
Besides, the usage of games is also effective in learning vocabulary because they
usually involve friendly and healthy competition among learners and create a
cooperative learning environment for the pupils (Calvo-Ferrer, 2015). Hence,
using games in teaching vocabulary is more attractive for children and motivates
them to improve their English vocabulary. In fact, games help young learners to
learn vocabulary with more motivation compared to traditional teaching ways
(Tüzün et al., 2009). Al Neyadi (2007) stated that motivation is one of the
important factors in learning a language. A supportive environment that
stimulates and engages the pupils in the learning process can ensure active
participation in the learning of new vocabularies. Furthermore, Tsai (2012)
mentioned that games can also enable children to overcome their learning
problems and increase their motivation and confidence. Therefore, the Pocable
game is used to enhance vocabulary skills among English language learners.
3. Methodology
3.1 Research Design

This is a quasi-experimental method type of research design. It incorporated the
pre-test and post-test design to evaluate the effectiveness of a treatment or any
educational intervention towards the respondents.
3.2 Research Respondents

According to Etikan, Musa and Alkassim (2016), purposive sampling is one of
the sampling techniques in which the samples are not given equal chances of
being included in the research. In fact, purposive sampling is a technique of
selecting a sample of a population in order to determine the parameters of the
whole population. It is an intentional selection of a respondent based on the
characteristics the respondent possesses. Meanwhile, purposive sampling is also
a non-random technique which is not restricted to a set number of respondents
and includes any underlying theories.
Purposive sampling was used as the respondents were only chosen from low to
intermediate level of English proficiency. By implementing purposive sampling,
40 Primary 4 pupils were selected for this quasi-experimental research. This
small sample size is effective to monitor the implementation process of the
Pocable Game. The schools involved were SK Sungai Setulan, Bintulu, SK
Sungai Selad, Bintulu, SK Kampung Bungai, Subis and SK Kampung Selanyau,
Subis. The number of respondents in each school was ten pupils. The pupils
chosen were of “Low Language Proficiency” to “Average Language Proficiency”
of four different rural schools in Sarawak ranging from Subis and Bintulu

150
districts. Their level of proficiency was determined by their English language

performance recorded in the School Based Assessment in the year 2019.
Table 1: Number of respondents

The School (District) Male Female Total number of respondents
A (Bintulu) 4 6 10
B (Bintulu) 3 7 10
C (Subis) 6 4 10
D (Subis) 2 8 10
Total 40
3.3 Research Instrument

Three research instruments were used in this research. They were pre-test, post-
test and followed by a survey questionnaire. Similar 20 spelling test and 20
matching words with their meanings were included in the pre-test and post-test
(Appendix 1). After the implementation of the Pocable Game and Pear Deck,
respondents were given a survey questionnaire (Appendix 2) regarding the
intervention that they had experienced. The survey questionnaire consisted of
five statements and each respondent was required to tick “agree” or “disagree”
based on their personal experience of using Pocable Game and Pear Deck. The
questionnaire was set to measure the pupils’ learning motivation on vocabulary.
It was adapted from the measures developed by Pintrich and DeGroot (1990),
which also focuses on evaluating the learners’ learning motivation.
3.4 Research Procedure

Before the intervention was implemented, a pre-test was conducted towards the
respondents and the results were gathered and analysed. All the 20 targeted
vocabularies were introduced by the researchers to the respondents using flash
cards and word cards. In fact, all the 20 targeted vocabularies were introduced in
four periods of lesson, where 5 vocabularies were introduced in each period of
the lesson. After the 4th period of lesson, the pupils have covered all the 20
vocabularies by using flash cards. Then, the respondents were given 13 random
Pocable Game cards. They were required to form a word of at least four letters
that they have learned. Respondents were then required to read, spell and
explain the meaning of the words that they had formed. Marks on the top right
corner of the card were added and respondents had to jot down all vocabularies
formed in their mini vocabulary book. The game would end once a single
respondent had placed all of their cards and the respondent with the highest
score wins. As enrichment activities after Pocable Game, the respondents were
introduced to Pear Deck; an interactive online platform used to actively engage
pupils in individual and social learning. Pear Deck was integrated to assist the
pupils to remember better the vocabularies that they had learned using the
Pocable Game.

151
Figure 1: Pre-test was conducted before Figure 2: Teacher introduced 20 targeted

the intervention. vocabularies using flash cards and word
cards.
Figure 3: Each respondent was given 13 Figure 4: Respondents formed at least

cards at random. four letters of words that they have
learned.
Figure 5: Respondents read, spelled and Figure 6: Respondents added up their

explained the meaning of the word to marks on the top right corner of the card.
obtain marks.
Figure 7: All the vocabularies formed Figure 8: The game ended when one
were jotted down in the vocabulary respondent had placed all of his cards.
booklet. Respondent with highest score won.
Figure 9: Pear Deck was used as an Figure 10: Post-test was conducted after
enrichment to help the respondents to four weeks of intervention.
retain the vocabularies learned.

152
3.5 Data Collection and Analysis

The three research instruments, mainly the pre-test, post-test and survey
questionnaire were used to collect data. All of the data collected were tabulated
and analysed descriptively. The scores of all 40 pupils in their pre-test were
compared to their scores in the post-test. The scores were calculated according to
the percentage score formula. The scores were then analysed and placed with
reference to the Criterion Referenced Assessment (CRA) which was used in the
Malaysian Primary School Achievement Test to determine the comprehension
level of respondents based on the scores collected through the pre-test and post-
test. The CRA was first introduced in the United Stated in 1960s as a demand in
determining the grade of a learner against a set of qualities or criteria, without
reference to other individuals’ achievement (Hambleton & Li, 2014; Lok,
McNaught & Young, 2016). Pupils with test scores of 80 to 100 were categorised
as Excellent and had successfully attained the highest level of vocabulary
comprehension, followed by the test scores from 65 to 79 in the Good level, 50 to
64 in the Satisfactory level and 40 to 49 achieving Minimum level. Lastly, the
scores from 0 to 39 indicated Failure and the lowest level of vocabulary
comprehension. Table 2 shows the Criterion Referenced Assessment (CRA) used
for both the pre-test and post-test.
Table 2: Criterion Referenced Assessment (CRA)

Score Grade Descriptor
80 – 100 A Excellent PASS
65 – 79 B Good PASS
50 – 64 C Satisfactory PASS
40 – 49 D Achieve Minimum Level (Adequate) PASS
0 – 39 E Below Minimum Level (Poor) FAIL
The survey questionnaires were analysed descriptively. There were five

statements in the survey questionnaire and respondents were required to tick
“Agree” or “Disagree” based on the statements. The number of respondents
who “Agree” or “Disagree” with the statements were counted and converted
into percentage form.
4. Findings
The data had been collected through pre-test, post-test and survey questionnaire.
After identifying the pupils’ scores, the scores were then analysed and placed
with reference to the Criterion Referenced Assessment (CRA). CRA had been
accepted world-wide and for this research, CRA based on the Malaysian
Primary School Achievement Test would be used to determine the vocabulary
skills of the pupils based on the scores collected through the pre-test and post-
test. Table 3 and Figure 11 showed the descriptive statistics of the data collected
from both the pre-test and post-test.

153
Table 3: Results of the Pre-test and Post-test

Number of Pupils
Score Grade
Pre-test Post-test
80 – 100 A 1 30
65 – 79 B 2 10
50 – 64 C 1 0
40 – 49 D 30 0
0 – 39 E 6 0
Results of the Pre-test and Post-test

35
Number of Participants
30
25
20
15 Pre-test
10 Post-test
5
0
A B C D E
Grade
Figure 11: Respondents’ scores in the pre-test and post-test
In Table 3 and Figure 11, there was an improvement in the results of the
respondents’ post-test. As for grade A, there was one respondent who managed
to obtain grade A but in the post-test, there were 30 respondents managed to get
grade A. As for grade B, only two respondents obtained the grade in the pre-test,
while in the post-test, there were 10 respondents who managed to obtain the
grade. This showed an increase by 8 respondents, who had grade B. There was
one respondent who got grade C in the pre-test, whereby in the post-test, none
of the respondents got grade C. This implied that the use of Pocable Game and
Pear Deck managed to enhance the vocabulary skills among the learners. 30
respondents scored grade D in their pre-tests while none of the respondents
received this grade in the post-test. This is the same for grade E, where six
respondents had grade E in the pre-test, but none of them obtained the same
grade in the post-test. The results showed that the Pocable Game and Pear Deck
were able to enhance the vocabulary skills among the learners. All the
respondents obtained a good grade and they showed improvements in their
vocabulary learning.
Moreover, Table 4 describes the descriptive statistics of the data collected from
the survey questionnaire gauging on the improvement in vocabulary skills,
collaboration and motivation aspects after the implementation of Pocable Game
and Pear Deck.

154
Table 4: Data Collected from the Survey Questionnaire (n=40)

NO. STATEMENTS AGREE DISAGREE
n (%) n (%)
1. I have fun while playing the Pocable 38 (95) 2 (5)
Game and Pear Deck.
2. I help my friends who cannot give the 36 (90) 4 (10)
meaning of the vocabularies that they
have formed.
3. I know how to spell the vocabularies that 40 (100) 0 (0)
I have learned.
4. I can remember the meaning of the 40 (100) 0 (0)
vocabularies learned.
5. I am interested to play the Pocable Game 40 (100) 0 (0)
and Pear Deck.
As illustrated in Table 4, Question 1 and 5 focused on the respondents’

motivational level while Question 2 focused on the respondents' collaborative
skills throughout the Pocable Game and Pear Deck. On the other hand, Question
2 and 3 emphasised on the improvement in vocabulary skills after the
implementation of Pocable Game and Pear Deck.
Based on the motivational level as per implementation of the Pocable Game and
Pear Deck, 95% of the respondents agreed with the aspect of “I have fun while
playing the Pocable Game and Pear Deck” while 100% of the respondents agreed
with the statement of “I am interested to play the Pocable Game and Pear Deck”.
The two statements highlighted that the learners were highly motivated and
enthusiastic while learning vocabularies through Pocable Game and Pear Deck
as compared to the traditional chalk and talk method.
On the aspect of collaboration, 90% of the respondents agreed to the statement of

“I help my friends who cannot give the meaning of the vocabularies that they
have formed”. This showed that the respondents were willing to collaborate
with their peers in learning vocabularies through Pocable Game and Pear Deck.
Through collaborative learning, the pupils would be able to develop 4C’s
(cooperation and collaboration, communication, creative and critical thinking
skills) and 1V (value) in this 21st century education system as stated in the
Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013 – 2025 (Ministry of Education, 2015).
For the aspect of improvement in vocabulary skills, 100% of the respondents

agreed to both the statements of “I know how to spell the vocabularies that I
have learned” and “I can remember the meaning of the vocabularies learned”.
Thus, these statements showed that through Pocable Game and Pear Deck, the
respondents were able to remember the spelling and meanings of the
vocabularies learned better.
All in all, the five statements from the survey questionnaire indicated that the
learners gained positive and constructive experiences in enhancing their
vocabulary skills and they were encouraged to learn more vocabularies using
Pocable Game and Pear Deck.

155
5. Discussions
5.1 Enhancing the Vocabulary Skills among Learners

From the pre and post-test result, it can conclude that the use of Pocable Game
and Pear Deck managed to enhance the vocabulary skill among the Year Four
respondents from four different schools. In the pre-test, majority of the research
respondents scored less than 45%. This indicated that the previous methods and
techniques in teaching vocabulary were not effective. After the implementation
of the Pocable Game and Pear Deck, the post-test showed a significant increase
in the score of the research respondents. All 40 respondents had scored 100% in
their post-tests. This showed that the incorporation of the Pocable Game with
Pear Deck managed to reinforce the vocabularies learned among the pupils,
which also adhered to the aim of this paper. Undeniably, according to Takeuchi
and Vaala (2014), playing games which are educational to pupils would give a
chance for them to experience a more positive and encouraging learning
environment. Through the post-test, it was also found that using the Pocable
Game could enhance the pupils’ ability in memorising new vocabularies and
encourage the pupils’ interaction in remembering the spelling and the meaning
of the vocabularies. Vygotsky (1978) mentioned that games help in developing
problem solving skills and enhances the creativity and communication among
primary pupils. The pupils have to put in effort to remember not only the
spelling of the vocabularies but the meanings too. Past researchers also believed
that the use of games could help teachers to create various contexts in which
pupils can use the language for communication, exchange information and
express their own opinions especially in the spelling of new vocabularies
(Derakhshan & Khatir, 2015). Besides, the survey questionnaire showed positive
responses from the research respondents. It showed that all of the pupils agreed
that they know how to spell and remember the meanings of the words that they
had learned. This showed the effectiveness of using games in developing the
pupils’ vocabulary skill. Moreover, Taghiadeh et al. (2017) also supported that
the use of games enables children to learn vocabulary better than using
traditional ways. Therefore, it could be concluded that the use of Pocable Game
and Pear Deck is effective in enhancing the learners’ vocabulary skills.
5.2 Encouraging the Learners to Learn Vocabularies

From the survey questionnaire, it showed that the Pocable Game and Pear Deck
had achieved its potential in encouraging learners to learn vocabularies. The
research respondents showed positive responses as majority of them agreed to
the statements in the survey questionnaire. The research respondents agreed
that they were interested and had fun playing the Pocable Game and Pear Deck.
This showed that learners were motivated to learn new vocabularies after the
implementation of the Pocable Game and Pear Deck. According to Al Neyadi
(2007), motivation is one of the important factors in learning a language and a
supportive environment that stimulates and engages the pupils in learning will
ensure active participation in the learning of new vocabularies.
Apart from that, it was also found that most of the respondents collaborated
with their peers by helping them in giving the meaning of the vocabularies

156
formed. Games are effective in learning vocabulary because they “usually

involve friendly competition and create cooperative learning environment to the
pupils” (Derakhshan & Khatir, 2015). The communication between the learners
showed that they were interested and participated actively in the learning
process. It was a learner-centred activity and provided a meaningful experience
to the pupils as they interacted with each other and as a result, the acquisition of
language vocabulary was encouraged (Segal-Drori et al., 2010). Therefore, it
could be concluded that Pocable Game and Pear Deck managed to encourage
pupils to interact with each other and to participate actively in the learning of
new vocabularies. This is supported by Shahriarpour and Kafi (2014) who stated
that using games makes pupils participate actively in this 21st century
technological society. Another distinct game-based learning vocabulary activity
which was conducted by Shabaneh and Farrah (2019) also supported that the
learners were exposed with learning vocabulary through games to improve their
reading and spelling of the vocabularies. Findings showed that the learners were
able to enjoy while learning and show great improvements.
6. Conclusion and Implications

The use of Pocable Game and Pear Deck can help to enhance the pupils’
vocabulary skills. In this research, it was proven to be effective as the data
collected from the pre-test, post-test and survey questionnaire showed that
majority of the respondents had positive experiences in learning vocabulary
through the Pocable Game and Pear Deck, aside from having better memory
retention of the vocabularies learned; in which promoted the learners’ interest in
expanding their vocabulary bank. The pupils’ level of motivation was observed
to be improving and they provided positive feedbacks to the use of Pocable
Game and Pear Deck in learning new vocabularies. For pupils, the use of
Pocable Game incorporated with Pear Deck is a fun and interactive way in
learning new vocabularies without fully depending on memorising and drilling.
In fact, the 4C’s and 1V could also be enhanced among pupils, in line with the
current 21st century learning system.
As for teachers, it provides a platform for a pupil-centred learning environment

where pupils can carry out the activities through hands-on activity. This reduced
the teacher’s involvement in the learning process and allowed more autonomy
for the pupils in learning the new and unfamiliar vocabularies. As independent
word learners, pupils will learn best by making sense of their own vocabulary
and internalising it. Through the usage of the Pocable Game, the teacher is only
required to monitor the pupils’ learning. Thus, Pocable Game and Pear Deck
shows the relevance to the improvement in the methodology of teaching
vocabulary in a fun, interesting and meaningful way. As suggestions for future
researches, it would be interesting to see the incorporation of other various
technology-based applications such as Quizizz, Kahoot, and Quick Response
(QR) codes alongside open-ended written questions, observations and open-
ended interviews.

157
7. References
Al Neyadi, O. (2007). The effects of using games to reinforce vocabulary learning. In
H.C.T. Marifa (Ed.), Action research and initial teacher education in the UAE (pp. 99-
107). HCT Press, UAE.
Bakhsh, S. A. (2016). Using games as a tool in teaching vocabulary to young learners.
English Language Teaching, 9(7), 120-128. doi:10.5539/elt.v9n7p120
Calvo-Ferrer, J. R. (2017). Educational games as stand-alone learning tools and their
motivational effects on L2 vocabulary acquisition and perceived learning gains.
British Journal of Educational Technology, 48(2), 264-278.
https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12387
Chirandon, A., Laohawiriyanon, C., & Rakthong, A. (2010). The effects of teaching
English through games. Retrieved September 26, 2019, from
http://fs.libarts.psu.ac.th/research/conference/proceedings-2/4pdf/006.pdf
Derakhshan, A., & Khatir, E.D. (2015). The effects of using games on English vocabulary
learning. Journal of Applied Linguistics and Language Research, 2(3), 39-47.
Etikan, I., Musa S. A., & Alkassim, R. S. (2016). Comparison of convenience sampling
and purposive sampling. American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics, 5(1),
pp. 1-4. doi:10.11648/j.ajtas.20160501.11.
Gee, J. P. (2012). The old and the new in the new digital literacies. The Educational Forum,
76(4), 418-420.
Godwin-Jones, R. (2014). Games in language learning: Opportunities and challenges.
Language Learning & Technology, 18(2), 9–19 Retrieved from
http://llt.msu.edu/issues/june2014/emerging.pdf
Hambleton, R. K., & Li, S. (2014). Criterion-referenced assessment. Wiley StatsRef:
Statistics Reference Online 1–8.
Hashim, H., Rafiq, K. R. M., & Yunus. (2019). Improving ESL learners’ grammar with
gamified-learning. Arab World English Journal (AWEJ) Special Issue on CALL, (5),
41-50. doi:10.24093/awej/call5.4
Indriyani, A., & Sugirin. (2019). The impact of vocabulary learning strategies. 3rd
International Conference on Current Issues in Education (ICCIE 2018) (pp. 113-117).
Paris: Atlantis Press.
Kalaycioğlu, H. E. (2011). The effect of picture vocabulary games and gender on four
years old children's English vocabulary performance: An experimental
investigation (Unpublished master's thesis). Middle East Technical University,
Turkey.
Kunnu, W., Uiphanit, T., & Sukwises, A. (2016). The development of vocabulary
memorization by using games. International Journal of Social Science and Humanity,
6(6), 419-422. Retrieved from http://www.ijssh.org/vol6/683-H019.pdf
Lie, W., & Yunus. (2018). Pen pals are now in your fingertips — A global collaboration
online project to develop writing skills. Creative Education, 9(15), 2491-2504.
doi:10.4236/ce.2018.915188
Lok, B., McNaught, C. & Young, K. (2016). Criterion-referenced and norm-referenced
assessments: Compatibility and complementarity. Assessment & Evaluation in
Higher Education, 41(3), 450–465. doi:10.1080/02602938.2015.1022136
McKay, S. L. (2018). English as an international language: What is it and whta it means
for pedagogy. RELC Journal, 49(1), 9-23.
Ministry of Education. (2015). English language education reform in Malaysia: The
roadmap 2015-2025. Retrieved September 10, 2019, from
https://anyflip.com/detl/zspi/basic

158
Noureddine, A. (2017). The benefits of using ICT in the EFL classroom: From perceived
utility to potential challenges. Journal of Educational and Social Research, 7(1), 111-
118.
Pintrich, R. R., & DeGroot, E. V. (1990). Motivational and self-regulated learning
components of classroom academic performance. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 82, 33–40.
Pomerantz, A., & Bell, N. D. (2007). Learning to play, playing to learn: FL learners as
multicompetent language users. Applied Linguistics, 28(4), 556-578.
Reddy, M. S. (2016). Importance of English language in today's world. International
Journal of Academic Research, 3(4), 179-184.
Segal-Drori, O., Korat, O., Shamir, A., & Klein, P. S. (2010). Reading electronic and
printed books with and without adult instruction: Effects on emergent reading.
Reading and Writing, 23(8), 913-930.
Shahriarpour, N., & Kafi, Z. (2014). The effect of playing digital games on Iranian
intermediate ELF learners' motivation toward learning English vocabularies.
Procedia-Social and Behavioural Sciences, 98, 1738-1743.
Taghiadeh, M., Vaezi, S., & Ravan, M. (2017). Digital games, songs and flashcards and
their effects on vocabulary knowledge of Iranian preschoolers. Studies, 5(4), 156-
171.
Takeuchi, L. M., & Vaala, S. (2014). Level up learning: A national survey on teaching with
digital games. New York: The Joan Ganz Cooney Center at Sesame Workshop.
Thirusanku, J., & Yunus. (2012). Status of English in Malaysia. Asian Social Science, 10(14),
254-260. ISSN 1911-2017.
Tsai, F. H., Yu, K. C., & Hsiao, H. S. (2012). Exploring the factors influencing learning
effectiveness in digital game-based learning. Educational Technology & Society,
15(3), 240-250.
Tüzün, H., Yılmaz-Soylu, M., Karakuş, T., İnal, Y., & Kızılkaya, G. (2009). The effects of
computer games on primary school students’ achievement and motivation in
geography learning. Computers & Education, 52(1), 68-77.
Viera, R. T. (2016). Vocabulary knowledge in the production of written texts: A case
study on EFL language learners. Revista Tecnologica ESPOL, 30(3), 89-105.
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Interaction between learning and development. California: W. H.
Freeman Company.
Wang, C. K. J., Khoo, A., Liu, W. C., & Divaharan, S. (2008). Passion and intrinsic
motivation in digital gaming. Cyber Psychology & Behaviour, 11(1), 39- 45.
Yunus & Ek Hern, G. (2011). Malaysian undergraduates' perceptions and attitudes on
bilingual education. Procedia Social and Behavioural Sciences, 15, 2618-2622.
Yunus, M., Lau, E. Y. Y., Khair, A. H. M., & Yusof, N. M. (2020). Acquisition of
vocabulary in primary schools via GoPic with QR code. International Journal of
English Language and Literature Studies, 9(3), 121-131. doi:
10.18488/journal.23.2020.93.121.131.
Yunus, Nordin, N., Salehi, H., Embi, M. A., & Salehi, Z. (2014). Future of ICT as a
pedagogical tool in ESL teaching and learning. Research Journal of Applied Sciences,
Engineering and Technology, 7(4), 764-770.

159
Appendix 1: Pre-test and Post-test
(A) Spelling Test
1. ________________ 6. ________________
2. ________________ 7. ________________
3. ________________ 8. ________________
4. ________________ 9. ________________
5. ________________ 10. ________________
11. ________________ 16. ________________
12. ________________ 17. ________________
13. ________________ 18. ________________
14. ________________ 19. ________________
15. ______________ 20. ________________

160
Appendix 2: Survey Questionnaire Instruments
NO. STATEMENTS AGREE DISAGREE

1. I have fun while playing the Pocable
Game and Pear Deck.
2. I help my friends who cannot give the
meaning of the vocabularies that they
have formed.
3. I know how to spell the vocabularies
that I have learned.
4. I can remember the meaning of the
vocabularies learned.
5. I am interested to play the Pocable Game
and Pear Deck.

161

Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 161-178, June 2020
Content Validity of West African Examination

Council Financial Accounting Questions
Basil C. E Oguguo, John J. Agah and Catherine U. Ene

Department of Science Education, University of Nigeria Nsukka, Nigeria
Vivian N. ACholonu
Department of life Science Education, Imo State University, Nigeria
Roseline N. Azubuike*
Department of Business Education, University of Nigeria Nsukka, Nigeria
Mary A. Okeke and Lourita P. Agbo

Department of Science Education, University of Nigeria Nsukka, Nigeria
Abstract. The study sought to ascertain the content validity of West

African Examination Council Multiple-Choice Test Items in Financial
Accounting from 2016-2018. The researchers assessed how spread
taxonomically the content of the core curriculum in the WASSCE
Financial Accounting questions were. The population of the study
included all the West African Senior School Certificate Examination
(WASSCE) multiple-choice question papers in Financial Accounting set
by the Council. The sample covered multiple-choice test items from
2016-2018. Two research questions and two hypotheses guided the
study. The Financial Accounting curriculum and the WASSCE Financial
Accounting questions were the main instruments used for data
collection. A total of 150 WASSCE objective questions papers were
categorized in line with the various cognitive levels. The results revealed
that some topics were overemphasized while others were
underemphasized. Some topics like introduction to accounting were
ignored. The spread of the questions to different cognitive levels did not
comply with the required standard; therefore, the WASSCE questions
within the period have low content validity. The curriculum should
*
Corresponding author: Roseline N. Azubuike, Email: [email protected]

162
from time-to-time be scrutinized alongside the WASSCE syllabus in

order to make the two agree in both content and objectives.
Keywords: content validity; curriculum validity; examination; multiple-

choice tests; financial accounting
1. Introduction
The Nigerian system of Education has gone through tremendous changes and
innovations over the years. These changes were targeted towards achieving the
educational goals set by the government in power. At the junior level, the
curriculum design adopted is mainly the broad field design; though some
subjects were taught as compartmentalized disciplines such as Igbo language,
Home Economics and Mathematics, et cetera. Some other subjects related are
organized in broad or large fields such as Commerce, Book-keeping, Shorthand
and Economics which were all integrated to form Business Studies. Also,
Biology, Physics and Chemistry were organized to form Integrated Science at the
Junior Secondary School level. This is the case with some other subjects at the
Senior Secondary School level. A close look at the National curriculum will
reveal that the design adopted at the senior secondary level is subject-centered
curriculum.
The recently introduced 9-3-4 government policy in education in Nigeria

requires a child to complete a nine-year basic education at the age of 14 to 15
years before proceeding to a three-year secondary education. In the view of
Oparaku (2005), the three-year secondary education terminates after the
students must have written the West African Senior School Certificate
Examination (WASSCE) which is presently conducted in Nigeria by the West
African Examination Council (WAEC). WASSCE is among the standardized
examinations in Nigeria by which students are assessed to ascertain how much
they have achieved after being exposed to the secondary school curricula
(Adewuyi & Oluokun, 2001).
The WAEC is a Board established by law to determine; the examinations

required in the public interest of the English-speaking West African countries, to
conduct examinations and to award certificates that are comparable to those of
other equivalent examining authorities internationally. The board was
established in 1952, and since then, the council has contributed to education in
Anglophonic countries in West Africa (Ghana, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Liberia,
and Gambia) based on the numbers of examinations they have coordinated and
the certificates they have issued. The Board also founded an endowment fund
that is responsible for contributing to educations in West Africa with the help of
lectures and provisions of aids to those who cannot afford education
(Akinbolati, 2003). The Board is responsible for conducting four different
categories of examinations; these are International Examinations, National
Examinations, Examinations conducted in collaboration with other examining
bodies, and Examinations conducted on behalf of other examining bodies. The
International examinations imply the examinations written in the five countries

163
with the WAEC ordinance. These include West African Senior School Certificate
Examination (WASSCE) that is administered as follows:
• WASSCE for private candidates (first series) January–February
• WASSCE for (School Candidates) March - May
• WASSCE for private Candidates (Main GCE) September–October
The National Examinations are written in each country; and Financial

Accounting is one of the subjects undertaken by students at the senior secondary
school level. Nevertheless, Alimi, Ehinola and Alabi (2012) opined that there is
low level of enrolment of students in this subject in the senior school
examinations conducted by West African Examination Council in Nigeria.
Financial Accounting has been defined by many authorities. Okereke (2000)
referred to Financial Accounting as the collection, review and adjustment of
financial data for the main purpose of presenting final Accounts (income
statements, sources and uses of funds statements and Balance Sheet).
Many people mistake Financial Accounting for Book-keeping which is referred

to as the act of recording business activities or transactions in an orderly manner
in order to enable the books show at any time the financial position of the
business. According to Eneja (2013), the concept of Book-keeping is smaller; as a
result, it can be referred to as a unit or branch of Financial Accounting.
Accounting is concerned with the acquisition of knowledge for recording,
analyzing, interpreting and summarizing the financial data of an organization or
enterprise (Obidile, Amobi, Uzoekwe & Akuezilo, 2017). Amadi (2002) stated
that financial accounting is that branch of business accounting that deals with
the collection, accumulation, adjustment and presentation of financial
information for the use of both internal and external parties. Financial
Accounting, as earlier mentioned constitutes part of subjects offered at the senior
secondary schools; it has a curriculum that has been designed to specify the
contents and behavioral objectives needed to equip one for efficient financial
management ability. Asaolu (2002) defined Accounting from a traditional
perspective, the author sees the subject as the process of collecting, analyzing,
interpreting and communicating the financial information of a business. The
traditional perspective view of accounting as a mechanical process that does not
interact much with the business environment as opined by Chinweike (2011). On
the other hand, Chinweike (2011) using modern business perspective views
financial accounting as a lens through which makers sees through the clouded
business world. This is to say that accounting has seized to be an almost
automated process that it used to be and is now highly scalable; by scalable, it
means that accounting process is now robust enough to accommodate any
unforeseen event that turns out. The learning of the subject offers one the
opportunity of becoming an accountant and financial expert in the financial
market (Bob, 2012).
Financial Accounting topics are designed very well according to their

importance. From the weights attached to them, one who acquires the theoretical
aspect in school should be able to fit into different aspects of life. Since the senior
school certificate is an essential requirement for academic advancement and

164
employment; it is therefore, pertinent to ascertain the content validity of the test

instrument of WAEC as one of the bodies saddled with the responsibility of
conducting senior school certificate examination in various subject areas which
equally includes Financial Accounting (Igben, 2009). The Federal Republic of
Nigeria in her National Policy on Education (2004) stipulate that financial
accounting is an elective course in the senior secondary schools while the
Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council NERDC (2007)
summarized the objectives of studying the subject in secondary schools to: equip
secondary school students with the necessary knowledge about the various
reforms; changes and adjustments in the country’s economic and financial
system; to enable secondary school students understand the rudiments and
fundamentals of the Nigerian financial system and the public sector accounting;
which will inculcate in them the spirit of transparency and accountability in
public financial management; and to inculcate the interest and the needed
foundation in the students that will encourage them to become professionally
qualified accountants (Uwameiye & Ogunbameru, 2005).
A test can be defined as an instrument of measurement which connotes a

structured situation comprising a set of questions administered to an individual
to respond to from which his behaviors or traits are quantified. According to
Donna (2011), examination is a deliberate attempt at obtaining a sample of one’s
behaviour, knowledge, skills and ability or performance in a particular field of
study, verbally, in written form or in a practical term. Achievement in the school
context is seen as an increase in knowledge, skills and dispositions the learner
acquired from exposure, teaching and instruction as opposed to the endowment
inheritance (Illeris, 2014). It is concerned with the mastery of the general or
specific knowledge areas to which the teacher exposes his learners. Examination
means different things to different people; some sees it as a true test of
knowledge others as an entrustment of social discrimination whereby the less
fortunate feels inferior to the more privileged. As of today, it is believed, that
there is no better index for evaluating students’ achievement in school.
Therefore, examination is an integral part of our educational system. The results
of examinations are used for placement, selection, promotion and certification.
Nigeria, seeing the enviable positions of some countries like America, Germany,
Britain, France, Australia and even some countries in the far East that have
occupied the world socio-economic affairs, had made attempts to improve the
education system. The 6-3-3-4 system of Education was altered in favour of 9-3-4
system of education giving rise to a 9 – years Basic Education Programme, 3 –
years senior secondary, and 4 – years of university education. Presently, the 6-3-
3-4 system of education is now changed to 9-3-4 system of education; this
implies nine years of primary Education, three years of secondary Education and
four years of university education respectively. These changes are all targeted
towards improving the standard of education in Nigeria (Ambaliyu, 2008).
In all these changes, one of the reoccurring factors which have been a matter of
great concern to policymakers, educators, and parents is the issue of poor
achievement of students in the standard examinations conducted by external

165
examination bodies like WAEC. Our present school system (9-3-4) has placed a
high premium on the senior school certificate Examination. The certificate
obtained is seen as a foundation for academic, political and economic progress in
our society. Admissions into universities and job opportunities are based on
some levels of performance of students in this standardized examination as
conducted by WAEC and other examination bodies. The result of the senior
school certificate examination can be used for academic planning and career
choice; this indicates that the examination has far-reaching implications on the
life of the examinees.
In this regard, the senior school certificate is a testimonial to one’s ability and
aptitude. Then, this examination has to be valid, reliable and usable as an
evaluation instrument. All valid evaluation instruments are relatively reliable
and usable however, not all reliable instruments may be valid; therefore, validity
takes precedence over the other qualities possessed by good evaluation
instruments. Validity is referred to as the extent to which a test instrument
measures what it is designed to measure accurately. It is a concept that questions
the relevance of a test. In affirmation, Ibe (2004) opined that an examination is
invalid likewise the result if the items of the examination are not drawn from all
the content areas of instruction. The representativeness of the course content by
the items of the test should not only be in terms of coverage of topics but, it
should reflect the categories of domains at which performances may be expected
to occur. A test is said to be fair to all concerned, if it appraises both low and
high cognitive ability; secondly, if the language of the test items is unambiguous
and not open to several interpretations (Charles & Brian, 2012).
Content validity refers to the extent to which the items on a test are fairly
representative of the entire domain the test seeks to measure. One of the
strengths of content validation is the simple and intuitive nature of its basic idea,
which holds that what a test seeks to measure constitutes a content domain and
the items on the test should sample from that domain in a way that makes the
test items representative of the entire domain (Salkind, 2010). Content validity is
the extent of a measurement tool represents the measured construct and it is
considered as an essential evidence to support the validity of a measurement
tool such as a questionnaire for research. Content validity is defined as the
degree to which elements of an assessment instrument are relevant to and
representative of the targeted construct for a particular assessment purpose
(Yusoff, 2019). The purpose of content validation is to minimize the potential
error associated with the instrument operationalization in the initial stages and
to increase the probability of obtaining supportive construct validity in the later
stages. Content validity helps the researcher gain invaluable feedback from
panel of experts and develop and assess dimensions and subdimensions of the
construct intended to be measured (Shrotrvia & Dhanda, 2019). Ukwuije and
Orluwene (2009) opined that content validation determines what proportion of
the test items reflects the required content of the subject matter. The greater the
percentage, the more content valid the test becomes and the smaller the
percentage, the smaller content valid the test becomes (Kpolovie, 2010). Content
validity measures the degree to which items of an instrument measure a

166
representative sample of the subject matter content and the instructional

objectives. Therefore, the questions that can be asked are: Do WAEC test items
cover adequately what the students are expected to learn? Do they appraise
appropriately the learning outcomes the students should exhibit with respect to
the content, their relative weights with the levels of the cognitive skill as
designed in the syllabus on Financial Accounting?
The teaching-learning process mainly involves the teacher and the students and
the certification of the students is done by external examination bodies like
WAEC. A different body prepares the Curriculum through the teachers and the
examination bodies make inputs. The syllabus is developed by WAEC and the
teachers who implement the curriculum do not participate adequately in
developing the curriculum, and also in the certification of the students.
However, the introduction of the continuous assessment in the school system
has increased the teachers` participation in the evaluation but it is still doubtful
if the records of the continuous assessment are incorporated in the summative
examination result as conducted by WAEC.
There have been general outcries on the poor performance of Financial

Accounting students in the senior school certificate examination as conducted by
WAEC (WAEC 2018, chief examiners report in financial Accounting). Therefore,
one wonders if the test items of the examination are drawn from what the
students have been exposed to in the subject. Furthermore, a situation where a
student rated below average by his/her teacher obtains a credit in an
examination set by WAEC is also a course of concern to stakeholders in the
education system such as teachers. In these regards, some pertinent questions
such as: Do multiple-choice test items reflect the subject content? To what
extents do WASSCE multiple-choice test items cover the various levels of
objectives in the cognitive domain? To what extent are the cognitive behavioural
outcomes of WASSCE multiple-choice test items representative of the content?
In attempts to answer these questions, this study was necessitated. Generally,
this study ascertained the content validity of WASSCE multiple-choice test item
of Financial Accounting question papers for the periods of three years.
Specifically, the study determined:
i. the extent to which the test items on the question papers are
representatives of the various topics in the syllabus of Financial
Accounting.
ii. the extent to which the spread of the test items on the question papers
covered the various levels of the cognitive domain alongside the content
area over the years of study.
The following research questions were posed to guide the study:
(i) To what extent are the WASSCE multiple-choice test items a
representative sample of the content of Financial Accounting over the
years of study?
(ii) To what extents are the WASSCE multiple-choice test items in Financial
Accounting a representative sample of the cognitive behavioural
objectives?

167
Hypotheses
H01. The number of WASSCE multiple-choice test items in Financial Accounting
drawn from the various topics is not significantly different from the number of
questions expected to be drawn from them (P<0.05).
H02. The spread of the WASSCE multiple-choice items in Financial Accounting
drawn in the various cognitive levels is not significantly different from the
spread expected (P<0.05).

2.1 Research Design
The design employed in this study is the analytic survey research design.
Analytic survey research according to Asim, Idaka and Eni (2017) involves the
identification and interpretation of data already existing in documents, pictures
and artifacts. The design is considered appropriate because the researchers
collected and analysed data already existing in documents. This study used the
WASSCE financial accounting question papers administered in Nigeria. The
population of this study includes all the 150 multiple-choice question papers in
Financial Accounting set by West African Examination Council. The sample of
the study comprised all the multiple-choice questions (May/June) in West
African Senior School Certificate Examination conducted by WAEC from 2016-
2018. The study employed purposive sampling technique. The purposive
sampling techniques was used for the study because only the more recent
WAEC Financial Accounting question papers were purposively selected to
ensure current coverage over time.
2.2 Reliability of the Instrument

One hundred and fifty (150) objective questions comprising fifty (50) questions
from each year were tabulated and given to three experts in measurement and
evaluation for classification. The researchers’ own classification was also
compared to that of the experts. The inter-rater reliability coefficient between the
researchers’ classification and that of the experts were also calculated; the values
obtained were 0.89 and 0.91 respectively using Kendal’s Coefficient of
Concordance. Each multiple-choice test item on the question papers were
assessed by some experts to indicate the levels of cognitive domains which they
belong to and also the topics to which the items belong to. The researchers
assigned weights to the topics in the curriculum for Financial Accounting based
on the emphasis placed on each topic by the curriculum. This emphasis depends
on how broad a topic is, with respect to the number of weeks spent teaching
each topic. The researchers adopted the provisions of the scheme of work on
financial accounting for higher secondary schools where weeks expected to
teach each topic were specified.
Thus, the researchers calculated the number of weeks allotted to each topic by
the scheme of work. The number of weeks assigned to a particular topic was
converted to the proportion of the total number of weeks used in teaching all the
topics in the curriculum expressed in terms of the 150 questions involved in the
study. The value obtained is the expected weight of the topic required to be
tested by the WASSCE (May/June) Financial Accounting.

168
The researchers also classified the entire behavioural objectives stated in the
curriculum for financial accounting against the cognitive levels they tested.
Thus, the sum of a particular cognitive level was converted to the proportion of
the total number of all the cognitive levels emphasized in the curriculum
expressed in terms of the 150 questions involved in the study. The value
obtained is taken as the expected weight of the cognitive level required to be
tested by the WASSCE (May/June) Financial Accounting.
2.3 Method of Data Analysis

Finally, each question in the WASSCE (May/June) Financial accounting question
papers was classified by the researchers against the particular level of the
cognitive domain it tested. The sum of a particular cognitive level is therefore
the observed weight of that cognitive level tested by WASSCE (May/June)
Financial Accounting over the three years. Chi-square was used to test the
significant difference at (<0.05) from the observed frequency result. The extent
of the content coverage was determined using percentages.
3. Results
Table 1: Number of questions and percentage spread in WASSCE Financial

Accounting question papers from 2016 to 2018
S/N Topics in the Core Curriculum Number of Questions and Percentages
For Financial Accounting 2016 2017 2018
No. of % of No. of % of No. of % of
Qs. Qs. Qs. Qs. Qs. Qs.
1 Introduction 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 Principles and practice of
10 20 12 24 9 18
double-Entry
3 The final accounts of sole trader 11 22 5 10 2 4
4 Reserves and provisions 3 6 2 4 7 14
5 Manufacturing Accounts 3 6 3 6 6 12
6 Control accounts and self-
7 14 5 10 6 10
balancing ledger
7 Single-entry and incomplete
1 2 1 2 0 0
records
8 Accounts of nonprofit making
2 4 1 2 2 4
organization
9 Accounting concepts and
3 6 3 6 2 4
convention
10 Partnership 3 6 3 6 2 4
11 Company’s account 4 8 7 14 7 14
12 Departmental and Branch
0 0 3 6 1 2
Account
13 Public Sector Accounting 1 2 3 6 4 8
14 Introduction to Data processing 2 4 2 4 3 6
Total 50 100 50 100 50 100
Qs = Questions

169
Table 1 above shows the number of questions and percentage derived from each
topic for the three years under review.
A close observation of Table 1 shows that:
a) In the year 2016, the principles and practices of double-entry, final
accounts of a sole trader, control accounts and self-balancing ledger and
company’s accounts were emphasized more.
b) The trend was also observed in 2017 and 2018. In 2017, the numbers of
questions from the respective topics were 12, 5, 5 and 7 while in 2018 the
numbers of questions from each topic were 9, 2, 6 and 7 respectively.
c) In 2016, no question was derived from departmental account and branch
account respectively.
d) For the years under review, WAEC did not test students in introduction
to financial accounting. This accounted for the 0% shown in the table.
e) Emphases were placed only on four topics: Principles of double-entry,
final Accounts, control accounts and self-balancing ledger and
company’s account with 20%, 22%, 14% and 8% respectively.
f) In 2018, the final account of sole trader had 4% which is a deviation from
2016 and 2017 respectively.
Table 2: Number of questions expected and observed from each topic

Number of Number of
questions according questions
S/N Topics
to scheme observed
(Expected) (WASSCE)
1 Introduction to Financial Accounting 8 0
2 Principles and practice of double-
13 31
entry
3 The final account of sole trader 12 18
4 Reserves and provisions 13 12
5 Manufacturing accounts 13 12
6 Control accounts 10 17
7 Single-entry and incomplete records 7 2
8 Accounts of nonprofit making
7 5
organization
9 Accounting concepts and convention 8 8
10 Partnership 15 8
11 Company’s account 17 18
12 Departmental accounts 10 4
13 Public sector accounting 10 8
14 Introduction to data processing 7 7
Total 150 150
The results in Table 2 showed that:

1. Questions were not drawn from introduction to accounting for the years as
against 8 questions which are the number of questions expected to be drawn
from the topic.
2. Topic 2: principles and practice of double-entry attracted 31 questions as
against 13 based on the weight assigned to the topic in the scheme of work.

170
3. The number of questions expected from topics 4,5, 11, and 13were not
significantly different from the numbers of questions observed.
4. For Topic 9 and 14, the number of questions expected were also the same as
the numbers of questions observed from the question paper.
5. A difference was observed from the numbers of questions expected as
against the numbers of questions observed in topics 3, 6, 7, 10 and 12.
Table 3: Number of questions derived from each cognitive level for the three years
S/N Cognitive Levels 2016 2017 2018
No. of % of No. of % of No. of % of
Qs Qs Qs Qs Qs Qs
1 Knowledge 9 18 13 26 26 52
2 Comprehension 14 28 11 22 8 16
3 Application 17 34 17 34 12 24
4 Analysis 4 8 3 6 3 6
5 Synthesis 3 6 2 4 1 2
6 Evaluation 3 6 4 8 0 0
Total 50 100 50 100 50 100
Qs = Questions
Table 3 above showed that:

a) In 2016, 2017 and 2018 the numbers of questions from knowledge level
were 9, 13 and 26 respectively.
b) The students were tested at comprehension level in 2016, 2017 and 2018
with 14, 11 and 8 questions respectively out of 50 questions for each year.
c) For the three years under review, much emphasis was placed on
knowledge, comprehension and application.
d) There was a consistent trend as analysis in 2016, 2017 and 2018 had 4, 3
and 3 questions drawn from that level within the three years under
review.
e) Synthesis and evaluation were less emphasized as shown in the table
with synthesis having 3, 4 and 0, in the three respective years.
A close observation of Table 3 shows that WASSCE multiple-choice test items for
the three years had many questions from knowledge, comprehension and
application level. In 2016, 18% of questions were drawn from knowledge, 28%
from comprehension while 34% arose from application compared to 8%, 6% and
6% for items on analysis, synthesis and evaluation respectively. The same trend
was repeated in 2017 when knowledge, comprehension and application got 26%,
22% and 34% respectively compared to analysis, synthesis and evaluation that
had 6%, 4% and 8% items respectively. In 2018, the same was also observed with
knowledge, comprehension and application getting 52%, 16% and 24%
respectively while analysis, synthesis and evaluation was 6%, 2% and 0%
respectively. This means that questions were not drawn from evaluation level of
cognitive domain in 2018.

171
Table 4: Number of Questions Expected from each Cognitive Level as against the
Observed Number
S/N Cognitive levels Number of questions Number of questions
expected from each observed from each
cognitive level cognitive level
1 Knowledge 23 48
2 Comprehension 37 33
3 Application 30 46
4 Analysis 37 10
5 Synthesis 15 6
6 Evaluation 8 7
Total 150 150
Table 5: Summary of Chi-square analysis for weights of topics in the Financial

Accounting curriculum and in WAEC syllabus
S/N Topics Weights Weights of O-E (O-E)2 (O-E)2
of topics topics by E
by numbers of
scheme of questions
work (E) (O)
1 Introduction 8 0 -8 64 8.00
2 Principles and practice
13 31 18 324 24.92
of double-entry
3 The final accounts of
12 18 6 36 3.00
sole trader
4 Reserves and
13 12 -1 1 0.08
provisions
5 Manufacturing
13 12 -1 1 0.08
accounts
6 Control accounts and
10 17 7 49 4.9
self-balancing ledger
7 Single-entry and
7 2 -5 25 3.57
incomplete records
8 Accounts of nonprofit
7 5 -2 4 0.57
making organization
9 Accounting concepts
8 8 0 0 0
and convention
10 Partnership 15 8 -7 49 3.27
11 Company’s account 17 18 1 1 0.06
12 Departmental and
10 4 -6 36 3.6
branch account
13 Public sector
10 8 -2 4 0.4
accounting
14 Introduction to Data
7 7 0 0 0
processing
Total 150 150 52.45
X2 = 52.45

172
The result revealed the fact that the calculated X2 (52.45) is greater than the
tabulated X2 of 22.36 at 0.05 level of significance and degrees of freedom (df) of
13. Since the calculated value of X2 = 52.45 is greater than the tabulated value of
22.36; the null hypothesis which state that the number of WASSCE multiple-choice
test items in Financial Accounting drawn from the various topics is not significantly
different from the number of questions expected to be drawn from them is therefore,
rejected. The implication of this is that there is a significant difference between
the weights assigned to the topics in the curriculum for financial accounting to
the weights assigned by West African Examination Council (multiple-Choice
Items) from 2016-2018.
Table 6: Summary of Chi-Square Weights Assigned to the levels of Cognitive domain

in the Curriculum and the Weights Assigned to them by West African Examination
Council Financial Accounting
S/N Cognitive Levels Expected Observed O-E (O-E)2 (O-E) 2
Weights Weights E
E O
1 Knowledge 23 48 25 625 27.17
2 Comprehension 37 33 -4 16 0.43
3 Application 30 46 16 256 8.53
4 Analysis 37 10 -27 729 19.70
5 Synthesis 15 6 -9 81 5.4
6 Evaluation 8 7 -1 1 0.13
150 150 X2 = 61.36
The results showed that, the calculated value of 61.36 is greater than the
tabulated value of 11.07 at 0.05 level of significance and degrees of freedom (df)
of 5. This implies that, there is a significant difference between the spread of the
WASSCE multiple-Choice Items in financial accounting drawn in the various
cognitive levels from the spread expected. The null hypothesis which state that
the spread of the WASSCE multiple-choice items in Financial Accounting drawn
in the various cognitive levels is not significantly different from the spread
expected is thus, rejected at 0.05 level of significance with degrees of freedom of
5. This means that, there is significant difference from the spread expected in the
various cognitive levels.
4. Discussion
In the WAEC syllabus, there are 14 topics. These 14 topics were spread over
three years in the scheme of work. The weight assigned to each topic is based on
the numbers of weeks used in teaching the topic. This is in line with the view of
Gronlund (1976) opined that the weights of topics should depend on personal
judgment as guided by the amount of time devoted to each topic during
instructions. In view of the above, the numbers of questions expected from each
topic and the numbers of questions drawn from each topic for the three years
under review are shown in Table 2. The number of questions expected from
topic 1; that is, from “introduction” are 8 questions, whereas no question was
drawn from the topic. In topic 2, 13 questions were expected while 31 questions
were drawn from the topic. Topic 3-the final Account of sole trader attracted 18

173
questions as against 12 questions expected. This trend was also observed in

topics 6 – control accounts, 7-single-entry and incomplete records, 10-
partnership account and 12-departmental accounts. The variation between the
expected and observed in the above topics was significantly different. These
findings agreed with the result of other researchers such as, Offor (2001), Ibe
(2004), Amajuoyi (2004) and Nwana (2007).
The findings revealed that topic 4-reserves and provisions, 5-manufacturing

accounts, 8 – accounting of nonprofit making organization, 11 – company’s
account and 13 – public sector accounting, the numbers of questions expected
from these topics were not significantly different from the numbers drawn. For
topic 4, 13 questions were expected while 12 questions were drawn; topic 5-
manufacturing account, 13 questions were also expected but 12 were drawn;
topic 8-accounts of nonprofit making organizations, 7 questions were expected
while 5 were drawn. Also, in topics 11 and 13 – company’s account and public
sector accounting, 17 and 10 were expected respectively while 18 and 8 were
observed. Co-incidentally, in topics 9; 14 accounting concepts and conventions
and introduction to data processing, 8 and 7 questions were expected and 8 and
7 questions were drawn respectively.
Table 3 presented the number of questions observed from each cognitive level
for the three years. In 2016, out of the total of 50 questions, 9 came from
Knowledge, 14 from Comprehensive, 17 from Application while Analysis,
Synthesis and Evaluation got 4, 3 and 3 respectively. In 2017, Knowledge,
Comprehension and Application got 13, 11 and 17 respectively while Analysis,
Synthesis and Evaluation were 3,2 and 4. This trend also was observed in 2018
where Knowledge, Comprehension and Application were given priority with 26,
8 and 12 with less emphasis on Analysis, Synthesis and Evaluation having 3, 1
and 0 respectively. This finding is in agreement with the study of Buba and
Kojigili (2020) which reported that performance objectives were highest at the
comprehension level of cognitive domain followed by application and
knowledge levels.
The result of the study revealed that Knowledge level got 18%, 26% and 52% for
three years under review. Comprehension got 28%, 22% and 16% for 2016, 2017
and 2018. At Application level for 2016, 2017 and 2018, the percentages were 34,
34 and 24 respectively. The findings also show 8%, 6% and 6% for Analysis level
for the three years. Synthesis and Evaluation got 6% respectively for 2016. In
2017, 4% and 8% while in 2018 it was 2% and 0% respectively. This finding is in
agreement with the finding of Buba and Kojigili (2020) who found out that
comprehension level of cognitive domain has the highest percentage followed
by application and knowledge. The other three levels of cognitive domain have
percentage spread decreasing as they go to higher levels.
Table 4 presented an overview of the numbers of questions expected from each

level and the numbers of questions observed. This is very pertinent in answering
research question 2. The number of questions expected from knowledge for the
three years is 23 while 48 was observed, for Comprehension, the questions

174
expected is 37 while 33 was observed; for Application 30 questions were

expected while 46 questions were observed; for the higher levels of Analysis,
Synthesis and Evaluation, 37, 15 and 8 questions were expected but we observed
questions were 10, 6 and 7 respectively. This implies that the Knowledge and
Application levels were overemphasized; Analysis and Synthesis were
underemphasized while the coverage on Knowledge and Evaluation has a pass
mark.
The spread of the WAEC multiple-choice items in Financial Accounting drawn

in the various cognitive levels is not significantly different from the spread
expected (P<0.05). The result clearly shows that some levels were
overemphasized while others were underemphasized. Knowledge and
Application levels were overemphasized while analysis and synthesis were
underemphasized. Comprehension and Evaluation were fairly tested. This
finding agrees with the findings of Ijeoma, Eme and Nsisong (2013) who found
that some topics were overemphasized and others underemphasized in
WASSCE chemistry question from 1999-2002.
The results of the finding revealed that WAEC did not maintain the weights
assigned to levels in the Financial Accounting Curriculum and the scheme of
work. There was a significant difference in the various cognitive levels from the
spread expected. This shows that WAEC Financial Accounting questions have
low content validity. This result corroborated with Nwana (2007) and, Dike
(1998). In their work, they confirmed that WAEC tests possessed low degree of
content validity. This is in line with the findings of Nwana, Onah and
Nwokenne (2012) who opined that teachers predominantly test lower levels of
the cognitive domain and ignores the higher levels. At secondary school level of
education, students are supposed to be tested more at the higher levels of
cognitive domain. This view is supported by Nwana (2007: 47) who opined that
“if the examination is knowledge-centered, the students will tend to study the
subject for its factual content and pay little or no attention to understanding
these facts, ideas etc., applying them in novel situations, analyzing them into
new wholes and evaluating them, then the examination evaluates subject being
examined”. The exposition of the students to the higher-level of cognitive
domain is beneficial to the students as postulated by Grossman (1971). The
predominant use of high-level questions is an effective way of trying to move
the students forward with high and low understanding but low questions
strategy will not facilitate high-level understanding.
The study prominently shows that some topics were not adequately covered
while some other topics were overemphasized. Only few topics were fairly
tested. The topic “introduction to accounting” was not tested at all. Principles
and practice of double-entry was overemphasized, same as the final account of
sole proprietors, control accounts and self-balancing ledger. Some of the topics
underemphasized include – single-entry and incomplete records, partnership,
departmental and branch accounts. While WAEC needs to be commended on
their efforts in some topics such as reserves and provisions, manufacturing
accounts, accounting concepts and conventions, company’s account, public

175
sector accounting and introduction to data processing, these topics were fairly
tested.
When emphasis is much on some topics over a period of time and less emphasis
on others, this constitutes a danger to the Educational sector as students and
teachers will concentrate on areas with high emphasis. WAEC being the leading
examination body in West Africa is expected to set a standard that others can
follow. This is because, when any of the above complications happens, it will
have a triple implication in the society (1) to the Education system as a whole (2)
to the teacher; and (3) to the students. When some topics are overemphasized,
the implication is that the teachers will direct all their efforts toward those
topics; this encourages laziness among the teachers as they already know the
areas of concentration. This system also affects the students’ attitude to study.
They only concentrate on few topics and anytime there is a deviation, their
performance level will drop. To the educational system, this pattern of
overemphasizing or underemphasizing on some topics is very dangerous
because students who passed through such turnout to be half baked. This is in
agreement with Nwana (2007) who opined that teachers tend to emphasize the
importance of those topics which reoccur in examinations, and students tend to
study those topics which reoccur in examinations and leave out those which do
not, even if these topics appear on the prescribed syllabus. In view of the above,
one can equally state that the poor performance of students in Financial
Accounting within the period under review might not solely be as a result of
ignorance of the students but also be largely attributed to error in test designs.
Nwana (2007) rejected the idea of setting questions on only few topics from the
syllabus. The author opined that setting questions on a section of the syllabus
means that the examination will only favour those pupils who by chance
concentrated on those restricted areas. The others would appear failures. Here, it
is shown clearly that the examination is at fault and not the pupils/students.
5. Conclusion
Findings within the periods under review show that the WASSCE Financial
Accounting multiple-choice test items have a low content validity. For a child to
achieve all-round-education, effective implementations of the curriculum
content have to be administered. This can only be achieved by well qualified and
dedicated teachers with the provisions of adequate instructional materials to
effect changes in the behaviours of the learners. The WAEC examiners most
probably did not use test blueprint in developing the entire examination tests
they used in examining the students in financial accounting for the three years
under study. This is evident as the distribution of the questions did not reflect
or represent proportionally the topics contained in the curriculum for financial
accounting. Also the various levels of the cognitive domain were not
proportionately tested either. Some topics and levels of cognitive domains were
overemphasized while some were underemphasized. Therefore, the WASSCE
questions 2016 to 2018 in financial accounting have a very low degree of content
validity. West African Examination Council should insist on their chief
examiners using a table of specification in order to master the weights attached

176
to the content areas as indicated in the senior secondary school curriculum in

financial accounting
6. Implication of the Study

When some topics are overemphasized, the implication is that the teachers will
direct all their efforts toward those topics; this encourages laziness among the
teachers as they already know the areas of concentration. This system also affects
the students’ attitude to study. They only concentrate on few topics and anytime
there is a deviation, their performance level will drop. This might be as a result
of WAEC not using table of specification and the non-involvement of experts in
the selection of questions from their question bank or in the constructions of
questions. WAEC examiners should be made to understand through training,
workshops, seminars and conferences the implication of over-emphasising and
under-emphasising some topics and lower cognitive levels when generating
questions.
Acknowledgments
We are deeply grateful to all our colleagues who assisted in this study and all
the authors whose works were consulted during the process of this study.
7. References
Adewuyi, J. O, & Oluokun, O. O. (2001). Introduction to test and measurement in education.
Oyo: Odumatt Press.
Akinbolati, K. B. (2003). Teacher’s and learner’s factors as determinants of senior secondary
school student’s achievement in school certificate Mathematics (Unpublished master’s
thesis). University of Ibadan, Ibadan.
Alimi, O. S., Ehinola, G. B, & Alabi, F. O. (2012). School types, facilities and academic
performance of students in secondary schools in Ondo State, Nigeria.
International Education Studies, 5(3). https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v5n3p44
Amadi, K. K. (2002). Theory and practice of financial accounting. Owerri: Joe Mankpa
Publishers.
Amajuoyi, I. J. (2004). Content validity of May/June West African Senior School Certificate
Examination Questions in Chemistry 1999-2002 (Unpublished master’s thesis).
University of Port Harcourt, Port Harcourt.
Ambaliyu, A. O. (2008). Availability and utilization of material resources as correlates of
students learning outcomes in secondary school chemistry (Unpublished doctoral
dissertation). University of Ibadan, Ibadan.
Asaolu, A. (2002). Modern book-keeping and accounts. Ibadan: Calabeks publishers.
Asim, A. E., Idaka, I. E., & Eni, E. I. (2017). Research in education: Concepts and Techniques.
Calabar: Bloann Educational Publishers
Bob, K. (2012). Measurement, assessment, and evaluation in education. Retrieved from
http://www.adprima.com/measurement.htm
Buba, M. A, & Kojigili, S. T. (2020). Content validation of basic education certificate
examination questions in basic science in Adamawa State, Nigeria. Journal of
Education, Society and Behavioural Science, 33(2), 42-54.
https://doi.org/10.9734/JESBS/2020/v33i23020
Charles, S., & Brian, D. (2012). Handbook on measurement, assessment, and evaluation
in higher education. New York: Taylor and Francis Publishers.

177
Chinweike, O. (2011). Definition of accounting/modern business perspective. Retrieved May

15, 2020 from http://www.accountantnextdoor.com/definition-modern-
business-perspective.pdf
Dike, H. I. (1998). Evaluation of Educational Programmes: Needs Analysis, Formative
Evaluation and Summative Evaluation. Port Harcourt: Paragraphics.
Donna, G. B. (2011). Testing anxiety: researchers find solution to help students cope. Retrieved
May 27, 2020 from www.huffingtonspot.com
Eneja, R. U. (2013). Influence of cognitive ability, gender and location on students’ achievement
in senior secondary school financial accounting (Unpublished master’s thesis).
University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
Federal Republic of Nigeria. (2014). National policy on education (4th ed.). Lagos: NERDC
press.
Gronlund, N. E. (1976). Measurement and evaluation in teaching. New York: Macmillan
Publishing Co. Inc.
Grossman, A. S. (1971). Mid-nineteenth century methods for the 1970s; The arithmetic teacher.
California: Jossey-Bass.
Ibe, H. N. (2004). Content validity of WAEC and NECO multiple-choice test item in
biology (2003-2004).
Igben, R. O. (2009). Financial accounting made simple (3rd ed.). Lagos: Roi Publishers.
Ijeoma, J. A., Eme, U. J, & Nsisong, A. U. (2013). Content validity of May/June, West
African Senior school certificate examination (WASSCE) questions in chemistry.
Journal of Education and Practice, 4(7), 15-21.
Illeris, K. (2014). Transformative learning in the perspective of a comprehensive learning
theory. Journal of Transformative Education, (2), 79-89.
Kpolovie, P. J. (2010). Advanced research methods. Owerri: Springfield Publishers Ltd.
Nigerian Educational research and development council. (2007). Senior Secondary
Education Curriculum: Financial accounting for ss1-3. Abuja: NERDC.
Nwana, O. C. (2007). Educational measurement and evaluation. Owerri: Bamaway
Publishers.
Nwana O. C, Onah, F. E, & Nwokenne N. O. (2012). Content validity of junior secondary
school certificate examination questions in Business Studies. Journal of Science
and Computer Education, 2(1), 18-27.
Obidile, J. I., Amobi, S. C., Uzoekwe, H. E., & Akuezilo, J. A. (2017). Perceived factors
influencing academic performance of students in accounting in secondary
schools in Anambra State. Journal of Humanities and Social Science (IOSR-JHSS),
22(2), 96-99. https://doi.org/10.9790/0837-2202039699
Offor, C. (2001). Content validity of Senior School Certificate Examination (SSCE) Chemistry
(Unpublished master’s thesis). Imo State University, Owerri.
Okereke L. C. (2000). Managerial accounting and control (A professional approach). Owerri:
Joe Mankpa’s Publishers.
Oparaku, D. D. (2005). Examination malpractice: The Nigerian Experience. Owerri: John
Diwe Press.
Salkind, N. J (2010). Research methods. Sage Publications.
https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412961288.n74
Shrotryia, V. K, & Dhanda, U. (2019). Content Validity of Assessment Instrument for
Employee Engagement. SAGE Open, 1-7.
Thorndike, R. L., & Hagen, E. P. (1976). Measurement and evaluation in psychology and
education. New York: John Wiley and Sons Inc.

178
Ukwuije, R. P. I., & Orluwene, G. W. (2009). Validity of educational measurement. In O.C

Nwana (Ed.), Educational measurement and evaluation. Onitsha: Ark
Publishers.
Uwameiye, R., & Ogunbameru, M. T. (2005). A comparative analysis of two methods of
teaching financial accounting at secondary schools.
West African Examination Council. (2018). Chief examiners report: May/June West
African senior school certificate examination. Lagos: WAEC.
Yusoff M. S. B, (2019). ABC of content validation and content validity index calculation.
Education in Medicine Journal, 11(2), 49–54.
https://doi.org/10.21315/eimj2019.11.2.6

179

Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 179-205, June 2020
Assessing the Relationship and Prediction of

Manifold Facets of Analytic Relations to
Academic Reading Comprehension
Md Kamrul Hasan
English Language Institute, United International University,
Dhaka, Bangladesh
Md. Didar Hossain

English Language Institute, United International University
Dhaka, Bangladesh
Abdul Karim
BRAC Institute of Languages, BRAC University
Dhaka, Bangladesh
Abstract. A thorough investigation of analytic relations and their

different dimensions by lexical researchers plays a prominent role in
language learning and teaching. The current study aimed at
investigating the association and prediction of multifarious dimensions
of analytic relations of vocabulary knowledge to reading comprehension
among 155 English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students at the tertiary
level, employing standard multiple regression analysis under a
quantitative approach. Ninety-one students from Business School and
sixty-four Engineering students took part in six components, namely
member-collection, stuff-object, component-integral, portion-mass,
place-area, and feature-activity of one analytic relations test, and three
multiple-choice passages of one academic reading comprehension task.
The results showed that inter-correlations among all six aspects of
analytic relations were positive and statistically significant; except
correlation between stuff-object and reading comprehension,
associations between the other five facets of analytic relations and
academic reading comprehension were strong, positive and significant.
Not only the component-integral analytic relations feature made
statistically the most significant unique prediction but also it had the
largest effect on academic reading comprehension.
Keywords: academic reading comprehension; analytic relations;

correlation; vocabulary knowledge; prediction

180
1. Introduction
More than three decades ago, vocabulary acquisition was treated as a neglected
dimension of language teaching and learning (Meara, 1980). Recently, it has
plausibly become one of the most substantial research niches in the second
language (L2) acquisition, assessment, and instruction (Schmitt, 2010; Zhang &
Yang, 2016). Up till now, research on L2 vocabulary knowledge has evidenced a
clear polarity regarding its multidimensionality (Zhang & Yang, 2016). The
significant role of vocabulary knowledge in L2 learning has been well-
documented (Choi & Zhang, 2018; Nakata, Tada, Mclean & Kim, 2020; Nation,
1983; Schmitt, 2008; Zhang, Lin, Zhang & Choi, 2017). In other words,
vocabulary knowledge is highly significant for reading comprehension
performance (van den Bosch, Segers & Verhoeven, 2020). A number of studies
(Cain, Oakhill & Bryant, 2004; Cheng & Matthews, 2018; Hadley, Dickinson,
Hirsh‐Pasek, Golinkoff & Nesbitt, 2016; Masrai, 2019; Noreillie, Desmet & Peters,
2020; Quinn, Wagner, Petscher & Lopez, 2015; Vellutino, Tunmer, Jaccard &
Chen, 2007) have demonstrated that a significant association exists between
vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension. For example, vocabulary
researchers have primarily stressed on the important role played by vocabulary
size or breadth (i.e. how many words one knows) in reading comprehension (i.e.
Jeon & Yamashita, 2014; Laufer, 1992, 1996; Milton, 2013; Na & Nation, 1985;
Nation, 1990, 2001; Read, 2000). Nevertheless, far less about vocabulary depth or
different dimensions of the depth of vocabulary knowledge (i.e. vocabulary
knowledge that pertains to the quality of words) have been investigated by
researchers (Schmitt, 2014). According to Qian (2002), both breadth and depth
dimensions deserve equal merit for examining the important role vocabulary
knowledge has in reading comprehension. Existing researchers that
encompassed depth of vocabulary knowledge put stress on mainly syntagmatic
(synonymy and polysemy) and paradigmatic (collocation) relation of vocabulary
depth knowledge and their relationship with reading comprehension in English
as a Second Language (ESL)/English as a Foreign Language (EFL) contexts (Li
and Kirby, 2015; Qian, 1999, 2000, 2002; Read, 1993, 1998; Zhang, 2012).
Moreover, according to Read (2004), that there are three essential associations
between the target words and associates; they are analytic relations (that express
a vital constituent of the meaning of the target word), syntagmatic relation
(collocates), and paradigmatic relation (which is comprised of superordinates
and synonyms). Besides, Winston, Chaffin, and Hermann (1987) proposed that
analytic relations could be considered as a significant category/kind of semantic
relation. According to Schmitt and Meara (1997), word association knowledge
plays a significant role in the field of language learning. Thus, analytic (part-
whole) relations is reckoned as one important constituent of vocabulary depth
knowledge. To the best knowledge of the researchers, employing quantitative
investigation, little is known about empirical studies that investigated the
correlations and prediction of dissimilar constituents of analytic relations to
reading comprehension.
Greidanus and Nienhuis (2001) conducted a study on three types of associations,

namely paradigmatic, syntagmatic and analytic (defining characteristics, such as

181
those used in dictionary definitions) relations, and they found that for both
higher–proficiency learners and lower-proficiency learners, the scores for both
paradigmatic association and analytic association were significantly higher than
those for the syntagmatic association. Their study included 54 learners of French
from two Dutch-speaking universities without considering learners from
English as a foreign language (EFL) context. Their study investigated only
association among paradigmatic, syntagmatic, and analytic relations, and did
not examine any prediction of paradigmatic, syntagmatic or manifold
dimensions of analytic relations to academic reading comprehension. Moreover,
the study of Horiba (2012) included Chinese and Korean learners who were
learning Japanese, and her study did not include any learners from any ESL or
EFL context. Her study found that analytic relations accounted for only a little
(i.e. 4%) variance in text comprehension. Finally, her study did not include
different parts of analytic relations and their prediction to reading
comprehension. Additionally, the study of Read (1993) included analytic
relations in his study, but he tried to justify the validity of the test of the Word
Associate Test (analytic relations is one component of the test). He did not
conduct an empirical study that related the prediction of analytic relations to
reading comprehension. The authors of this research paper have not come across
any more study that deals with the prediction of analytic relations to academic
reading comprehension. This aspect of a research gap has been delved into the
present research project. As previously mentioned, there has been a lack of
empirical research that dealt with different dimensions of analytic relations
(part-whole relation) and their correlations and prediction to academic reading
comprehension. To this end, employing an adapted analytic relations test, this
study investigated the correlations and prediction of six dimensions of analytic
relations to academic reading comprehension among EFL students of Business
and Engineering Schools at the tertiary level in Bangladesh.
1.1. Theoretical Framework

1.1.1. Analytic Relations
According to Schwartz and Katzir (2012), academics consider another type of
lexical hierarchy which is partonomic. Generally, partonomic is known as a part-
whole hierarchy (holonymy or meronymy). An example of meronymy is body
parts (head-nose). According to Read (2004), meronymy comes under analytic
sense relation. The diagram below is given to show the part-whole relationship.
Face
mouth cheek nose eye
(Source: Finegan, 2008: 191)

It is apparent from the above diagram that the nose is a ‘part of the face’.
1.1.2. Parts of Analytic Relations

182
Winston, Chaffin, and Hermann (1987, p. 421) in their study provided a

taxonomy of analytic relations, and they proposed six types of analytic relations.
The types were

•‘component- integral’ (i.e. a relation between components and the objects that
they belong; e.g. pedal-bike, handle-cup, punchline-joke, wheels-car,
refrigerator-kitchen, chapters-books, Belgium-NATO, Phonology-Linguistics,
engine-car),
•member-collection (i.e. a collection is fixed based on spatial proximity or by
social connection; e.g. ship-fleet, tree-forest, card-deck, juror-jury),
•portion-mass (i.e. including parts that are identical to one other and to the
whole that they consist of; e.g. slice-pie, grain-salt, yard-mile, hunk-clay),
•stuff-object (i.e. a relation that is most often expressed, employing the ‘is partly’
frame; e.g. steel- car/bike, gin-martini, hydrogen-water),
•feature-activity (i.e. a relation that is pointed out by the use of ‘part’ to
designate the features or phases of activities and processes; e.g. paying-
shopping, dating-adolescence, bidding-playing bridge, ovulation-menstrual
cycle),
•place-area (i.e. the relation between areas and special places and locations
within them; e.g. Everglades-Florida, Oasis-desert, baseline-tennis court).
Their work was conducted taking the ‘cognates’ (cognitive) perspective, not
considering the classifications as aspects of vocabulary knowledge and their
(dimensions’) correlation and prediction to reading skill, not even in any English
as a Second Language (ESL) or English as a Foreign Language (EFL) contexts.
This aspect of the research gap has been delved into the present research project.
1.1.3. Theory Relating Vocabulary to Comprehension

Researchers and teachers are perplexed about determining the exact nature of
vocabulary knowledge (Schmitt, 2014) because a lexicon consists of thousands of
words, and each comprises various, innumerable links with other words in
terms of the lexical network. Furthermore, the nature of vocabulary knowledge
is not identified and defined clearly (Li & Kirby, 2015). As a result, there is a lack
of definition, which shows that the definition is ‘clearly theory-driven’ (Li &
Kirby, 2015, p. 614).
To address the research gap in previous studies and based on the discussion in
the literature review, the current study investigates the following research
questions:
1. How are member-collection, portion-mass, component-integral, stuff-object,
place-area, and feature-activity analytic relation dimensions related to academic
reading comprehension?
2. To what extent do member-collection, portion-mass, component-integral,
stuff-object, place-area, and feature-activity analytic relation dimensions
contribute to predicting the performance of EFL learners’ academic reading
comprehension?

183
3. Which constituent of analytic relations, i.e. component-integral, member-

collection, portion-mass, stuff-object, feature-activity, and place-area, is the most
contributing predictor of academic reading comprehension?
4. To what level do dissimilar constituents of analytic relations, i.e. member-
collection, portion-mass, component-integral, stuff-object, place-area, and
feature-activity affect EFL learners’ academic reading comprehension?
2. Methodology
2.1. Participants
The participants of the study were a sample of 155 Bangladeshi EFL students
(five sections) in the first year of their graduation from a mid-level private
university in Dhaka, Bangladesh. A total of 91 participants from three sections of
Business School, namely Bachelor of Business Administration in Finance or other
majors (n =36) and Bachelor of Science in Economics (n =25) and Bachelor of
Business Administration in Accounting (n =30) was included in the present
study. Out of them, 51 were female (56%) and 40 were male (44.0%), with an
average age of around 20.54 (Standard Deviation=1.241, range 18-24). Moreover,
a total of 64 students, studying Engineering participated in the current study.
Out of them, 20 were female (31.3%) and 44 were male (68.8%), with an average
age of about 20.16 (Standard Deviation=1.027, range 18-23). One section
consisted of 31 students who were pursuing studies in Bachelor of Science in
Electrical and Electronic Engineering, and the other section comprised of 33
students who were under the Department of Computer Science & Engineering.
All of the students were selected based on their passing Basic English Skill
(Credit course 1) course which was approximately at the A2-B1 level on the
Common European Framework of Reference. Bengali was the mother tongue of
students of both Business and Engineering Schools. The students of the study
used English as a foreign language. Participants of the study had at least 12
years of learning English, i.e., all the students who participated in the study had
an average of 12 years of exposure to English learning. They had no experience
of staying in any native English-speaking country.
2.2. Measures
One analytic relations vocabulary measure consisted of six dimensions and one
academic reading comprehension test comprised of three multiple-choice
passages were employed in the present study.
2.2.1. Analytic Relations Test

Analytic relations test for the current study was adapted based on the idea of
part-whole relations propagated by Winston et al. (1987), and the test aimed to
measure the part-whole relations of words. Analytic relations test of the current
study comprised 30 items (refer to Appendix A), and under each item, there
were two groups, and each group contained words. Each different column had
four words, and out of the eight words, four words were associates to the
stimulus words whereas the other four words worked as distractors. An
incorrect selection of the answer was given 0; four correct answers of each item
constituted 1 point (0.25 x 4=1); as a result, the maximum achievable score of the
analytical relations was 1 x 30 =30.

184
In addition, the test-takers were required to encircle either part or whole

meaning of the words in each item. In scoring analytical relations, 0.25 point was
given for each appropriate answer, so the highest score for the test was 30. Six
types of analytic relations were investigated under the analytic relations test for
the current study. The example of the first one, ‘component-integral object’
relates ‘handle-cup’ or ‘punchline-joke’ type of analytic relation; secondly, ‘tree-
forest’ or ‘card- deck’ is an example of ‘member-collection’ analytic relation. The
third category of analytic relation encompasses ‘portion-mass’, and ‘slice-pie’ or
‘grain-salt’ is an example of the ‘portion-mass’ category of analytic relation. An
example like ‘gin-martini’ or ‘steel-bike’ is classified under ‘stuff-object’ analytic
relation. The fifth category, ‘feature-activity’ of analytic relation incorporates
examples like ‘paying-shopping’ or ‘dating-adolescence’. The last and the sixth
category of analytic relation was ‘place-area’, and ‘oasis-desert’ or “Everglades-
Florida’ is an example of ‘place-area’ type of analytic relation.
2.2.2. Reading Comprehension Test

Reading comprehension test of the study was a standard multiple-choice
academic reading comprehension test, and this reading comprehension test was
adopted from Longman Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) (Philips,
2006, pp. 343-345) and Berita English (2014). Out of several passages, three texts
were selected for the current study, and the total number of multiple-choice
questions was 20. The maximum possible score for the reading comprehension
test was 20 as there was a total of 20 questions (refer to Appendix B). The
stipulated total time for each class of the university where the present study was
conducted was one hour and 20 minutes (80 minutes). Conducting the two tests,
including the five original TOEFL passages would take more time (85 minutes)
than the total class time, and the time for filling up the consent form and making
the students comprehend the instructions for the two tests would add five
minutes. As a result, the researchers shortened the original reading passages into
three.
2.3. Research Design and Data Collection Procedures

The current study followed a multiple regression analysis of the correlation
design under quantitative research. In other words, the quantitative approach
was selected, and correlation design was used to describe the potential
associations and predictions among the variables. Before administering the two
instruments, namely the analytic relations and academic reading comprehension
test, a printed ‘letter of informed consent’ and a ‘background questionnaire’
were provided to the students. In the letter of informed consent, there was an
option (tick √ or ×) where students were asked whether they would participate
or not. The participation of the students for the tests measure was voluntary.
Purposive sampling in the first place and random sampling as the second step
were employed for the present study. One reading comprehension test and an
analytic relations test were administered in one session in the students’ regular
English class. Students were provided 25 minutes to complete the reading
comprehension test and another 30 minutes to perform the analytic relations
test.

185
To find out the level of intercorrelations among six dimensions of the analytic
relations and academic reading comprehension, the two-tailed Pearson
Correlation (Pearson’s r) was selected as the key instrument for analysing the
data. To determine the level of prediction of different dimensions of the analytic
relations to academic reading comprehension, a standard multiple regression
analysis was carried out. In other words, force-entry multiple regression (not
stepwise) analysis was applied to find out the significant role played by different
dimensions of the analytic relations in explaining the variance in academic
reading comprehension. For analysing the data, the researchers employed SPSS
version 24 (Statistical Package for Social Studies) as the main statistical program.
2.4. The Validity of the Instruments of the Study

Before conducting the main study, the researcher piloted the instruments,
namely an analytic relations test and an academic reading comprehension test in
order to measure the reliability and validity of the adapted items used for the
depth of vocabulary knowledge test for EFL learners. Kuder-Richardson
Formula 20 or K-R-20 is used for measuring the reliability of a test which
consists of right or incorrect answers, and it is designed to investigate how well
a test measures that a researcher intends to measure (Alderson, Clapham &
Wall, 1995). Considering K-R 21 as a method of rational equivalence for
examining the internal consistency (Alderson et al. 1995) of the two tests, K-R 21
was employed to calculate their reliability coefficients. The computing of K-R 21
was performed, following the formula which is [n/(n-1) * [1-(M*(n-M)/(n*Var))]
where ‘n’ stands for ‘sample size’; ‘Var’ stands for ‘variance for the test’, and ‘M’
stands for ‘mean score for the test’.
Table 1 shows the reliability coefficients of the two tests that were conducted to
identify the validity and reliability of the adapted or adopted content or
construct, (i.e. analytic relations and academic reading comprehension).
Table 1: K-R reliability coefficients of the study
Test K-R Reliability Coefficients
Analytical Relations 0.631
Reading Comprehension 0.63
The r values (reliability coefficients) of the two tests showcased in Table 1 were
moderate. Even though K-R 21 employs less information to compute, it always
provides a lower reliability index than produced by other methods (Alderson et
al. 1995). In general, a score above .50 is considered reasonable. Salvucci, Walter,
Conley, Fink, and Saba (1997, p. 115) propose that concerning the extent of
reliability scale, the reliability is reckoned low if the value of r is to a lesser
degree than 0.50; the reliability is considered as moderate if the value of r is in
the middle of 0.50 and 0.80; on the other hand, the reliability is considered as
high when the value of r is more than 0.80. K-R 21 most often renders a lower
reliability index compared with other methods although K-R 21 uses less

186
information to compute (Alderson et al, 1995). In conclusion, it can be said that

all the items incorporated in the two instruments under the current study
showed an acceptable level of internal consistency while assessing their
respective measures. In other words, the r values of the two tests prove that the
tests are both reliable and valid.
2.5. Normality Test

One of the assumptions of Pearson's R is that the data needs to be normally
distributed. The following discussion shows that the data of the present study
were normally distributed. Thus, the assumption of Pearson’ R allowed the
researcher to use it as an analysis method. A normality test can be done in
various ways to check out whether a data set possesses normal distribution. One
way to test the normality can be done by checking the values of Kolmogorov-
Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk normality tests. In order to accept a regression
model, it is known that a perfect regression model should have a residual which
is normally distributed. The null hypothesis apprises that residuals are normally
distributed to have a well-fitted regression model. The alternative hypothesis
suggests that residuals are not normally distributed. Table 2 shows the values of
the normality tests of both Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk.
Table 2: Tests of Normality
Kolmogorov-Smirnova Shapiro-Wilk
Statistic df Sig. Statistic df Sig.
Studentized
.038 146 .200* .996 146 .942
Residual
* This is a lower bound of the true significance.
a. Lilliefors Significance Correction
As shown in Table 2, the ‘sig’ or probability value (p = .200) of Kolmogorov-

Smirnov was more than 0.05 (p ˂ .05), and here the ‘sig’ value was 20% which
was more than 05 percent; as a result, the null hypothesis could not be rejected
rather the null hypothesis would be accepted. This means that the Studentized
Residual was normally distributed. On the other hand, after an observation of
the ‘sig’ value (p =.942) of Shapiro-Wilk, it can be found that the ‘sig’ value was
about 94.2%, and the value was more 05% (p ˂ .05), so the null hypothesis could
not be rejected as well; instead, the null hypothesis was accepted. This means
that residuals were normally distributed, and that was desirable for the
estimated regression model of the study.
3. Results
Research question 1 relates ‘How are member-collection, portion-mass,
component-integral, stuff-object, place-area, and feature-activity analytic relation
dimensions related to academic reading comprehension?’ To answer the
research question 1, a two-tailed Pearson Correlation was conducted, and the
results are presented in Table 3.

187
Table 3: Correlations among six components of analytic relations with each other and
academic reading comprehension
Component- Member- Portion Stuff- Feature- Place-
Integral Collection -Mass Object Activity Area
Member-
0.481** ----
Collection
Portion-
0.500** 0.398** ---
Mass
Stuff-
0.581** 0.300** 0.273** ---
Object
Feature-
0.477** 0.370** 0.331** 0.278** ---
Activity
Place-Area 0.416** 0.330** 0.222** 0.414** 0.257** ---
RC 0.499** 0.225** 0.373** 0.098 0.280** 0.221**

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
As shown in Table 3, inter-correlations among the scores of six independent

variables (i.e. dimensions of analytic relations) were all statistically significant. A
significant and positive correlation at the 0.01 level (r= .481; p = .001) was found
between component-integral part of analytic relations and member-collection
part of analytic relations. According to Cohen (1988, p. 80), in behavioural
sciences, a correlation of r about 0.50 generally indicates a ‘large correlation
effect size’. This suggests that those students who learned component-integral
part of analytic relations also learned the member-collection dimension of
analytic relations. Also, a significant and positive correlation at the 0.01 level (r
=.500; p =.000) was found between the component-integral part of analytic
relations and the portion-mass part of analytic relations. This suggests that those
students who learned component-integral part of analytic relations also learned
the portion-mass aspect of analytic relations. The same can be observed
regarding the correlation between component-integral and stuff-object facet of
analytic relations. A significant and positive correlation at the 0.01 level (r=.581;
p= .000) existed between component-integral and stuff-object features of analytic
relations. This indicates that those students who learned component-integral
part of analytic relations also learned the stuff-object feature of analytic relations.
Out of the inter-correlations among the six dimensions of analytic relations, the
significant correlation between component-integral analytic relations component
and stuff-object analytic relations dimension was the highest (r = .581).
Moreover, component-integral analytic relations part correlated in a significant

way at the 0.01 level (r = .477; p = .000) with feature-activity facet of analytic
relations. This suggests that the growth of students’ learning of the component-
integral part of analytic relations was positively proportionate to students’
learning of the feature-activity dimension of analytic relations. Besides, the
component-integral dimension held a significant, positive correlation at the 0.01
level (r =.416; p =.000) with the place-area feature of analytic relations. This
suggests that the growth of students’ learning of component-integral part of
analytic relations was positively proportionate to students’ learning of place-

188
area facet of analytic relations. From the above discussion, in terms of the
correlation between component-integral analytic relations and the other five
independent variables, it can be inferred that inter-correlations among the scores
of member-collection, portion-mass, component-integral, stuff-object, place-area,
and feature-activity were all significant statistically.
As shown in Table 3, looking at inter-correlations between member-collection

analytic relations part and other dimensions of analytic relations, it was found
that inter-correlations among the scores of portion-mass, member-collection,
place-area, and feature-activity analytic relations elements were positive and
statistically significant. Member-collection analytic relations part correlated (r
=.300; p =.000) significantly with stuff-object analytic relations dimension. This
shows that the students who learned the member-collection part of analytic
relations also learned the stuff-object aspect of analytic relations. Member-
collection analytic relations part had positive, significant correlation at the 0.01
level (r = .398; p = .000) with portion-mass analytic relations part. This highlights
that those students who learned the member-collection part of analytic relations
also learned the portion-mass aspect of analytic relations. Besides, member-
collection analytic relations dimension bore a significant positive correlation at
the 0.01 level (r = .370; p = .000) with feature-activity analytic relations part, and
this entails that learners who learned member-collection analytic relations also
learned feature-activity aspect of analytic relations. Furthermore, a positive,
significant correlation at the 0.01 level (r =.330; p = .000) was located between
member-collection analytic relations part and place-area dimension of analytic
relations. This implies that learners who gained knowledge about a member-
collection part of analytic relations also learned the place-area dimension of
analytic relations.
As presented in Table 3, correlations between portion-mass and stuff-object, and

between portion-mass and feature-activity, and between portion-mass and
place-area analytic relations dimensions were positive and significant. The
positive and significant correlation at the 0.01 level (r =.273; p = .001) between
portion-mass and stuff-object signifies that students who learned portion-mass
aspect of analytic relations also learned equally well the facet of the stuff-object
segment of analytic relations. In addition, the significant positive correlation at
the level 0.01 of (r =.331; p = .000) between portion-mass analytic relation feature
and feature-activity facet of analytic relations suggests that students’ learning of
portion-mass analytic relations aspect had an identical proportion of learning of
feature-activity analytic relations component. Also, the significant positive
correlation at the level of 0.01 (r =.222; p = .006) between portion-mass and place-
area element of analytic relations suggests that learners who gained knowledge
about a portion-mass part of analytic relations also learned place-area dimension
of analytic relations.
Results presented in Table 3 show that the stuff-object segment of analytic

relations held positive and significant correlation with both feature-activity and
place-area analytic relations dimensions. The significant positive correlation at
the level of 0.01 (r = .278; p = .000) between stuff-object analytic relations aspect

189
and feature-activity analytic relations part suggests that those students who
learned stuff-object analytic relations also learned feature-activity analytic
relations dimension. Furthermore, the significant, positive correlation at the
level of 0.01 (r =.414; p = .000) between stuff-object and place-area analytic
relations dimension suggests that the growth of students’ learning of stuff-object
analytic relations aspect was positively proportionate to students’ learning of
place-area dimension of analytic relations. Finally, as shown in Table 3, positive,
significant correlation existed at the level of 0.01 (r = .257; p = .001) between
feature-activity and place-area aspect of analytic relations. The results of Table 3
show that inter-corrections among all six variables were positive and significant.
In light of the above discussion, the significant, positive correlations among all
independent variables have been provided in Figure 1.
.331
.414
Stuff-
Object .273
.278 Portion-Mass
Feature- .300
Activity .581
.370 .500 .398
.257 .477
Member-
Collection
Place-Area .330
.481
Component-
Integral
.416
.222
Figure 1: Correlations among the six independent variables
In order to address the other part of research question 1, as presented in Table 3,

the inter-correlations between the scores of all independent variables and
academic reading comprehension, except between stuff-object and reading
comprehension were found positive, and statistically significant. As shown in
Table 3, a statistically significant, positive, and high correlation at the level of
0.01 (r = .499; p = .000) was found between the component-integral part of
analytic relations and academic reading comprehension. The correlation
between component-integral and academic reading comprehension was the
highest compared to associations with other independent variables and

190
academic reading comprehension. Moreover, portion-mass analytic relations

part bore positive and statistically significant correlation at the level of 0.01 (r=
.373; p = .000) with academic reading comprehension.
Furthermore, the inter-correlations between the scores of the other three

independent variables, namely member-collection (r= .225; p = .006), feature-
activity (r= .280; p = .001) and place-area (r =.221; p = .007), and dependent
variable, academic reading comprehension were positive, and each correlation
with reading comprehension was significant at the 0.05 level (p ˂ .01). This
suggests that those students who learned component-integral analytical
relations part performed better in academic reading comprehension compared to
other dimensions of analytic relations. In addition, those Business and
Engineering EFL learners who learned portion-mass, member-collection, place-
area, and feature-activity analytic relations aspects performed well in academic
reading comprehension. In other words, all five constituents of analytic
relations, namely member-collection, portion-mass, component–integral, place-
area, and feature-activity analytic relations aspects helped learners perform
better in academic reading success. The inter-correlations between five
independent variables and academic reading comprehension are presented in
Figure 2.
Component
-Integral
Place-Area
.499 Member-
Collection
.221
.225
Reading
Comprehension
.280
.373
Portion-Mass Feature-Activity
Figure 2: Correlations among five independent variables and reading comprehension

191
The second research question alludes to: ‘To what extent do member-collection,
portion-mass, component-integral, stuff-object, place-area, and feature-activity
analytic relation dimensions contribute to predicting the performance of EFL
learners’ academic reading comprehension?’ and the third research question
relates: ‘Which constituent of analytic relations, i.e. component-integral,
member-collection, portion-mass, stuff-object, feature-activity, and place-area, is
the most contributing predictor of academic reading comprehension?’
Research questions two and three were developed to determine the most
significant, unique predictor of academic reading comprehension and to address
the extent of prediction of member-collection, portion-mass, component-integral,
stuff-object, place-area, and feature-activity analytic relation parts to academic
reading comprehension. Tables 4 and 5 show prediction value, ANOVA, and
coefficient values of all six dimensions of the analytic relations on academic
reading comprehension in terms of the scores of students from both the Business
school and Engineering school.
Table 4: Prediction and ANOVA Values of Six Components of Analytic Relations of

all Students’ Score
Std. ANOVA
Adjusted Error of
R R2 Sum of Mean
R2 the df F Sig.
Estimate Squares Square
.576 .332 .303 2.758 526.185 6 87.698 11.526 .000
A. Dependent Variable: Reading Comprehension, B. Predictors: (Constant), Member-
Collection Analytic Relation, Portion-Mass Analytic Relation, Stuff-Object Analytic
Relation, Feature-Activity Analytic Relation, and Place-Area Analytic Relation
Table 5: Coefficients of All Six Variables of Analytic Relations of Students of

Business and Engineering Schools
Correlations Collinearity Statistics

IVa Sig.
Partial Part Tolerance VIF
Component-
.423 .382 .000 .446 2.244
integral
Member-Collection -.068 -.055 .425 .700 1.429
Portion-Mass .168 .139 .047 .711 1.406
Stuff-Object --.284 -.242 .001 .626 1.597
Feature-Activity .043 .035 .611 .739 1.353
Place-Area .090 .074 .290 .760 1.315

Dependent Variable: Reading Comprehension; aIndependent Variable
For checking the validity of the multiple regression model, the value of ANOVA
in Table 4 can be looked into. Since the ‘f’ statistics were found to be significant
at the 0.001 level (R2 = .576), F (6, 139) = 11.526, p= .000, the run regression model

192
was found to be well-fitted for the data. Table 5 shows the prediction value,
coefficient values of all six independent variables on the dependent variable and
the significance value of the model’s fitness in terms of the scores of students
from both the Business school and Engineering school.
As shown in Table 4, the value R, multiple correlation coefficient, of .576 shows

an acceptable level of prediction for students of Business and Engineering
Schools. As Table 5 shows, component-integral part of analytic relations
uniquely explained about (.382)2=14.5924% of the variance in the dependent
variable, academic reading comprehension; member-collection alone explained
(-.055)2=.3025% of the variance in academic reading comprehension; portion-
mass alone explained (.139)2 =1.9321% of the variance in academic reading
comprehension; stuff-object alone explained (-.242)2=5.8564% of the variance in
academic reading comprehension; feature-activity alone explained
(.035)2=.1225% of the variance in academic reading comprehension, and place-
area alone explained about (.074)2=.5476% of the variance in academic reading
comprehension. The highest unique variance (14.5924%) in academic reading
comprehension was explained by component-integral part of analytic relations,
and followed by stuff-object (5.8564), portion-mass (1.9321%), place-area
(0.5476%), member-collection (0.3025), and feature-activity (0.1225%) dimension
of analytic relations respectively.
Furthermore, component-integral had (.423)2=17.8929% shared variance with

the five other independent variables in academic reading comprehension. On the
other hand, the stuff-object facet of analytic relation had (-.284)2 = 8.0656%
shared variance with five other independent variables in academic reading
comprehension. The portion-mass dimension of analytic relations had (.168)2=
2.8224% shared variance with five other independent variables in academic
reading skill, and place-area facet of analytic relations had (.090)2 = .81% shared
variance with the five other independent variables in academic reading skill.
Apart from them, the member-collection component of analytic relations had (-
.068)2 = .4624% shared variance with the five other independent variables in
academic reading skill, and the feature-activity aspect of analytic relations had
(.043) = .1849% shared variance with the five other independent variables in
academic reading skill.
The present research dealt with research question four, which is: ‘To what level
do different constituents of analytic relations, i.e. member-collection, portion-
mass, component-integral, stuff-object, place-area, and feature-activity affect
EFL learners’ academic reading comprehension?’ Table 5 puts forward the
effects of six components of the analytic relations on academic reading
comprehension.

193
Table 6: Coefficients of Six Variables of Analytic Relations of Students’ Scores of

Business and Engineering
Standardized Coefficients
IV1 t Sig
β
Component-Integral .572 5.505 .000
Member-Collection -.066 -0.801 .425
Portion-Mass .165 2.004 .047
Stuff-Object -.305 -3.486 .001
Feature-Activity .041 .0510 .611
Place-Area .084 1.061 .290

a. Dependent Variable: Reading Comprehension; 1Independent Variable
As presented in Table 6, the largest Beta value of the component-integral

analytic relations (β =.572; t = 5.505, p = .000 (very significant) (p ˂.01)) shows
that component-integral part of the analytic relations had the largest effect on
the outcome variable, academic reading comprehension compared to the
variance was explained by the other five variables jointly. The Beta values of
other independent variables, namely portion-mass and stuff-object analytic
relations indicate that portion-mass analytic relation (β =.165, t = 2.004, p = .047
(significant; p ˂.05 ) and stuff-object (β = -0.305; t = -3.486, p = .001 (significant; p
˂.01) analytic relation facets made larger effect on explaining outcome variable,
reading comprehension than place-area (β = .084, t =1.061, p = .290 (not
significant), member-collection (β = -0.066, t = -0.801, p = .425 (not significant)),
and feature-activity (β = .041, t =1.061, p = .290 (not significant) analytic relation
part.
From the discussion of Beta values of all the six dimensions of analytic relations,
it can be inferred that component-integral, stuff-object, and portion-mass
analytic relation dimensions had a significant (statistically) effect on academic
reading comprehension. Moreover, the other three analytic relations dimensions
(i.e. member-collection, feature-activity, and place-area) had an effect on the
outcome variable, but they did not have a statistically significant effect on
explaining the outcome variable (i.e. academic reading comprehension).
Based on the above discussion, it can be implied that (i) regarding the scores of
students of the Business school as well as the Engineering school, the
relationship between component-integral analytic relations part and academic
reading comprehension was the highest and was found to be both positive and
significant; (ii) Students who knew component-integral, portion-mass, member-
collection, place-area, and feature-activity analytic relations dimensions
performed better in the academic reading comprehension than stuff-object part
of analytic relations, (iii) For Business and Engineering school students,
component-integral part of analytic relations had the highest unique (significant)

194
variance in explaining the outcome variable, ‘reading comprehension’ when the

variance was explained by the other five variables jointly.
4. Discussion
Concerning the scores of learners of Business and Engineering schools, as
presented in Table 3, the correlation between component-integral analytic
relations part had the highest, positive and significant correlation with the stuff-
object analytic relations part (r =.581, p ˂.01). Moreover, this suggests that the
two aspects are interconnected, and the development of component-integral
analytic relations part contributes to the growth of their stuff-object analytic
relations part of the vocabulary knowledge or vice versa. An identical positive
and significant correlation (r = .500, p ˂.01) was found between portion-mass
and component-integral analytic relations part of the vocabulary knowledge. In
the light of the above discussion, it appears that teachers should incorporate,
particularly component-integral, portion-mass, feature-activity, place-area, and
member-collection analytic (part-whole) relations aspects in their vocabulary
teaching materials to help students build up knowledge of the deeper meaning
of the vocabulary knowledge, which would lead them to have greater success in
academic reading comprehension.
As presented in Table 3, except one independent variable (i.e. stuff-object

analytic relations aspect), the rest of other five independent variables, namely
component-integral, portion-mass, member-collection, place-area, and feature-
activity analytic relation facets were positively, either strongly or moderately
correlated with the dependent variable, academic reading comprehension. This
result was expected because all the six dimensions of analytic relations
investigated in the study showed that they formed a cohort under the same
construct, i.e., part-whole relation of lexical knowledge. The obtained result of
close, positive and significant inter-correlations among the independent
variables and dependent variable proved the point that the investigated six
dimensions of analytic relations components needed to be considered
substantially as indispensable parts of analytic relations.
As presented in Table 5, statistically significant way, three independent

variables, i.e. component-integral, stuff-object, and portion-mass analytic
relation dimensions were found to have a more unique contribution in
explaining the dependent variable, academic reading comprehension, as well as
they, had a larger effect significantly (statistically) on explaining the outcome
variable, academic reading comprehension than the other independent
variables. This result augured well for the run regression model since at least
three of the independent variables statistically significant way contributed to the
prediction to the dependent variable, academic reading comprehension.
Even though the reading comprehension tasks in the current study were
designed, particularly for basic English comprehension in academic settings, it
can be restated that for university-level EFL speakers, component-integral,
portion-mass, member-collection, place-area, and feature-activity analytic
relations aspects of vocabulary depth knowledge are not only closely,

195
significantly and positively related with one another but also with the
performance on reading comprehension tasks. We can thus infer that
vocabulary, particularly analytic relations of vocabulary knowledge is a vital
factor in reading success, and different analytic relations dimensions of
vocabulary knowledge as predictor variables prove to be useful to academic
reading comprehension.
By evaluating the knowledge, particularly, of component-integral, portion-mass,

member-collection, stuff-object, feature-activity, and place-area analytic relations
parts in place of target words’ merely one meaning, analytic relations draws on
in-depth nuances of vocabulary knowledge. As a result, a productive positive
influence on teaching and learning new vocabulary can be achieved.
5. Conclusion
Many language teachers recognize that vocabulary depth knowledge plays a
crucial role in learners’ academic success (Choi & Zhang, 2018; Nakata, Tada,
Mclean & Kim, 2020; Nation, 1983; Schmitt, 2008; Zhang, Lin, Zhang & Choi,
2017), yet it is still ignored in teaching English in an EFL context. However, in
Bangladesh English teachers have a propensity to seemingly irrationally adopt
the subscribed curriculum and/or prescribed texts books from western
countries. This is a result of a variety of local, national, and global EFL factors.
Nonetheless, the context of teaching English as L1 (native language) in western
countries is different from the oriental perspective, and the current study
corroborated significant different analytic relations dimensions in academic
reading success by providing empirical evidence between different dimensions
of analytic relations and academic reading comprehension in EFL context.
Analytic relations parts of the present study included component-integral,

member-collection, portion-mass, stuff-object, feature-activity, place-area
aspects. The results of the study would help teachers to come to know how
much vocabulary knowledge in EFL is adequate, and the role vocabulary
knowledge would play in EFL reading comprehension of academic texts. Also,
English language teachers could be able to make students conscious of the
importance of the analytic relations aspect of the knowledge of vocabulary.
Thus, awareness amidst learners would successfully help them learn and
develop other English language skills as well.
A positive and significant association between analytic relations parts of

vocabulary knowledge and academic reading comprehension was found which
determined that learners with a higher level of analytic relations showed a
propensity to have better academic success. In other words, the above analytic
relations aspects that are related to each other are recommended to be
highlighted and included in teaching and learning vocabulary since they have a
stronger association with reading comprehension.
To the researchers’ best knowledge, little is known about studies that included
different dimensions of analytical relations jointly and their correlation and
prediction to academic reading comprehension, and conducting the present

196
research with comprising different dimensions of analytical relations to figure

out their association and prediction to academic reading comprehension under
quantitative research investigation has added to the body of lexical knowledge.
5.1. Pedagogical Implications

Language teachers and practitioners would be able to make use of the results
from the correlation and prediction of different types of analytic relations to
reading comprehension to gain a better understanding of the significant
associations and prediction between the component-integral type of analytic
relations and other constituents of analytic relations and reading comprehension
that the findings of the current study have shown, which can, in turn, endorse
their pedagogical decisions.
When language instructors would support learners in paying attention to the

most significant components of analytic relations, namely component-integral
and other types of analytic relations, the reading comprehension content will be
easier to handle and the amount of work less challenging. This fosters an avenue
for learning and teaching to become more effective. Since analytic relations
constitutes a significant part of the depth of vocabulary knowledge, the findings
of the present study might suggest that EFL learners would be benefitted more
in their EFL reading when they are equipped with the deeper knowledge of
words, namely component-integral category of analytic relations and other
categories of analytic relations.
Vocabulary instructors in general have put greater stress on different ways that
can maximize learners’ vocabulary size. In the process of doing so, the learners
are offered with a long list of vocabulary items to be remembered, and the list of
vocabulary items often comprises only plain dictionary meanings. This practice
is fallacious since imparting only a restricted definition of a word might hinder
students from developing an in-depth knowledge of the words, and this process,
in turn, might impede learners’ reading performance. Therefore, in their
vocabulary instruction, vocabulary instructors should include words that show
that learners possess an in-depth understanding of words, encompassing
semantic relations, particularly analytic relations which represent vocabulary
depth knowledge.
5.2. Limitations
To conclude, the current study added to the understanding of association and
prediction between different dimensions of analytic relations and academic
reading comprehension, but limitation remains. Participants included in the
study were from the same university, so more learners from different levels of
educational sectors would make this study more comprehensive. Moreover, any
impact of the native language (i.e. Bengali) or background knowledge of the
learners on the test results was not explored. Concerning participants’ study of
programmes or major subjects, the study has limited the scope for
generalisations of the research findings.

197
6. References
Alderson, J. C., Clapham, C., & Wall, D. (1995). Language test construction and
evaluation. New York, USA: Cambridge University Press.
Berita-English. (2014, January). Soal TOEFL reading dan kunci jawaban pre-test
Longman [Blog post]. Retrieved from http://berita-
english.blogspot.com/2014/01/soal-toefl-reading-dan-kunci-jawabanpre-test-
longman.html?cv=1&showComment=1452527635617
Cain, K., Oakhill, J., & Bryant, P. (2004). Children's reading comprehension ability:
Concurrent prediction by working memory, verbal ability, and component
skills. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(1), 31-42.
https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2004-11358-003
Cheng, J., & Matthews, J. (2018). The relationship between three measures of L2
vocabulary knowledge and L2 listening and reading. Language Testing, 35(1), 3-
Choi, H. Y. (2013). Effects of depth and breadth of vocabulary knowledge on English
reading comprehension among Korean High school students. Language Research,
49(2), 419-452.
Choi, Y., & Zhang, D. (2018). The relative role of vocabulary and grammatical
knowledge in L2 reading comprehension: A systematic review of literature.
International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching.
https://doi.org/10.1515/iral-2017-0033.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ,
USA: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.
Finegan, E. (2008). Language: Its structure and use. Boston, USA: Thomson Wadsworth.
Greidanus, T., & Nienhuis, L. (2001). Testing the quality of word knowledge in a second
language by means of word associations: Types of distractors and types of
associations. The Modern Language Journal, 85(4), 567-577.
https://doi.org/10.1111/0026-7902.00126
Hadley, E. B., Dickinson, D. K., Hirsh‐Pasek, K., Golinkoff, R. M., & Nesbitt, K. T. (2016).
Examining the acquisition of vocabulary knowledge depth among preschool
students. Reading Research Quarterly, 51(2), 181-198.
https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.130
Hasan, M. K., & Shabdin, A. A. (2016). Conceptualization of depth of vocabulary
knowledge with academic reading comprehension. PASSA, 51, 235-268.
Horiba, Y. (2012). Word knowledge and its relation to text comprehension: A
comparative study of Chinese- and Korean-speaking L2 learners and L1
speakers of Japanese. The Modern Language Journal, 96(1), 108-121.
Jeon, E. H., & Yamashita, J. (2014). L2 reading comprehension and its correlate: A
meta-analysis. Language Learning, 64(1), 160-212.
https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12034
Kang, Y., Kang, H. S., & Park, J. (2012). Is it vocabulary breadth or depth that better
predict Korean EFL learners’ reading comprehension? English Teaching, 67(4),
149-171.
Kezhen, L. I. (2015). A study of vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension on
EFL Chinese learners. Studies in Literature and Language, 10(1), 33-40.
Laufer, B. (1992). How much lexis is necessary for reading comprehension? In P. J. L.
Arnaud & H. Béjoint (Eds.), Vocabulary and applied linguistics (pp. 126-132).
London: MacMillian.
Laufer, B. (1996). The lexical threshold of second language reading comprehension: What
it is and how it relates to L1 reading ability. In K. Sajavaara & C. Fairweather

198
(Eds.), Approaches to second language acquisition (pp. 55-62). Jyväskylä: University

of Jyväskylä.
Li, M., & Kirby, J. R. (2015). The effects of vocabulary breadth and depth on English
Reading. Applied Linguistics, 36(5), 611-634.
https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amu007
Masrai, A. (2019). Vocabulary and reading comprehension revisited: Evidence for high-,
mid-, and low-frequency vocabulary knowledge. Sage Open, 9(2), 1-13.
Meara, P. (1980). Vocabulary acquisition: A neglected aspect of language learning.
Language Teaching, 13, 221-246.
Milton, J. (2013). Measuring the contribution of vocabulary knowledge to proficiency in
the four skills. In C. Bardel, C. Lindqvist & B. Laufer (Eds.), L2 Vocabulary
acquisition, knowledge and use: New perspectives on assessment and corpus analysis
(pp. 57-78). Euro SLA. Retrieved on 23 March, 2017 from
http://www.eurosla.org/monographs/EM02/Milton.pdf
Na, L., & Nation, I. S. P. (1985). Factors affecting guessing vocabulary in context. RELC
Journal, 16(1), 33-42. https://doi.org/10.1177/003368828501600103
Nakata, T., Tada, S., Mclean, S., & Kim, Y. A. (2020). Effects of distributed retrieval
practice over a semester: Cumulative tests as a way to facilitate second language
vocabulary learning. TESOL Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.596
Nation, P. (1983). Testing and teaching vocabulary. Guidelines, 5, 12–25.
Nation, I. S. P. (1990). Teaching and learning vocabulary. New York: Newbury House.
Nation, I. S. P. (2001). Learning vocabulary in another language. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press.
Noreillie, A. S., Desmet, P., & Peters, E. (2020). Factors predicting low-intermediate
French learners' vocabulary use in speaking tasks. Canadian Modern Language
Review-Revue Canadienne Des Langues Vivantes. Retrieved from
https://lirias.kuleuven.be/3055545?limo=0
Philips, D. (2006). Longman complete course for TOEFL test. New York: Longman Group/A
Pearson Education Company.
Qian, D. D. (1998). Depth of Vocabulary Knowledge: Assessing its role in Adults’ Reading
Comprehension in English as a second language (Doctoral dissertation, University of
Toronto, Canada). Retrieved from
https://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp02/NQ33914.pdf
Qian, D. D. (1999). Assessing the roles of depth and breadth of vocabulary knowledge in
reading comprehension. Canadian Modern Language Review, 56(2), 282-307.
https://doi.org/10.3138/cmlr.56.2.282
Qian, D. D. (2000). Validating the role of depth of vocabulary knowledge in assessing reading for
basic comprehension in TOEFL 2000. Research Report. Princeton, NJ: Educational
Testing Service.
Qian, D. D. (2002). Investigating the relationship between vocabulary knowledge and
academic reading comprehension: An assessment perspective. Language
Learning, 52(3), 513-536. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9922.00193
Quinn, J. M., Wagner, R. K., Petscher, Y., & Lopez, D. (2015). Developmental relations
between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension: A latent change
score modeling study. Child Development, 86(1), 159-175.
https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12292
Read, J. (1993). The development of a new measure of L2 vocabulary knowledge.
Language Testing, 10(3), 355-371. https://doi.org/10.1177/026553229301000308

199
Read, J. (1998). Validating a test to measure depth of vocabulary knowledge. In Kunnan,

A (Ed.), Validation in language assessment (pp. 41-60). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum.
Read, J. (2000). Assessing vocabulary. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Read, J. (2004). Plumbing the depths: How should the construct of vocabulary
knowledge be defined? In P.Bogaards & B. Laufer (Eds.), Vocabulary in a
second language: Selection, acquisition and testing (pp. 209-227). Amsterdam: John
Benjamins.
Salvucci, S., Walter, E., Conley, V., Fink, S., & Saba, M. (1997). Measurement error studies at
the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). Washington D. C.: U. S.
Department of Education
Schmitt, N. (2008). Review article: Instructed second language vocabulary learning.
Language Teaching Research, 12(3), 329-363.
Schmitt, N. (2010). Researching vocabulary: A vocabulary research manual. Basingtoke:
Palgrave Macmillan.
Schmitt, N. (2014). Size and depth of vocabulary knowledge: What the research shows.
Language Learning, 64(4), 913-951. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12077
Schmitt, N., & Meara, P. (1997). Researching vocabulary through a word knowledge
framework: Word association and verbal suffixes. Studies in Second Language
Acquisition, 19(1), 17-36. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263197001022
Schwartz, M., & Katzir, T. (2012). Depth of lexical knowledge among bilingual children:
The impact of schooling. Reading and Writing, 25(8), 1947-1971.
van den Bosch, L. J., Segers, E., & Verhoeven, L. (2020). First and second language
vocabulary affect early second language reading comprehension development.
Journal of Research in Reading, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9817.12304
Vellutino, F. R., Tunmer, W. E., Jaccard, J. J., & Chen, R. (2007). Components of reading
ability: Multivariate evidence for a convergent skills model of reading
development. Scientific Studies of Reading, 11(1), 3-32.
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10888430709336632
Weixia, W. (2014). Assessing the roles of breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge in
Chinese EFL learners’ listening comprehension. Chinese Journal of Applied
Linguistics, 37(3), 358-372. https://doi.org/10.1515/cjal-2014-0022
Winston, M. E., Chaffin, R., & Herrmann, D. (1987). A taxonomy of part-whole relations.
Cognitive Science, 11(4), 417-444. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog1104_2
Zhang, D. (2012). Vocabulary and grammar knowledge in L2 reading comprehension: A
structural equation modelling study. Applied Linguistics, 21, 117-126.
Zhang, Y., Lin, C. H., Zhang, D., & Choi, Y. (2017). Motivation, strategy, and English as a
foreign language vocabulary learning: A structural equation modelling study.
British Journal of Educational Psychology, 87, 57-74.
https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12135
Zhang, D., & Yang, X. (2016). Chinese L2 learners’ depth of vocabulary knowledge and
its role in reading comprehension. Foreign Language Annals, 49(4), 699-715.
https://doi.org/10.1111/flan.12225

200
Appendix 1
Analytic Relations Test

Directions: In this test, there are 30 items. Each item looks like this:
Car
(A) wheels (B) mirrors (C) mud (D) engine (E) solid (F) temperature (G) brakes (H) dance
Please Note:
Some of the words here in the left box Some of the words in the right box
show meaning parts of a car. denote meaning parts of a car.
There are eight words in the two

boxes, but only four of them are
correct. You have to choose which
the four correct words are
In the left box, “wheels”, “mirrors’ In the right box, ‘engine’ and ‘brakes’
are the meanings of parts of a car. share the meaning of parts of a car.
On your answer sheet, you should mark the answers by encircling the
corresponding letters by a pen like this:
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F) (H) (G)
Note: In this example, there are three correct answers on the left and one on the
right, but in some other items, there will be either one on the left and three on
the right, or two on the left and two on the right.
Read the following and encircle the four correct words:

1. Head
(A) beautiful (B) department (C) game (D) body (E) intelligence (F) coin (G) noise (H) school
2. Pistons
(A) complete (B) car (C) helicopter (D) wheel (E) vehicle (F) circle (G) name (H) party
3. Petal
(A) home (B) national (C) flower (D) smooth (E) animal (F) plant (G) tree (H) bouquet
4. Bicycle
(A) bell (B) wheels (C) crooked (D) punctual (E) time (F) pedal (G) beginning (H) seat
5. Pedal
(A) tandem (B) helpful (C) bicycle (D) rickshaw (E) error (F) event (G) boat (H) estimate

201
6. Tea Cup
(A) ceramic (B) handle (C) compact (D) thick (E) saucer (F) view (G) foot tip (H) material
7. Joke
(A) punchline (B) irritating (C) laughter (D) (E) favour (F) entertainment (G) weeds (H)
bothersome comedy show
8. Kitchen
(A) changed (B) burner (C) important (D) separate (E) stove (F) sink (G) ideas (H) oven
9. Books
(A) chapters (B) uncultivated (C) pages (D) (E) paper (F) mob (G) index (H) berries
disappointed
10. Linguistics
(A) phonology (B) inexpressible (C) language (D) (E) discontented (F) phonetics (G) amount (H)
syntax need
11. Tree
(A) clear (B) leaves (C) important (D) rough (E) wood (F) trunk (G) time (H) branches
12. Disease
(A) symptom (B) quiet (C) pain (D) tired (E) fever (F) day (G) infection (H) person
13. Play
(A) another (B) chorus (C) actor (D) raw (E) plots (F) dialogue (G) element (H) water
14. Fleet
(A) ship (B) famous (C) warship (D) shinning (E) cruisers (F) hand (G) squadrons (H) taste
15. Forest
(A) empty (B) trees (C) shrubs (D) useful (E) vines (F) feet (G) birds (H) tool
16. Pie
(A) slice (B) often (C) lump (D) chunk (E) angle (F) a piece (G) illness (H) stones
17. Mile
(A) yard (B) fundamental (C) unit (D) measure (E) issues (F) quantity (G) wealth (H) duration
18. Motorbike
(A) angry (B) steel (C) necessary (D) aluminium (E) argument (F) alloy (G) patterns (H) carbon fibre
19. Martini
(A) alcohol (B) (C) juicy (D) wide (E) night (F) gin (G) drink (H) smile
20. Water
(A) full (B) hydrogen (C) Oxygen (D) wide (E) night (F) liquid (G) fluid (H) smile
21. Road
(A) awake (B) sidewalk (C) knowing (D) laughing (E) route (F) pavement (G) lane (H) student
22. Salad
(A) numerical (B) tomato (C) lettuce (D) body (E) liquid (F) cucumber (G) chilli (H) switch
23. Government
(A) minister (B) constitution (C) coalition (D) clear (E) help (F) parliament (G) tool (H) approach
24. Organisation
(A) short (B) employee (C) quick (D) employer (E) salary (F) employment (G) tool (H) approach
25. Adolescence
(A) immaturity (B) dating (C) friendship (D) clear (E) help (F) chatting (G) tool (H) approach

202
26. Shopping
(A) cloudy (B) paying (C) nice (D) entertainment (E) spending (F) knife (G) purchasing (H) rock
27. Eating
(A) easy (B) fresh (C) near (D) chewing (E) swallow (F) bite (G) munch (H) vegetable
28. Desert
(A) honest (B) oasis (C) dust storm (D) sand (E) route (F) camel (G) heat (H) river
29. Country
(A) baseline (B) principal (C) land (D) mountain (E) scientist (F) sea (G) work (H) producer
30. World
(A) country (B) bold (C) people (D) upsetting (E) nature (F) continent (G) problem (H) sleep
Appendix 2
Reading Comprehension Test

Directions: In this section, you will read several passages. Each one is followed
by a number of questions about it. You are to choose the one best answer, (A),
(B), (C), or (D), by ticking (√) to each question.
Answer all questions about the information in a passage on the basis of what is
stated or implied in that passage.
Text 1
Read the following texts and answer the following questions:
John Quincy Adams, who served as the sixth president of the United
States from 1825 to 1829, is today recognized for his masterful statesmanship
and diplomacy. He dedicated to his life to public service, both in the presidency
and in the various other political offices that he held. Throughout his political
career he demonstrated his unswerving belief in freedom of speech, the
antislavery cause, and the right of Americans to be free from European and
Asian domination.
1. In line 4, the word “unswerving” (bold) is closest in meaning to---
(A) moveable
(B) insignificant
(C) unchanging
(D) diplomatic
Text 2
Carbon tetrachloride is a colorless and inflammable liquid that can be
produced by combining carbon disulfide and chlorine. This compound is widely
used in industry today because of its effectiveness as a solvent as well as its use
in the production of propellants.
Despite the widespread use in industry, carbon tetrachloride has been
banned for home use. In the past, carbon tetrachloride was a common ingredient
in cleaning compounds that were used throughout the home, but it was found to
be dangerous: when heated, it changes into a poisonous gas that can cause
severe illness and even death if it is inhaled. Because of this dangerous
characteristic, the United States revoked permission for the home use of carbon
tetrachloride in 1970.The United States has taken similar action with various
other chemical compounds.

203
2. The main point of this passage is that

(A) carbon tetrachloride can be very dangerous when it is heated
(B) the government banned carbon tetrachloride in 1970
(C) although carbon tetrachloride can legally be used in industry, it is not
allowed in home products
(D) carbon tetrachloride used to be a regular part of cleaning compounds.
3. The word “widely” (bold) in line 2 could most easily be replaced by
(A) grandly
(B) extensively
(C) largely
(D) hugely
4. The word “banned” (bold) in line 4 is closest in meaning to
(A) forbidden
(B) allowed
(C) suggested
(D) instituted
5. According to the passage, before 1970 carbon tetrachloride was
(A) used by itself as a cleanser
(B) banned in industrial use
(C) often used as a component of cleaning products
(D) not allowed in home cleaning products
6. It is stated in the passage that when carbon tetrachloride is heated, it becomes
(A) harmful
(B) colorless
(C) a cleaning compound
(D) inflammable
7. The word “inhaled” (bold) in line 7 is closest in meaning to---
(A) warmed
(B) breathed in
(C) carelessly used
(D) blown
8. The word “revoked” (bold) in line 8 could most easily be replaced by
(A) gave
(B) granted
(C) instituted
(D) took away
9. It can be inferred from the passage that one role of the U.S. government is to
(A) regulate product safety
(B) prohibit any use of carbon tetrachloride
(C) instruct industry on cleaning methodologies
(D) ban the use of any chemicals
10. The paragraph following the passage most likely discusses
(A) additional uses for carbon tetrachloride
(B) the banning of various chemical compounds by the U.S. government
(C) further dangerous effects of tetrachloride
(D) the major characteristics of carbon tetrachloride

204
Text 3
The next artist in this survey of American artists is James Whistler; he is
included in this survey of American artists because he was born in the United
States although the majority of his artwork was completed in Europe. Whistler
was born in Massachusetts in 1834, but nine years later his father moved the
family to St. Petersburg, Russia, to work on the construction of a railroad. The
family returned to the United States in 1849. Two years later Whistler entered
the U.S. military academy at West Point, but he was unable to graduate. At the
age of twenty-one, Whistler went to Europe to study are despite familial
objections, and he remained in Europe until his death.
Whistler worked in various art forms, including etchings and
lithographs. However, he is most famous for his paintings, particularly
Arrangement in Gray and Black No. 1: Portrait of the Artist’s Mother or Whistler’s
Mother as it is more commonly known. This painting shows a side view of
Whistler’s mother, dressed in black and posing against a gray wall. The
asymmetrical nature of the portrait, with his mother seated off-center, is highly
characteristic of Whistlers’ work.
11. The paragraph preceding this passage most likely discusses
(A) a survey of eighteenth-century art
(B) a different American artist
(C) Whistler’s other famous paintings
(D) European artists
12. Which of the following best describes the information in the passages?
(A) Several artists are presented
(B) One artist’s life and works are described
(C) Various paintings are contrasted
(D) Whistler’s family life is outlined
13. Whistler is considered an American artist because
(A) he was born in America
(B) he spent most of his life in America
(C) he served in the U.S. military
(D) he created most of his famous art in America
14. The word “majority” (bold) in line 2 is closest in meaning to
(A) seniority
(B) maturity
(C) large pieces
(D) high percentage
15. It is implied in the passage that Whistler’s family was
(A) unable to find any work at all in Russia
(B) highly supportive of his desire to pursue art
(D) working class
(D) military
16. The word “objections” (bold) in line 7 is closest in meaning to
(A) protests
(B) goals
(C) agreements
(D) battles

205
17. In line 9, the “etchings” (bold) are

(A) a type of painting
(B) the same as a lithograph
(C) an art form introduced by Whistler
(D) an art form involving engraving
18. The word “asymmetrical” (bold) in line 13 is closest in meaning to
(A) proportionate
(B) uneven
(C) balanced
(D) lyrical
19. Which of the following is NOT true according to the passage?
(A) Whistler worked with a variety of art forms.
(B) Whistler’s Mother is not the official name of his painting.
(C) Whistler is best known for his etchings.
(D) Whistler’s Mother is painted in somber tones.
20. Where in the passage does the author mention the types of artwork that
Whistler was involved in?
(A) Lines 1-3
(B) Lines 4-5
(C) Lines 6-7
(D) Lines 8-10

206

Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 206-222, June 2020
Towards a Principled Use of L1 – Observing an

EFL Teacher’s L1 Use in Rural Sabah, Malaysia
J. W. Ong and A. J. Ahmad Tajuddin

University of Malaysia, Terengganu, Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia
Abstract. The article described a study to understand a teacher’s usage of

first language (L1) in rural Sabah, Malaysia. Literature findings
discovered a growing understanding that L1 should be used to assist a
learner in learning L2 and that despite some studies done in Malaysian
schools, none are based on English Language classrooms in rural Sabah,
East Malaysia. Approximately 400 minutes of the teacher’s classroom
sessions were recorded, and any use of L1 is coded, and then categorised,
based on the coding system developed by Sali (2014). The codes revealed
that L1 is primarily used for academic and managerial purposes, with
more efforts made on giving instructions, talking about learning, and
eliciting objectives in mind. There was also the use of languages other
than L1, primarily the students’ ethnic tongue. Findings were compared
against Principled Use of L1 (Cook, 2001), and suggestions were made to
assist and further enhance the L1 use of the teacher, keeping in mind the
contextual uniqueness of rural Sabah, Malaysia. A larger-scale study
could be replicated to confirm the findings further, and to develop a
principled use of L1 for rural Sabah ESL/EFL teachers to follow.
Keywords: foreign language teaching; rural education; Sabah, Malaysia
1. Introduction
For a learner to develop proficiency in a foreign language, there is a need to
develop multiple abilities, knowledge, as well as utilising and using various
strategies, such as using their first language (L1) (Butzkamm & Caldwell, 2009;
Cook, 2017). It was found that a significant figure of Malaysian English teachers
admitted that they employ L1 when they teach (Lim, 1994). Reasons for doing so
range from helping students to comprehend English and to develop a better
rapport with students (Darmi et al., 2018; Mohamed, 2011).
Many researchers supported the notion of using L1 to teach foreign languages;

they do not see L1 as impeding to second language (L2) learning, but as a useful
cognitive and efficient linguistic tool that can be used to improve and enhance the
learning of L2 learners (De La Campa & Nassaji, 2009; Liao, 2006; Sali, 2014; Storch

207
& Wigglesworth, 2003). Some even supported the use of L1 in communicative

classrooms (Auerbach, 1993; Cameron; 2011, Cook, 2010, Nunan; 2003). However,
the previous studies do notify that their support for L1 does not mean English
Language Teaching (ELT) practitioners could use it freely — it should be guided
and used only when necessary. Macaro (2001), as well as Butzkamm and Caldwell
(2009), suggested that L1 should be utilised to its full potential. Cook (2001) even
proposed a list of principled use of L1 to guide foreign language teachers on the
subject. Therefore, in addressing both the needs of the teachers and the Ministry
of Education, Malaysia, it is essential to discover how L1 is being used in rural
Sabah, and to equate the practice with Cook’s (2001) recommendations so that a
middle, principled way could be developed.
This study aims to discover the use of L1 of an English teacher teaching in a rural
area of Sabah. The findings will then be compared against the Principled Use of
L1 developed by Cook (2001), and any discrepancies will be reviewed upon, and
suggestions to improve them will be made. The results of the study could also be
used as a basis for a larger, multi-subject study.
Many field studies performed on the use of L1 in language instructions were

completed and published, with a variety of results (Canagarajah, 1995; Carless,
2007; Forman, 2012; Liu, Ahn, Baek & Ahn, 2004; Qian, Tian & Wang, 2009). As
much as these field studies provide valuable and insightful perspectives that
could guide this study, their findings do not shed adequate and sufficient light on
ELT situations beyond the context in which they work. Some findings are
sufficient only to explain English teaching in post-colonial contexts (Canagarajah,
1995; Lin, 1996), or university settings (Forman, 2012; Littlewood & Yu, 2011).
Malaysia-based research, although sufficient, did not provide adequate coverage
of the rural Sabah context. There is a gap in the body of knowledge, which creates
an opportunity to explore the situation on the usage of L1 in rural Sabah
classrooms.
This study is undertaken to explore the use of L1 by a teacher as he teaches English

to students in rural Sabah. As such, the questions guiding the study are as follows:
1. How does this teacher use L1 in teaching English to students in rural
Sabah?
2. What is the purpose of this teacher using L1 when teaching English?
Reasons supporting and against L1
During the initiation of study on L1 use in L2 teaching, scholars like Chaudron
(1988), Krashen (1982), and Macdonald (1993) have seen that exposure is
significant – the more L2 they are exposed to, the better they stand a chance to be
proficient in the target language. This view automatically assumes that L1
decreases the exposure to L2, and is an impeding factor in L2 learning. Such an
assumption also draws inspiration from the popular understanding during that
period – that language is best taught through a ‘natural’ approach, such as the
Direct Method. Such an approach is also the basis behind the terminology
‘monolingual fallacy’ described by Phillipson (1992), i.e., the most suitable way to
teach L2 is by teaching it alone, without L1. Many language teachers supported

208
the notion and tried to suppress L1 use. However, based on the study on second
language acquisition, scholars agree that L1 is not to be fully blamed over learning
challenges, as well as the errors learners make while learning L2 (Dulay & Burt,
1973; Johnson & Newport, 1994). For instance, Dulay and Burt (1973) reported that
Spanish interlocutors who were learning English made only a mere 3% of
mistakes due to L1 interferences.
Developments and innovations in ELT have led to various new approaches to

language teaching, and soon the widely assumed understanding of ‘natural
approach’ and L2 exclusivity is challenged. Pointing to discoveries brought
forward by Dulay and Burt (1973), Turnbull (2001) concluded that teachers
maximising the use of L1 is probably not as harmful as previously thought. Some
see L1 not as an impeding factor to L2 learning, but as a useful tool that can be
used to assist and scaffold the learning of L2 (Cummins, 2007; Macaro, 2001; Qian
et al., 2009).
Macaro (2001 in his study observed that reducing the use of L1 induced a
substantial surge in the usage of input modification techniques, for example,
repetition, reducing speech speed to the point of losing naturalness, and syntax
reduction. This could potentially lead to a decline in the quality of interaction, as
these modification techniques reduce the realistic nature of the discourse, not to
mention radically reduce the lexical diversity and complex syntax that a learner
needs to be exposed to. Macaro (2001) supports the notion that input modification
can support exchanges in L2, but warns against using it frequently —as it does
not do much in assisting students acquiring competence on the more complex
linguistic knowledge, such as vocabulary, phrases, and grammar, which are
highly crucial in L2 proficiency.
Code-switching between L1 and L2, when utilised well during an interaction, has
been proven to be a useful tool in a multitude of studies. Anton and Dicamilla
(1998) reported that L1 could add value in the process of L2 learning by being a
useful tool to support learners, whereby it provides cognitive scaffolding for
students, as they work on tasks towards achieving their learning objectives.
Donato (1994) concluded that utilization L1 helps learners of L2 in bridging their
understanding in the target language by negotiating their understanding in L1
with their interlocutor, and that learners face a significant ‘handicap’ if they are to
be denied opportunities to use L1 as they learn. The authors’ claim was based on
the interactionist learning theory by Ellis (2008), who proposed that relying solely
on the input would not be sufficient to achieve language acquisition, except for
input delivered over ‘exchanges of meaning’ between L2 learners and other
interlocutors. Ellis saw that the ‘magic’ or learning and proficiency development
happened over interaction, whereby learners and their tutors negotiate over the
meaning and syntax content of the ‘input’ (Long, 1996), and then further
negotiating over how the ‘output’ should be produced (Swain, 1995).
The use of L1 is also seen as a way to assist learners in cutting down their affective
barriers, as well as developing their belief in their ability to successfully
communicate in L2 (Cook, 2001; Kang, 2008; Meritt et al., 2004). A study done by

209
Seng and Hashim (2006) provided a clearer example of this viewpoint - they
described how a lower proficiency student faces challenges in producing L2 with
confidence and accuracy, as they lack the linguistic competence to do so.
Therefore, they should be allowed to employ their proficiency in L1 to bridge the
understanding gap with the L2. Such decision will increase their confidence, as
well as reducing the difficulty these learners face as they learn the L2.
Several studies have proven the benefits of using L1 on both L2 instructions

(Anton & Dicamilla, 1998; Borzogian & Fallahpour, 2015; Cohen & Brooks-Carson,
2001; Kang, 2008; Storch & Wigglesworth, 2003;). Anton and Dicamilla (1998)
observed five pairs of Spanish native speaking English as Foreign Language (EFL)
learners engaging in writing activities, and described several ways L1 may
potentially help in L2 learning, i.e., by fostering and keeping learners’ interest in
the task, and by motivating learners to perform challenging tasks in their L2
learning. Lally (2008) revealed that learners obtained higher credits for the
organisation when using L1 to assist in writing-based lessons. Storch and
Wigglesworth (2003) described that L1 expanded the quality of communications
in classrooms, as well as the quality of the structure of the composition. Closer to
the research context, studies conducted in Asia also seemed to support the
usefulness and positive values that L1 could add into L2 classes. Liao (2006)
observed how L1 supports Taiwanese college students, whereby he discovered
three significant roles. Firstly, to memorise words, grammar, as well as syntax
structures; secondly, as an anxiety reducer; and finally, in assisting learners to
interact with each other, as well as with their teacher. Borzogian & Fallahpour
(2015) also found that L1 supports learners as they learn L2, and that L1 should
not be seen as ‘evil’, or removed from classrooms.
Principled use of L1 (Cook, 2001)

Cook (2001) proposed four major mental anchors that teachers should be aware
of when using L1 as they teach L2 — efficiency, learning, naturalness, and external
relevance. To explain efficiency, Cook elaborated that L1 may assist in explaining
abstract concepts, as well as complex vocabulary in a more time saving and
efficient way. Naturalness ensures that teachers could build rapport by using L1
than it would be in the L2. For external relevance, Cook asked the L2 teachers to
consider using L1 if the use of it will assist the learners to develop mastery on
specific L2 structures that they may need in the environment outside of the
classroom. All four elements, according to Cook, should serve as guidelines for
helping teachers to decide whether they should use L1 as they teach. It is
anticipated that the teachers incorporate a judicious, principled use of L1 into their
teaching practice that will support their learners’ L2 learning.

210
•Can something be done more effectively

Efficiency
through the L1?
•Will L2 learning be helped by using L1

Learning
alongside L2?
•Will L1 make learners more comfortable to

Naturalness
learn some L2 functions/content?
•Can L1 help learners to learn specific L2

External Relevance
abilities for the real world?
Figure 1: Principled use of L1 (Cook, 2001)
How are teachers using L1 as they teach L2?

Kang (2008) conducted a similar study as Liao (2006), but with a change in context
(Korean, instead of Taiwanese students), and that he decided to focus on the
teacher instead of the learners. Kang found that the teachers used L1 for
pedagogical purposes, i.e., explaining language features, organising tasks, and
implementing tests. Learners expressed appreciation in the teacher’s use of L1, as
it helps them to develop L2 proficiency faster, and keeping their interest and
motivation high.
Sali (2014) explored the L1 use of three EFL teachers in Turkey. She reported that
the teachers used L1 in their effort to explain content (academic) and to manage
procedures in class (managerial). She also found that teachers employ L1 to
develop rapport, albeit at a frequency lesser of findings from Liao (2006) and Kang
(2008). Forman (2012) also investigated teachers’ usage of L1 in a Thai university.
He concluded that L1 is mainly used for six purposes; to animate, translate,
explain, create, prompting, and dialoguing. He also found that research subjects
often ‘string’ their strategies in a specific order; animate, and then explain before
creating meanings. These findings could shed some light into the possible
situation in interior rural Sabah classrooms, as the contexts have some proximity,
where the research was conducted in South East Asia. De La Campa and Nassaji
(2009) embarked on an observation study, looking at several German-native
speaking teachers teaching German in university classes as an L2, and discovered
that L1 is used mainly to translate, provide instruction, give personalised
feedback, and to show instructor as bilingual.

211
L1 in Malaysian ESL/EFL Classrooms

L1 use has been reported in Malaysia, with some of it conducted in rural Malaysia.
Ahmad and Jusoff (2009) discovered that almost three-fourths of teachers code-
switched into L1 when making simple difficult concepts, elaborating classroom
management, as well as explaining and highlighting contrasts between English
and Malay grammar. They also discovered that teachers use L1 up to 60% at a
time when establishing rapport with learners and giving instructions for tasks.
The learners, when asked, expressed positive support for their teachers to use L1,
with 69% of the learners enjoying their teachers’ approach. A study done by Lee
(2010) was perhaps, contextual wise, the closest to the conditions of this paper —
Lee investigated how EFL teachers in Sabah used L1 as they teach, not in the rural
area, but the urban area in Sabah. He reported that teachers use L1 to address
anxiety in learners, explain new words, explain new grammar items, and to save
time.
3. Methodology
Due to the study’s exploratory and experimental nature, data is best collected in
both numbers, as well as in narration. This study emphasises on the quantitative
data (frequency and types of L1 usage), with the qualitative data (utterance style
and choice of words) playing a secondary role. As much as this study wished to
go deeper into the richer corpus data recorded in this research, the study was
more interested in discovering the teacher’s use of L1 in his English instruction.
Hence, the description and discussion of frequency and types of L1 used will take
precedence, with the qualitative data used as a supplement to provide stronger
evidence for the findings.
The results of this study were derived from analysis of data collected through an
audio recording, as well as the personal reflections from the research subject —
the researcher himself. The data was then analysed and reflected upon, taking into
account the findings, as well as the local ELT situation. The reflection was then
further interpreted into teaching considerations, establishing a principled L1 use
in rural Sabah ESL/EFL classrooms.
Participant
The respondent is a Malaysian English teacher. His teaching experience involved
working with students with excellent, almost native-like proficiency of English,
as well as students whose English skills are just evolving. Most of his ELT career
was spent with the students learning English in the interior and rural regions of
Sabah.
Data Collection
The study took place in two selected classrooms in government secondary schools
in a rural area in Sabah, for a month. Data for the research was collected by an
audio recording of 10 teaching sessions. As every teaching session was 40 minutes,
400 minutes of audio interactions were recorded.
Students were informed before recording that they were involved in the study.
The learners were told that the study contained only classroom interactions and
that their responses and behaviour would not be evaluated in this study. All they

212
have to do was act naturally. Throughout the recording, the teacher taught, as
usual, carrying out lessons as planned. The use of L1 and English from the teacher
was neither controlled nor managed.
Procedures
The recording was transcribed, whereby the transcription of the audio recording
followed the recommendations and method by Walsh (2011). The method was
adopted for this research because it is suitable for the classroom condition, where
overlapping conversation and simultaneous utterances were normal. All
utterances were transcribed into text, with L1 utterances italicised. Transcription
did not begin until after all 400 minutes of recording was made. This is to prevent
the researchers from discovering the patterns in the earlier recordings — it is of
concern that the new understanding could indirectly restrict in future transcribing
and coding process.
Once completed, the transcription was analysed and coded, following a specific
coding system, adapted from Sali (2014) who developed hers from other previous
studies (Canagarajah, 1995; Macaro, 2001). The coding system adopted provides
a list of 14 L1 functions, organised into three major categories; Academic,
Managerial, and Social/Cultural (Figure 2). The researchers read through the
transcription, identify L1 utterances, consider the context of its use by looking at
the utterances before and after the L1 utterance, and then decide the actual
intended use. A code was then be assigned to the L1 utterance. An utterance
consists of a ‘stream’ of linguistic output that occurs within one intonation, starts
and ends with pauses, and forms a single semantic unit (Sali, 2014). The coding
process was repeated twice to encourage more accurate coding. Findings from
both coding sessions were then averaged.
•Explaining aspects of English

•Eliciting
•Reviewing
Academic
•Translating words and sentences
•Talking about learning
•Checking comprehension
•Giving instructions
•Managing discipline
Managerial
•Monitoring
•Drawing attention
•Establishing rapport
Social/ •Drawing upon shared cultural
Cultural expression
•Praising
Figure 2: Coding system for L1 used by Sali (2014)

213
The finalised coding from the transcription was analysed quantitatively. The
outputs (numbers) were then used as the basis for comparison with the findings
from other studies. Patterns and unique findings from quantitative data were then
analysed deeper, using qualitative data obtained from the transcription.
Reflections and considerations of L1 use were then proposed, based on the
recommendations by Cook (2001).
To increase validity and reliability, several steps were taken. First, the recording
of the classroom sessions was done in 40-minute blocks, randomly selected over
30 days. This study also ensures the emergence of a stronger set of analysis by
ensuring that the process of transcription coding done twice by the researchers.
The figures were then added up and averaged. Averaging is a strategy supported
by Berg and Lune (2012), as it takes out the extreme ends of the data; thus,
ensuring further validity and reliability.
Another researcher was requested to help analyse up to half of the transcription

in the study. This is to introduce another input in the data analysis, i.e.,
encouraging triangulation and also to establish external and inter-rater reliability.
Any discrepancies were discussed upon until an 85% agreement was reached, a
percentage adapted from the study done by Sali (2014). Miles, Huberman, and
Saldana (2014) as well as Cresswell & Clark (2011) supported such an approach,
seeing it as a way to develop accuracy with the data.
4. Results and Discussion

Presentation of quantitative data
Analysis of the 400-minute audio recordings revealed a total of 1253 L1
utterances. Academic use of L1 emerged as the majority, with a frequency of 527.
L1 use for managerial purposes came second with 477 uses, and L1 use for
rapport was the least, at 249.
Table 1: Use of L1 by functions.

Categories of L1 Use Occurrences Percent
Academic 527 42.0
Explaining aspects of English 92 7.0
Eliciting 152 12.0
Reviewing 6 0.4
Translating Words and sentences 90 7.0
Talking about learning 137 7.0
Checking Comprehension 48 4.0
Managerial 477 38.0
Giving instructions 211 17.0
Managing Discipline 16 1.0
Monitoring 206 16.0
Drawing Attention 44 4.0
Social/Cultural 249 20.0
Establishing Rapport 197 16.0
Drawing upon shared cultural expression 42 3.0
Praising 10 0.7

214
The quantitative findings were in agreement with the studies by Sali (2014),
Forman (2012), and De La Campa and Nassaji (2009), whereby some of their
descriptions of L1 use were consistent with the findings here. Sali, in her research,
found that the use of L1 for academic purposes recorded the highest frequency,
with the managerial second, and rapport the least frequent. Forman (2012) found
that teachers animate, translate, explain, create, prompt, and converse the most
when they teach in EFL classes in Thailand. All six techniques described by
Forman are part of the academic use of L1 in the category system introduced by
Sali. Similarly, De La Campa and Nassaji (2009) reported that 54% of EFL teachers
used L1 for academic purposes. The findings were also consistent with reports
from Ahmad and Jusoff (2009), who stated that the highest usage of L1 is for
actions such as ‘checking comprehension’, ‘describing new words’, and
‘explaining difficult concepts’, whereby all these actions are part of L1 use for
academic purposes in this study. The report will now describe the top 5 of 15
functions of L1 use, together with examples extracted from the transcript of the
audio recording.
L1 use for academic purposes
Explaining aspects of English. This function primarily deals with purposes such
as explaining grammar in the target language, correcting mistakes, giving
examples or guiding, as indicated in Table 2. The teacher uses L1 to simplify
complicated areas of English for the learners by reducing the difficulty in their
learning process. Table 2 shows the use of L1 by the teacher to explain complex
grammatical issues, such as differentiating between subject and object.
Table 2: Explaining aspects of English

No Excerpts
1 …subject ini biasanya orang, object ini biasanya benda tidak bernyawa…
[Subjects are usually human beings, objects are usually inanimate
objects]
2 …kenapa kata kerja, sebab berjalan itu boleh dilakonkan. [Why is this a verb,
because ‘walking’ is an action that can be acted out]
Eliciting. Eliciting is one of the most-recorded function of L1 usage, where it is

used to prompt and encourage more reaction and output from the learners; hence,
has a direct effect on increasing learner’s engagement, as can be seen in Table 3.
The teacher employed L1 in the classroom to bridge the students’ difficulty when
they faced challenges to produce L2 output. It could be possible to say that such a
prompting strategy made learning less intimidating for his learners.
Table 3: Eliciting
No Excerpts
1 …Memakai, wear ini adalah kata ker? ja. [‘wear’, this word is a… verb].
2 …Jadi pagi itu ad…jective. [so, the word ‘morning’ is an ad…jective].

215
Translating words and sentences. This strategy is also employed by the teacher,
as shown in Table 4. The teacher used L1 to provide the translation of certain
words and sentences to assist comprehension. He also used L1 to translate the
classroom instructions frequently, especially in the sections where he guides the
learners to a specific part or element of the content they are learning. All
translations were an attempt to increase the efficiency of the classroom, where the
teacher can use less time explaining to each student, allowing him to assist more
students within a short period.
Table 4: Translating words and sentences
No Excerpts
1 …Robber is steal, ok. Perompak mencuri. [robber is stealing].
2 …No Folding, Jangan ada lipat-lipat. [Don’t fold (the task sheets)].
L1 use for managerial purposes

Giving instructions. The teacher used a lot of L1 when starting a new task with
the students, briefing his students what to do or to keep the students focused and
engaged. In Table 5, the teacher directs the students to remain focused and how
to manage their workbook in L1.
In the example below, L1 supports and makes the teacher’s instructions clearer;
hence, improving efficiency. It also supports learners who are struggling to
understand instructions in L2.
Table 5: Giving Instructions
No Excerpts
1 …Cari isi dulu, jangan sibuk sambung. [Look for the points first, don’t be
busy joining (the sentences) yet].
2 …Kamu potong keluar task five ini... bagi balik dengan saya. [Cut out task
five (from the task sheet), and give it back to me].
L1 use for rapport purposes

Drawing upon shared cultural expressions. The subjects at times used discourse
markers or expressions in the dialects of Sabahan Malay, Sungai, Rungus, and
Suluk, which were a shared cultural characteristic in the classroom. Excerpts from
Table 6 indicate such L1 usage. This could be seen as more of an effort to build on
shared linguistic, social and cultural identity between the teacher and his
students, with less focus on language learning.
Table 6: Drawing upon shared cultural expressions
No Excerpts
1 Mana pincil saya? Adui, obolou sudah matoku. [where’s my pencil? Oh, I
must be blind].
2 Mikirayou juga kamu ini kan? [you can be amusing and annoying too
right?]

216
5. Discussions
Higher use of L1 in ‘non-conventional’ areas (Giving instructions and
monitoring)
The quantitative analysis into the transcripts discovered that the top three uses of
L1 of this teacher were giving instructions, monitoring, and establishing rapport.
L1 was used for giving instructions at 17% of all L1 uses, monitoring was also at
17%, and establishing rapport at 16%. When combined, these three uses
comprised of a total of 50% of all L1 use of the teacher.
When compared against prior studies, the findings from this study are uniquely
different, where other studies did not record higher usage of L1 for managerial
purposes, as this study does. Sali (2014) discovered that the top three uses of L1
with Turkish teachers were to explain, elicit, and give instructions, while similar
L1 category in this study such as ‘giving instructions’ or ‘monitoring’ only
recorded 14% and 3% respectively. A study done by Forman (2012) highlighted
the top three uses of L1 as animating, translating, and explaining — a usage much
more academic than managerial. Meanwhile, De La Campa and Nassaji (2009)
described that the top three L1 uses were to translate, give instructions, and
provide personalised feedback. Even when compared to studies of closer contexts,
the results are different. Ahmad and Jusoff (2009) found that teachers use L1 to
explain difficult concepts, elaborating on classroom management, and explaining
differences between English and Malay grammar. Lee (2010) discovered that the
top three uses of L1 of the teachers whom he studied were to address anxiety in
learners, explain new words, and explain new grammar items. When scrutinised,
the most prominent use of L1 in previous studies are related to academic use, not
managerial.
Perhaps one way of explaining such differences in the findings are due to the
differences in contexts. Since it is possible to claim that the same research
methodology, if applied in different settings and contexts, would yield different
results (Berg, 2009), it is also possible to lay such claim here as well. Differences in
settings often involve variance in ideas and expectations towards instruction and
acquisition of L2 amongst teachers and learners; thus, explains the difference in
results. Sali (2014) based her research in Turkey, where she observed the ethnic
Turkish English teachers teaching Turkish high school students, whereas De La
Campa and Nassaji (2009) observed German L2 teachers teaching university
students. These two studies were based on contexts very different from the
current study; therefore, it is not surprising that the findings were also different.
Closer to the current research context were the studies by Forman (2012), who
focused on Thai university lecturers; Ahmad and Jusoff (2009), who worked with
West Malaysian English teachers; and Lee (2010), the closest of them all, studied
Sabahan English teachers, albeit urban school settings.
Principled L1 use, as described by Cook (2001), indicated that any L1 usage in a

language classroom should assist the learning of L2. Although she supports the
use of L1 for other purposes like managerial or rapport building, the focus should
always go back to academic purposes — it is where L1 use is much more beneficial
to learners’ acquisition of L2. Therefore, it is best for the teacher to look for ways

217
to first minimise L1 use in rapport building — the least helpful in learners’

acquisition of L2.
High use of L1 for managerial purposes

L1 use for managerial purposes in this study comes up to 38% of L1 use.
Compared to reviewed previous studies, the findings were found to be different,
whereas other studies did not report such high percentages of L1 usage for
managerial purposes. Sali (2014) stated that 27% of the Turkish teachers whom
she observed used L1 for managerial purposes when all four categories of L1 were
totalled up. De La Campa and Nassaji (2009) reported a total of 19.9% L1 use in
managerial purposes of all L1 uses. Whereas Ahmad and Jusoff (2009) revealed
that teachers use the least L1 when performing managerial tasks. Lee (2010)
showed that the teachers he studied mostly selected ‘sometimes’ when using L1
for managerial purposes, which is lesser than the findings of this study.
The high use of L1 for managerial purposes, to the degree that it constitutes 38%
of all L1 uses, does not fit well with the principled use of L1, as espoused by Cook
(2001). Cook has opined that despite L1 could be used for four major situations, it
is still imperative for teachers to keep in mind that their main task is to teach L2,
and the usage of L2 should be made a priority. L1 use should always contribute
to the learning of L2. The subject could consider reducing L1 use and attempts to
manage his learners more in L2.
Usage of students’ ethnic tongue to build rapport

The quantitative data also revealed another finding worthy of a deeper discussion.
Of the 197 rapport building utterances in L1, 47 of them were done in the students’
native tongue of Sungai, Rungus, Dusun, and Tausug. These native tongues are
the languages spoken within the ethnic community of the students and are not to
be considered part of Malay language, as the first three are Dusunic, and the latter
Visayan (Smith, 1984).
There was an instance where the teacher was learning how to speak Rungus from
his students, as detailed in Table 7.
Table 7: Usage of L1 to build rapport
Person Excerpts
Learner Apa mister mau Tanya? [What would Mr. like to ask?]
Teacher Kalau peluh itu apa? [how do you say sweat?]
Learner Umos [sweat]
Teacher Aduina, mamut aku. Umos? [oh my, im hot. Sweat?]
Learner Umos, umosana [sweat, sweating]
Teacher Adoina. Mamut aku, Umosana aku… [oh my. Im hot, I am sweating]
Previous studies reviewed in this research (Ahmad & Jusoff, 2009; De La Campa
& Nassaji, 2009; Forman, 2012; Lee, 2010; Sali, 2014) did not make any reference to
the usage of languages other than L1 in their study. Therefore, this particular

218
finding has no other previous studies to be compared with. This finding could
well be a distinctive breaking characteristic of this study.
One possible explanation for the high usage of native tongues in the classroom
could be down to a simple reason — modelling. The teacher has no prior
knowledge of his students’ native tongues. However, the teacher, after interacting
and learning the native languages of his students, is now able to utter sentences
or phrases in Rungus, Sungai, or Dusun. This serves as a showcase and example
to his learners that it is possible to learn and be proficient in a new language, not
to mention the rapport the teacher stand to gain with his students.
Another point to highlight in the teacher’s use of his learners’ L1 is the error he
makes. As much as it is humorous to his students, it also shows that learning a
language involves making mistakes, and constantly making corrections. This
reduces the pressure in the learners to be perfect in their L2 use, and thus build
up their confidence to speak English, as they would have less fear of making
mistakes.
Aside from the findings above involving high usage of the native tongue, it was
also found out that the teacher frequently uses L1 to bring humour into the
classroom. Quantitative analysis of the study revealed that 89% of humour
throughout the recordings were made in L1 and that these humorous utterances
constitute 37% of the total use of L1 for rapport. The jokes ranged from employing
local expressions, as well as telling analogies. Table 8 presents some of the few
samples of humorous utterances made in L1 by the teacher:
Table 8: Usage of L1 for humour
No Excerpts
1 Mana pincil saya? Adui, obolou sudah matoku. [where’s my pencil? Oh, I
must be blind].
2 Aik, fikir siapa mengelamun? Cowok di Kampung Taka sana? [Hey, dreaming
about who? Your boyfriend from Taka village?]
L1 humour serves to relieve the tension and strain in the classroom. L1 humour
was chosen as the students could comprehend humour in their L1 better, besides
the teacher having an excellent grasp of the language, as well as the speech
community too.
Perhaps the more important points to explore are; how far should the teacher go
with the practice of these methods and when will these methods start to impact
the learners’ learning of L2 negatively. It is essential to seek a balanced approach
to these practices, as it is very easy for the teacher to be overzealous at learning
the learners’ native tongue and spent too much time learning from his students,
resulting in a ‘coup d’état’, where the students ended up teaching the teacher
instead of the other way round. Perhaps a simple suggestion of using only the
final five minutes of each learning session for the teacher to learn native languages
should suffice – that way, the teacher has a solid and clear approach to the process
of learning the learners’ native tongue, and he could still model the process of

219
language learning to his learners, providing a much-needed boost to his learners’

motivation.
The same is suggested to the practice of use L1 for jokes and humour. It is
suggested that the teacher starts using several L2 jokes and gauge the students’
understanding. If the students could not comprehend, the teacher could then
employ L1 to explain the jokes. This allows the teachers to introduce jokes and
expressions in English to the students slowly, as well as acknowledging that the
class is an English classroom, where students should be exposed to as much
English as possible, though L1 could still be employed (Butzkamm & Caldwell,
2009; Macaro, 2001). Since L1 humour is found to be very effective, it is suggested
that the teacher keeps using L1 humour, but to slowly bring in L2 jokes and
expressions as well.
6. Conclusion
This study attempted to analyse the use of L1 of a teacher as he teaches English to
his learners in the rural of Sabah. The analysis drew the conclusion that the subject
used L1 for mainly academic purposes, i.e., Giving Instructions and Managing.
Besides answering the research questions, the study has also unearthed several
findings on the use of L1 that are worth discussing. The study also compared the
findings to principled use of L1, as suggested by Cook (2001), and proposals were
made to bring the L1 use in rural Sabah closer to the suggestions put forward by
her.
The study also generated several directions for future studies. First, the same
model of study could be replicated, but on a larger scale. The current study
recorded 400-minutes of classroom interaction of a single teacher. Future research
could consider expanding the scale of the study, such as increasing the number of
teachers and the minutes of interaction. It is also possible to further study this area
through teachers groupings such as pre and in-service teachers, and also how
usage of certain teaching materials affect a teacher’s use of L1.
Finally, this study has also discovered that more languages other than L1 were
used in the classroom. This in itself is a breaking feature of the study — indicating
the unique context in which this study is based on. So far, there has been little, if
any literature, that discusses on the usage of languages other than L1 in the
classroom, where most studies and discussions were focused on the usage of a
single L1 in EFL instruction. It could be a worthy endeavour to embark a similar
study in similar contexts – a classroom of learners from rural, multi-ethnic, multi-
tongue society that learns English as an L2 to see if similar results emerge. The
findings could then be used to make an informed description, and arrive at the
suggestion on how to use more than a single L1 in classrooms judiciously.
7. References
Ahmad, B. H., & Jusoff, K. (2009). Teachers’ code-switching in classroom instructions for
low English proficient learners. English Language Teaching, 2(2), 49–55.
https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v2n2p49
Anton, M., & Dicamilla, F. J. (1998). Socio-cognitive functions of L1 collaborative
interaction in the L2 classroom. The Modern Language Journal, 83(2), 233–247.

220
Auerbach, E. R. (1993). Re-examining English only in the ESL classroom. TESOL Quarterly,
27(1), 9–32. https://doi.org/10.2307/3586949
Berg, B. (2009). Qualitative research methods for the social sciences (7th ed.). California State
University, United States of America: Pearson.
Berg, B. L., & Lune, H. (2012). Qualitative research methods for the social sciences (8th ed.). New
York, United States of America: Pearson.
Borzogian, H., & Fallahpour, S. (2015). Teachers' and Students' Amount and Purpose of
L1 Use: English as Foreign Language (EFL) Classrooms in Iran. Iranian Journal of
Language Teaching Research, 3(2), 67-81.
Butzkamm, W., & Caldwell, J. A. W. (2009). The bilingual reform: A paradigm shift in foreign
language teaching. Tübingen, Germany: Gunter Narr Verlag.
Cameron, L. (2001). Teaching languages to young learners. Cambridge, England: Cambridge
University Press.
Canagarajah, A. S. (1995). Functions of codeswitching in ESL classrooms: Socializing
bilingualism in Jaffna. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 16(3),
173–195. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.1995.9994599
Carless, D. (2007). Student use of the mother tongue in the task-based classroom. ELT
Journal, 62(4), 331–338.
Chaudron, C. (1988). Second language research: Research on teaching and learning. New York,
United States of America: Cambridge University Press.
Cohen, A. D., & Brooks-Carson, A. (2001). Research on direct versus translated writing:
Students’ strategies and their results. The Modern Language Journal, 85(2), 169–188.
Cook, G. (2010). Translation in language teaching: An argument for reassessment. Oxford,
England: Oxford University Press.
Cook, V. (2001). Using the first language in the classroom. The Canadian Modern Language
Review, 57(3), 402–423.
Cook, V. (2017). Second language learning and language teaching (5th ed.). New York, United
States of America: Routledge.
Creswell, J. W., & Clark, V. L. P. (2011). Designing and conducting mixed methods research (2nd
ed.). Thousand Oaks, United States of America: Sage.
Cummins, J. (2007). Rethinking monolingual instructional strategies in multilingual
classrooms. Canadian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 10(2), 221–240.
Darmi, R., Puteh-Behak, F., Abdullah, H., Darmi, R., & Wahi, W. (2018). Variations of L1
use in the English Language Class. GEMA Online: Journal of Language Studies, 18(2),
284–311.
De La Campa, J. C., & Nassaji, H. (2009). The amount, purpose and reasons for using L1
in L2 classrooms. Foreign Language Annals, 42(4), 742–759.
Donato, R. (1994). Collective scaffolding in second language learning. In J. P. Lantolf & G.
Appel (Eds.), Vygostkian approaches in second language research (pp. 33-53). New
York, United States of America: Greenwood Publishing Group.
Dulay, H. C., & Burt, M. K. (1973). Should we teach children syntax? Language Learning,
23(2), 245–258. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1973.tb00659.x
Ellis, R. (2008). The study of second language acquisition (Second Ed.). Oxford, England:
Oxford University Press
Forman, R. (2012). Six functions of bilingual EFL teacher talk: Animating, translating,
explaining, creating, prompting and dialoguing. RELC Journal, 43(2), 239–253.
Johnson, J. S., & Newport, E. L. (1994). Critical period effects in second language learning:
The influence of maturational state on the acquisition of English as a second

221
language. In H. D. Brown & S. T. Gonzo (Eds.), Readings on second language

acquisition (pp. 75–115). Upper Saddle River, United States of America: Prentice
Hall Regents.
Kang, D. M. (2008). The classroom language use of a Korean elementary school EFL
teaching: Another look at TETE. System: An International Journal of Educational
Technology and Applied Linguistic, 36(2), 214–226.
Krashen, S. D. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. New York, United
States of America: Pergamon Press.
Lally, C. G. (2008). First language influences in second language composition: The effect
of pre-writing. Foreign Language Annals, 33(4), 428-432.
Lee, H. L. J. (2010). Code switching in the teaching of English as a second language to
secondary school students. Malaysian Journal of ELT Research, 6(1), 1-45.
Liao, P. (2006). EFL learners’ beliefs about and strategy use of translation in English
learning. RELC Journal, 37(2), 191–215.
https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0033688206067428
Lim, S. L. (1994). Fluency and accuracy in spoken English — Implications for classroom
practice in a bilingual context. The English Teacher, 23.
Lin, A. M. Y. (1996). Bilingualism or linguistic segregation? Symbolic domination,
resistance and code switching in Hong Kong schools. Linguistics and Education,
8(1), 49–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0898-5898(96)90006-6
Littlewood, W., & Yu, B. (2011). First language and target language in the foreign language
classroom. Language Teaching, 44(1), 64–77.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444809990310
Liu, D., Ahn, G.-S., Baek, K.-S., & Han, N.-O. (2004). South Korean high school English
teacher’s code switching: Questions and challenges in the drive for maximal use
of English in teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 38(4), 605–638.
Long, M. H. (1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition.
In W. C. Ritchie & T. K. Bhatia (Eds.), Handbook of second language acquisition (pp.
413–468). New York, United States of America: Academic Press.
Macaro, E. (2001). Analysing student teacher’s code-switching in foreign language
classrooms: Theories and decision-making. The Modern Language Journal, 85(4),
531–548. https://doi.org/10.1111/0026-7902.00124
Macdonald, C. (1993). Using the target language. Cheltenham, England: Mary Glasgow.
Merrit, M., Cleghorn, A., Abagi, J. O., & Bunyi, G. (1992). Socialising multilingualism:
Determinants of code switching in Kenyan primary classrooms. Journal of
Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 13(1–2), 103–121.
Miles, M. B., Huberman, A. M., & Saldana, J. (2014). Qualitative data analysis: A methods
sourcebook (3rd ed.). New York, United States of America: Sage.
Mohamed, A. K. (2011). The usage of Bahasa Malaysia in teaching English in the national
primary schools: a survey of the English Teachers' beliefs and practices in Kota Bharu
(Master’s thesis). Open University Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Nunan, D. (2003). The impact of English as a global language on educational policies and
practices in the Asia Pacific region. TESOL Quarterly, 37(4), 589–613.
Phillipson, R. H. L. (1992). Linguistic imperialism. Oxford, England: Oxford University
Press.
Qian, X., Tian, G., & Wang, G. (2009). Code-switching in the primary EFL classroom in
China: Two case studies. System, 37(4), 719–730.

222
Sali, P. (2014). An analysis of the teacher’s use of L1 in Turkish EFL classrooms. System 42,
308-318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2013.12.021
Seng, G. H., & Hashim F. (2006). Use of L1 in L2 reading comprehension among tertiary
ESL learners. Reading in a Foreign Language, 18(1) 29–54.
Smith, K. D. (1984). The languages of Sabah: A tentative lexicostatistical classification. In
J. K. King & J. W. King (eds.), The languages of Sabah: A survey report. Canberra,
Australia: Australian National University.
Storch, N., & Wigglesworth, G. (2003). Is there a role for the use of the L1 in an L2 setting?
TESOL Quarterly, 37(4), 760–770. https://doi.org/10.2307/3588224
Swain, M. (1995). Three functions of output in second language learning. In G. Cook & B.
Seidlhofer (Eds.) Principles and practice in applied linguistics: Studies in honor of H. G.
Widdowson (pp. 125–144). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Turnbull, M. (2001). There is a role for the L1 in second and foreign language teaching,
but. Canadian Modern Language Review, 57(4), 531-540. DOI: 10.3138/cmlr.57.4.531
Walsh, S. (2011). Exploring classroom discourse: Language in action. New York: Routledge.

223

Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 223-237, June 2020
A Study of Saudi Advanced Academic Writing

Students’ Perceptions of Research Essays, and
Gaps in Their Knowledge
Nida Qayoom and Mohammad Saleem

Department of English, King Abdulaziz University – Rabigh branch
Rabigh, KSA
Abstract. The primary objective of the present research was to test the
hypothesis that despite being trained in academic writing for one
semester, there remain gaps in Saudi undergraduate English Major
students’ academic writing, especially pertaining to research essays. The
secondary objective was to know how these students perceived
academic writing. A mixed-methods empirical research using
triangulation approach for results validation was conducted to identify
gaps, if any, in students’ knowledge in academic writing and to
ascertain their perception of research essay writing, involving twenty
undergraduate English Major students as research participants. Test and
interview were used as data collection instruments, and the obtained
data were analysed statistically. The results show that Saudi university
English Major students regard academic writing tough, and
acknowledge that for them it is the weakest area of competence in
English. They have only a basic idea of how to find suitable sources for
their research topics, to review relevant literature to contextualize their
study, and to prepare notes and references for the study. The study is
very significant since it highlights a major area of university students’
weakness in studies and offers constructive suggestions.
Keywords: research writing; academic essays; students’ perceptions on

research essays; gaps in knowledge in writing
1. Introduction
Academic writing is an essential component of university students’ training in
writing in English since it’s a decisive factor in their success in further studies as
well as in jobs. It is a common observation that many university students in
Saudi Arabia regard academic writing, especially research writing, a challenging
task. Although English Major students are taught Academic Writing as a
compulsory course for one semester, students lack practical knowledge to locate
appropriate academic sources on/offline, build a convincing argument, find

224
supporting research studies, and compile a list of references, etc. Thus, a strong
need was felt to address the perceived gaps in students’ knowledge.
1.1. Research Background

One of the ways to teach adult students writing focused essays is to introduce
them to the style of research article/writing for publication (Amerian & Marefat,
2019; Bailey, 2011; Crème & Lea, 2000; Goalty, 2000; Hogue & Oshima, 2006;
Joseph, 1998). With this caveat in view, to teach academic essay writing to 3rd
year English Major (Academic Writing) students, the researchers incorporated in
their teaching the elements of advanced research writing, especially the methods
of compiling short literature reviews to situate the essay in the given academic
context, locating the sources for materials, summarizing the published research
findings, and building one’s arguments (Ahmed, 2016; Al-Badi, 2015; Al-Khairy,
2013). Moreover, the students in the course are supposed to learn how to
incorporate the essential elements of research in their academic essay writing as
they need to conduct a mini-research project on a selected topic (The observation
is based on the course description for Academic Writing’ course at the King
Abdulaziz University – Rabigh branch [KSA]). Although it is not exactly
oriented towards writing a research paper for publication, yet the work on the
project is a great way to learn writing essays modelled on a research paper in
focus, on a concise specialized topic, finding materials on/offline, preparing a
review of literature for contextualization of the essay, formatting, organizing,
argument building, documenting in-text citations, compiling notes, learning
different referencing styles, and preparing the list of works cited.
1.2. Research Problem

As a pre-requisite to Academic Writing, students in English Major stream do
take a course in research methodology for a semester in which they learn
incorporating the fundamental elements of ‘writing for research’ in their
academic essays. But it has been noticed that the majority of them are found
lacking in translating their theoretical knowledge into practice (Alkutbi, 2018;
Ankawi, 2015; Shukri, 2014). Their greatest challenges in writing research-
oriented academic essays are observed to be in reviewing the existing literature
(what the sources relevant to their research essays are and how to write a review
of previous research), citing academic sources and compiling the list of works
cited (Alharbi, 2019; Fadel & Rajab, 2017). In Saudi Arabian contexts there is very
little research in this area of academic inquiry, though researchers working in
second language writing issues have identified several aspects of writing
weaknesses and the ways to improve students’ writing (Al Badi, 2015; Alharbi,
2019; Ansari, 2012). There is still less research work on the experimental use of
teaching writing for research essays to encourage the students to grasp the
fundamental principles of academic writing. The issues in academic writing
persist with Saudi students and cause other performance-related drawbacks
after they enrol at western universities in English-speaking countries
(Alhojailan, 2015). In the opinion of Alhojailan (2015), the problem is related to
Saudi students’ poor understanding of the purpose of academic writing, “the
participants might have a limited understanding of the meanings and of the
purpose of academic writing” (p. v). Often students are not encouraged to write
long answers to test questions; they vomit the little they swallow for the exams,

225
nothing more. As a result, students in Saudi Arabia commonly perceive writing

as the most difficult task, and it is still harder to bring them round to write for
research (Al-Mudhi, 2019; Alkutbi, 2018; Ahmed, 2016; Al-Badi, 2015; Al-Khairy,
2013; Huwari & Al-Khasawneh, 2013). The gaps in their knowledge in
academic/research writing need to be bridged to prepare them for further
studies, in English as well as in other subjects.
1.3. Research Hypotheses

Based on the background information, the research problem identified in the
process and the preliminary review of existing literature, the researchers have
designed the present research to test the following hypotheses:
RH 1: Saudi Academic Writing (English Major) course students perceive

academic essay writing an extremely difficult task.
RH 2: There are gaps in Saudi Academic Writing students’ knowledge in
research essay writing.
1.4. Research Questions

The hypotheses stated above are to be tested in the study by seeking answers to
the following research questions:
RQ 1: How do Saudi Academic Writing (English Major) students perceive

academic essay writing?
RQ 2: Are there gaps in Saudi Academic Writing students’ knowledge in
research essay writing?
1.5. Research Objectives

The primary objective of the intended research was to identify gaps, if any, in
Saudi Academic Writing students’ knowledge in academic (research essay)
writing. The secondary objective of this research was to gather documentary
evidence on Saudi adult students’ perceptions regarding academic writing,
which includes recording their views on writing a review of existing literature,
using in-text citations, and compiling notes and bibliography. Both these
objectives were aligned to students’ present academic needs since the students
are required to work on a mini-research project prescribed in their study
programme.
Academic writing is a very significant area of research in English language
teaching, and therefore, a good body of research literature exists in this field. The
studies most relevant to the present topic of research, and studies conducted in
Saudi Arabian context, have been reviewed for contextualization and
justification of the present research.
2.1. Academic Writing

Academic writing, as defined in the Research Guide section at the University of
South Carolina website, “refers to a style of expression that researchers use to
define the intellectual boundaries of their disciplines and their specific areas of
expertise” (USC Libraries, Research Guides, 2020, para 1).i Accordingly,

226
academic writing is characterized by a formal tone, use of the third-person

perspective, a clear focus on the research problem under investigation, and
precise word choice. Hartley’s (2008) opinion on the nature of academic writing
squares well with the guidelines provided here, especially concerning
directness, simplicity, and clarity in academic writing (p. 8).
The Academic Writing course at the King Abdulaziz University, Rabigh branch
where this research has been conducted, also has been designed keeping in view
the essential features of academic writing requirements of learners. The course
focuses on the content, structure, and organization of academic essays. The
learners are expected to work to correctly incorporate research into their essays.
Advanced sentence structures, summarizing, paraphrasing, correct use of
citations, proofreading skills, and critical reading are addressed in the course.
The main aim of the course is to polish students’ skills in academic writing
conventions and equip them with a firm understanding of the process of writing
a research paper at the graduate level. The main orientation of the course is that
students- (i) understand that academic writing is a process and a skill which
needs to be acquired through practice, (ii) recognise that reading and thinking
skills are two key factors in improving writing, (iii) develop writing skills and
strategies that are necessary for a research paper at the graduate level, (iv)
identify the writing process of planning a research paper; from writing the
outline to proofreading the final draft, and (v) be familiar with the most
common research process problems that graduate students face.
Thus, comprehending the fundamental principles of academic writing is

essential for undergraduate students for excellent performance in (i) further
studies, if they continue university studies for masters’ degree courses or
research studies, (ii) studies abroad, and (iii) jobs where academic style writing
skills are required, such as journalism, editing, teaching, etc.
Excellent academic writing skills are the fundamental key to success not only in
writing-related jobs but also for studies in various disciplines not directly related
to writing. The basic tenets of English for Academic Purposes (EAP) are
formulated keeping in mind the development of academic writing skills of
students in various disciplines as Paltridge and Starfield (2013) observe that,
“EAP courses in various disciplines are designed as a conduit between academic
research and practical applications” (p. 175). For example, Surratt (2006),
highlighting the need for an academic writing course for students in the
pharmaceutical profession, says:
There are 3 compelling reasons for a pharmacy school to insist
that its graduate students acquire excellent oral and written
communication skills before receiving the MS or PhD degree: to
ensure that doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) student training by
these teaching assistants is of the highest quality, to fully prepare
the graduate student for employment, and to enrich the pool of
future pharmacy faculty candidates. (Surratt, 2006, p. 2)

227
Studies on the problems faced by international students at universities in

English-speaking countries show that numerous students enrolled in various
study programmes fail to perform well only because they do not have sufficient
preparation in academic writing skills, along with other drawbacks in
comprehending academic English (Al-Mudhi, 2019; Alzaharani, 2016; Chittum &
Bryant, 2014). Evans and Morrison (2011), in their study conducted with
international students, observe that “The evidence suggests that the students’
principal sources of difficulty were comprehending and using specialist
vocabulary, understanding their professors’ academic requirements and
processing and producing key disciplinary genres” (p. 387). The case might be
even a little worse with Saudi students since Saudi students admit that they
consider writing as the most challenging area of language learning, as report
Grabe and Kaplan (2014). The researchers show that their quantitative (skill
ratings) and qualitative (responses to open-ended questions and interviews)
data suggest that both students and instructors view writing as a challenging
area for Saudi English-language learners. Though the situation may be found to
be similar in other contexts as well. For instance, from Turkey, Altinmakas and
Bayyurt (2019) in their research findings report that undergraduate writing is
influenced by an array of interrelating educational and contextual factors, such
as the amount of L1 and L2 pre-university writing instruction and experience,
students’ perceptions of academic writing and disciplinary-specific text genres,
prolonged engagement with the academic context and discourse, and
expectations of faculty members.
Research studies show that undergraduate learners need support in developing

academic writing, but in most cases, this support is found missing in
undergraduate programmes (Bacon & Anderson, 2004; Chittum & Bryant, 2014;
Fischer & Zigmond, 1998). As a result, writing can become a painful exercise and
a task causing much anxiety in many graduate students (Pfeifer & Ferree, 2006;
Singleton-Jackson, Lumsden & Newsom, 2009). Rose and McClafferty (2001), for
instance, enumerate several issues learners usually have in a graduate course in
professional writing, such as problems in style, grammar, logic, and voice, that
lead to writing anxiety.
2.2. Research on Academic Writing in Saudi Arabia

In the Saudi Arabian context, there is very little research in this area of academic
inquiry, though researchers working in second language writing issues have
identified several aspects of writing weaknesses and the ways to improve
students’ writing in general (Ahmed, 2016; Al Badi, 2015; Alharbi, 2019; Al-
Khairy, 2013; Alkubaidi, 2014; Ansari, 2012; Huwari & Al-Khasawneh, 2013;
Khan, 2011). The focus of ESP/EAP practitioners, too, in Saudi Arabia is on the
socialization of specific course students, like doctors, engineers, lawyers, etc. into
their respective academic fields using English language (Ezza & Al-Jaralla 2015)
rather than on developing specific skills, such as reading or writing. There exist
no research works on employing writing-for-research and publication to
enhance learners’ academic writing skills.

228
Therefore, the present study is encouraged by ideas from other settings. For
instance, Doyle (2008) notes that utilizing a practice-based approach that enables
graduate students to participate in the publication process is ideal for the
development of their academic writing. Kamler (2008) believes that greater
attention to writing for publication in higher education is needed since the
process provides a sharp edge to students’ academic writing. Although Kamler
(2008) is primarily speaking from the vantage point of research scholars working
towards their PhD dissertations, his views are equally valid for graduate
students’ academic writing.
3. Research Methodology
The present study uses triangulation method to validate the obtained results.
The data have been collected through two sources – (i) an assignment given to
the students to solve, and (ii) an interview structured on the points similar to
assignment questions. The study employs mixed methods, i.e., quantitative and
qualitative analysis methods. The assignment and interviews supplied
numerical data as both were marked using a marking scheme. Both the
assignment and the interview were structured around ten research variables,
framed into ten different questions. Each question was assigned four marks,
making a total of forty marks each for the assignment as well as the interview
format. The numerical data obtained thus were interpreted qualitatively to
present a narrative analysis of results. The last question in the interview format
was meant to gather students’ perceptions of academic writing (research essay),
thus, it was also meant to collect qualitative data.
3.1. Data Collection

The data for the study were collected through two different instruments
(Appendix A and B), viz., assignment and interview. In the sub-sections that
follow is provided the detailed description of the instruments, the research
participants and the data collection procedure.
3.1.1. Assignment
The assignment given to participants to prepare a focused academic essay on a
given topic was used as a quantitative data collection instrument. The
assignment was based on an academic observation and the participants were
asked to prepare the outline of a research essay under the following sections:
research problem, hypothesis and research questions, research aims, relevant
existing literature, significance of the research, summary of three previous
research articles relevant to the study, research argument, citation of the sources,
and list of references. Each research variable was assigned 4 marks, making a
total of 40 marks. The variables were set in accordance with the standard
organizational structure of research articles, that is, IMRAD (Introduction,
Method, Results, and Discussion (Hartley, 2008)). The validity and reliability of
the sections were determined by calculating Chronbach’s Alpha for the test,
which measured .716, a quite satisfactory value (the minimum acceptable value
being .61). The objective of the assignment was to identify gaps in the
knowledge of participants on the idea and format of a research essay.

229
3.1.2. Interview
For the purpose of triangulation, data were collected on the same topic through
yet another instrument, i.e., structured interviews. Data were collected from the
same set of participants on the same set of research variables, except that the last
question in the interview format was meant to gather qualitative data on
participants’ perceptions of academic writing. Again, each variable was assigned
4 marks, making a total of 40 marks for the interview. In this case too, the
validity and reliability of interview questions were determined through
Chronbach’s Alpha, the obtained value of which was .877, a good value to start
with. Kvale and Brinkmann’s (2009) suggestions on conducting semi-
structured/structured interviews were also followed to a large extent in
preparing the interview format. The participants were interviewed on their
perception of research essays and academic writing in general, and their
understanding of what research in English language or literature is. The
objective of the interview was to evaluate students’ awareness of research
writing as part of learning academic English.
3.1.3. Participants
Twenty students were selected to take part in the study. In fact, the total number
of students in the Academic Writing class was 20, so, all were encouraged to
take part in the research study. They are 3rd year (5th semester) students in a 4-
year (8 semesters) undergraduate course majoring in English. The participants
have already studied several core modules offered in English Major study
course. These students are supposed to write a mini-research project in the final
year of their study, which requires training in research methodology. All the
participating students were female, aged between 21-24 years.
3.1.4. Procedure
The assignments were printed with clear instructions and enough space to write
answers to questions. Students were asked to complete the assignment in the
class, just like a class-test, to avoid any malpractices. Full marks (4) were given
for each complete and correct response, and in accordance with errors and
incomplete responses, marks were deducted. Thus, students’ obtained marks
ranged from 0 to 4. Similarly, the interviews conducted orally were marked on a
printed format. The interview format, being structured, contained similar
questions for all the participants to avoid bias in data collection. Since the
interview questions also tested students’ knowledge of research writing, 4 marks
were allotted to each full and correct answer, and marks were deducted for
errors and incompleteness.
4. Discussion and Analysis

The quantitative results obtained from the assignment and interviews were
analyzed statistically to calculate Chronbach’s Alpha, Means of scores, Standard
Deviation, and Variance. The values obtained from the analysis were used to
make a qualitative association for narrative interpretation. Students’ responses
to the last question in the interview format were analyzed to judge students’
perceptions of academic writing. Marks obtained by participants in assignment
and interviews were analyzed to identify the gaps in the knowledge of

230
participants (marked by any discrepancy between the knowledge the

participants actually have and the current requirements of Academic Writing,
i.e., the knowledge the participants are supposed to have at this stage).
4.1. Results
For the assignment, the participants were given the task to –
1. identify the research problem correctly,
2. form research hypothesis and research questions,
3. choose an appropriate research methodology,
4. set the aims and objectives of the research,
5. find appropriate sources to contextualize the research,
6. write appropriate significance of the research,
7. summarize the relevant materials (at least three articles),
8. build research argument,
9. cite the sources (in-text citation) in the style of participants’ choice, and
10. prepare a reference list in the chosen style.
Scores obtained by each participant are given in Table 1 below:
Table 1: Mean, standard deviation, variance, and Cronbach’s Alpha for the test
assignment
R Prob Hypo. & Q. R. Meth. Aims Source Signifi. Summary Argument Citation Refer. Total
1 2 1 4 2 2 4 1 2 4 1 23
2 2 4 4 4 2 2 2 4 4 4 32
3 4 4 4 2 4 4 4 1 2 2 31
4 1 2 1 1 2 4 2 2 1 2 18
5 4 2 4 2 1 2 4 4 3 4 30
6 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 34
7 2 4 2 3 2 4 4 4 4 4 33
8 2 2 2 2 4 2 1 4 2 1 22
9 3 1 3 1 3 4 0 1 2 2 20
10 2 4 1 4 1 3 1 4 4 2 26
11 2 4 4 4 2 1 1 2 1 1 22
12 4 2 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 38
13 3 3 3 4 2 3 1 4 2 2 27
14 4 2 2 1 4 2 2 2 4 4 27
15 2 4 4 4 2 4 4 4 4 2 36
16 2 2 3 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 17
17 4 2 4 4 2 4 4 2 4 2 32
18 1 3 4 4 1 4 4 4 4 4 33
19 4 2 2 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 20
20 3 2 4 2 2 4 2 2 4 4 29
Total
Mean 2.75 2.7 3.15 2.75 2.4 3.15 2.45 2.7 2.85 2.5 27.5
SD 1.069 1.080 1.089 1.25 1.046 1.089 1.394 1.260 1.268 1.192 6.25
Var. 1.0875 1.11 1.127 1.48 1.04 1.12 1.847 1.51 1.527 1.35 37.15
K 10
Σ var 13.205
Var. 37.15
α 0.716
Where -
SD = Standard Deviation
Var. = Variance
K = Number of variables
ΣVar = Sum of Variance

231
Thus, Cronbach's Alpha (α) is:

α = (k / (k-1)) x (1- ΣVar/Var)
α = (10/(10-1)) x (1-13.205/37.15)
α = .716
The results may be graphically presented as in Figure 1 below:
References 2.5
Citation 2.85
Argument Building 2.7
Research Variables
Summary 2.45
Significance of study 3.15
Sources 2.4
Aims 2.75
Research Method 3.15
Hypothesis & Questions 2.7
Research Problem 2.75
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Mean Scores
Figure 1: Means of scores obtained by students in each variable in the test assignment
The scores obtained by participants in the interview are given in Table 2 below:
Table 2: Mean, standard deviation, variance, and Cronbach’s Alpha for interview
responses
R. Compo R. Meth. Context. Hypo. & Q. Sources Citation of In-text Format. Refere. Notes Total
sources citation
1 3 3 1 2 1 3 2 4 2 4 25
2 3 3 2 4 1 4 3 4 2 4 30
3 4 3 1 3 1 4 4 4 2 4 30
4 2 3 2 3 2 4 3 2 2 2 25
5 4 3 1 4 2 3 4 3 1 3 28
6 4 4 2 3 2 4 4 4 2 3 32
7 4 4 2 4 2 3 4 4 2 3 32
8 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 4 25
9 1 2 0 2 2 3 1 2 1 1 15
10 3 3 2 3 2 4 4 3 2 4 30
11 3 3 2 3 1 3 2 3 2 4 26
12 4 4 3 4 2 4 4 4 3 4 36
13 3 3 2 3 0 3 2 2 2 2 22
14 3 4 2 3 1 4 4 2 1 3 27
15 3 3 2 4 1 4 4 4 2 3 30
16 2 2 0 2 0 2 2 3 2 2 17
17 3 4 1 4 2 4 3 4 2 3 32
18 2 4 2 4 2 4 4 4 3 4 33
19 3 3 2 3 2 4 3 4 3 4 31
20 3 3 1 2 2 3 2 3 2 2 23
Total
Mean 3.0 3.2 1.6 3.1 1.5 3.45 3.05 3.3 2.0 3.15 27.45
SD .794 .615 .753 .788 .688 .686 .998 .801 .561 .933
Var. .60 .36 .54 .59 .45 .4475 .9475 .61 .30 .827
K 10
Σ var 5.667
Var. 26.947
α .877

232
The results may be graphically represented as in Figure 2 below:
Notes 3.15
References 2
Formatting 3.3
Research Variables
In-Text Citation 3.05

Citation of Sources 3.45
Sources 1.5
Hypothesis & Questions 3.1
Contextualization 1.6
Research Methods 3.2
Research Components 3
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Mean Scores
Figure 2: Means of scores obtained by students in each variable in the interview

questions
4.2. Research Findings
A glance at Table 1 shows that the mean scores of participants are the highest in
describing the research methodology (3.15) and describing the significance of the
study, followed by the citation of sources (2.85) and describing the aims and
objectives of the study (2.75), whereas, the lowest means of scores are observed
in: locating the sources (2.4), writing a summary of previous research (2.45),
preparing the reference list (2.5), and building the argument for the study (2.7).
The results obtained from the assignment are corroborated by the results
obtained from the interview responses. A look at Table 2 reveals that the highest
means of scores are observed in the citation of sources (3.45), followed by
formatting of the article (3.3) and describing research methods (3.2), whereas, the
lowest means of scores are recorded in locating sources for materials collection
(1.5), contextualization of the study (1.6), and preparing reference list (2.0).
The obtained results indicate that Saudi students in Academic Writing (English
Major) programme find it hard to locate sources to collect materials relevant to
their writing on/offline. The second source of their difficulty is to prepare a
summary of relevant research articles to contextualize their writing even if they
succeed in locating them. They are equally at a loss to prepare a reference list in
proper format and build a strong argument for their research writing. The
obtained results provide sufficient support to answer research question 2, “Are
there gaps in Saudi Academic Writing students’ knowledge in research essay
writing?” The answer to the question is in the affirmative. Saudi Academic
Writing students lack proper training in locating on/offline sources relevant to
their mini-research writings, preparing a summary of relevant articles to
contextualize their writing, preparing a well-formatted reference list, and
building a convincing thesis argument. Therefore, the research hypothesis 2, i.e.,

233
‘There are gaps in Saudi Academic Writing students’ knowledge in research

essay writing’ is proven by numerical evidence gained from data analysis. The
research finding also corroborates findings from previous research studies in
Saudi Arabian contexts, such as Alzaharani (2016), Chittum and Bryant (2014),
and Al-Mudhi (2019). But, such a state of affairs may not be confined to only
Saudi Arabian students as Evans and Morrison (2011), in their study with
international students’ writing difficulties, report that the students’ principal
sources of difficulty were comprehending and using specialist vocabulary,
understanding their professors’ academic requirements and processing and
producing key disciplinary genres, though Grabe and Kaplan (2014) pinpoint
Saudi students facing specific issues with writing.
To answer research question 1, we need to turn to participants’ responses to the

last question in the structured interview format, i.e. “How do you feel about
writing a research essay? Do you find the task easy or difficult?” The
participants’ responses indicate that the majority of them perceive writing a
difficult task and writing a research essay is still more difficult for them. The
major, common difficulties enlisted by most students pertain to materials
collection, contextualization of the essay, summarizing the findings of previous
researchers, and compiling a bibliography. For example, participant 1 says that:
To me, writing is the most difficult task. It is difficult because it requires
using a particular type of vocabulary, sentence structure, and build an
argument for what you are writing.
Participant 2 says:
Writing in English is the hardest part of learning the English language.
Grammar, spelling, punctuation and sentence structure, all prove to be
very difficult to me.
In the opinion of Participant 3,
Writing is difficult for me because first I have to collect ideas, then
supporting ideas, then format the writing in a particular style. All this
is so challenging.
Participant 4 has similar observations on writing:
Academic research essay writing is not an easy job for me. I have little
idea how to find relevant source material. Then I have to put my writing
in a research context and use some format for within the text citation of
source materials. I find it very difficult.
Participant 5 echoes the opinion of participant 4 when he says,
Writing a research essay is not simple. Apart from good grammar and
suitable vocabulary, I have to learn different in-text citation styles and
the methods of compiling notes and bibliography. But more than that, it
is not easy to find materials that are suitable for my purpose.
Participant 6 opines that
students need more time to learn academic writing because it is special
kind of writing, not like writing a simple essay. Choosing the right tone
in research essay poses a challenge to me, and I find difficult to prepare a
good references list because I am not sure which authors to take and
which to reject for my study.

234
To sum up, the answer to research question 1, “How do Saudi Academic Writing
(English Major) students perceive academic essay writing?” is that to Saudi
Academic Writing students, research writing poses tough challenges, and to
most of them it is their weakest area of competence in English. Thus, it can be
stated that research hypothesis 1, i.e., ‘Saudi Academic Writing (English Major)
course students perceive academic essay writing an extremely difficult task’ is
supported by research.
As has been noted in the literature review, in Saudi Arabian contexts there is
very little research on students’ difficulties in academic writing, but still, the
findings from the present study are found to agree with the findings of those
researchers who have worked on second language writing issues, such as Al-
Badi (2015), Alharbi (2019), Al-Khairy (2013), Alkubaidi (2014), Ansari (2012),
Ezza and Al-Jaralla (2015), Huwari and Al-Khasawneh (2013), and Khan (2011).
5. Conclusion
To conclude, the present research study was taken up to identify potential gaps
in Saudi Arabian English Major undergraduate students’ knowledge in
academic writing, and to gather documentary evidence on Saudi adult students’
perceptions regarding academic writing. Analysis of the obtained results reveal
that there do exist certain gaps in students’ mastery in academic writing,
especially in research essay writing. In addition, the students are found to regard
academic writing their weakest spot in English language competence. In
conclusion, both the research hypotheses have been accepted and the research
questions have been answered. Although, since the current topic of research has
been least explored in Saudi Arabian contexts, the findings of the present
research could not be situated in a comparative perspective, yet it is hoped that
they will prove to be of much help to forthcoming researchers. Taking the
findings of the present research into cognizance, teachers of academic writing at
Saudi universities may take some steps at their own level to help learners
overcome the perceived difficulties.
6. Limitations of the Study and Suggestions for Improvement

The study is very significant in its settings, for two reasons: (i) The research
findings suggest that academic writing is perceived to be a difficult task by
Saudi Arabian university students. Academic writing is an extremely important
component and a decisive factor in students’ success in further studies, at home
or abroad, as well as in jobs. To encourage students to write more, the
examination pattern emphasizing long answer questions needs to be adopted in
subject-specific situations. (ii) The findings reveal that there are gaps in Saudi
English Major students’ knowledge in academic writing, especially pertaining to
locating academic sources on/offline, summarizing previous research studies,
and compiling the reference list. All these are not only their current
requirements but future requirements as well. The suggestion is that students
should be given more assignments to write mock research papers for
publication, with incentives such as including the name of the student whose
paper is adjudged the best with the name of the faculty as co-author, if the paper
is contributed to a research journal.

235
Two limitations have been noted during the course of the present study which
might have affected the obtained results: (i) Owing to limited resources and
constraints of time, the present study has been conducted with a smaller set of
participants. Further researchers may conduct similar studies with a larger
number of participants and check whether they obtain similar results, and (ii)
Due to segregated campuses for male and female students, the researchers could
not include male students as participants in the study, which might have
affected the results on students’ perceptions. Further research works may record
male students’ opinions as well and see if the perceptions differ.
7. References
Ahmed, F. E. Y. (2016). An investigation of writing errors of Saudi EFL university
students: A case study of college of science and arts - Tanumah, King Khalid
University. International Journal of Social Science and Humanities Research, 4(2), 189-
211. http://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.22379.18725
Al Badi, I. A. H. (2015). Academic writing difficulties of ESL learners. The 2015 WEI
International Academic Conference Proceedings, 65-78. Retrieved from
https://www.westeastinstitute.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Ibtisam-
Ali-Hassan-Al-Badi-full-Paper.pdf
Alharbi, M. A. (2019). EFL university students’ voice on challenges and solution in
learning academic writing. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 8(3), 577-588.
https://doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v8i3.15276
Alhojailan, A. (2015). Perceptions of academic writing by some Saudi graduate students
studying in American universities (Doctoral dissertation, Oklahoma State
University, Stillwater, OK, United States). Retrieved from
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f5f8/8ec982c26d5a63d1a55cf04845b9ee4f9d53.
pdf
Al-Khairy, M. A. (2013). Saudi English major undergraduates’ academic writing
problems: A Taif University perspective. English Language Teaching, 6(6), 1-12.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/elt.v6n6p1
Alkubaidi, M. A. (2014). The relationship between Saudi English major university
students’ writing performance and their learning style and strategy use. English
Language Teaching, 7(4), 83-95. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/elt.v7n4p83
Alkutbi, D. (2018). Bridging the gap: A study of academic language learning needs of Saudi
international students (Doctoral dissertation, University of Victoria, Victoria,
Canada). Retrieved from
https://dspace.library.uvic.ca/bitstream/handle/1828/10126/Alkutbi_Douaa_
PhD_2018.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
Al-Mudhi, M. A. (2019). Evaluating Saudi university students’ English writing skills
using an analytic rating scale. Journal of Applied Linguistics and Language Research,
6(4), 95-109. Retrieved from
http://www.jallr.com/index.php/JALLR/article/view/1034/pdf1034
Altinmakas, D., & Bayyurt, Y. (2019). An exploratory study on factors influencing
undergraduate students’ academic writing practices in Turkey. Journal of English
for Academic Purposes, 37, 88-103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2018.11.006
Alzaharani, N. A. (2016). Saudi students’ experiences of learning English in English as a
foreign and second language settings (Master’s thesis, Mount Saint Vincent
University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada). Retrieved from
http://dc.msvu.ca:8080/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10587/1768/NagahAlzahara
niMAEDThesis2016.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

236
Amerian, M., & Marefat, F. (2019). A triangulated study of professional English needs of
university graduates in business and economics in today’s Iranian business
sectors. Applied Research on English Language, 8(2), 227-260.
https://doi.org/10.22108/are.2019.114847.1401
Ankawi, A. (2015). The academic writing challenges faced by Saudi students studying in New
Zealand (Master’s thesis, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New
Zealand). Retrieved from
https://openrepository.aut.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10292/9187/AnkawiA.pdf
?sequence=3&isAllowed=y
Ansari, A. A. (2012). Teaching of English to Arab students: Problems and remedies.
Educational Research, 3(6), 519-524. Retrieved from
https://www.interesjournals.org/articles/teaching-of-english-to-arab-students-
problems-and-remedies.pdf
Bacon, D. R., & Anderson, E. S. (2004). Assessing and enhancing the basic writing skills
of marketing students. Business Communication Quarterly, 67(4), 443-454.
Bailey, S. (2011). Academic writing: A Handbook for International Students (3rd ed.). London:
Routledge.
Chittum, J. R., & Bryant, L. H. (2014). Reviewing to learn: Graduate student participation
in the professional peer-review process to improve academic writing skills.
International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 26(3), 473-484.
Retrieved from http://www.isetl.org/ijtlhe/pdf/IJTLHE1984.pdf
Crème, P., & Lea, M. R. (2000). Writing at university: A guide for students. Buckingham:
Open University Press.
Doyle, T. (2008). Helping students learn in a student-centered environment. Sterling, VA:
Stylus.
Evans, S., & Morrison, B. (2011). The first term at university: implications for EAP. ELT
Journal, 65(4), 387–397. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccq072
Ezza, E-S. Y., & Al-Jaralla, N. (2015). EAP as an index of academic excellence in medical
studies at Majma’ah University. In A. K. Hamdan (Ed.), Teaching and learning in
Saudi Arabia: Perspectives from higher education (pp. 175-184). Rotterdam: Sense
Publishers.
Fadel, S., & Rajab, H. (2017). Investigating the English language needs of the female
students at the faculty of computing and information technology at King
Abdulaziz University in Saudi Arabia. English Language Teaching, 10(6), 69-82.
http://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v10n6p69
Fischer, B. A., & Zigmond, M. J. (1998). Survival skills for graduate school and beyond.
New Directions for Higher Education, 101, 29-40.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/he.10103
Goalty, A. (2000). Critical reading and writing: An introductory coursebook. London:
Routledge.
Grabe, W., & Kaplan, R. B. (2014). Theory and practice of writing: An applied linguistic
perspective. New York, NY: Routledge.
Hamdan, A. K. (Ed.). (2015). Teaching and learning in Saudi Arabia: Perspectives from higher
education. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.
Hartley, J. (2008). Academic writing and publishing: A practical guide. New York:
Routledge.
Hogue, A., & Oshima, A. (2006). Introduction to academic writing. Essex: Pearson.
Huwari, I. F., & Al-Khasawneh, F. M. (2013). The Reasons behind the Weaknesses of
Writing in English among Prep-Year Students at Taibah University, School of
Education, Communication and Language Sciences. English for Specific Purposes
World, 38(14), 1-9.

237
Joseph, A. (1998). Put it in writing: Learn how to write clearly, quickly, and persuasively. New
York: McGraw-Hill.
Kamler, B. (2008). Rethinking doctoral publication practices: Writing from and beyond
the thesis. Studies in Higher Education, 33(3), 283-294.
Khan, I. A. (2011). Learning difficulties in English: Diagnosis and pedagogy in Saudi
Arabia. Educational Research, 2(7), 1248-1257. Retrieved from
https://www.interesjournals.org/articles/learning-difficulties-in-english-
diagnosis-and-pedagogy-in-saudi-arabia.pdf
Kvale, S., & Brinkmann, S. (2009). Interviews: Learning the craft of qualitative research
interviewing (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Paltridge, B., & Starfield, S. (Eds.). (2013). The handbook of English for specific purposes.
Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118339855
Pfeifer, H. L., & Ferree, C. W. (2006). Tired of “reeding” bad papers? Teaching research
and writing skills to criminal justice students. Journal of Criminal Justice
Education, 17(1), 121-142. https://doi.org/10.1080/10511250500335692
Rose, M., & McClafferty, K. A. (2001). A call for the teaching of writing in graduate
education. Educational Researcher, 30(2), 27-33.
https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X030002027
Shukri, N. A. (2014). Second language writing and culture: Issues and challenges from
the Saudi learners’ perspective. Arab World English Journal 5(3), 190-207.
Singleton-Jackson, J., Lumsden, D. B., & Newsom, R. (2009). Johnny still can’t write, even
if he goes to college: A study of writing proficiency in higher education graduate
students. Current Issues in Education, 12. Retrieved from
http://cie.asu.edu/ojs/index.php/cieatasu/article/vie w/45/9
Surratt, C. K. (2006). Creation of graduate oral/written communications skills course.
American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 70(1), 5.
https://doi.org/10.5688/aj700105
USC Libraries, Research Guides. (2020). Academic Writing: Definition. Retrieved
from https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/academicwriting
iThe research guidelines at the website read as follows: “Academic writing refers to a
style of expression that researchers use to define the intellectual boundaries of
their disciplines and their specific areas of expertise. Characteristics of academic
writing include a formal tone, use of the third-person rather than first-person
perspective (usually), a clear focus on the research problem under investigation,
and precise word choice. Like specialist languages adopted in other professions,
such as, law or medicine, academic writing is designed to convey agreed m eaning
about complex ideas or concepts for a group of scholarly experts.”

Appendix A: Assignment
Name: _________________________________________________
Participant No.: _________________________________________
Department/Faculty: ____________________________________
Marks Obtained: ________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Note: Read the following observation carefully.
Many Saudi students going to foreign countries for higher studies, like the US,
the UK, New Zealand, and so on, face problems and difficulties in their
education because they are not well-prepared to receive education in English
medium. The reason for this lies in their lack of proper training in academic
writing. Most of them are very good at their chosen fields of study such as,
natural sciences, mathematics, engineering, medicine or law, but they achieve
low marks because of major drawbacks in academic writing. More specifically,
their writing skills are found to be unsatisfactory, especially in writing for
research, owing to which they fail to write excellent academic essays and
publishable research articles. It is suggested that universities in Saudi Arabia
should offer English for Academic Purposes (EAP) program to all
undergraduate students to train the students in the skills of academic writing,
not only for studies in foreign countries but also for universities at home.
Based on the information provided in the passage above, prepare the outline
of a research essay in accordance with the sections given below:
The research problem

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Research hypothesis and research question(s)

Research Hypothesis
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Research Question(s)
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Research methodology
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Aims and objectives of the research

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Titles of five research articles related to the topic

1.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
2.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
3.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
4.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
5.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Significance of the research (for the university)

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Summary of three articles chosen as sources
1.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
2.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
3.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Introduction, including your main argument for research
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Sample in-text citation of the selected sources in the chosen style
(APA/MLA/Chicago)
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
List of References
1.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
2.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
3.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
4.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
5.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Appendix B: Interview format

Structured Interview
Dear Research Participant,
Please write answers to the following questions in the space provided, according
to your understanding. Your answers will be assessed for your knowledge of the
topics, therefore, please do not consult any online or offline materials to answer
the questions. Thank you.
1. What are the essential components of a well-researched, publishable
essay?
Components of research essay: Introduction, Method,
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________.
2. What are different research methods? Briefly explain one of the

research methods.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________.
3. How are research essays contextualized in their area of research?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________.
4. What is research hypothesis, and how is it related to research

questions?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________.
5. What are the different sources of collecting materials in support of the
main argument in a research essay? Write as many sources as possible.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________.
6. What do you understand by ‘citing the sources’ in a research essay?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________.
7. What is in-text citation?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________.
8. What do you understand by ‘formatting’ of an essay?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________.
9. Write the names of three prevalent citation and formatting styles.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________.
10. What information is to be provided in the References/ Bibliography

section of a research essay?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________.
11. What is the purpose of ‘Notes’ section in a research essay?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________.
How do you feel about writing a research essay? Do you find the task easy or
difficult?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________.
238

Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 238-250, June 2020
Mass Media Internships in Vocational Training

of Students Majoring in Journalism
Nataliia A. Tsymbal, Nataliia M. Savchuk, Valentina I. Avramenko,

Svitlana A. Sichkar and Iryna A. Denysiuk
Pavlo Tychyna Uman State Pedagogical University, Uman, Ukraine
Abstract. The purpose of this research was to answer the questions of

how and to what extend the internship programme, seen as a part of
their vocational training, could contribute to students’ learning process
and professional growth and how the students perceived the internship
programme. This was a quasi-experimental study utilising quantitative
and qualitative methods. Such statistical tools as a cumulative grade
point average, the career motivation test, and Mettl’s aptitude online test
for journalists, the semi-structured interview for the focus-group, and
references from internship host company were used for calculations of
the variables. The dependence of variables on the internship was
analysed using a two-way ANOVA. The study found that mass media
internships significantly improve vocational training system of students
majoring in Journalism. Due to involvement in this programme,
students’ academic performance and career motivation increased,
journalism skills developed and the quality of this education rose. This
internship programme fosters students’ job-related skills like working in
a team and fast-paced environment, time-management, editing and
publishing, communication, and social networking, using software to
create digital and printed content. This study implies that university-
based journalism education is likely to soon become a secondary
process. This study implies and experimentally proves that university-
based journalism education should soon become a secondary thing as
de-institutionalised education is emerging laying the basics for
“entrepreneurial journalism”.
Keywords: journalism; mass media internships; vocational training;

tertiary students; quasi-experiment

239
1. Introduction
Mass media internships (MMI) bridges the gap between vocational training of
tertiary students majoring in journalism and their job realities which gradually
enhances MMI’s reputation for bringing benefits to both journalism students, as
they experience their future professional role (GraduateJobs, 2018; Maben &
Edwards, 2015), and employers, as they gain access to the pool of ‘up-and-
coming’ talent (Ismail, 2018; Ojomo, 2015). The challenges that the students are
facing when applying or doing internships in Ukraine are a limited number of
companies that can host the students, a limited number of the employees who
are willing to supervise the student interns, the copyright issues related to the
publications made by interns and their supervisors cooperatively, and students’
digital awareness of using new media technologies (Dovzhenko, 2018).
However, these challenges are overweighed by the benefits internships provide.

According to the study completed for the Committee on Employment and Social
Affairs (EMPL) (Broek, Hogarth, Baltina & Lombardi, 2017) on apprenticeships,
internships, and volunteering which is in line with the Communication
Department at George Mason University (Internships and Careers, n.d.), the
internships provide triangular benefits the student, the training institution and
the employer. Moreover, internships are to meet the challenges of global
journalism education in the 21st century (Goodman & Steyn, 2017; Hurst, Thye &
Wise, 2014).
2. Literature review
There is a strong trend in developing a more critical journalist or reporter that
can adjust to a rapid technological change (Donsbach, 2015; Josephi, 2019; Keel,
2019). However, it is emphasised that conventional training in Journalism still
lacks provision for the students with hands-on experience. It is considered to be
insufficient in enabling students to learn in an appropriately equipped
environment that addresses the deficiencies in the current training system (Breit,
2018; Valencia-Forrester, 2020). Internship programmes, either paid or unpaid,
strengthen journalism education with what is missing in current vocational
training of the journalists-to-be (Gessesse, 2020; Reed, Walsh-Childers, Fischer &
Davie, 2020). According to the survey conducted amongst journalism and
communication college graduates by Rosenstiel et. al. (2015), the internships
were rated fifth (out of 12) important learning after self-study, tutoring,
mentoring, and specialism-related courses. According to Goodman (2020), the
internship programmes are the ways to provide students with both experiential
learning and early job placement experience in journalism (Goodman, 2020;
Goodman & Steyn, 2017). Gillmor (2016) claims that the intern students who can
work with the relative autonomy are of value as they fit into the company’s cost-
effectiveness policy. Senat, Ketterer and McGuire (2019) suggested that
internship programmes bring benefits to three parties: students, host company,
and training institution that helps to improve the reputation of the latter.
Previous studies have also reported that the curricula of institutions were not
fully aligned with the demands and trends in the job market and industry
(Goodman & Steyn, 2017; Josephi, 2019; Senat et. al., 2019).

240
The literature review found that internship programmes correlate with

convergent journalism (Killebrew, 2002) based on the technology-mediated
methods of delivery information. It brought a shift in journalism educational
paradigm. Additionally, the above concept met the journalism job market
demand in an employee with certain knowledge and personality profile who
skilfully use different outlets to deliver news or stories. It was found that paid
journalism internships have been a common practice in the European and
American universities, but those programmes are still of a limited offer in
Ukraine. For example, we found just nine media-related unpaid and paid
internships for undergraduates in Ukraine in 2019-2020 (Studway Opportunities,
n.d.) The Media Mobility Hub offers 15-day tuition fee-free internship for
student-journalists in the editorial offices of the leading media in Kyiv. The
participants of the journalism internship are supposed to master their skills in
the production of information products for convergent newsrooms, radio, TV,
social networks, and the theoretical foundations of the work of a modern
universal journalist. The VoxUkraine offers an unpaid internship with a further
employment opportunity to the students. They are supposed to specify trends
and stories in data, work with Python, pandas, BeautifulSoup, Highcharts, be
skilled in infographics (visualisation) and fluent in spoken and written English.
The above suggests that the requirements are quite tough.
Given the above, the benefits of the internships seem to be admittedly obvious.
Nevertheless, the literature review found a limited number of sources in both
international and Ukrainian databases revealing assessment approaches of the
practice of student engagement, mentoring, and student and programme
effectiveness which created a gap for this study. Thus, the research questions
were:
1) How and to what extent could the internship programme, seen as a part of
their vocational training, contribute to students’ learning process and
professional growth?
2) How did the students perceive the internship programme?
The hypotheses for this study were:

H0: There is no dependence of academic performance, career motivation, and
journalism skills development on the participation of the students in the
internship programme.
H1: There is the dependence of academic performance, career motivation, and
journalism skills development on the participation of the students in the
internship programme.
3. Methods
This study utilised both quantitative and qualitative research instruments to
answer the research questions (Trigueros, Juan & Sandoval, 2017). The
quantitative method tools like records of students’ grades presented through the
calculated Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA), the results of diagnostics
of a career motivation (CMT), and Journalism skills online test to assess the basic
verbal and quantitative aptitude of journalists were given the priority. The
qualitative research instruments like the focus-group semi-structured interview

241
and secondary data like references from internship host company were used to
have an in-depth picture of the effectiveness of mass media internships (Zohrabi,
2013). The above were employed to control over the variables which were
consolidated academic grades of sampled students, career motivation and
perception of this approach to their vocational training boosted with the mass
media internship programme. The experiment was followed by numerical and
qualitative data analysis to validate the statistical significance of the experiment
outcomes.
3.1. Research Design

This was a quasi-experimental study. It used mixed methods and convergent
design (Creswell, 2014). The study completed in November 2019 and lasted half
a year (Thyer, 2012). This study comprised three stages like a preparatory,
experimental, and post-experimental (data analyses and interpretation) stage.
The first stage was intended to examine the literature and best practices, sign
agreements with the potential host company and design the internship guide for
the host company and get it approved by the Board of Academics for Kyiv
National University of Culture and Arts. At the experimental stage, sampling
was performed, mentors were appointed, induction courses were delivered, the
internship programmes were launched, run, and supervised. Here, the
experimental group students received internship-based training, and the control
group students were trained traditionally at a “Journalist’s Lab” at university.
After the above, the focus group interview was conducted, the data were
processed and analysed followed by conclusions made (see Figure 1).
Literature Designing
Preperatory and best Signing the Getting
stage practices agreements internship approval
examination guide
Experimental Mentors Induction Internship

Sampling
stage appointment course programme
Post Data
Focus group Data interpretation
Experimental interview processing and
stage conclusion
Figure 1: Visualised research design

Source: designed by the authors
3.2. A brief outline of the unpaid Internship Programme run at Media Holding
“Media Group, Ukraine” Host Company
This was a 30-day part-time or flexible schedule programme. It was aimed at
involving the student interns in assisting and performing typical tasks related to
broadcast/digital news production, assisting (or ‘shadowing’) in the on-going
projects, scriptwriting and editing video for a newscast.
Objectives: to foster students’ job-related skills like working in a team and fast-
paced environment, time-management, editing and publishing, communication,
and social networking, using software to create digital and printed content.
Assessment: a two-part assessment of a supervisor and a mentor was supposed to
be performed.

242
3.3. Sample
A two-stage cluster sampling approach was used as it was possible to consider
the students obtaining education in the same field of specialism were mutually
homogeneous (Levy & Lemeshow, 2011). At the first stage, 53 students of two
groups in their third year of study seeking the Bachelor’s degree in Journalism at
Kyiv National University of Culture and Arts were purposefully sampled for
this experiment. The above students formed the experimental and control
groups. At the second stage of sampling, Cumulative Grade Point Average
(CGPA) based academic grades (The European Credit Transfer and
Accumulation System (ECTS)) of sampled students distributed on the 5-point
scale (from 1 to 5) was calculated, and a career motivation test was administered.
The experimental group (EG) involved 26 students (14 females and 12 males
aged between 20 and 22) and the control group (CG) comprised 27 students (11
females and 16 males aged between 20 and 22). The CGPA scores, Mettl’s
Aptitude Test for Journalists (MATJ), and the results of a Career Motivation Test
(CMT) are presented in the table 1.
Table 1: The CGPA scores (based on a 5-point scale), MATJ scores and the
results of a CMT for EG and GE before the experiment
Variances
Group CGPA CMT MATJ 𝑴 𝑺𝑫
Subtraction 𝒑 - value
EG, 𝑛 = 26 3.91 3.34 3.47 3.5733 1.14821
0.092 0.821
CG, 𝑛 = 27 4.05 3.31 3.61 3.6566 1.13731
Note: 𝑀 – arithmetic mean; 𝑆𝐷 – standard deviations.
As can be seen, both groups might be regarded homogeneous according to the

figures in the table and students’ demographic features like age and year of
study. They had approximately the same academic grades, the level of career
motivation (EG = 3.34 and CG = 3.31), and journalism skills (EG = 3.47 and CG =
3.61). Eleven students from the EG were randomly selected to be interviewed as
the focus group.
3.4. Instruments
This study relies on Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA), Career
Motivation Test (CMT) (PsychTests, n./d.), Mettl's Aptitude Online Test for
Journalists (Mettl, n./d.), semi-structured interview for the focus-group and
references from the internship host company. The dependence of variables on
the internship was analysed using a two-way ANOVA. Career Motivation Test
(CMT) comprises 102 questions that are supposed to be answered within 20 min.
The test covers the topics as follows: achievements, structure and order,
ambitions, responsibility, mobility, power, recognition, work-environment.
Three experts proved the criterion validity, construct validity, and face validity
of the test. Mettl’s Aptitude Online Test for Journalists has three major sections
as follows: verbal ability, logical reasoning, and quantitative aptitude. The test
lasts 60 minutes. It comprises 60 multiple-choice items that cover the topics such
as formal logic, seating arrangements, syllogism, deduction, analogies, number
matrices, language coding, data sufficiency, statistics and probability,
combinatorics, work rate, travel, polynomials, reading comprehension,

243
grammar, writing skills, vocabulary, spelling. Three experts proved the criterion
validity, construct validity, and face validity of the test.
3.5. Semi-structured Interview Questions for the Focus-group Students

It included 5 open-ended questions to comply with a stage-wise questioning
approach that relies on such questions as opening, introductory, transition, core
and ending. The semi-structured interview was conducted as recommended by
Adams (2015). The EG respondents were randomly selected for the interview. To
deal with the biasing effect, the Alumni Association members were hired to
conduct the interviews. This was followed up by instructing. The informed
consent was obtained from the interviewees. The interviews were recorded and
transcribed. The answers were rated. The coding procedure was performed. The
consolidated data was analysed using IBM SPSS Statistics software. The
probability value of ≤ 0.05 was considered significant.
1. How would you describe your impressions of (participation) in the internship
programme?
2. What exactly caused you to think positively or negatively about the
programme?
3. Was the course useful for your career as a journalist? Suggest your reasoning.
4. Would you become a referee for this programme? Why?
5. What, do you think, could improve this programme? Suggest your reasoning.
The responses of the focus group participants were processed in accordance
with the guidelines for the focus group research (Onwuegbuzie, Dickinson,
Leech & Zora, 2009).
4. Results
Quantitative data were drawn for the measurement based on Cumulative Grade
Point Average (CGPA), Career Motivation Test (CMT), and Mettl's Aptitude
Online Test for Journalists. The qualitative data were obtained from the
interview.
4.1. Quantitative results

Both tangible and intangible improvements in the EG and CG students could be
observed and identified after the data collected had been processed. However,
the dynamics of improvements in academic performance, journalism skills, and
career motivation were greater in the students of the EG. Thus, the EG group
students showed better results in the CGPA and a career motivation that had
been administered in both groups (see Table 2). This was due to participation in
the above internship programme run at Media Holding “Media Group,
Ukraine” Host Company.
Table 2: The CGPA scores (based on a 5-point scale), MATJ scores and the results of a
CMT for EG and GE after the experiment
Variances
Group CGPA CMT MATJ 𝑴 𝑺𝑫
Subtraction 𝒑 -value
EG, 𝑛 = 26 4.61 4.22 4.32 4.3833 1.22112
0.086 0.779
CG, 𝑛 = 27 4.21 3.76 3.83 3.9333 1.13641
Note: 𝑀 – arithmetic mean; 𝑆𝐷 – standard deviations.

244
A two-way ANOVA was used to define whether the above improvements were
due to the students’ participation in the internship programme (see Table 3).
Table 3: Two-way ANOVA results to define the dependence of academic performance

and career motivation on the participation of the EG students in the internship
programme
Variance Source 𝑺𝑺 𝒅𝒇 𝑴𝑺 F-value 𝒑 𝜼𝟐 𝒏
Between groups 22103.31 3
Group (Experimental/control) 32.44 1 31.67 .079 .769 0.001 53
Error 21896.39 57 434.34
Inside groups 11991.63 64
Estimated parameters /Before- 1.19 1 10.36 .049 .778 0.001 53
/After-the experiment)
Group*Parameter 191.34 1 157.27 .891 .391 0.021
Error 11001.01 53 163.167
Total 21112.03 121
Note: SS – total mean square error; df– degrees of freedom; MS – mean square; F–value;
η2 – mutual coupling factor; p>.05; n – number of students.
The statistically significant difference in the Estimated parameters (Before-

/After-the experiment) with a figure of .778 and group*Parameter (.391) can be
seen in Table 3 which suggests that there is the dependence of improvements in
the students’ grades, journalism skills and their career motivation on the
participation of the EG students in the internship programme.
The relation between the internship-based training of the EG and traditional
training of the students of the CG at a “Journalist’s Lab” at university was
established through the descriptive statistics (see Table 4).
Table 4: Relationship between the internship-based training of the EG and traditional

training of the students of the CG at a “Journalist’s Lab” at university
Variables 1 2 3
1. Academic performance 1.12
2. Journalism skills .47* 1.12
3. Career motivation .69* .46* 1.12
Mean (Likert scale) 69.43 (4.12) 128.12 (4.78) 16.77 (4.11)
Standard deviations 10.32 23.87 4.09
*𝑝>.05.
The figures for students’ academic performance, journalism skills, and career
motivation are positively and significantly correlated as they can be seen in
Table 4. The academic performance positively correlates with journalism skills
(𝑟 = .47; 𝑝>.05), academic performance well correlates with a career motivation
(𝑟 = .69; 𝑝>.05), and journalism skills positively correlate with a career
motivation (𝑟 = 46; 𝑝>.05). As every correlation figure is positive, it suggests
that the internship-based training is effective when used in vocational training of
the students majoring in journalism.

245
4.2. Qualitative results

Results of Semi-structured Interview Questions for the Focus-group Students (𝑛 = 11)
Question 1. How would you describe your impressions of (participation) in the

internship programme?
Ten students responded that it was a fruitful experience. One student reported
having her stereotypes broken. Those were about her future job like “lots of
travelling within the country and abroad”, “funny colleagues”, “interesting
topics”, “objectivity of one’s opinion”.
Question 2. What exactly caused you to think positively or negatively about the
programme? Eleven focus group students expressed positively about the
programme. they proved that the programme met their professional needs,
enhanced their professional credo, and improved their professional profile,
became better at generating new ideas. Seven students confessed that they
would do better in the programme if it was paid.
Question 3. Was the course useful for your career as a journalist? Suggest your
reasoning.
Ten students agreed that the programme contributed to their professional
background, challenged them in terms of deadlines, creativity, and being stress-
proof. Two students often felt the tasks impossible to manage to comply with
requirements. The reasons for the above were a weak link between journalism
education at university and a real job, and out-of-dated equipment used at
university which prevented the students from acquiring up-to-date digital skills.
Question 4. Would you become a referee for this programme? Why? Eleven students
agreed to advise this programme to their peers as it proved optimal for their
future careers. The reasons for this were students’ increased job motivation,
enhanced networking contacts, progress in their studies.
Question 5. What, do you think, could improve this programme? Suggest your
reasoning. Seven students found the programme too short and suggested
prolonging it. Ten students responded that such a programme should be paid as
a requirement for the experienced employees and the students are identical.
5. Discussions
To address the first research question, mass media internships proved to be the
pedagogic booster for vocational training of tertiary students majoring in
journalism. If introduced regularly, those internships could upgrade the
journalism curriculum and raise the quality of journalism education.
Additionally, it fitted each students’ intellectual type, conceptual tempo,
problem-solving, and learning styles. The latter is consistent with the findings of
Valencia-Forrester (2020) who proved that equips a future journalist with
necessary knowledge and skills so that the one could succeed in ‘a dynamic
media landscape’. This was due to the fact that the researcher sees internships as
a work-integrated learning model. The results of this study supported findings
of Gessesse (2020) and Reed, Walsh-Childers, Fischer and Davie (2020) who
revealed that the internship programmes, either paid or unpaid, add much value

246
to journalism education with such things as the integrated view of the

occupation and learning from the very best. The study findings were in line with
Steeves (2005) stating that (international) internships enhance the quality of
journalism graduates. They engage the student in more in-field experience and
specialised training in writing, reporting, photography, blogging, etc. They
prepare graduates for tougher graduation requirements and job placement.
According to Ojomo (2007), internships help graduates ‘step out of the academic
cocoon and into a professional arena’. They can apply their knowledge and skills
and build up friendly in-field relationships. The results of the study fit the
concept of convergent journalism produced by Killebrew (2002). It is referred to
as the cooperation of the staff from print, broadcast, and online news who use
recent technological advances to distribute content.
To address the second research question, the most illustrative students’

responses about their perception of the intervention are presented below:
[…it was awesome and exhilarating to work with someone who inspires you
by her/his own actions, way of approaching things, and professional
lifestyle…]
[…the university training seems far behind the real job. The teachers just
make us believe that we are on the track but we aren’t… It is
disappointing…]
[… I was so much willing to do my best in the projects that I hardly could
sleep at night… I feel how rewarding this project was…]
The internships create a convergent journalism environment for the students to

gain marketable cross-media skills like digital design, copywriting, and video or
photojournalism. Though the programme was based on the increased cognitive
and creative load, the students evaluated it positively and showed growth as
both as a future staff member and a self-efficient personality. The programme
made it possible to employ different extracurricular type contents, accelerate
journalism skill formation, and increase learning effectiveness through more job-
related tasks and assignments. The results supported the previous research
conducted by Gillmor (2016). It draws attention to the fact that there is a need for
journalists who are good at statistics, business, engineering/computer science,
political science, law, design. There is also a need for journalists who can work
with different computer programmes. The above scientist claims that the
educational programmes accompanied by internships can satisfy those needs.
Though it was beyond the scope of this study, the programme reduced
imbalance between the excessive teacher efforts in fostering writing and
speaking skills in student journalists and teacher underperformance in fostering
student digital skills which the focus group students reported while
interviewed.
This paper makes several contributions to the theory and methodology of

vocational training of the students majoring in journalism. First, this study adds
to the theory and practice of journalism education. It boosted the research of
Anderson, Glaisyer, Smith and Rothfeld (2011), Coombes (2019), Greenberg
(2007) and Josephi (2016) who revealed the journalism education seen as a
phenomenon. It enhanced the methodology of journalism teaching and training

247
highlighted by Fourie (2005) and Harro-Loit and Ugur (2018). The study
contributed to the theory of reflective practice in journalism education (Burns,
2004). It accelerated the introduction of media education and new technology in
journalism education (Berkeley, 2009; Nkomo, Chidyagwayi & Munikwa, 2016).
It revealed the need for a shift to visual communication in the journalism
curriculum (Blom & Davenport, 2012). The study also added to best practice of
journalism skills training (Larrondo Ureta & Peña Fernández, 2018; Takahashi &
Parks, 2018). Secondly, the results of this study help better understand the
importance of establishing a link between journalism education at university
and a real job, upgrading university computer infrastructure, and doing
internships at the host brick-and-mortar company but university lab.
6. Conclusions
Mass media internships significantly improve vocational training system of
students majoring in Journalism. They contribute substantially to students’
learning process and professional growth. Due to involvement in this
programme, students’ academic performance and career motivation increase,
journalism skills develop, and the quality of this education rises. This internship
programme fosters students’ job-related skills like working in a team and fast-
paced environment, time-management, editing and publishing, communication,
and social networking, using software to create digital and printed content. The
students perceive the internship programme positively. The reasons for
students’ positive perceptions of the programme were the increased job
motivation, enhanced networking contacts, progress in their studies. This study
implies that university-based journalism education is likely to soon become a
secondary process. The interview suggests that the teachers should put greater
effort into fostering student digital skills than training students’ writing and
speaking skills. Though the unpaid programme like this indirectly raises
competition in the journalism job market, it raises the quality of the mass media
product as a whole. The study had demonstrated the need for a shift to visual
communication in the journalism curriculum. Further study is needed in the
field of ‘entrepreneurial journalism’ theory and methodology.
7. Recommendations
Given the fact that the employees of the host company might behave hostile
(unfriendly) to the students doing internships for the reason being that the
students might be perceived as competitions, it would work if the students ‒ as a
separate team ‒ were assigned to create some new project under the supervision
of the experienced employee. Before launching the project, the staff might be
involved in evaluating and providing feedback to that project. The internship
programme would be more effective if it was run as a paid summer job. The
student journalists could travel locally and internationally to collect news at the
source. However, the Academic Board’s special approval is needed because the
summer time is considered to be extra-curriculum.
8. Limitations and implications for the research

It might be argued that it seems the limitation that the experiment was a single-
institution experience with only one host company involved. Quasi-

248
experimental research design and a number of variables studied were also

limitations to this research. This study implies and experimentally proves that
university-based journalism education should soon become a secondary thing as
de-institutionalised education is emerging laying the basics for “entrepreneurial
journalism”. There might be stated that unpaid internships indirectly lead to the
rise of the unemployment rate amongst qualified journalists.
Acknowledgement
We express gratitude to all people involved in the research and to Media
Holding “Media Group, Ukraine” Host Company for their support in the
research so that it ran smoothly.
9. References
Adams, W. (2015). Conducting semi-structured interviews. In K. Newcomer, H. Hatry, &
J. Wholey (Eds.), Handbook of Practical Program Evaluation (pp. 492-505). Hoboken,
NJ: Jossey-Bass. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119171386.ch19
Anderson, C. W., Glaisyer, T., Smith, J., & Rothfeld, M. (2011). Shaping 21st-century
journalism: Leveraging a “teaching hospital model” in journalism education.
Washington, DC: New America Foundation.
Berkeley, L. (2009). Media education and new technology: A case study of major
curriculum change within a university media degree. Journal of Media Practice,
10(2-3), 185-197. https://doi.org/10.1386/jmpr.10.2-3.185_1
Blom, R., & Davenport, L. D. (2012). Searching for the core of journalism education:
Program directors disagree on curriculum priorities. Journalism & Mass
Communication Educator, 67(1), 70-86.
Breit, R. (2018). Case-based education: A strategy for contextualising journalism
curriculum in East Africa. Journalism.
Broek, S., Hogarth, T., Baltina, L., & Lombardi, A. (2017). Skills development and
employment: Apprenticeships, internships, and volunteering. Retrieved from
https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2017/602056/IPOL
_STU(2017)602056_EN.pdf
Burns, L. S. (2004). A reflective approach to teaching journalism. Art Design and
Communication in Higher Education, 3(1), 5-16.
Coombes, R. (2019). Ten years of investigative journalism. BMJ, 367, l6892.
https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.l6892
Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
approaches. Retrieved from http://fe.unj.ac.id/wp-
content/uploads/2019/08/Research-Design_Qualitative-Quantitative-and-
Mixed-Methods-Approaches.pdf
Donsbach, W. (2015). Journalism and education [Streaming video]. SAGE Video.
Dovzhenko, O. (2018). Journalism education in Ukraine: does the system work? Detector
Media. Retrieved from
https://detector.media/doc/images/news/archive/2016/142347/DM_jouredu
cation_2018-WEB-compressed.pdf
Fourie, P. (2005). Journalism teaching and training: Journalism studies: The need to think
about journalists' thinking. Ecquid Novi African Journalism Studies, 26(2), 142-158.
https://doi.org/10.3368/ajs.26.2.142

249
Gillmor, D. (2016). Towards a new model for journalism education. Journalism Practice,
10(7), 815-819. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2016.1164998
Gessesse, K. B. (2020). Mismatch between theory and practice? Perceptions of Ethiopian
journalists towards applying journalism education in professional news
production. African Journalism Studies, 1-16.
Goodman, R. S. (2020). WJEC’s Paris syndicate program: Discussions advance global
journalism education. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 75(1), 3-8.
Goodman, R. S., & Steyn, E. S. (2017). Global Journalism Education in the 21st Century:
Challenges and Innovations. Austin, TX: Knight Centre for Journalism in the
Americas.
GraduateJobs. (2018). My Internship Experience in... Media with Jess Blackner. Retrieved
from https://www.graduate-jobs.com/internships/media-internship-case-
study.jsp
Greenberg, S. (2007). Theory and practice in journalism education. Journal of Media
Practice, 8(3), 289-303. https://doi.org/10.1386/jmpr.8.3.289/1
Harro-Loit, H., & Ugur, K. (2018). Training methods of listening-based journalistic
questioning. Journalism Practice, 12(7), 918-934.
Hurst, J. H., Thye, A., & Wise, C. L. (2014). Internships: The key to career preparation,
professional development, and career advancement. Journal of Family &
Consumer Sciences, 106(2), 58-62.
Internships and Careers. (n.d.). Information for Current Undergraduate Students. Retrieved
from https://communication.gmu.edu/undergraduate/internships-careers
Ismail, Z. (2018). Benefits of Internships for Interns and Host Organisations. K4D
Helpdesk Report. Birmingham, UK: University of Birmingham.
Josephi, B. (2016). Journalism education. In J. Nussbaum (Ed.), Communication: Oxford
Research Encyclopedias. New York, NY: Oxford University Press USA.
https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.013.92
Josephi, B. (2019). Journalism education. In K. Wahl-Jorgensen, & T. Hanitzsch (Eds.),
The Handbook of Journalism Studies (pp, 121-136). New York, NY: Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315167497-4
Killebrew, K. C. (2004). Managing media convergence. Pathways to journalistic cooperation.
Ames, IA: Blackwell
Keel, G. (2019). Switzerland: Free journalism education for free media. In E. Nowak
(Ed.), Accreditation and Assessment of Journalism Education in Europe. Quality
Evaluation and Stakeholder Influence (pp. 175-188). Baden-Baden, Germany:
Nomos Verlag. https://doi.org/10.5771/9783845293851-175
Larrondo U. A., & Peña F. S. (2018). Keeping pace with journalism training in the age of
social media and convergence: How worthwhile is it to teach online skills?
Journalism, 19(6), 877-891. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884917743174
Levy, P. S. & Lemeshow, S. (2011). Two‐stage cluster sampling: Clusters sampled with
equal probability. In R. M. Groves, G. Kalton, J. N. K. Rao, N. Schwarz, & C.
Skinner (Eds.), Sampling of Populations: Methods and Applications (pp. 269-330).
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Maben, S. & Edwards, J. (2015). Social media internships: A case study of a student-run
social media institute. Teaching Journalism and Mass Communication, 5(1), 69-87.
Mettl. (n.d.). Mettl's Aptitude Online Test for Journalists: Make headlines with the best of the
best with Mettl! Retrieved from https://mettl.com/en/test/aptitude-test-
journalism/

250
Nkomo, T., Chidyagwayi, L., & Munikwa, S. (2016). Journalism education in the digital era:
How schools of journalism in Zimbabwe are adapting journalism education to the digital
age. Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319354029_Journalism_Education_i
n_the_Digital_Era_How_schools_of_journalism_in_Zimbabwe_are_adapting_jo
urnalism_education_to_the_digital_age
Ojomo, O. (2007). Optimizing internships in mass communication training. Journal of
Social Sciences and Humanities, 15(1), 49-60.
Ojomo, O. (2015). Journalism trainers and newspapers editors agree on the internship as
a weak link in journalism training in Nigeria. International Journal of Humanities
and Social Science, 5(4), 104-111.
Onwuegbuzie, A. J., Dickinson, W. B., Leech, N. L., & Zora, A. G. (2009). A qualitative
framework for collecting and analysing data in focus group research.
International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 8(3), 1-21.
PsychTests. (n.d.). Career Motivation Test. Retrieved from
https://testyourself.psychtests.com/testid/3153
Rosenstiel, T., Ivancin, M., Loker, K., Lacy, S., Sonderman, J., & Yaeger, K. (2015).
Journalism and communication grads’ experiences with school, student media, and
internships. Retrieved from
https://www.americanpressinstitute.org/publications/reports/survey-
research/api-journalists-survey/
Reed, K., Walsh-Childers, K., Fischer, K., & Davie, B. (2020). Restoring Trust in
Journalism: An Education Prescription. Journalism & Mass Communication
Educator, 75(1), 40-45. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077695820904192
Senat, J., Ketterer, S., & McGuire, J. (2019). Between a Rock and a Hard Place: Attitudes
and Practices of Mass Communication Programs Regarding Unpaid Student
Internships. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator.
Steeves, H. L. (2005). Experiencing international communication: An internship program
in Ghana, West Africa. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 60(4), 359-375.
Studway Opportunities. (n./d.). Retrieved from
https://diem.studway.com.ua/cat/stazhuvannya/
Takahashi, B., & Parks, P. (2018). Journalists and communicators' perceptions of their
graduate training in environmental reporting: an application of knowledge-
based journalism principles. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 5.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2017.00094
Thyer, B. A. (2012). Quasi-Experimental Research Designs. New York, NY: Oxford
University Press.
Trigueros, R., Juan, M. & Sandoval, F. (2017). Qualitative and Quantitative Research
Instruments: Research tools. Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323014697_QUALITATIVE_AND_
QUANTITATIVE_RESEARCH_INSTRUMENTS_Research_tools
Valencia-Forrester, F. (2020). Models of work-integrated learning in journalism
education. Journalism Studies, 21(5), 697-712,
https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2020.1719875
Zohrabi, M. (2013). Mixed method research: instruments, validity, reliability, and
reporting findings. Theory & Practice in Language Studies, 3(2), 254-262.

251

Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 251-266, June 2020
Assessing the Efficacy of Extensive Reading

during Study Abroad: A Time and Place for ER?
Byron O'Neill
Ritsumeikan University, Shiga, Japan
Christopher Edelman
Kwansei Gakuin University, Hyogo, Japan
Abstract. This paper describes a study that combined two practices

widely recognized as being beneficial to foreign language acquisition:
Extensive Reading (ER) and Study Abroad (SA). Two groups of
university undergraduate students majoring in either science,
technology, engineering, or mathematics participated in an elective
study abroad program to the United States, with a treatment group
having ER as a required course component while abroad and a control
group that did not. A survey that measures attitudinal variables towards
reading in English was administered to each group as pre, post, and
delayed-post measures. The data was analyzed by comparing the
change of attitudinal constructs. The results show that ER had a negative
effect on reading affect, providing evidence against its use during SA.
Keywords: extensive reading; short-term study abroad; second

language
1. Introduction
Extensive Reading (ER) is an approach to foreign language learning in which
large amounts of material that are at or slightly below a learner’s current
language level are read for pleasure. This is often done with graded readers,
which are books that are either adapted versions of native-speaker literature or
are purposely written for ER.
There are many proven benefits to including ER as part of a language

curriculum. It has been shown to improve reading proficiency (Nakanishi, 2014;
Robb & Kano, 2013; Suk, 2016), deepen grammar internalization (Aka, 2019;
Sakurai, 2017), and expand vocabulary knowledge (Nation, 2015; Waring &
Takaki, 2003). Because of these benefits, graded readers are now commonly

252
found in Japanese high school and university libraries, and more teachers have
begun to include them in their courses.
Short-term study abroad (SA) programs are becoming increasingly popular in

Japan. The most popular short-term programs for Japanese university students,
which are defined as being less than a month in duration, emphasize foreign
language acquisition and cultural exchange (Ministry of Education, Culture,
Sports, Science and Technology, 2018). Typical programs feature language study
in the morning, with either guided educational excursions or free time in the
afternoons and weekends. Students might have homestay arrangements with
local families or reside in dormitories with local students. Studies have shown
that these types of programs improve speaking, listening, and communicative
abilities (Dewey, 2007; Isabelli-Garcia, 2003; Wood, 2007; Yashima, Zenuk-
Nishide & Shimizu, 2004). Additionally, cultural knowledge is also acquired
(Talbert & Steward, 1999; Wang, Peyvandi & Moghaddam, 2009). Because of the
brief nature of these programs, they are appealing because they have lower costs
and conflict less with student schedules compared to long-term SA programs.
No previous studies have investigated the affective influence of ER on SA

participants while abroad. Students who elect to study abroad are motivated
foreign language learners. This being the case, they may be more willing to
recognize the benefits of ER and be more inclined to engage themselves in it
during the program and after its completion. This study, therefore, seeks to
answer the following research questions:
1) What are the immediate effects of including Extensive Reading as a
supplementary component of a short-term study abroad on student attitudes
toward reading in English?
2) What are the long-term effects of including Extensive Reading as a
supplementary component of a short-term study abroad on student attitudes
toward reading in English?
As opposed to measuring language gains, which would be difficult to attribute

to the presence or lack of ER in a short-term program, only the effects of ER on
affective variables will be examined in this study. By comparing the degree of
difference and change between pre, post, and delayed-post measures among two
groups of students, one that engages in ER, and one that does not during the
same study abroad program, it will be possible to isolate the effect of ER as part
of the curriculum.
2. Methodology
Participants. Two groups of undergraduates from the same college of science
and engineering in Japan participated in this study. Each group was comprised
of all students who together participated in a specific short-term study abroad
program offered by the college in a particular year. The Treatment group
studied abroad in 2017 and consisted of 17 second-year students (11 male, 6
female) with an average TOEIC® L&R score of 590. The Control group studied
abroad in 2018 and consisted of 11 second-year students (9 male, 2 female) with
an average TOEIC® L&R score of 575. The two groups were randomly assigned

253
to be either the Treatment or Control group. Because our participants were not
randomly selected from a population, our design methodology would be
characterized as quasi-experimental. For the intents and purposes of this study,
both groups are considered to have an equivalent English ability and to be
representative of the student population, i.e., science and engineering majors
interested in a specific academically based month-long study abroad program in
the United States.
All participants resided in an on-campus dormitory alongside regularly

matriculated students while studying abroad. The same faculty leader
accompanied each group from Japan and met the students on days when classes,
lectures, and field trips were held. With the exception of administrating the ER
program for the Treatment group, the faculty leader was not directly involved
with classroom instruction.
Materials. The students participated in an elective short-term SA program at a

large university in the United States. The program consisted of three parts, each
comprising approximately one-third of the curriculum. One component was
science-based. It consisted of lectures and field trips that appeal to science,
technology, engineering, and math majors. All lecture topics were not offered at
their home institution, and the excursions were unique to the SA environment.
Lectures included astrobiology and geology, and field trips included visits to a
marine biology laboratory and a weather station. In addition, all students were
allowed to audit any undergraduate lecture courses offered by the university.
Another element of the program was culture-based. These lectures and field
trips were chosen for students to better understand the cultural aspects of the SA
location. Lectures included art history and indigenous languages, and field trips
included visits to museums and national monuments. The third part of the
programs was English-language focused. This involved workshops on research
(library search, questionnaire design) and presentation skills. The students
researched an aspect of one of the lectures they had that particularly interested
them and made a final presentation on their topics at the end of the program.
There were also numerous opportunities to interact with other university
students through structured language exchange programs and sports and
cultural events.
Neither group had any previous exposure to Extensive Reading. With the
exception of ER, the content of the short-term SA programs was identical for
both groups. The control group was not exposed to ER at any time, and no
additional content was added to replace it. No mention of ER was ever made to
the Control group, and they were unaware of its inclusion in the previous year’s
program.
The survey instrument used in this study measures the reading attitudes of
Japanese students (Yamashita, 2007, 2013). It is a 22-item Likert scale
questionnaire (see Appendix 1 and 2) that reliably measures five attitudinal
variables: Comfort (degree of comfort felt while reading in English; questions 3, 9,
15, 18, 20, 25), Anxiety (feelings of anxiety felt towards reading in English;
questions 5, 10, 19, 23), Intellectual Value (reading in English as a means to

254
develop intellectually; questions 1, 2, 8, 16, 26), Practical Value (reading in

English as a means for educational and future professional success; questions 4,
7, 12, 21), and Linguistic Value (reading in English as a means to improve English
language ability; questions 6, 11, 17).
3. Procedure
The faculty leader, an experienced ER practitioner, thoroughly and
enthusiastically described the language learning benefits of ER and explained
how it was to be included in the SA program at a pre-departure orientation with
the Treatment group. The entire ER component was conducted at the overseas
institution through the requirement to read two Oxford Bookworms Library®
level 2, 3, or 4 books a week during each week of the four-week program. The
difficulty level of the graded readers and the quantity of reading are in
accordance with accepted best practices for ER programs at Japanese universities
for students with similar backgrounds.
Fifty books, which consisted of one set of the Level 2 Bestseller Pack®, three sets
of the level 3 Bestseller Pack®, and one set of the Level 4 Bestseller Pack® were
purchased in Japan for the study and participants were allowed to choose two or
three books at a time from whichever level they wanted to read. Each student
completed a paper-based book report twice a week and submitted it directly to
the faculty leader. These eight book report forms were slightly different, with
each asking students to answer three questions about each book they read. One
question, ‘What is the story about?’ appears on all of the book report forms, but
the other two questions varied. Writing prompts included, ‘Think of a situation
that happened to a character in the story. Would you have done the same thing
he/she did or something different?’ and ‘Do you think this story should have a
sequel?’ Each question contained space to write a two to three sentence
response. All of these book reports were acknowledged, read, and commented
on individually by the faculty leader, who also advised on book selection. All
students in the ER Treatment group completed the biweekly reading and
reporting requirements diligently and can be considered to have engaged in ER
in the manner initially planned for this study. All graded readers were
recollected at the end of the program and gifted to the participants.
The survey was taken by both groups a total of three times. The first time was at
the end of the initial pre-departure orientation session held four months before
the sojourn abroad. The questionnaire was distributed to students in the
Treatment group after the explanation of what ER was and how ER was going to
be a part of the program. The second time the survey was given was at the end
of the final class students had while abroad. The survey was distributed a final
time precisely one calendar year after the second survey was conducted. During
the one-year period between the post and delayed-post survey, the participants
did not take any required English courses. As this period was their entire third
year of undergraduate studies, they had already completed all survey and
prerequisite courses for their fields of study by this time. They therefore had
schedules comprised of content courses and seminars directly related to their
specific science, technology, engineering, and mathematics majors. While

255
printed versions of the survey were used the first two times, and an online
version using Google Forms® was used the third time because the authors were
no longer in frequent contact with the participants. The online version was
distributed through a link embedded in an email, and all students responded
within two weeks of receiving it. Response rates for both groups to all three
surveys was 100%, which is considered to be exceptionally high (Ingraham &
Peterson, 2004).
4. Results
All data was analyzed using JASP version 0.10.2. Answers for item numbers 3, 5,
10, 13, 16, and 17 were inverted because they were reverse ordered items. A
principal component analysis with a Varimax rotation was conducted using the
responses of the treatment group (n = 17) and the control group (n = 11) from the
first measurement to investigate whether items had correlations consistent with
the original constructs proposed by Yamashita (2013). The results of the analysis
can be found in Table 1. The analysis was set to isolate factors with an
Eigenvalue greater than 1, and correlation coefficients smaller than .4 were not
included.
Table 1: Principal Component Analysis

Affect Cognition
Comfort Anxiety Educational Practical Expanded Q4 Q11
Value Value View M
Q1 .839 4.21
Q2 .829 4.32
Q3 .795 2.29
Q4 .739 4.50
Q5 .757 2.96
Q6 -.698 4.21
Q7 .628 4.46
Q8 .708 4.25
Q9 .693 1.79
Q10 .634 -.448 2.46
Q11 -.429 .446 .633 3.86
Q12 .851 3.68
Q13 .872 2.68
Q14 .828 4.11
Q15 .762 4.64
Q16 .826 1.89
Q17 .750 3.39
Q18 .789 .405 2.14
Q19 .846 4.11
Q20 .794 1.96
Q21 .449 .660 3.61
Q22 .525 .617 4.18

256
The analysis isolated five factors based upon the strongest correlations for each
question item. The Cronbach’s Alpha was .78, which indicates a high level of
reliability. Only question numbers 4, 6, and 11, were not found to fit smoothly
within the constructs. New constructs have been created by examining totals
from the item questions that loaded into each variable. An independent sample
t-test was conducted using the construct measurements as the independent
variables, and the groups as the grouping variable. No statistically significant
differences between the groups were found.
To assess any changes in attitude that may have occurred between the three
points of measurement, repeated measures ANOVA were conducted using the
pre, post, and delayed-post totals of the five constructs that were created as the
independent variables. The output can be found in Table 2. Subject group was
entered as the between subject factor. Construct effects were calculated by
comparing the change of all participants over the three measurement periods.
Table 2: Group and Construct Effects

Sum of
Squares Mean Square F p
Construct Effects
Comfort 86.92 43.46 4.77 .01
Anxiety 152.41 76.21 6.22 .00
Practical Value 10.15 5.08 .81 .45
International Posture 23.31 11.66 4.56 .02
Educational Value 35.05 17.52 3.83 .03
Group Effects
Comfort ✻ Group 12.11 6.05 .67 .52
Anxiety ✻ Group 6.13 3.06 .25 .78
Practical Value ✻ Group 12.01 6.00 .96 .39
International Posture ✻ Group 13.50 6.75 2.64 .09
Educational Value ✻ Group 22.05 11.02 2.41 .10
No significant interaction was found between the grouping variable and any of
the other variables. However, four of the constructs (comfort, anxiety, expanded
view, and educational value) were found to have experienced statistically
significant change between the periods the questionnaire was administered for
both groups. We conducted a comparison of the change in the variables between
the points of measurement. In the figures provided, the Treatment group is
represented as Group 1, and the Control group is represented as Group 2. Our
investigation of the results led to a rather unexpected outcome: although not
statistically significant, there was a noticeable depression of response scores
from the treatment group on the post-test. Comparisons from this point forward
referring to the constructs examine the combined response scores of all
participants. All comparisons between groups are made by comparing the mean
scores between the treatment group and the control group unless otherwise
specifically stated.

257
Constructs
Originally, the constructs of comfort and anxiety were combined into an umbrella
construct of affect, and the same was done with the remaining three constructs to
create the construct of cognition. However, we found no statistical difference
between these large constructs at any point in the testing. Additionally, by
creating these constructs, we felt that the data was oversimplified. Therefore, in
our analysis, we focused on the five constructs created within the principal
components analysis and the changes between groups and periods of testing.
Comfort. The new construct of comfort was created by combining reported

responses of items 3, 9, 13, 16, and 18. The difference between measurements of
pre and post (p = .05, t = 2.02, SE = .83) as well as delayed and pre, post (p = .02, t
= 2.34, SE = .72) were statistically significant. Changes in affect levels between
the groups are displayed in Figure 1. There was a continuous increase in levels
of comfort between each period of measurement for both groups. The Treatment
group had the highest average on each measure; the pre-test (M = 11.65)
increased to 12.53 on the post-test, and 13.29 on the delayed post-test. The
Control group started with a slightly lower average than the treatment group on
the pre-test (M = 9.46), increased to 11.9 on the post-test, and finally 12.81 on the
delayed post-test.
Figure 1: Plot of the variable comfort among groups
Anxiety. The construct of anxiety was recreated by combining reported

responses of items 5, 10, 17, and 20. The difference between group
measurements of pre and post (p = .81, t = -.24, SE = .96) were not significant.
However, significant differences were found between comparison of the delayed
post-test with both the pre-test and the post-test (p < .001, t = 3.52, SE = .83).
Changes in affect levels between the groups are displayed in Figure 2. Both the
treatment group and the control group started with nearly identical averages, M
= 10.65 and M = 11, respectively. The control group maintained nearly the same

258
average on the post-test (M = 11.18) and increased to 13.55 on the delayed post-
test. The treatment group experienced a slight decrease on the post-test (M = 10)
but then made a strong upward increase to 13.71 on the delayed post-test.
Figure 2: Plot of the variable anxiety among groups
Practical Value. The construct of practical value was recreated by combining

reported responses of items 7, 12, and 19. The difference between measurements
over time was not significant between any of the points of measurement.
Changes in affect levels between the groups are displayed in Figure 3. Both the
treatment group and the control group started with nearly identical averages, M
= 12.29 and M = 12.18, respectively. The control group maintained nearly the
same average on the post-test (M = 12.09) and increased slightly to 12.55 on the
delayed post-test. However, the treatment group experienced a sharp decrease
on the post-test (M = 10.65) and rose slightly to 10.94 on the delayed post-test.
Figure 3. Plot of the variable practical value among groups

259
Expanded View. The construct of expanded view was created by combining

reported responses of items 14, 21, and 22. The difference between group
measurements of pre and post (p = .15, t = -1.47, SE = .44) were not significant.
However, significant differences were found between comparison of the delayed
post-test with both the pre-test and the post-test (p = .01, t = 2.64, SE = .38).
Changes in affect levels between the groups are displayed in Figure 4. The
treatment group and the control group started with slightly different averages,
M = 12.53 and M = 10.91, respectively. The control group maintained a constant
increase from the pre-test to post-test (M = 11.27) and increased to 12.1 on the
delayed post-test. The treatment group moved inversely to this in a v-shaped
pattern; the average level dropped sharply to 10.88 on the post-test, then
reversed and increased to 12.71 on the delayed post-test.
Figure 4. Plot of the variable expanded view among groups
Educational Value. The construct of educational value was created by combining

reported responses of items 1, 2, 8, and 15. The difference between the pre and
post-test (p = .09, t = -1.73, SE = .59) was not significant. However, significant
difference was found between comparison of the delayed post-test with both the
pre- and post-test (p = .04, t = 2.16, SE = .51). Changes in affect levels between the
groups are displayed in Figure 5. Averages for both groups followed a v-pattern
similar to the construct of expanded view. The treatment group and the control
group started with slightly different averages, M = 18 and M = 16.55,
respectively. The control group maintained a constant increase from the pre-test
to post-test (M = 16.82) and increased to 17.73 on the delayed post-test. Again,
the treatment group moved in a v-shaped pattern; there was a sharp decrease to
15.71 on the post-test, then reversed and increased to 18 on the delayed post-test
– the same as on the pre-test.

260
Figure 5. Plot of the variable educational value among groups
5. Discussion
Questionnaire. Although the questionnaire used in the study by Yamashita
(2013) was broken into four constructs – comfort, anxiety, intellectual value,
practical value, results from the principal components analysis on responses from
the pre-test of the current study found five distinct factors – comfort, anxiety,
educational value, practical value, and expanded view. Additionally, we found that
items 4, 6, and 11 poorly correlated with the factors originally created. These
questions focused on the benefit for a future career (4), of increasing vocabulary
(6), and developing reading ability (11). Because these items share close
relationships in their wording to other items on the questionnaire, their misfit
within the principal components analysis was an unexpected anomaly. None of
the items were reverse order items, the descriptive analysis found no significant
difference between groups, and the items were not significantly higher or lower
than any of the other items.
Upon closer inspection, we found that item 4 was the only item to use the word
キャリヤ (kyariya – career). A career can be interpreted to have a more
professional long-term application. Students might have difficulty imagining
this scenario given their limited life experience, causing inconsistency in item
response. Item 19 is a statement touting the usefulness of English in gaining
employment; however, this might have been interpreted by students as the
initial entry of a company – a reference to the TOEIC® test or other similar
qualifications. This would explain why this item strongly correlated with the
construct of practical value.
In the principal components analysis, item 6 did not positively load onto any of
the other factors; however, it did have a very strong negative correlation with
item 4. This implies that participants who answered positively on item 4 -
English is useful for my future career, had an inverted response to item 6 – I can

261
acquire vocabulary if I read English. Item 11 had both negative and positive
loadings within the constructs but had the highest loading within its own factor.
Upon further consideration, we realized that the 2013 study by Yamashita
originally observed five constructs but had eliminated the construct of Linguistic
Value because of ceiling effects. Its construct consisted of three items: 6, 11, and
15. Although item 15 was found to have a high correlation with the construct of
educational value, items 6 and 11 would appear to be consistently misfitting items,
and it is our recommendation that they be modified or excluded in future
studies.
Effects of ER. Both SA and ER have been shown to have a positive influence on
the acquisition of a second language. We hypothesized that the Treatment group
would experience positive short-term and long-term increases in each of the
constructs that were measured when constructing the research questions. This
would have been observable as an increase of construct totals from the pre-test
to the post-test and possibly between the post-test and the one-year delayed
post-test. The results of the repeated measures ANOVA revealed that the results
were contrary to this expectation. Apart from the construct of comfort, every
other construct experienced a marked decrease in positive affect between the
pre-test and the post-test.
The results clearly display a difference between the Treatment group and the
Control group in their affect levels on the constructs of anxiety, practical value,
expanded view, and educational value. Construct levels were reduced in the
treatment group and did not increase until one year later on the delayed post-
test. The construct of practical value was the exception to this and remained
depressed at roughly the same level as it was one year earlier on the post-test.
This implies that the opinions of participants in the Treatment group remained
negatively influenced regarding the practical value of ER even a year after the
completion of the treatment.
One reason for this could be that participants were third-year students who
were nearing graduation and had possibly already secured employment. It is
possible that they placed a strong emphasis on employment and that their
careers were based more on standardized test scores such as the TOEIC® or on
practical skills (e.g., writing emails, making presentations, or communication).
The control group appears to be relatively unchanged as well. The only
difference between the two groups appears to be the negative influence of ER on
the Treatment group, which reduced their average affect level below that of the
Control group.
Although the results of the data point to a negative influence of ER, which is
contradictory to most of the other research conducted on the positive influence
of ER on student affect (Stoeckel, Reagan & Hann, 2012; Yamashita, 2007, 2013),
the most immediate reason is the simplest: ER was in direct opposition to the
purpose of the students who participated in the study abroad program. Possibly
for the first time in their lives, the students were immersed in a foreign culture in
an overseas location. Because of their volition to enter a SA program, they most

262
likely placed a high priority on being able to speak with the local people,
experience the lifestyle, and enjoy the pleasure activities of the location.
One of the weaknesses of this study was the small sample sizes for each group.
This is common in examinations of highly customized short-term SA programs
(An, Hong & Fuentes, 2017). The small number of participants in the present
study created a large degree of overlapping variance between the groups, which
can be seen in Figures 1 to 5. A larger sample size would decrease the variance
and more clearly display any systematic difference between the two groups.
Another weakness of the study was the lack of follow-up interviews with
participants to gauge the reason for their answers on the post-test and the
delayed post-test. Without a qualitative measure of investigation, we are left to
speculate as to the mindset of the students. Future studies should follow a mixed
methods design that allows for less constricted input from the participants.
6. Conclusion
Despite Extensive Reading and Study Abroad being beneficial to students,
combining the two together at the same time is not desirable. Students study
abroad on short-term programs for many reasons, but improving English
reading ability may not be one of them. Including an ER component in an SA
program, even one with an academic emphasis like the one described in this
study, clearly has a negative effect on reading affect, which is an undesirable
outcome.
While the main stated benefit of SA programs is to learn new things more
efficiently while abroad, of equal importance is the ability to experience life in
the overseas destination (Cadd, 2015; Reinders & Benson, 2017; Richards, 2015).
Students do not want to have adventures vicariously through characters in
books when they can have real-life experiences by simply stepping outside and
interacting with their immediate environment. While abroad, they do not want
to read about foreign cultures. They want to be immersed in it first-hand. SA
program participants also want to meet new people and speak foreign languages
while in a foreign country, not read dialogs in graded readers. With such limited
time, ER takes away from these opportunities by forcing students to read for
several hours a week. Despite the good intentions, it has the possibility to create
negative attitudes towards reading in English when conducted in this, or in any
other manner in which foreign language learners may perceive ER to be an
unnecessary burden (Chien & Yu, 2015).
Instead, ER can be included as part of the preparation process for SA programs.

Students might not feel as pressed for time in the months leading up to studying
abroad and might be more receptive to the idea of reading extensively if they
were aware that it would help them make the most of their time while overseas.
While this study provides evidence of the consequences of combining ER and
SA, the authors firmly believe that Extensive Reading and Study Abroad should
each continue to have their respective places in university curricula and
implemented in a manner that will maximize their exclusive benefits.

263
Acknowledgment
This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number 16K02862.
7. References
Aka, N. (2019) Reading performance of Japanese high school learners following a one-
year extensive reading program. Reading in a Foreign Language, 31(1), 1-18.
Retrieved from
http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl/April2019/April2019/articles/aka.pdf
An, H., Hong, C. E., & Fuentes, D. (2017). The benefits and limitations of a short-term
study abroad program to prepare teachers in a multicultural society. In H. An
(Ed.), Handbook of Research on Efficacy and Implementation of Study Abroad
Programs for P-12 Teachers (pp. 361-382). http://doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-1057-
4.ch020
Cadd, M. (2015). Increasing the linguistic and cultural benefits of study abroad. In D.
Nunan & J. Richards (Eds.), Language Learning Beyond the Classroom (pp. 253-
262). New York: Routledge.
Chien, C. C., & Yu, K. (2015). Applying extensive reading to improve unmotivated
learners' attitudes toward reading in English. International Journal of Learning,
Teaching and Educational Research, 13(2), 1-25. Retrieved from
https://www.ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter/article/view/356/193
Dewey, D. P. (2007) Language learning during study abroad: What we know and what
we have yet to learn. Japanese Language and Literature, 41(2), 245-269.
http://doi:10.2307/30198037
Ingraham, E. C., & Peterson, D. L. (2004). Assessing the impact of study abroad on
student learning at Michigan State University. Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary
Journal of Study Abroad, 10(1), 83-100.
http://doi.org/10.36366/frontiers.v10i1.134
Isabelli-Garcia, C. (2003). Development of oral communication skills abroad. Frontiers:
The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad, 9, 149–173.
http://doi.org/10.36366/frontiers.v9i1.119
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (2018, March). Nihonjin
no kaigairyugaku no koukasokutei ni kansuru shousakenkyu [A report on
measuring the effectiveness of study abroad on Japanese], Retrieved from
http://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/koutou/ryugaku/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2018/
11/22/1411310_1.pdf
Nakanishi, T. (2014). A meta-analysis of extensive reading research. TESOL Quarterly,
49(1), 6-37. http://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.157
Nation, P. (2015). Principles guiding vocabulary learning through extensive reading.
Reading in a Foreign Language, 27(1), 136-145. Retrieved from
http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl/April2015/discussion/nation.pdf
Reinders, H. & Benson, P. (2017). Research agenda: Language learning beyond the
classroom. Language Teaching, 50(4), 561-578.
http://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444817000192
Richards, J. C. (2015). The changing face of language learning: Learning beyond the
classroom. RELC Journal, 46(1), 5–22. http://doi.org/10.1177/0033688214561621
Robb, T., & Kano, M. (2013). Effective extensive reading outside the classroom: A large-
scale experiment. Reading in a Foreign Language, 25(2), 234-247. Retrieved from
http://www.nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl/October2013/articles/robb.pdf

264
Sakurai, N. (2017). The relationship between amount of extensive reading and the
writing performance. The Reading Matrix, 17(2), 142-164. Retrieved from
http://www.readingmatrix.com/files/17-tc71343e.pdf
Stoeckel, T., Reagan, N., & Hann, F. (2012). Extensive reading quizzes and reading
attitudes. TESOL Quarterly, 46(1), 187-198. http://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.10
Suk, N. (2016). The effects of extensive reading on reading comprehension, reading rate,
and vocabulary acquisition. Reading Research Quarterly, 52(1), 73-89.
http://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.152
Talburt, S., & Stewart, M. A. (1999). What’s the subject of study abroad?: Race, gender,
and "living culture." The Modern Language Journal, 83(2), 163-175.
http://doi.org/10.1111/0026-7902.00013
Wang, J., Peyvandi, A., & Moghaddam, J. M. (2009). Impact of short study abroad
programs on students’ diversity attitude. International Review of Business Research
Papers, 5(2), 349-357. Retrieved from
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.518.1921&rep=rep1
&type=pdf
Waring, R., & Takaki, M. (2003). At what rate do learners learn and retain new
vocabulary from reading a graded reader? Reading in a Foreign Language, 15(2),
130–163. Retrieved from
https://nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl/October2003/waring/waring.html
Wood, D. (2007). Mastering the English formula: Fluency development of Japanese
learners in a study abroad context. JALT Journal, 29(2), 209–230.
http://doi.org/10.37546/JALTJJ29.2-3
Yamashita, J. (2007). The relationship of reading attitudes between L1 and L2: An
investigation of adult EFL learners in Japan. TESOL Quarterly, 41(1), 81–105.
http://doi.org/10.1002/j.1545-7249.2007.tb00041.x
Yamashita, J. (2013). Effects of extensive reading on reading attitudes in a foreign
language. Reading in a Foreign Language, 25(2), 248–263. Retrieved from
http://www.nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl/October2013/articles/yamashita.pdf
Yashima, T., Zenuk-Nishide, L., & Shimizu, K. (2004). The influences of attitudes and
affect on willingness to communicate and second language communication.
Language Learning, 54(1), 119-152. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-
9922.2004.00250.x

265
Appendix 1
Yamashita (2013) Survey

266
Appendix 2
English translation of Yamashita (2013) survey questions
1. I can become more sophisticated if I read English.
2. I can get various forms of information if I read English.
3. Reading English is troublesome.
4. Reading English is useful for my future career.
5. I feel anxious if I don’t know all the words.
6. I can acquire vocabulary if I read English.
7. Reading English is useful to get a good grade in class.
8. I can acquire broad knowledge if I read English.
9. I feel relaxed if I read English.
10. When I read English, I sometimes worry that I may not understand it.
11. I can develop my reading ability if I read English.
12. Reading English is useful to get credit for class.
13. Reading English is dull.
14. I get to know about new ways of thinking if I read English.
15. I can improve my sensitivity to the English language if I read English.
16. I feel tired if I read English.
17. I feel anxious when I’m not sure whether I understood the book content.
18. I feel refreshed and rested if I read English.
19. Reading English is useful for getting a job.
20. I don’t mind even if I cannot understand the book content entirely.
21. Reading English is enjoyable.
22. I get to know about different values if I read English.

267

Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 267-281, June 2020
The Extent of Bullying Against Students with

Learning Disabilities According to the Age
Variable
Mohamad Ahmad Saleem Khasawneh

King Khalid University, Saudi Arabia
Abstract. Bullying is a common behavior among school students and a

serious problem addressed by many relevant stakeholders. The Ministry
of Education puts plans to address this issue, but need more feedback
from the field to feed its strategies and programs. Therefore, this study
aims at` investigating the degree of bullying among students with
learning disabilities (LD) in the Asir Region and exploring the
relationship between bullying and age. The study used the survey
methodology to collect data, and for which a questionnaire was
developed and distributed to a sample of 350 families of children with
LDs enrolled in schools of Asir General Directorate of Education. The
sample responses to the questionnaire were analyzed using the SPSS
statistical package. The study revealed that bullying behavior was at a
low level among the sample of the study. The results showed no
statistically significant differences in the level of bullying among
children with LDs at the basic educational stage due to the variable of
age. The study concludes that awareness programs should be developed
for teachers to help them identify indicators associated with bullying, in
addition to future studies on the phenomenon and its relationship to
other variables, such as social anxiety and emotional intelligence.
Keywords: learning disabilities; bullying; aggression; Saudi Arabia
1. Introduction
Bullying is a negative behavioral aspect that is spreading in schools to an extent
that has exceeded parents’ and teachers’ expectations. Bullying is a form of
unbalanced aggression inflicted repeatedly upon victims; it occurs irrespective
of culture, language, race, or gender, and relies on dominance, control, and
hegemony over the victim who is hurt physically, socially, and emotionally.
Bullying among school students is an increasingly widespread phenomenon. It
is a very serious social and personal problem that leaves negative consequences
on the general school environment. It also affects the cognitive, emotional, and
social development of students, and their right to learn within a safe school
environment. Effective learning takes place only in an environment that

268
provides its students with psychological security while protecting them from
violence, danger, and threat. In addition, social factors play an important role in
nurturing individuals and shaping their behavior using multiple methods in the
process of growth. These methods differ from one family to another, as some
families are characterized by softness and tolerance, so parents deal with their
son with tolerance and acceptance of his/her ideas and aspirations. Therefore,
such a child is social, cooperative, loyal, gentle, stable emotionally, and joyful
while facing life with confidence (Unnever, 2005).
Some families raise their children to be authoritarian and cruel, as parents

impose their opinion on children without caring about their desires and
inclinations. Parents may use corporal punishment and threats as a basic method
in social growth, in addition to demeaning and underestimating the child, which
leads to the formation of a shy, fearful character who feels insufficient. The
child’s sense of rejection threatens parents’ feelings of security and stimulates
feelings of helplessness and frustration, which can hinder the child’s interaction
and compatibility with life. On the other hand, some parents may raise their
children on dependence and ready-made solutions, while others may raise their
children to depend on themselves (Al-Kitani, 2000). Moreover, Bullying usually
occurs inside and outside the school. Schoolyards are the most common place
where bullying behavior is common. It also takes place in school corridors,
restrooms, and classrooms. The bullies choose their victims from students who
are close to their age or younger (Vieno et al., 2011).
Bullying is increasing steadily and is becoming a dangerous educational, social,

and personal problem with negative effects on the general academic
environment. It also harms the cognitive, emotional, and social growth of
individuals. Furthermore, it violates students’ right to learn in a safe
environment, which can only happen in a setting where students have a sense of
psychological security against violence, danger, and threats that influence their
academic achievement. This study is an attempt to assist in identifying signs of
bullying against students with learning disabilities (LDs) in the Asir Region in
Saudi Arabia for developing appropriate educational strategies and providing
adequate materials to overcome this problem.
Interest in bullying started in the early seventies of the twentieth century when
Dan Olweus investigated the problems faced by bullies and their victims. He
pointed out that most bullies suffer from control of aggressive motives and lack
of sympathy for others, and they usually look to control and not for attracting
attention (Olweus & Limber, 2010). If their behavior is neglected, they rarely
stop it. Bullying behavior occurs when a child or an individual is constantly
exposed to a negative behavior that causes pain resulting from an unequal
power between two individuals, where the first is called a bully and the other is
a victim (Starr, 2000). Bullying may take physical, verbal, or emotional forms. It
also has a hidden nature, as it occurs in most schools and is difficult to perceive
and discover due to the secrecy that surrounds it. Most school bullying victims

269
are male and female, and they never tell anyone what happens to them
(Kandemir & Özbay, 2009).
Bullying and Students with LD

The literature presents different findings on bullying against students with LDs,
which is similar to any kind of bullying practiced against regular students. One
of the main determinants of the degree of bullying is age differences, as reports
show that bullying against younger children is common and starts to decline
when the victim id over e 8-16 years old (Fox & Boulton, 2005). The sex
difference also important in studying bullying, as boys are more inclined to
behave as bullies, but both genders receive equal treatment as bullied. However,
boys tend to use physical bullying while girls use bullying indirectly or in what
is known as relational bullying (Duncan, 1999). Students with LDs or any kind of
disability are more vulnerable to being victimized by bullies (Sharp & Smith,
2002, 1994; Dawkins, 1996). The disabilities or the learning difficulty this
category have made them an easy target for bullies. Students with LDs who
study in regular schools are less protected socially, and therefore, could suffer
from bullying more than other victims (Dawkins, 1996). According to O’Moore
and Hillery (1989), students attending special education classrooms are easily
bullied. Ziegler and Rosenstein-Manner (1991) reported that in Toronto, the rates
of bullying among students with LDs are twice higher than among their regular
beers.
Forms of Bullying
Bullying is prevalent in all schools with high rates that exceed the expectations
of parents and teachers. Most students practice bullying, whether they are
bullies, victims, or bystanders; they replace the roles of the bullied and the
victim according to the different circumstances and balances of power among
students (Jenkins et al., 2017). Research into bullying behavior in individuals
yielded different forms (Fox & Boulton, 2005). First, there was verbal bullying,
such as insulting, cursing, threatening, and rumors. Second forms were
psychological bullying, which is like ignoring, isolating the individual
psychologically and socially, not paying attention, and marginalizing. Third
forms include physical bullying such as severe beating, pulling hair, wounding
others, breaking their organs, biting, and slapping. In most cases, physical
bullying does not cause significant harm to the victim because this leads to
sympathy for the victim, and thus to blaming the bully (Al-Subaihin, 2007).
Fourth, social bullying, such as underestimating the victim, reducing his/her
sense of self and include ignorance, isolation, the victim's removal from peers,
and exclusion from school or social activities outside the school such as
recreational, sports, and artistic activities (Frisen & Holmqvist, 2010). Fifth,
property damage, such as tearing clothes, damaging books, stealing and then
sabotaging them, and damaging colleagues' tools such as pens and notebooks,
and personal belongings were also examples of these forms (Heino et al., 2010).
Finally, sexual bullying, which takes a variety of forms including sexual
comments, perversions, spreading sexual rumors, direct sexual contact, and
displaying sexual material such as movies and photos (Fox & Boulton, 2005).

270
3. Previous Studies
Few studies tackled the issue of bullying among students with LDs. However,
some research from Arabic-speaking (and other) countries have touched upon
this issue among non-LD students. Bradshow (2018) examined the differences in
the responses of adolescents of spectators to bullying. The study used the
stratification analysis to analyze if the patterns of pedestrian responses differ as
a function of each of the characteristics of the student and school level. Data
from 18863 high school students from 58 schools, who witnessed bullying, were
used to identify five underlying categories of pedestrian behavior. Three of the
categories were identified parallel to the categories that were generally
identified by researchers (defender = 20.4% and submissive = 9.7%, and
contributor = 3.4%), while two categories were also identified for pedestrians
that were not previously described (limited = 64.8% and inconsistent = 1.7 %).
The results indicated that the responses of the defenders were relatively low and
suggested that school-level contextual factors and youth perceptions of other
pedestrians' behavior and their involvement in bullying all underpin our
understanding of the behavior of pedestrians from adolescents.
In Nepal, Mishra et al. (2018) investigated the level of control of bullying

behavior (bullies, victims) and their contribution to symptoms of frustration and
psychosomatic symptoms. The study analyzed a descriptive cross-sectional
sample that consisted of students of the eighth, ninth, and tenth grades in the
Municipality of Buthan in the western center of Nepal, and 405 students
responded to the questionnaire. The results of the study indicated a high control
of bullying (55.8%) over the most fortunate students from the Gangati tribe, and
the victims (64.86%) belonged to the smaller Janjati tribe. It was found that
bullying students were more in eighth and tenth grades while ninth-grade
students were mostly victims. Bullying behavior is more prevalent in private
schools than in public schools.
Laftman et al. (2018) analyzed whether bullying-related harm is associated with

an increased likelihood of reporting a pessimistic future trend among school
students. Data were collected from the Stockholm School Study conducted in
2016 on ninth-graders (ages 15-16 years) (n= 5144). Orientation and future
intervention in school bullying and cyber-bullying were based on self-reports.
The study used a dual logistic regression method. The results indicated that
victims and vulnerable victims of school bullying and cyber-bullying were more
likely to report a future pessimistic trend compared to students not involved in
bullying. These links were also displayed when spotting control among school
bullying and cyber-bullying in a mutual fashion. The results confirmed the
importance of anti-bullying measures that target both school bullying and
cyberbullying.
King (2018) measured bullying and harassing students with disabilities through
school compliance in order to avoid referring the matter to the judiciary. The
study adopted the method of extrapolation of previous studies on this subject
and historically from the fifties until 2018, as well as reviewed several judicial
rulings relating to the prosecution of students for abuse, bullying behavior, and

271
sexual harassment. The study concluded that it is the duty of school officials and
attorneys representing the school to safeguard students' right to quality
education, and that judicial translation of the Education Law will undoubtedly
represent a challenge for schools. The results also showed that despite the
increasing difficulty of this task, leaders in education could meet these needs
through diving deeply in all dimensions of special education laws and use of the
internal and external sources available to them.
Jenkins et al. (2017) investigated the relationship between bullying experiences

(e.g., bullying, victims, and advocacy) and social, emotional, and perceptual
factors. The perceptual element was represented by social skills (empathy,
cooperation, responsibility), the emotional aspect by emotional difficulties
(personal adjustments, internal issues, and school problems), and the perceptual
component by effective executive skills (self-monitoring, resilience, emotional
self-regulation. Data were collected from 246 students in grades 6–8; their
social/personal skills, emotional difficulties, and behavior as bullying students
were assessed. The findings showed that emotional difficulties had a positive,
significant relationship between boys and girls as targeted victims. Emotional
difficulties were also positively and significantly linked to girls defending
themselves against bullying. Social skills had a positive, significant connection
with boys and girls defending themselves.
In Denmark, Talts et al. (2017) explored parents’ communication with teachers

and their evaluation of the values dominating the classrooms of second-grade
students by using the Free from Bullying program. The theory underlying the
program sought to develop children’s social skills, in which parent-teacher
partnerships play an important role. The program was launched in 2007 and was
applied in Estonia in kindergartens starting in 2010. The application of the
program yielded positive results as shown in topics of parent-teacher
discussions, which focused on combining activities and bullying among
students. The findings also showed that parents who were more active in
enrolling their children in the Free from Bullying program were more likely to
discuss aspects of the classroom’s social structure with the teacher16.
Another study conducted in Egypt, Mahmood (2016) investigated the
effectiveness of a counseling program for developing social intelligence in
decreasing bullying among students at the elementary school stage. The study
used a quasi-empirical method based on the pre-post tests, which was applied to
a sample of 20 elementary school students with low social intelligence and high
bullying behavior. The findings demonstrated the effectiveness of the counseling
program for developing social intelligence skills in decreasing bullying behavior.
In Saudi Arabia, Sakran and Alwan (2016) investigated the factorial structure of
bullying as a concept, the prevalence of this phenomenon, and its justification by
students that commit bullying. The study used a scale to measure bullying
among a sample of 352 students from three school stages in Saudi Arabia. The
results revealed that students who bully others try to find justification for their
behavior. The intermediate stage had higher rates of bullying than other
elementary and secondary stages.

272
In the Italian context, Menesini et al. (2015) examined the effects of individual
and collective moral norms on the prediction of exposure to bullying at school.
The sample consisted of 1,009 students at the secondary educational stage, who
were randomly selected. The study used the individual and collective moral
norms scale and exposure to bullying scale to collect data. The results suggested
a positive correlational relationship between exposure to bullying in the
classroom and the school environment, and a low level of individual and
collective moral norms. The outcomes also imply that an increase in students’
level of moral norms was a statistically significant predictor of students not
bullying their peers.
Deniz and Ersoy (2016) investigated the relationship between bullying and
students’ level of social skills and problem-solving among teenagers. The study
administered a questionnaire on bullying and the Turkish version of the Matson
Evaluation of Social Skills with Youngsters (MESSY) on a sample of 392 students
(210 males and 182 females). The findings showed a positive link between social
skills and the sub-categories of confidence and avoidance. Furthermore, the
findings showed no connection between negative degrees of social skills and the
sub-categories of problem-solving, confidence, self-control, and avoidance.
Finally, Catone et al. (2017) conducted a systematic review to investigate the

findings of different studies that have jointly investigated the relationship
between bullying and mental disorders (including people who are fully affected
by the latter). The study also aimed at framing this relationship, as well as the
primary theoretical reasons for such a relationship. The result of this analysis
revealed that bullying of special education students requires careful study of the
developmental trajectories involved, and that research should now focus on how
personal, social, and biological factors interact 21.
By reviewing relevant studies, we see that bullying is associated with many

variables. Some studies dealt with bullying behavior, family, school patterns in
academic achievement and discipline, gender, age, and parents’ immigration
status. Other investigations addressed the academic concept of the self and
academic performance. This review showed the need for investigating bullying
behavior among students with LDs in order to provide insights for educators
and decision-makers when addressing the issue of bullying in Saudi Arabia.
4. Significance of the study

The scientific significance of this study stems from its attempt to shed light on a
vital phenomenon that is increasing in public schools in the Asir Region. In
addition, this study explored the connection between bullying and its
consequences on students with LDs. The practical significance of this study
comes from the insights it provided for future research concerned with
alleviating bullying behavior. The results are expected to benefit interested
scholars by providing them with a theoretical background on the relationship
between bullying and LDs, as well as a critical measure used by researchers and
specialists to identify problems that students experience.

273
Some studies have pointed out the role of the family in bullying behavior
(Bidwell, 1997). Students that commit bullying behaviors are usually victims at
home and come from families that suffer from challenges regarding the parent-
child relationship, as well as social and financial hardship (Smith & Low, 2013).
Families who use bullying often lack warmth, tenderness, order at home, and
have trouble sharing their feelings with others. They also describe themselves as
not close to their families. Parents of bully students rarely control or monitor
their children and exercise harsh, punitive measures to do so (Al-Rousan, 2016).
Despite the abundance of studies that address bullying both locally and
universally, they often pay attention to its causes, consequences, or to methods
of prevention and treatment. Studies on bullying among students with LDs are
few in number, as well as research on social anxiety and its relationship to
bullying. Therefore, this study examined the problem by exploring the rates of
bullying among this category of students.
Research Questions
This study tries to answer the following two questions:
1) What is the degree of bullying among students with LDs at the basic
educational stage in the Asir Region?
2) Are there statistically significant differences due to age regarding the degree
of bullying among students with LDs at the basic educational stage in the
Asir Region?
Definition of Concepts
Bullying: It is an unwanted, aggressive behavior resulting from a lack of balance
in power between the bully and the victim. This is repeated overtime where the
bully exercises direct or indirect aggression without concern or discomfort, and
with an internal desire for aggression. It is defined in this study as the control of
an individual or group over another individual or a group for the purpose of
exercising authority and dominance, which may involve verbal or physical
abuse. Bullying is defined operationally by the total score obtained by students
through their responses to the questionnaire used in the study.
Students with LDs: These students show a disorder in one or more

psychological processes involved in understanding and using spoken or written
language, which may manifest in hearing, thinking, speech, reading, spelling,
and arithmetic. These conditions are due to causes pertaining to minimal brain
dysfunction, but not relating to mental, hearing, visual, or other handicaps
(Assarayreh, 2007). Students with LDs are defined in the current study as those
students who have been officially diagnosed and identified by the Ministry of
Education as students with LDs and are enrolled in LD (resource) rooms at
schools in the General Directorate of Education in Asir Region.

274
5. Methodology
Sampling
The population of the present study consisted of all (350) students with LDs
enrolled in the resource rooms from 4-6 grades at schools in the General
Directorate of Education in the Asir Region. The sample consisted of the same
research population. The authors distributed 350 questionnaires to measure the
level of bullying behavior. Due to the reading and writing difficulties
experienced by students with LDs, the author obtained information on the
students’ reading and writing difficulties with the help of the special education
teacher, the Arabic language teacher, and the physical education teacher in each
school.
Instrument
The authors developed a scale to measure the bullying phenomenon among
students with LDs. This scale took the form of a questionnaire prepared after
reviewing the theoretical literature on bullying behavior, and also after reading
Arabic-language and foreign studies on issues (Talts et al., 2017; Mahmood 2016;
Jaradat, 2008; Abu Ghazal, 2009). The author conducted an exploratory study
that included a question for schoolteachers in Asir Region: What are the anti-
social (bullying) practices observed in students with LDs? The answers were
used to tailor the content of each paragraph of the questionnaire about bullying.
In light of the above-mentioned details, the authors prepared the dimensions
and items of the questionnaire. The questionnaire consisted of 26 paragraphs
distributed over two dimensions: verbal and physical bullying.
Validity
The authors verified the scale’s validity by content and construct validity.
Content Validity
Content validity was confirmed by presenting the scale to 10 experienced,
competent arbitrators from the faculty members at King Khalid University,
Jeddah University, and the Hashemite University. The authors relied on the
consensus of 80% of the arbitrators for each item; that is, the observations of
more than 20% served as a sufficient criterion to modify, delete, or add some
paragraphs. The final version of the scale contained 26 paragraphs.
Construct Validity
The authors verified indicators of the construct validity by conducting an
exploratory study on a sample of 40 students from a population similar to that of
the research population. After applying the questionnaire to the sample, the
correlation coefficients between the scale items, as well as to the total score, were
calculated. The coefficient of discrimination for each item was also calculated.
The discrimination coefficient represents an indicator of validity for each item
and the extent that each item/paragraph of the questionnaire is correlated to the
dimension it attempts to measure. The paragraphs’ correlation coefficients with
the dimension ranged from (0.402–0.854) as displayed in Table 1.

275
Table 1: Correlation coefficients between the items and the dimension in question on
the scale of perceptions of bullying
Physical bullying Verbal bullying
Correlation coefficient with Correlation coefficient with
Item Item
the dimension the dimension
1. **0.694 14. **0.804
2. **0.738 15. **0.783
3. **0.688 16. **0.754
4. **0.811 17. **0.402
5. **0.541 18. **0.854
6. **0.584 19. **0.749
7. **0.768 20. **0.813
8. **0.816 21. **0.792
9. **0.726 22. **0.832
10. **0.771 23. **0.753
11. **0.754 24. **0.781
12. **0.814 25. **0.790
13. **0.724 26. **0.786
**Statistically significant at the level of significance (0.01%)
Table 1 demonstrates that all correlation coefficients were of acceptable degrees,

and of statistical significance at the level of 0.01%; thus, no item of the scale was
deleted.
Reliability
The Test-retest method was used to check the scale’s reliability by conducting a
pilot study on a sample of 30 students with LDs. The two-week interval between
the two applications was carried on. Pearson Correlation Coefficient between the
scores for the two applications was calculated. The correlation coefficient
obtained through the test-retest method for the scale was 0.864. The stability
coefficient was calculated using Cronbach’s alpha, and the stability coefficient
via internal consistency was 0.841, indicating that the scale had an appropriate
level of reliability, as shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Reliability coefficient via internal consistency, Cronbach’s alpha, and the
test-retest method for the study’s dimensions and the whole score of the scale
Reliability of internal
Dimension Test-retest reliability
consistency
Physical bullying 0.792 0.816
Verbal bullying 0.853 0.835
The scale as a whole 0.864 0.841
Based on the methods employed, through which the authors extracted validity
and reliability indicators, it is clear that the scale has acceptable and suitable
indicators for the current study.

276
6. Findings
The first question of this study was “What is the degree of bullying among
students with LDs at the basic educational stage in Asir Region?” To answer this
question, means and standard divisions of the level of bullying behavior among
children with LDs were obtained as illustrated in Table 3.
Table 3: Mean scores and standard deviations of the level of bullying behavior among
students with LDs at the basic educational stage in Asir Region, ranked in descending
order
Rank Standard
Number Domain Mean Score Degree
(order) Deviation
1 1 Physical bullying 2.19 0.321 Low
2 2 Verbal bullying 2.05 0.313 Low
The total score of the bullying
2.12 0.263 Low
scale
Table 3 shows the mean scores and standard deviations of the level of bullying
behavior among children with LDs at the basic educational stage in the Asir
Region. The overall level of bullying behavior was low. The mean score of
bullying, in general, was 2.12, and the physical bullying dimension was in the
first rank, with the highest mean score of 2.19, followed by the verbal bullying
dimension, with a mean score of 2.05. The mean score and standard deviations
of both dimensions of the questionnaire were calculated. Table 4 presents the
results related to the first dimension, which is physical bullying.
Table 4: Arithmetic means and standard deviations of the level of physical

bullying behavior
Paragraph Mean Standard
Rank Paragraph Degree
no. Score Deviation
He pushes his classmate and sits
1 7 2.32 1.247 Low
down in his place.
He hinders his classmate, who
2 6 2.31 1.036 Low
passes in front of him.
He twists his classmate’s arm and
3 4 2.30 1.063 Low
shoves him into a corner.
He creates a reason to argue with a
4 3 classmate who is less powerful than 2.29 1.149 Low
him.
5 13 He bites a classmate. 2.26 1.96 Low
He pinches a classmate and pulls his
6 2 2.23 1.126 Low
hair tightly.
7 1 He hits his classmates. 2.17 1.126 Low
8 12 He spits on a classmate. 2.15 1.071 Low
He scratches a classmate with a
9 11 2.14 1.096 Low
sharp instrument.
10 10 He tears the shirt of a classmate. 2.14 1.127 Low
He holds his classmate by the neck
11 9 2.10 1.121 Low
and tries to stifle him.
12 8 He throws his classmate down and 2.06 1.106 Low

277
steps on his stomach.

He swoops down on his classmate
13 5 and hits him with instruments such 2.00 1.138 Low
as a stick or a ruler.
The total score of physical bullying 2.19 0.321 Low
Table 4 shows the mean scores of the paragraphs related to the physical bullying
behavior. Paragraph (7) came in the first order with a mean score of 2.32 and
paragraph (5) came in last, with a mean score of 2.00.
To detect the level of verbal bullying, the mean scores and standard deviations
of the level of verbal bullying behavior among children with LDs at the basic
educational stage in the Asir Region were obtained, as displayed in Table 5.
Table 5: Arithmetic means and standard deviations of verbal bullying items, arranged
in descending order according to the arithmetic mean
Paragraph Mean Standard
Rank Paragraph Degree
no. Score Deviation
He always threatens his
1 19 2.32 0.890 Low
classmates.
He tells lies and rumors to a
2 18 2.21 0.911 Low
classmate.
He blackmails a student in front of
3 22 2.15 0.937 Low
his classmates.
He deliberately reveals others’
4 17 2.12 0.969 Low
personal secrets.
He makes a classmate look foolish
5 15 2.09 0.974 Low
in front of others.
He curses his classmates, using
6 14 2.06 0.974 Low
obscene words.
He disturbs a classmate by phone
7 20 2.05 0.990 Low
calls.
He makes up stories to incite
8 26 2.02 0.779 Low
students against each other.
He calls a classmate an obscene
9 16 2.00 0.934 Low
name.
He spoils a team game for his
10 25 1.97 1.061 Low
classmates.
He accuses a classmate of actions
11 24 he did not commit to keep others 1.95 0.913 Low
away from him.
Encourages rebellion against the
12 23 teacher among a group of students 1.92 0.919 Low
to incite a quarrel.
He incites some students against
13 21 1.88 0.823 Low
other students.
The total score of verbal bullying 2.05 0.313 Low
Table 5 shows the mean scores and standard deviations of paragraphs related to
verbal bullying. Paragraph (19) came in the first order with a mean score of 2.23,

278
followed by paragraph (18), with a mean score of 2.21. Paragraph (21) came in
the last order with a mean score of 1.88.
The second question this study was “Are there statistically significant
differences due to age regarding the degree of bullying among students with
LDs at the basic educational stage in Asir Region?” To answer this question, the
authors used a t-test for independent samples as shown in Table 6.
Table 6: The results of the t-test to identify the difference insignificance in the degree
of bullying due to age among children with LDs at the basic educational stage in Asir
Region
Degree
Age Mean Standard t- Level of
Domain Number of
group scores deviation value significance
freedom
From
150 2.17 0.338 -1.149 348 0.252
Physical 6-9
bullying From
200 2.21 0.307
10-12
From
150 2.07 0.308 0.964 348 0.336
Verbal 6-9
bullying From
200 2.04 0.317
10-12
From
Bullying 150 2.12 0.272 -0.123 348 0.902
6-9
scale as a
From
whole 200 2.12 0.257
10-12
Table 6 indicates no statistically significant differences in the extent of bullying

due to age among children with LDs at the basic educational stage. The value of
the significance level for the dimensions of the questionnaire was 0.252 and 0.336
for physical bullying and verbal bullying, respectively, and 0.902 for bullying as
a whole.
7. Discussion
The first research question: “What is the degree of bullying among students
with LDs at the basic educational stage in Asir Region?”
The results of the mean scores and standard deviations regarding the level of
bullying behavior among students with LDs revealed that bullying behavior was
low. In terms of bullying as a whole, the mean score was 2.12. Physical bullying
came in the first order with the highest mean score of 2.19, followed by verbal
bullying in second place, with a mean score of 2.05. The low level of bullying
among students with LD could be explained by the extensive counseling
programs run by the Ministry of Education (represented by the General
Directorate of Education in the Asir region). The Ministry is keen to provide
different schools in the area with LD specialists to handle the various
psychological and behavioral disorders experienced by students with LDs. Such
specialists contribute to the treatment of many behavioral disorders, including
bullying, which led to a decline in its level among the participants in the sample.
This low level of bullying can also be explained by the use of modem
educational disciplinary techniques (which are free from physical punishment)

279
in different schools. Such techniques have deterred many students from bullying
their classmates.
The second research question: “Are there statistically significant differences due
to age regarding the degree of bullying among students with LDs at the basic
educational stage in Asir Region?”
The results of the T-test on the impact of age on the extent of bullying revealed
no statistically significant differences in the degree of bullying among children
with LDs at the basic educational stage. The high attention given to students
with LDs, through counseling programs in different schools in the Asir Region
helped in reducing the level of bullying in general without differences in age
groups. It is indicated that such programs provided to students treat age groups
equally and without discrimination between students, which contributed to
reducing bullying among this sample.
8. Conclusion and Recommendations

This study aimed at investigating the levels of bullying among students with
LDs in the basic stage in the Asir region in Saudi Arabia. The study concluded
low levels of verbal and physical bullying among students. The researchers
attributed this conclusion to the extensive counseling programs prepared and
implemented by the Ministry of Education to support LDs students and prevent
bullying. In light of the findings, the authors recommend the following:
• Developing awareness programs for teachers to identify the educational and
demographic indicators that accompany bullying.
• Supporting counseling programs directed toward students in primary
schools in general, and resource room students in particular.
• Conducting more studies on bullying and its relationship with other
variables, such as social anxiety and emotional intelligence.
Limitations
The study was limited to students with LDs in grades 4–6 enrolled in resource
rooms at schools in the General Directorate of Education in the Asir Region in
the second semester of the academic year 2017/2018.
Acknowledgments
This study was sponsored by the Research Group Program of the Scientific
Deanship at King Khalid University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (R.G.P.IL34L40).
9. References
Abu Ghazal, M. (2009). Bullying and its relation with a feeling of solitude and social
support. The Jordanian Journal of Educational Sciences, Yarmouk University, 2, 89–
103.
Al-Kitani, F. (2000). Parental Attitudes in socialization and its relationship to children's
fears. Amman: Dar El-Shorouk.
Al-Rousan, F. (2016). Psychology of exceptional children. Amman: Dar Alfeker.
Al-Subaihin, A. (2007). The effect of a behavioral, emotional, rational counseling program in
reducing the bullying behavior of students in the upper basic stage (Ph.D. thesis).
Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan.

280
Assarayreh, M. (2007). Differences in the self–esteem, the family and social relationships, the
Temperament, the leadership, and the school achievement between the bullying students
and their victims and the normal students in the adolescent stage (Ph.D. Dissertation).
University of Amman for Higher Studies, Amman, Jordan.
Bidwell, N. M. (1997). The nature and prevalence of bullying in elementary schools.
Saskatchewan School Trustees Association.
Bradshow, C. (2018). Examining Variation in Adolescent Bystanders’ Responses to
Bullying. School Psychology Review, 47(1), 18-33. https://doi.org/10.17105/SPR-
2017-0081.V47-1
Catone, G., Marwaha, S., Lennox, B., & Broome, M. R. (2017). Bullying victimization and
psychosis: the interdependence and independence of risk trajectories. BJPsych
Advances, 23(6), 397-406. https://doi.org/10.1192/apt.bp.116.016584
Dawkins, J. L. (1996). Bullying, physical disability, and the pediatric
patient. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 38(7), 603-612.
Deniz, M., & Ersoy, E. (2016). Examining the Relationship of Social Skills, Problem
Solving, and Bullying in Adolescents. International Online Journal of
Educational Sciences, 8(1). http://dx.doi.org/10.15345/iojes.2016.01.001
Duncan, N. (1999). Sexual bullying: gender conflict and pupil culture in secondary schools.
Psychology Press.
Fox, C. L., & Boulton, M. J. (2005). The social skills problems of victims of bullying: Self,
peer, and teacher perceptions. British Journal of Educational
Psychology, 75(2), 313-328. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709905X25517
Frisen, A., & Holmqvist, K. (2010). Adolescents’ own suggestions for bullying
interventions at age 13 and 16. Scandinavian journal of psychology, 51(2), 123-131.
Heino, K., Frodj, S. & Marttnen, M. (2010). Involvement in Bullying and Depression in
Middle and High School Students. European Child- Adolescent Psychiatry, 19,
45-55.
Ireland J. L. (2002). Social self‐esteem and self‐reported bullying behavior among adult
prisoners. Aggressive Behavior: Official Journal of the International Society for
Research on Aggression, 28(3), 184-97. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.90021
Jaradat, A. (2008). Bullying among the students of basic schools: Its origin and related
factors. The Jordanian Journal on Educational Sciences, Yarmouk University.
Jenkins, L. N., Demaray, M. K., & Tennant, J. (2017). Social, emotional, and cognitive
factors associated with bullying. School psychology review, 46(1), 42-64.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02796015.2017.12087609.
Kandemir, M., & Özbay, Y. (2009). Interactional effect of perceived emphatic classroom
atmosphere and self-esteem on bullying. Elementary Education Online, 8(2), 322-
333.
King, B. (2018). Addressing the Bullying and Harassment of Students with Disabilities
through School Compliance to Avoid Litigation. Brigham Young
Education & Law Journal, 1, 67-88.
Laftman, S., Alm, S., Sandahl, J., & Modin, B. (2018). Future Orientation among
Students Exposed to School Bullying and Cyberbullying Victimization.
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 15(605), 1-12.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15040605
Mahmood, M. (2016). Effectiveness of counseling program for developing the social
intelligence skills in decreasing school bullying behavior among pupils of
elementary educational stage. Alhekmah Journal for Educational and Psychological
Studies, Algiers, 7, 289–304.

281
Menesini, E., Palladino, B. E., & Nocentini, A. (2015). Emotions of moral disengagement,
class norms, and bullying in adolescence: A multilevel approach. Merrill-Palmer
Quarterly, 61(1), 124-143.
http://dx.doi.org/10.13110/merrpalmquar1982.61.1.0124.
Mishra, D., Thapa, T., Marahatta, S., & Mahotra, A. (2018). Bullying Behavior and
Psychosocial Health – A Cross-sectional Study among School Students of
Pyuthan Municipality. Journal of Nepal Health Research Council, 16(38), 73-78.
https://doi.org/10.3126/jnhrc.v16i1.19370
O’Moore, A. M., & Hillery, B. (1989). Bullying in Dublin schools. The Irish Journal of
Psychology, 10(3), 426-441.
Olweus, D., & Limber, S. P. (2010). Bullying in school: evaluation and dissemination of
the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program. American Journal of
Orthopsychiatry, 80(1), 124.
Sakran, A., & Alwan, I. (2016). The factorial construction of the school bullying
phenomenon as an integrative concept and its prevalence and justification
among students of the public education in Abha. Journal of Special Education,
Center For Educational, Psychological, and Environmental Information at the College of
Education, Zaqazeeq, Egypt, 16, 1–60.
Sharp, S., & Smith, P. (2002). School bullying: Insights and perspectives. Routledge.
Smith, B. H., & Low, S. (2013). The role of social-emotional learning in bullying
prevention efforts. Theory Into Practice, 52(4), 280-287.
Starr, L. (2000). Sticks and stones and names can hurt you: - De-Myth-tidying the
classroom bully. Education word. Retrieved October 12 2019 from
http://www.peelearlyyears.com/pdf/Sticks%20and%20Stones%20and%20Nam
es%20Can%20Hurt%20You.pdf
Talts, L., Piht, S., & Muldma, M. (2017). Family-Teacher Partnership in Fostering the
Development of Children's Social Skills using the Bullying Prevention
Programme" Free From Bullying" in Estonian Schools. Problems of Education in
tthe 21st Century, 75(1).
Unnever, J. D. (2005). Bullies, aggressive victims, and victims: Are they distinct
groups?. Aggressive Behavior: Official Journal of the International Society for
Research on Aggression, 31(2), 153-171. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20083
Vieno, A., Gini, G., & Santinello, M. (2011). Different forms of bullying and their
association with smoking and drinking behavior in Italian adolescents. Journal of
School Health, 81(7), 393-399. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2011.00607.x
Ziegler, S., & Rosenstein-Manner, M. (1991). Bullying at School: Toronto in an International
Context. Research Services No. 196.

282

Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 282-302, June 2020
Development of Instruments to Measure

Mathematical Anxiety of Elementary School
Students
Hafiziani Eka Putri, Mukhammad Ady Wahyudy,

Aan Yuliyanto and Fitri Nuraeni
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Indonesia
Abstract. To generate high-quality research, a reliable instrument is

required. This study aims to develop an instrument that can measure
mathematical dimensions of elementary school students appropriately,
for use in mathematics learning on spatial geometry. Each statement item
in Mathematical Anxiety Instrument was developed based on 3 learning
aspects, namely Attitudinal, Cognitive, Somatic. This study uses Research
and Development (R&D) method with a quasi-experimental design on
geometry topic. The sample is 100 sixth grade students in an elementary
school located in Karawang Regency. The instrument developed in this
study is in the form of a questionnaire with closed-ended questions. The
validity test analysis implies that 23 out of 30 items on the instrument are
valid. This data is supported by Cronbach’s Alpha test results, where all
item has reliability value higher than 0.80 indicating that the instrument
being tested has a very high-test reliability. Therefore, 23 items out of 30
items were developed into instruments for measuring mathematics
anxiety that applicable in Mathematics learning activities. Thus, it leads
to the conclusion that this mathematics anxiety questionnaire can be
utilized as an instrument for future research.
Keywords: mathematical anxiety instrument; validity; reliability
1. Introduction
It is well known that mathematics is fundamental to children development and
communication in future life. Basic numeracy skills assist children to have
satisfactory achievement and further becoming a competent adult. A broader
acknowledgment of this would lead to more parity with literacy. However,
developing a strong foundation of early math skills is vital for children’s later
educational success as well as economic, health, and employment outcomes.

283
Children entering school with strong mathematics skills have a greater likelihood
of success in mathematics during kindergarten and in later grades. In Indonesia,
Mathematics is formally taught at kindergarten until university. Currently, many
teachers still teach mathematical topics using a teacher-centered approach,
making the learning process seems to be rigid and boring. On the other side,
deficient teaching of mathematics in kindergarten hinders the consolidation of
basic mathematical knowledge, which is useful to children during their following
school course. The absence of which, according to many researchers, is
responsible to the extent of failure in mathematics (Papadakis et al., 2017).
Moreover, such instructions make students perceive mathematics as a subject that

is difficult to understand and frightening. This condition is contrary to the
expected competencies in mathematics subjects for elementary school levels
(grades 1 to 4), which includes: (1) Conceptual understanding, which refers to
understanding connected and operational mathematical concepts. Students with
conceptual understanding able to understand mathematical facts and methods in
depth. Understand the function of and how to use a mathematical concept; (2)
Procedural fluency, namely procedural knowledge, knowledge of when and how
to use them appropriately, and skills in doing so flexibly, accurately, and
efficiently; (3) Strategic competence, which refers to the ability to formulate,
describe and solve mathematical problems. Strategic competence plays an
important role in every stage of procedural fluency development related to
calculation. Strategic competence involves learning to replace complicated
procedures with a more concise and efficient way; (4) Adaptive reasoning
competence. It is interpreted as the ability to think logically about the relationship
between concepts and situations; and (5) Productive disposition or the ability to
be aware of the value of mathematics. It includes awareness that mathematics is
useful and beneficial and believing that a great effort in learning mathematics will
lead to excellent results and to see oneself as an effective learner and
mathematician (National Research Council, 2001). If students want to develop
conceptual understanding, procedural fluency, strategic competence, and
adaptive reasoning abilities, they must believe that with diligent effort
mathematics can be understood and can be used to overcome problems in daily
life. These competencies can be developed well if students are comfortable and
enjoy learning mathematics, instead of feeling afraid or anxious. Anxiety is
included in the realm of attitude in mathematics that must be well developed. In
line with this, one of the four objectives of the Mathematics learning is currently
used curriculum is related to attitude development (Yuliyanto et al., 2019).
Students’ are afraid of mathematics because the way they understand the material
is not appropriate, especially at the beginning of the lesson. This fear might lead
to difficulties in understanding mathematics and difficulties to focus on learning.
Unfocused behavior is one of the mathematical anxiety indicators that include
into cognitive aspect at a medium level (Putri, Muqodas, et al., 2019). There are
many obstacles experienced by students in learning mathematics, one of which is
mathematics anxiety (Afrianti & Prabawanto, 2020). The significance of
understanding mathematical anxiety lies in its potentially limiting effect on self-
esteem and performance (Cropp, 2017). Therefore, students’ mathematical anxiety
can be defined as students’ fear of mathematics. Anxiety appears when someone

284
is in a particularly threatening situation. The same thing applies to children,

where students might have high mathematical anxiety due to their prior
experiences on the mathematics subject (Suarjana et al., 2017).
Mathematical anxiety also can affect students’ daily life, academic performance,
and even contribute to increasing students’ stress, and if this condition continues,
various problems might eventually happen (Shishigu, 2018). Math anxiety
impacts students as early as the first grade by affecting their working memory
(Aosi et al., 2019). Similarly, a study explains that mathematical anxiety is a
problem that might give a negative effect on learning achievement and job
prospects in the future. As compared to others with no or little mathematical
anxiety, students with higher mathematical anxiety were lower in the following
aspects: Socioeconomic-status, teacher-student relationship, self-efficacy, and
mathematical problem-solving ability (Zhou et al., 2020). There are consequences
for the students’ anxiety inmathematics, and this interferes with their academic
achievement. Students who experience mathematics anxiety typically refuse to
enroll in mathematics courses or attending courses with important mathematical
components that will influence their future career options (Alves et al., 2016).
Furthermore, the negative relationship among mathematical anxiety and learning
achievement in mathematics are possible because mathematical anxiety leads
students to avoid Mathematics subject and might disrupt students’ performance
in solving particular mathematical problems (Ramirez et al., 2016). In this
condition, it is assumed that there is a particular barrier that prevents knowledge
transfer thus making students difficult to understand the materials being learned.
One of the biggest constraints in mathematics learning is when students cannot
understand the materials that are presented abstractly. In line with that, the word
“abstract” in a question may also have encouraged slightly higher anxiety scores
(Levere & Kahlon, 2019). Handling student’s anxiety is one of the mental health
rehabilitation efforts that can overcome various obstacles in learning (Ardi et al.,
2019).
High mathematical anxiety has an impact on mathematics learning achievement.

Longitudinal research indicates that low attainment in mathematics can have
significant long-term consequences, affecting later school achievement,
employment, criminality, mental health, and future earnings. In many countries,
underachievement in mathematics is strongly associated with social, cultural, and
economic disadvantages. Yet, if the issue is settled it will lead to the opposite
effect. Prior studies examining the longitudinal relations between number sense
skills (e.g., counting, number knowledge, and number transformation) and later
mathematics learning has shown promising results about the effect of
mathematical anxiety on elementary and middle school mathematics
achievement (Papadakis et al., 2018). Ashcraft and Kirk also said that individuals
with high mathematics anxiety demonstrate smaller working memory spans,
especially when assessed with a computation-based span task (Sevindir et al.,
2014).
Mathematical anxiety includes fear, tension, and discomfort emotions felt by

several individuals regarding mathematics and might interfere with one’s
performance in doing mathematics (Ashcraft & Moore, 2009). Higher-level

285
mathematics probably relies even more heavily on working memory, so may

show a far greater impact of mathematics anxiety. As students dealing with
challenging mathematical problems, then we can distinguish clearly the effects of
high mathematics anxiety and low mathematics competence (Sevindir et al., 2014).
Similarly, Tobias and Weissbrod (1980) describe mathematical anxiety as panic,
helplessness, paralysis, and mental disorders that arise when solving
mathematical problems. In line with that, mathematical anxiety can be defined as
uncomfortable feelings arising from unstable emotional conditions that are
characterized by fear, worry, anxiety, panic, etc. when someone is facing an
unwanted task (Annisa & Ifdil, 2016)
Moreover, particular physiological symptoms are somehow related to students'

anxiety, which includes cardiovascular system (heart palpitations), breathing
(shortness of breath, and a sense of strangulation), neuromuscular system
(insomnia, and taut face), gastrointestinal system (loss of appetite, and diarrhea),
urinary tract (cannot hold pee), and skin (facial blushing, and feeling chills on the
skin) (Sunardi et al., 2019). It was also found that mathematics anxiety could affect
the capacity of pre-service teachers to develop inclusive learning environments in
their classrooms (Mizala et al., 2015).
A study done by Cavanagh and Sparrow (2010) divide mathematics anxiety into
3 domains, those are: 1) somatic; 2); cognitive and 3) attitude. Each domain was
further broken down into three levels of mathematical anxiety (high, medium,
and low) as seen on Table 1:
Table 1: Aspects, levels, and indicators of mathematical anxiety

Level of mathematical
Aspect Indicator
anxiety
High Afraid of what being done
Has no intention to do things that should
Medium
Attitudinal be done
Expecting difficulties in doing particular
Low
thing
Worry of being judged by others that
High
she/he cannot do things well
Cognitive
Medium Has an empty mind
Low Feeling confused
High Difficult to breath
Somatic Medium Heart beats rapidly
Low Feeling uncomfortable
According to TIMSS results for Indonesian fourth grader, it is found that there are
only 23% of students have a high confidence level in mathematics (TIMSS & PIRLS
Study Center, 2016). The average performance of these students is 440 placings in
Indonesia in the bottom 8 out of 49 countries. The improper method in
mathematics learning could make students difficult to understand the materials
being learned, has negative experience during learning math, develop negative
perspective toward mathematical things, and eventually resulting in
mathematical anxiety (Kristanti & Widyawati, 2009).

286
One of the mathematical anxiety contributing factors is the type of instructional

method used by teachers. Appropriate application of the teaching method can be
in the form of an instructional approach that promotes mathematical problem
solving and decrease students’ mathematical anxiety. Students prefer
mathematics teachers who enable them to exploit their misunderstanding of
particular mathematics concepts. Teacher’s patience and connection with
students will greatly affect students’ success in learning mathematics (Sofiatun et
al., 2018). Therefore, mathematics instructions should change its image from
mechanistic learning into enjoyable humanistic learning (Hendriana, 2012). Fun
and enjoyable learning could make the learning process more effective. However,
before lesson implementation, it is important to arrange instruments that will be
used in learning activities.
The success of mathematical abilities enhancement and students' negative

attitudes reduction towards Mathematics begins with the success of the researcher
in making and analyzing instruments that will be given during the research takes
place. The lack of consistency in prevailing mathematics anxiety theory is
rectifiable by using modern measurement theory for measure construction
(Sevindir et al., 2014). One way to do measurement is by questionnaires filled by
a number of required samples. Questionnaires may be administered individually
or in a group, and typically include a series of items reflecting the research aims
(Ponto, 2015). A questionnaire is a tool that can be used in many measurements in
any type of research. Questionnaires should always have a definite purpose that
is related to the objectives of the research, and it needs to be clear from the outset
how the findings will be used (Roopa & Rani, 2012). The main indicator of
measurement is the feasibility of its validity and reliability (Mohajan, 2017). In this
case, the validity and reliability of an instrument are important. An instrument is
said to be valid if the instruments are used to measure the corresponding object
to be measured. The instrument is said to be reliable if the results are relatively
similar even though it is used repeatedly (Ghofur et al., 2016). Validity and
reliability can enhance transparency and reduce the bias possibility of qualitative
research (Singh, 2014). Valid instruments indicate that it can be used to measure
behavior that is meant to be measured (Haryeni & Yendra, 2019). Instruments that
have reliability can be used many times but produce similar data (Pramono et al.,
2016). Instruments have a high reliability if the source of the error in the
measurement can be minimized (Fiangga & Sari, 2017).
Good quality instruments should be valid, reliable, standard, economical, and

practical (Azwar, 2011). The instrument should be able to reveal particular facts
and transformed them into data. Thus, the instrument that will be used should
have good quality. Conversely, invalid, and unreliable examination results often
failed to meet the purpose of examination and mislead decision making
(Oluwatayo & Fajobi, 2015). If the obtained data is not valid or is not appropriate
with the facts, it might lead to the wrong conclusion (Arifin, 2017). The quality of
research can be identified from the quality of arranged and developed
instruments, in which it should be valid and reliable (Manongko, 2016). Other
studies describe good instrument requirements as instruments that have high
validity and reliability or meet psychometric requirements (Kartowagiran, 2018).
An instrument has validity if the drawn conclusion is meaningful and inferences

287
are valid based on the scores on the instrument (Creswell, 2009). Apart from the
validity and reliability, an instrument also needs to meet the ability to measure
samples in a large population and cost-effective (Rahman et al., 2019). Therefore,
to support optimum research findings, before mathematics lesson
implementation, the researcher has carefully analyzed the feasibility of
instruments that have been developed. If the assumptions can be proven
empirically, the instruments developed in a study have good predictive validity
(Laliyo et al., 2019).
2. Methods
This research taken place from November 2018 to April 2019. Since this is
developmental research, the method used in this study is Research and
Development (R&D). R&D as a systematic process to develop, improve, and
assess education programs and materials (Gall et al., 2010). This definition implies
that research and development method in education is actually a process of
developing research product, and eventually validate the product. All sixth-grade
students in elementary schools in West Java were the population in this study.
Participants included in the sample were 100 elementary school sixth-graders in
Karawang Regency.
In this research, the product that will be developed and validated is learning
materials, which are designed in such a way according to the CPA approach. The
learning materials will then be used to measure the mathematical anxiety of
elementary school students. There are three methods used in R&D
implementations which include descriptive, evaluative, and experiment
(Sugiyono, 2016). In this study, the descriptive method is used to gather data that
is required in arranging research instruments to measure the mathematical
anxiety of elementary school students. The questionnaire given to students is in
the form of a mathematical anxiety questionnaire using a Likert scale. Four
responses can be chosen for each statement in the questionnaire which includes
strongly agree (SA), agree (A), disagree (D), strongly disagree (SD). The
mathematical anxiety instrument that is used is the modification of the
mathematical anxiety instrument indicator developed by Cavanagh and Sparrow
(2010), and it is combined with the learning using the CPA approach. As the next
step, the evaluative method is used to evaluate the trial process of mathematical
anxiety instrument development which is arranged according to the CPA
approach to reduce the mathematical anxiety of elementary students. On the other
hand, in this study, the experimental method is used to test the feasibility of
research products by using instrument validity and reliability test. The product
refers to the instrument that has been developed and run through the trial process
using a quasi-experimental method. Obtained data is processed by using
Microsoft Excel 2013 and SPSS Version 25. Microsoft Excel 2013 is used to calculate
instrument validity, while SPSS version 25 is used to calculate instrument
reliability using Cronbach’s Alpha method. As the next step, the calculation result
is analyzed based on a particular category. Validity value is interpreted based on
the validity coefficient classification by Guilford (Putri, Isrokatun, et al., 2019) as
shown in table 2.

288
Table 2: Guilford’s Validity Coefficient Classification
r value Interpret
0,90< r xy 1,00 Very high
0,70< r 0,90 High
0,40< r 0,70 Moderate (sufficient)
0,20< r 0,40 Low
0,00< r 0,20 Very low
r 0,00 Not valid
Reliability value is interpreted based on Guilford’s reliability classification (Putri,

Isrokatun, et al., 2019) in table 3:
Table 3: Guilford’s Reliability Coefficient Classification
r value Interpretation
r Very low
≤ 0,20
0,20<r Low
≤ 0,40
0,40< r Intermediate
≤ 0,60
0,60< r High
≤ 0,80
0,80< r Very high

≤ 1,00
The research participant involved in this research is as much as 100 elementary

school students throughout Purwakarta, Subang, and Karawang, West Java,
Indonesia. The sampling was done through a purposive sampling technique. The
selected sample should fulfill a particular requirement, in which samples must be
a sixth-grader. Such sampling is done because the research will be implemented
in grade 5 elementary school. Thus, the sample for instrument development
should be those who have learned the topic. 100 participants were selected from
three different areas. A greater number of samples will give more power and
strength to the validation process (Lima-Rodríguez et al., 2015). The analysis
technique used in this research is descriptive analysis in the form of a validity test
and inferential analysis in the form of a reliability test using Cronbach’s Alpha.
The development of students' mathematical anxiety instruments is carried out

through several stages including, a preliminary study that is analyzing the
definitions, factors, problems, and findings in mathematical anxiety of elementary
school students through a literature review. The next stage of the instrument
development is to analyze aspects, indicators, and items of mathematical anxiety
based on the level of success in the form of a questionnaire blueprint. The last
stage is the testing phase that is done by verifying the blueprint which is compiled
to become a questionnaire. Lecturers of elementary school teacher education, and

289
elementary school teachers whose focus on mathematics were asked to become

expert assessors in determining the questionnaire feasibility and giving
suggestions for its improvement. Then a readability test was conducted by asking
some students randomly to fill in the questionnaire.
Several changes and improvements were taken by considering suggestions for

experts and readability test results. Furthermore, empirical validation through
validity and reliability tests were performed to ensure that it really can measure
mathematical anxiety and can produce similar results even though being used
repeatedly. As Wright et al (2019) said, the development of instruments was
based on a process of theoretical review and empirical validation.
3. Results
The quality of mathematical anxiety instruments can be measured using validity
and reliability test. The validity of an instrument indicates measurement results
illustrating a particular aspect that is measured. On the other hand, reliability is
related to the consistency of measurement. A reliable instrument provided a
consistent measure of important characteristics despite background fluctuations.
It reflects the true score-one that is free from random errors (Tsisiga et al., 2018).
Therefore, it is undebatable that validity and reliability is a significant research
instrument (Taherdoost, 2018). The first step is done before the instrument
validity and reliability test was developing indicators into statement items in the
questionnaire with regard to the literature review. As explained earlier, the
indicator of the mathematical anxiety questionnaire in this research referred to
(Cavanagh & Sparrow, 2010) Table 1.
As seen in Table 1, three elements can influence the level of students’

mathematical anxiety. Each element is further broken into three levels (low,
medium, high). Based on Table 1, researchers developed the instrument by
analyzing each element and identifying its indicators as the basis for developing
a questionnaire item blueprint. It is in line with Sabri et al. (2019) who imply that
to construct instruments with proper content validity it is necessary to do the
following activities: (1) document analysis or pre-survey; (2) making the
specification table (lattice); (3) consultation with experts (mentors); (4) writing the
instrument. Each element and level have an indicator and become the basis for
developing statement items that were used in the research. Those statements can
be seen on the table of instrument blueprint (Table 4):
Table 4: Blueprint of Mathematical Anxiety Questionnaire Instrument
Element Indicator Statement Level
1. I often skip school when there is

mathematics subject, especially when the
Fear of High
learning is about geometry that has a lot of
what
Attitudinal calculations.
he/she is
2. I always present in Mathematics subject
doing
because in my opinion Mathematics is a High
challenging subject, especially when

290
discussing geometry with many

calculations.
3. In every Math lesson, I prefer to sit at the
very back row, because the back seat is not
High
visible to the teacher so I am sure I will not
be appointed to come forward.
4. I always want to sit in the front row so that
I can listen to the geometry material taught High
by my teacher.
5. I always ask my teacher, if there is
geometry material that I do not High
understand.
Do not 6. I never answer questions about geometry,
Medium
want to do which is difficult for me.
something 7. No matter how difficult the question about
that should geometry is, I always try to do it. Medium
be done
8. Every time I get a question about
The
geometrical volume, it always difficult to
expectatio Low
solve because there are many numbers
n of
that I have to calculate.
difficulties
9. I have no difficulty in doing questions
in doing
about geometrical volume because I Low
something
always careful in calculating the numbers.
10. I always refuse every time the teacher
appoints me to go forward to answer
questions about geometry in front of the High
class because I am afraid my friends will
Worry to laugh at me if my answer is wrong.
be judged 11. I answered the question in front of the
by others class with confidence even though my
that High
answer was wrong. By doing so, I came to
she/he understand how to do it correctly.
cannot do 12. I always hide question papers from friends
things well and parents when the score is below 70. High
13. I am aware of my failure in the previous

Mathematics test and I will try to get better High
score in the future.
Cognitive
14. When working on geometry test, I
remember another thing that, making the Medium
time runs out.
15. Mathematics is a difficult subject, so the
Medium
geometry formula is hard to remember.
16. I always remember the things that I have
Empty to do even though the learning material is Medium
mind difficult to understand.
17. I cannot focus working on the geometry
Medium
problems that I do not understand.
18. I always focus when working on all
Medium
questions about geometry.
19. I am not sure with my answers to
Low
geometry question.

291
20. I am sure that my answer to geometry

Low
questions are correct.
21. My chest feels tight when I get a math
High
score below 70.
Feeling
22. My chest feels tight when a friend teases
confuse
me because of the mistake I made when High
answering Math problems.
23. My heart beats rapidly every time the
Medium
teacher distribute marked test papers.
24. My heart beats rapidly every time the
Difficult to teacher asks me to explain my answers to Medium
breath geometry questions in front of the class.
25. I feel calm every time the teacher asks me
to explain the answers to geometry Medium
questions in front of the class.
26. My feet tremble every time the teacher
asks me to clarify the answers to geometry Low
questions in front of the class.
Somatic 27. I do not feel nervous when teacher appoint
Heartbeats Low
me to answer geometry question.
fast
28. If there is a geometry test tomorrow, then
tonight I will be difficult to sleep because I
Low
will be thinking about the questions that
will come out on the test tomorrow.
29. I will sleep well even though tomorrow
Low
there will be geometry test.
Uncomfort
30. I often go back and forth to the toilet to pee
able
because I am worried that I will not be able
feeling Low
solve geometry problems in the test
tomorrow.
Statements that meet the requirements were further included in test trials. A
sample of students’ responses to the mathematical anxiety instrument developed
in this study can be seen in Appendix 1. Students’ responses in the form of ordinal
data were converted into nominal data. The ordinal data in question is a collection
of student responses for each item. Further processes to determine the score
described by Azwar (2010) are: 1) classify items according to their nature
(favorable/unfavorable); 2) if the item is favorable, then SD response category is
placed at the leftmost side and the SA response category is placed at the rightmost
side; 3) classify the number of students according to their choice of responses. The
frequency of students’ response in each item should be the same; 4) Find the
proportion value with p=f/N where p is proportion, f is frequency, and N is the
number of respondents; 5) determine the pk score (cumulative proportion) that is
the proportion in a category plus the proportion of all categories to the left; 6)
determine Tpk score (Midpoint of cumulative proportion) by adding half
proportion in the relevant category to the cumulative proportion in the category
to the left. It can be formulated by Tpk= 1/2 p+pkb where Tpk is the midpoint of
cumulative proportion, p is the proportion of its category, and pkb is the
cumulative proportion in the category to the left; 7) determine z deviation value
obtained by considering z value for each Tpk. In this study, to determine the value
for z normal deviation table can be used or use the formula ‘= NORMSINV

292
(probability)’ when using Microsoft Excel 2013 software. Probability in the

formula can be filled with cells that show Tpk values; 8) shift the response
category with the smallest value close to 0 (zero), i.e. make the price of z for the
leftmost category equal to 0. This is done to determine the price of z + z * and can
be found by adding the absolute z value at the most left category on all existing z
values so that z values in the other response categories will be positive. See table
5 and 6 for a more detailed scheme:
Table 5: The example of Mathematical Anxiety Scale Calculation for Positive

Statement Item
Statemen Response
f p pk Tpk Z z+z* Rounding
tItem choices
SD 2 0.020 0.020 0.010 -2.326 0.000 0
D 2 0.020 0.040 0.030 -1.881 0.445 0
2
A 43 0.430 0.470 0.255 -0.659 1.667 2
SA 53 0.530 1.000 0.735 0.628 2.954 3
Table 6: The example of Mathematical Anxiety Scale Calculation for Negative

Statement
Statement Response
f p pk Tpk Z z+z* Rounding
Item choices
SD 5 0.050 0.050 0.025 -1.960 0.000 0
D 11 0.110 0.160 0.105 -1.254 0.706 1
30
A 51 0.510 0.670 0.415 -0.215 1.745 2
SA 33 0.330 1.000 0.835 0.974 2.934 3
Table 5 clearly illustrates that item number 2 of mathematical anxiety

questionnaire has a positives scale and the score to be used can be seen in the
rounding columns for SD, D, A, and SA categories. Those are 0, 0, 2, and 3
respectively. Meanwhile, Table 6 shows a mathematical anxiety scale
questionnaire for negative items which is represented by item statement number
30. The score to be used can be seen in the rounding column as much as 0, 1, 2,
and 3 for SA, A, D, and SD respectively. The data obtained is used for calculating
the validity and reliability of students' mathematical anxiety scale instruments.
Once the student answers collected, we convert them into nominal figures.
3.1. Validity Test Analysis

After mathematical anxiety instruments constructed, sixth-grade elementary
school students filled it in for trial. Results obtained from the trial are further be
used in the validity test. Table 7 presents the validity test results.

293
Table 7: Recapitulation of Validity Test Results for Mathematical Anxiety Instrument

Correlation Correlation r value r table value
Note Conclusion
between Value (r) count (k=n-2, α=5%)
Number 1 r positive,
0,57 6,81 0,198 Valid
with Total rcount>rtable
0,52 6,07 0,198 Valid
0,43 4,65 0,198 Valid
0,31 3,25 0,198 Valid
with Total rcount<rtable
Number 5 positive,
0,29 3,03 0,198 Valid
0,46 5,11 0,198 Valid
0,52 6,03 0,198 Valid
0,50 5,73 0,198 Valid
0,60 7,38 0,198 Valid
0,58 7,02 0,198 Valid
0,64 8,31 0,198 Valid
0,48 5,45 0,198 Valid
0,48 5,36 0,198 Valid
Number 14 positive,
0,39 4,15 0,198 Valid
0,48 5,35 0,198 Valid
0,48 5,37 0,198 Valid
0,42 4,60 0,198 Valid
0,56 6,62 0,198 Valid
0,41 4,50 0,198 Valid
0,46 5,08 0,198 Valid
Number 21 positive,
0,31 3,25 0,198 Valid
Number 22 positive,
0,37 3,90 0,198 Valid
0,44 4,85 0,198 Valid

294
0,53 6,15 0,198 Valid
0,63 7,94 0,198 Valid
0,56 6,74 0,198 Valid
Number 27 positive,
0,22 2,25 0,198 Valid
0,52 6,05 0,198 Valid
Number 29 positive,
0,32 3,35 0,198 Valid
0,57 6,87 0,198 Valid
Table 7 indicates 23 items that have valid values. While items number 4, 5, 14, 21,
22, 27, and 29 show weak correlation value. The item is valid if the correlation
value is at least in the medium category based on the comparison of r count and r
tables. According to Guilford correlation value categories, the value of r count> r table
of the 23 items is classified as moderate. Therefore these 23 items were further
included in the mathematical anxiety instruments.
3.2. Reliability Test Analysis

Aside from the validity test resulting in 23 valid items, reliability tests were
performed as well. The test used Cronbach’s Alpha calculation using SPSS type
25 software. The selection of Cronbach’s alpha as a measure of instrument
reliability for mathematical anxiety instruments is because Cronbach’s Alpha can
test a questionnaire-type instrument that has more than one answer. As Yusup
(2018) suggests, Cronbach’s Alpha test is suitable for instruments in the form of
essays or questionnaires. Table 8 presents the reliability of mathematics anxiety
instruments.
Table 8: Test Results of Mathematical Anxiety Reliability Instruments

Cronbach’s No of
Cronbach’s Alpha Based on Standardized Items
Alpha Items
0,874 0,877 30
From the reliability test results as illustrated in the table 8, Cronbach’s Alpha
values for the instrument are 0.874. This number implies that instrument
reliability is high. Thus, this student mathematical anxiety instrument is
considered consistent to be used many times in further research.
4. Discussion
Research using questionnaire as its instrument require validity and reliability
insurance before collecting data from participants. Validity and reliability are key
indicators of measuring instrument quality (Kimberlin & Winterstein, 2008). The
validity test implies that there are 23 valid items with the lowest rxy value is 0.29
and the highest is 0.64. It has been suggested that correlation coefficients below
0.3 should be considered as low, 0.3 to less than 0.5 as moderate, while 0.5 and

295
above as a high (Tsang et al., 2017). We can look at some information in Table 7
that 13 items have high correlation value. This shows that 43,33% or almost half
of all items in the questionnaire is sure can be used. In particular, we should stop
considering moderate correlations as evidence of reliability or validity (Post,
2016). Even for purposes of applied decision making, reliance on criterion validity
or content coverage is not enough (Taherdoost, 2018). If pulled back into the
validity classification table (Lodico et al., 2006), these figures indicate the level of
validity is in the position of low to medium. The validity coefficient values range
from 1.00 to -1.00. The coefficient value of 1.00 indicates that individual test items
and test criteria have relatively the same results. Whereas zero validity coefficient
indicates that there is no relationship between the instrument and its criteria.
Generally, a higher validity coefficient indicates the higher validity of the

instrument (Buchan et al., 2005). However, the basis for decision making on the
validity test can also be determined through rcount and rtable. If rcount is greater than
rtable, then the instrument can be declared significant and valid (Mahendra, 2015).
Furthermore, the reliability test is a continuation of the validity test, where the
items included in the test are only valid ones (Fridayanthie, 2016). The reliability
test using Cronbach's Alpha calculation results showed the reliability value of the
mathematics anxiety instrument was 0.874. as it is analyzed through the reliability
classification proposed by Guilford (Suherman, 2003), it is found that this value
classified as high reliability. Cronbach’s alpha of at least 0.70 has been suggested
to indicate adequate internal consistency and could be considered acceptable
reliability (Bolarinwa, 2015; Lima-Rodríguez et al., 2015; Tsang et al., 2017). A rule
of thumb that α = 0.7 indicates acceptable, and α = 0.8 represents good reliability
(Wells et al., 2011). In conducting research, aside from performing proper data
collection, ensuring that the instrument can function correctly is also essential
(Dikko, 2016). In this case, the instrument can work properly only if the
instrument is valid and reliable. As an example, a study performed an instrument
trial in seventh-grade students, resulting in correlations between the two items
ranged from 0.46 to 0.60. Cronbach’s alpha for this scale ranged from 0.63 to 0.75,
indicating acceptable internal reliability (Wang et al., 2020). Whereas if the value
of instrument correlation is less than 0.40 like the seven items found in Table 7,
then it is considered invalid because the correlation is weak. High or strong
correlation means that two or more variables have strong validity with each other,
while low correlation means that the variable is almost unrelated or invalid (Dalvi
& Kant, 2018).
5. Conclusion
Research to develop Mathematical Anxiety instruments for elementary school
students is carried out comprehensively. This study involved 100 elementary
school students in Indonesia. Mathematical anxiety instruments have been
created and arranged based on instrument modification (Cavanagh & Sparrow,
2010). The results showed there were seven invalid items due to weak correlation.
Therefore, these items considered unable to measure students' mathematical
anxiety. Meanwhile, the other 23 of the 30 items are valid and reliable. Hence, we
claim that these 23 items are proper to use in measuring the mathematical anxiety
of elementary school students. Mathematical anxiety instrument developed

296
through this research is expected to give contributions to teachers, parents and

even researchers to solve mathematical anxiety problems experienced by
elementary school students as early as possible. To conclude, mathematics anxiety
items developed through this study can be used as a questionnaire-type
instrument for future research.
6. Limitation
Students assume mathematics as the learning that is difficult to understand and
always requires high attention. This condition leads to students’ fear and anxiety
in learning mathematics. It is necessary to measure elementary school students'
mathematical anxiety so that teachers can design meaningful learning
approaches/strategies to generate students’ interest in learning and reduce
students' anxiety when learning mathematics. It is expected that when students
are not anxious in learning, students are more motivated to learn, which leads to
better mathematical learning achievement. Teachers and researchers should avoid
ambiguous statements in the questionnaire to obtain a valid and reliable
instrument.
7. Acknowledgments
This work is supported by Research, Partnerships, and Business, as well as the
management of the Research and Community Service Institute (LPPM) of
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia (UPI) who provide opportunities for authors
toresearch mathematical anxiety instruments development, especially to measure
mathematical anxiety of elementary school students. We would also like to thank
students and teachers who made this study possible.
8. References
Afrianti, N. F., & Prabawanto, S. (2020). On surveying of fifth grade mathematical anxiety
in term of gender. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1521(3).
https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1521/3/032079
Alves, M., Rodrigues, C. S., Rocha, A. M. A. C., & Coutinho, C. (2016). Self-efficacy,
mathematics’ anxiety and perceived importance: an empirical study with
Portuguese engineering students. European Journal of Engineering Education, 41(1),
105–121. https://doi.org/10.1080/03043797.2015.1095159
Annisa, D. F., & Ifdil, I. (2016). Konsep Kecemasan (Anxiety) pada Lanjut Usia (Lansia)
[The concept of Anxiety (Anxiety) in the Elderly (Elderly)]. Konselor, 5(2), 28–36.
https://doi.org/10.24036/02016526480-0-00
Aosi, G., Metrianis, & Rifma. (2019). STEM Based Learning to Overcome Math Anxiety.
Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1387(1). https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-
6596/1387/1/012053
Ardi, Z., Rangka, I. B., Ifdil, I., Suranata, K., Azhar, Z., Daharnis, D., Afdal, A., & Alizamar,
A. (2019). Exploring the elementary students learning difficulties risks on
mathematics based on students mathematic anxiety, mathematics self-efficacy
and value beliefs using rasch measurement. Journal of Physics: Conference Series,
1157(3). https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1157/3/032095
Arifin, Z. (2017). Kriteria Instrumen dalam Suatu Penelitian [Instrument Criteria in a
Research]. Jurnal Theorems (The Original Research of Mathematics), 2(1), 28–36.
http://dx.doi.org/10.31949/th.v2i1.571
Ashcraft, M. H., & Moore, A. M. (2009). Mathematics Anxiety and the Affective Drop in

297
Performance. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 27(3), 197–205.

Azwar, S. (2010). Sikap Manusia Teori dan Pengukurannya [The Human Attitude Theory and
Its Measurement]. Pustaka Pelajar.
Azwar, S. (2011). Reliabilitas dan Validitas [Reliability and Validity]. Pustaka Pelajar.
Bolarinwa, O. A. (2015). Principles and Methods of Validity and Reliability Testing of
Questionnaires Used in Social and Health Science Researches. Niger Postgrad Med,
22, 195–201.
Buchan, B. D., DeAngelis, D. L., & Levinson, E. M. (2005). A comparison of the web-based
and paper-and-pencil versions of the career key interest inventory with a sample
of university women. Journal of Employment Counseling, 42(1), 39–46.
Cavanagh, R., & Sparrow, L. (2010). Measuring mathematics anxiety: Developing a
construct model. Paper Presented at The AARE Annual Conference, Melbourne 2010,
1–11. Retrieved from https://www.aare.edu.au/publications/aare-conference-
papers/show/6015/measuring-mathematics-anxiety-paper-1-developing-a-
construct-model
Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches
(Third). Sage Publication, Inc.
Cropp, I. (2017). Using peer mentoring to reduce mathematical anxiety. Research Papers in
Education, 32(4), 481–500. https://doi.org/10.1080/02671522.2017.1318808
Dalvi, M. V., & Kant, R. (2018). Effect of supplier development activities on performance
outcomes: an empirical study. Benchmarking: An International Journal, 25(2), 489–
516. https://doi.org/10.1108/BIJ-07-2016-0107
Dikko, M. (2016). Establishing Construct Validity and Reliability: Pilot Testing of a
Qualitative Interview for Research in Takaful (Islamic Insurance). Qualitative
Report, 21(3), 521–528.
Fiangga, S., & Sari, Y. M. (2017). Analisis Generalisabilitas Multi Faset pada Instrumen
Penalaran Matematika SMP [Multi-facet Generalization Analysis on Junior High
School Math Reasoning Instruments]. Jurnal Elemen, 3(2), 118.
https://doi.org/10.29408/jel.v3i2.398
Fridayanthie, E. W. (2016). Analisa Sistem Informasi Upload Promosi Harga
Menggunakan SAP terhadap Kepuasan Pengguna Pada PT Hero Supermarket
Tbk [Upload Price Promotion Information System Analysis Using SAP on User
Satisfaction at PT Hero Supermarket Tbk]. Jurnal Khatulistiwa Informatika, 4(1), 30–
43. https://doi.org/10.31294/jki.v4i1.1255
Gall, M. D., Gall, J. P., & Borg, W. R. (2010). Applying Educational Research. Pearson
Education, Inc.
Ghofur, A., Dageng, I. N. S., Widiati, U., & Setyosari, P. (2016). Designing the Reliable and
Valid Assessment’s Instrument for English Speaking Skill. The 7Th International
Conference on Educational Technology of Adi Buana, 34–43.
https://doi.org/10.31227/osf.io/8h2av
Haryeni, & Yendra, N. (2019). Impact of Service Quality Dimensions on Patient
Satisfaction and Repurchase Intentions in the Public Health Industry. Third
International Conference On Economics Education, Economics, Business and
Management, Accounting and Entrepreneurship (PICEEBA 2019), 97, 456–465.
https://doi.org/10.2991/piceeba-19.2019.52
Hendriana, H. (2012). Pembelajaran Matematika Humanis Dengan Metaphorical Thinking
Untuk Meningkatkan Kepercayaan Diri Siswa [Humanist Mathematics Learning
With Metaphorical Thinking To Increase Student Self Confidence]. Infinity Journal,
1(1), 90. https://doi.org/10.22460/infinity.v1i1.9

298
Kartowagiran, B. (2018). Optimalisasi Uji Tingkat Kompetensi Di SMK untuk

Meningkatkan Soft Skill Lulusan [Optimization of Competency Level Test in
Vocational Schools to Increase Soft Skill of Graduates]. Jurnal Dinamika Vokasional
Teknik Mesin, 3(2013), 101–109. https://doi.org/10.21831/dinamika.v3i2.21406
Kimberlin, C. L., & Winterstein, A. G. (2008). Validity and reliability of measurement
instruments used in research. American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy, 65(23),
2276–2284. https://doi.org/10.2146/ajhp070364
Kristanti, R., & Widyawati, Y. (2009). Tingkat Kecemasan Matematika (Perbedaan Antara
Siswa Yang Belajar Dengan Rote Learning dan Inquiry Learning) [Mathematical
Anxiety Level (Difference Between Students Learning With Rote Learning and
Inquiry Learning)]. World of Computing, Articles on Artificial Intelligence, 47–58.
Laliyo, L. A. R., Botutihe, D. N., & Panigoro, C. (2019). The development of two-tier
instrument based on distractor to assess conceptual understanding level and
student misconceptions in explaining redox reactions. International Journal of
Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 18(9), 216–237.
Levere, K. M., & Kahlon, P. K. (2019). Investigating mathematics anxiety over time in
university engineering students. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and
Educational Research, 18(7), 51–69. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.18.7.4
Lima-Rodríguez, J. S., Lima-Serrano, M., & Domínguez-Sánchez, I. (2015). Psychometric
properties of an instrument to measure family disease management. International
Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology, 15(3), 253–264.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijchp.2015.05.002
Lodico, M. G., Spaulding, D. T., & Voegtle, K. H. (2006). Methods in Educational Research
from Theory to Practice. Jossey-Bass. https://doi.org/10.1177/001312457500700301
Mahendra, I. (2015). Analisa Penerimaan Pengguna Sistem Informasi Koperasi pada
Koperasi Karyawan Budi Setia Jakarta dengan Technology Acceptance Model
[Analysis of Cooperative Information System User Acceptance at the Budi Setia
Jakarta Employee Cooperative with the Technology Acceptance Model]. Jurnal
Pilar Nusa Mandiri, 11(1), 70–80. Retrieved from
http://ejournal.nusamandiri.ac.id/index.php/pilar/article/view/415
Manongko, A. A. C. (2016). The Preparation and Testing of Instruments Research on
Factors Affecting the Productivity of Household Farmer. IOSR Journal of Business
and Management (IOSR-JBM), 18(9), 61–73.
Mizala, A., Martínez, F., & Martínez, S. (2015). Pre-service elementary school teachers’
expectations about student performance: How their beliefs are affected by their
mathematics anxiety and student’s gender. Teaching and Teacher Education, 50, 70-
78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2015.04.006
Mohajan, H. K. (2017). Two Criteria For Good Measurements in Research: Validity and
Reliability. Annals of Spiru Haret University. Economic Series, 59–82.
National Research Council. (2001). Adding It Up. In J. Kilpatrick, J. Swafford, & B. Findell
(Eds.). National Academy Press. Retrieved from http://www.wakamono-
up.jp/top/pdf/Third-party_evaluation_2013_points.pdf
Oluwatayo, J. A., & Fajobi, O. O. (2015). Validity of Post-Unified Tertiary Matriculation
Examination (POST-UTME) as Screening Instrument for Selecting Candidates
into Degree Programmes in Nigerian Universities. International Journal of Learning,
Teaching and Educational Research, 13(1), 94–101.
Papadakis, S., Kalogiannakis, M., & Zaranis, N. (2017). Improving Mathematics Teaching
in Kindergarten with Realistic Mathematical Education. Early Childhood Education
Journal, 45(3), 369–378. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-015-0768-4
Papadakis, S., Kalogiannakis, M., & Zaranis, N. (2018). The effectiveness of computer and

299
tablet assisted intervention in early childhood students’ understanding of

numbers. An empirical study conducted in Greece. Education and Information
Technologies, 23(5), 1849–1871. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-018-9693-7
Ponto, J. (2015). Understanding and Evaluating Survey Research. Journal of the Advanced
Practitioner in Oncology, 6(2), 168–171. Retrieved from
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26649250
Post, M. W. (2016). What to Do With “Moderate” Reliability and Validity Coefficients?
Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 97(7), 1051–1052.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2016.04.001
Pramono, K. F., Muluk, C., & Nazaruddin. (2016). Pengaruh Distribusi FisikTerhadap
Penjualan Pupuk NPK Merek Mahkota (Studi Kasus : PT Sentana Adidaya
Pratama [Effect of Physical Distribution on Sales of Mahkota NPK Fertilizer (Case
Study: PT Sentana Adidaya Pratama)]. Al-Irsyad: Jurnal Pendidikan Dan Konseling,
6(2), 139–148. Retrieved from http://jurnal.uinsu.ac.id/index.php/al-
irsyad/article/view/6624
Putri, H. E., Isrokatun, I., Majid, N. W. A., & Ridwan, T. (2019). Spatial sense instrument
for prospective elementary school student. Journal of Physics: Conference Series,
1318(1). https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1318/1/012142
Putri, H. E., Muqodas, I., Wahyudy, M. A., & Nuraeni, F. (2019). The Effect of Concrete-
Pictorial-Abstract ( CPA ) Approach on The Decrease of Mathematical Anxiety in
Primary School. Proceedings of The 2nd International Conference on Elementary
Education, 2, 80–93. Retrieved from
http://proceedings.upi.edu/index.php/icee/article/view/609
Rahman, Z. A., Mohamed, M., Ismail, M. I., & Arujunan, R. (2019). Digital Version for
Obesity Predictor Instrument Among Adolescents. International Journal of
Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 9(13), 96–106.
https://doi.org/10.6007/ijarbss/v9-i13/6246
Ramirez, G., Chang, H., Maloney, E. A., Levine, S. C., & Beilock, S. L. (2016). On the
relationship between math anxiety and math achievement in early elementary
school: The role of problem solving strategies. Journal of Experimental Child
Psychology, 141, 83–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2015.07.014
Roopa, S., & Rani, M. (2012). Questionnaire Designing for a Survey. The Journal of Indian
Orthodontic Society, 46(4), 273–277. https://doi.org/10.5005/jp-journals-10021-
1104
Sabri, T., Kurniadi, I., & Soeharto, S. (2019). Development of Interactive Teaching
Materials Using Whiteboard Animation for Civic Learning in Elementary School.
EDUCATIO: Journal Of Education, 4(2), 125–139.
Sevindir, H. K., Yazici, C., & Yazici, V. (2014). Mathematics Anxiety of Secondary School
Students: A Case Study for Kocaeli Area. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences,
152, 630–636. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.254
Shishigu, A. (2018). Mathematics Anxiety and Prevention Strategy: An Attempt to Support
Students and Strengthen Mathematics Education. Mathematics Education Trends
and Research, 2018(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.5899/2018/metr-00096
Singh, A. S. (2014). Conducting case study research in non-profit organisations. Qualitative
Market Research, 17(1), 77–84. https://doi.org/10.1108/QMR-04-2013-0024
Sofiatun, S., Deniyanti, P., & El, L. (2018). The effect of scaffolding techniques on the ability
of student’s reasoning ability and mathematics anxiety reviewed from gender.
Unnes Journal of Mathematics Education, 7(1), 63–71.
https://doi.org/10.15294/ujme.v7i1.22574
Suarjana, I. M., Nanci Riastini, N. P., & Yudha Pustika, I. G. N. (2017). Penerapan
Pendekatan Kontekstual Berbantuan Media Konkret Untuk Meningkatkan

300
Aktivitas Dan Hasil Belajar [Effect of Physical Distribution on Sales of Mahkota

NPK Fertilizer (Case Study: PT Sentana Adidaya Pratama)]. International Journal
of Elementary Education, 1(2), 103. https://doi.org/10.23887/ijee.v1i2.11601
Sugiyono. (2016). Metode Penelitian Kuantitatif, Kualitatif dan R&D [Quantitative, Qualitative,
and R&D Research Methods]. Alfabeta.
Suherman, E. (2003). Evaluasi Pembelajaran Matematika [Evaluation of Mathematics Learning].
JICA UPI Bandung.
Sunardi, Yudianto, E., Susanto, Kurniati, D., Cahyo, R. D., & Subanji. (2019). Anxiety of
students in visualization, analysis, and informal deduction levels to solve
geometry problems. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational
Research, 18(4), 171–185. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.18.4.10
Taherdoost, H. (2018). Validity and Reliability of the Research Instrument; How to Test
the Validation of a Questionnaire/Survey in a Research. SSRN Electronic Journal,
5(3), 28–36. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3205040
TIMSS & PIRLS Study Center. (2016). TIMSS and PIRLS. Retrieved from
http://timss2015.org/
Tobias, S., & Weissbrod, C. (1980). Anxiety and Mathematics: An Update. Harvard
Educational Review, 50(1), 63–70.
https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.50.1.xw483257j6035084
Tsang, S., Royse, C. F., & Terkawi, A. S. (2017). Guidelines for developing, translating, and
validating a questionnaire in perioperative and pain medicine. Saudi Journal of
Anaesthesia, 11(Suppl 1), 80–89. https://doi.org/10.4103/sja.SJA_203_17
Tsisiga, M. J., Odebero, S. O., & Ndiku, J. M. (2018). Analysis of Trends in Enrolment Rates
and Subsidized School Funding in Kenyan Public Secondary Schools. Scholars
Journal of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences, 6(7), 1465–1476.
https://doi.org/10.21276/sjahss.2018.6.7.17
Wang, Z., Oh, W., Malanchini, M., & Borriello, G. A. (2020). The developmental trajectories
of mathematics anxiety: Cognitive, personality, and environmental correlates.
Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, 101876.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101876
Wells, G. A., Russell, A. S., Haraoi, B., Bissonnette, R., & Ware, C. F. (2011). Validity of
Quality of Life Measurement Tools — From Generic to Disease-specific. The
Journal of Rheumatology, 88, 2–6. https://doi.org/10.3899/jrheum.110906
Wright, K. L., Hodges, T. S., & McTigue, E. M. (2019). A validation program for the Self-
Beliefs, Writing-Beliefs, and Attitude Survey: A measure of adolescents’
motivation toward writing. Assessing Writing, 39, 64–78.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2018.12.004
Yuliyanto, A., Turmudi, T., Agustin, M., Putri, H. E., & Muqodas, I. (2019). The Interaction
Between Concrete-Pictorial-Abstract (CPA) Approach and Elementary Students’
Self-Efficacy In Learning Mathematics. Al Ibtida: Jurnal Pendidikan Guru MI, 6(2),
244–255. https://doi.org/10.24235/al.ibtida.snj.v6i2.5226
Yusup, F. (2018). Uji Validitas dan Reliabilitas Instrumen Penelitian Kuantitatif [Test the
Validity and Reliability of Quantitative Research Instruments]. Jurnal Tarbiyah:
Jurnal Ilmiah Kependidikan, 7(1), 17–23.
https://doi.org/10.18592/tarbiyah.v7i1.2100
Zhou, D., Du, X., Hau, K. T., Luo, H., Feng, P., & Liu, J. (2020). Teacher-student
relationship and mathematical problem-solving ability: mediating roles of self-
efficacy and mathematical anxiety. Educational Psychology, 40(4), 473–489.

301
Appendix 1
Sample of mathematical anxiety instrument filled by a respondent.
Name : Revan
Class : VI.A
Name of school : Wantilan National Elementary School
Instructions:
1. Read each statement carefully. Please kindly ask the teacher if you have difficulties in
understanding the statement.
2. Put a check mark ( ) on the response that corresponds to what you experience and feel.
Response choices are:
SA = Strongly Agree
A = Agree
D = Disagree
SD = Strongly Disagree
3. Do the questionnaire on your own.
4. Once you are sure of your response, you can submit this questionnaire to your teacher.
5. Your response to this questionnaire will not affect your grades.
Response
Statement
SA A D SD
1. I often skip school when it is a mathematics schedule,
especially when the learning is about geometry that
has a lot of calculations.
2. I always present in Mathematics subject because in
my opinion Mathematics is a challenging subject,
especially when discussing geometry with many
calculations.
3. In every Math lesson, I prefer to sit at the very back
row, because the back seat is not visible to the teacher
so I am sure I will not be appointed to come forward.
4. I always want to sit in the front so that I can listen to
the geometry material taught by my teacher.
5. I always ask my teacher, if there is geometry material
that I do not understand.
6. I never answer questions about geometry, which is
difficult for me.
7. No matter how difficult the question about geometry
is, I always try to do it
8. Every time I get a question about geometrical volume,
it always difficult to solve the question because there
are many numbers that I have to calculate
9. I have no difficulty in doing questions about
geometrical volume because I am always careful in
calculating the numbers.
10. I always refuse every time the teacher appoints me to
go forward to answer questions about geometry in
front of the class because I am afraid my friends will
laugh at me when my answer is wrong.
11. I answered the question in front of the class with

302
confidence even though my answer was wrong, that

way, I came to know the right way.
12. I always hide question papers from friends and parents
when the score is below 70.
13. I am aware of my failure in the previous Mathematics
test and will try to get a better score in the future
14. When working on the geometry test, I remember
another thing that made the time running out.
15. Mathematics is a difficult subject, so the geometry
formula is hard to remember
16. I always remember the things that I have to do even
though I have dealt with material that is difficult to
understand
17. I cannot focus on when working on the geometry
materials that I don’t understand.
18. I always focus when working on all questions about
geometry.
19. I am not sure about answers to geometry question that
I wrote
20. I am sure that the answer I wrote for geometry
questions is correct
21. My chest feels tight when I get a math score below 70
22. My chest feels tight when a friend teases me because
of the mistake I made when answering Math problems
23. My heartbeat fasts every time the teacher distributes
test papers that have been marked
24. My heartbeat fasts every time the teacher asks me to
describe the answers to geometry questions in front of
the class.
25. I feel normal every time the teacher asks me to make
clear the answers to geometry questions in front of the
class.
26. My feet tremble every time the teacher asks me to
clarify the answers to geometry questions in front of
the class.
27. I do not feel nervous when teacher appoint me to
answer geometry question
28. If tomorrow there is a geometry test, then tonight I will
be difficult to sleep because I will be thinking about
the questions that will come out on the test tomorrow.
29. I will sleep well even though tomorrow there will be
geometry test
30. I often go back and forth to the toilet to pee because I
am worried that I will not be able to do math questions
about geometry for daily test tomorrow.

303

Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 303-322, June 2020
Situating "children-supporting-children"
Platform in the Context of the Inclusive
Agenda: A Phenomenological Exploration
Princess Zarla J. Raguindin

Sirib Educational Consulting, Manila, Philippines
Li Yan Ping
Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an, China
Abstract. The increasing plurality of the school population today calls for
a mandate to promote inclusion in the educational systems by removing
grounds that excludes and discriminates. One powerful means of
promoting inclusion is through the "children-supporting-children"
platform. As such, learners should be guided in the development and
enhancement of social skills as a pre-requisite to a society that bars
exclusion; however, less is known about it. This paper bridges this
research gap by contributing to the intensive understanding and
important realization on how children can become co-implementers of
the inclusive agenda. A transcendental phenomenological approach was
used to analyze how the teacher-participants experience and understand
the context of "children-supporting-children" in the inclusive agenda as
transpired in their early-grade classrooms. A semi-structured interview,
focus group discussion, and class observation was conducted to gather
data to (1) identify and establish their meanings and understanding of the
emerging inclusive expressions and concepts exhibited by their pupils
and (2) classroom strategies they employ to reinforce the constructs. A
structured and inductive analysis was performed to refine the data and
identify emerging codes and themes. The findings of this paper suggest
that pre-schoolers are co-constructors of inclusive culture through
emerging expressions and that schools are an avenue to enhance such
expressions. There is limited research on specific strategies and
interventions in an early childhood setting to promote inclusion;
therefore, insights in this paper are relevant in implementing pro-active
inclusive pedagogies as they are accounts of those who are in the field.
Keywords: inclusive education; social-emotional learning; early

childhood and inclusion; teaching strategies

304
1. Introduction
The call to implement inclusive education equally involves children with a
perceived difference and their typically-developing peers (UNESCO, 2016). In the
last few decades, there has been a surge of interest in how the inclusive agenda
can be effectively implemented by policy-makers, school administrators, and
teachers (Forlin, 2012). Recent developments in the field have led to a
proliferation of studies that focuses on "pupil participation" and "voice of the child"
(Pearson, 2016, p.8) in achieving inclusive goals. This forms perceptions that
children have their views and agencies, which makes them powerful co-
implementers of the inclusive agenda. As such, inclusion should be implemented
"with children" and not "to children" (Pearson, 2016). Hence, those in the "regular
curriculum" are potent levers in the promotion of a just and high-quality
inclusion.
The tenet of inclusion, as enshrined in the Salamanca Statement, calls for

appropriate action to educate children with special needs (CSN) alongside their
peers. The statement is anchored on the premise that inclusion and participation
are inherent human rights (UNESCO, 1994). Inclusive education was established
to deconstruct the medical model of disability or the "Defectology" framework
(Baglieri & Shapiro, 2017; Thomas & Loxley, 2007), which is focused on the person
- with - disability and not on challenges confronting the individual. Conversely,
the social model framework calls the society to redefine social policies and re-
shape attitudinal barriers and social arrangements (Baglieri & Shapiro, 2017) to
sustain equal opportunity - and this includes school communities.
Additionally, the Policy Guidelines on Inclusion in Education (UNESCO, 2009a)

states that inclusive schools should ensure that all learners are acknowledged and
valued in the learning community. The policy adheres to the idea that all
stakeholders – even the typically-developing peers of the children with perceived
differences– are co-creators of the inclusive school community. In the classroom
context, increasing the learners’ presence, participation, and collaboration are
fundamental aspects of inclusion (Ahmmed, Sharma & Deppeler, 2012, 2014;
Artiles, Kozleski, Dorn & Christensen, 2006; Booth, Ainscow & Vaughan, 2011;
Farrell, 2002; Florian, 2012; Florian & Spratt, 2013; Forlin, 2010; Forlin, Loreman &
Sharma, 2014; Loreman & Deppeler, 2002; Sharma & Sokal, 2015). Among the
viable options in involving learners' collective in upholding and sustaining the
inclusive agenda is deconstructing marginalization and instilling inclusive values
and principles - through the development and refinement of children's social
competencies (Raguindin, 2020). "Super skills" lumped as social competence allow
an individual to create and sustain adaptable behavior in their environment (Halle
& Darling-Churchill, 2016; Han, 2014; Han & Kemple, 2006; Jones, Greenberg &
Crowley, 2015; Kennedy, 2018; Odom, McConnell & Brown, 2019; Visnjic Jevtic,
Lapat & Galinec, 2019), which is significantly developed and refined during
"children – to – children" interaction.
The central thesis of this paper is in the same vein with the works pursued by
Pearson (2016), UNESCO (2016) and Baglieri and Shapiro (2017)that the most
critical form of support to learners with perceived differences in an inclusive

305
classroom is the context of "children-supporting-children" platform; however, less

is still explored about it. The support children can extend to their peers
contributes effectively to the inclusive approach. For example, the development
of children's positive attitudes about diversity is pivotal in creating inclusive
values (Pearson, 2016; UNESCO, 2016). Several inclusive indicators are emerging
during early grades (Haslip, Allen-Handy & Donaldson, 2019) and have to be
developed and enhanced if schools are to affirm cultures, values, and principles
that promote acceptance, belongingness, participation, collaboration, and
diversity.
This qualitative paper investigated how children in the early-grades classroom

value and celebrated diversity. Through an interview, focus group discussions
(FGD), and classroom observation, this paper captured the lived experiences of
early-grade teachers and their tacit understanding of how their learners'
interdependence and support adequately achieve inclusive goals. Further, it
explored the teaching strategies they utilize to co-opt children as collaborators of
the inclusive agenda. Critical investigations should be done to determine
essential practices that uphold a welcoming and flexible educational environment
(Baglieri & Shapiro, 2017, p. 104), consequently, enriching educational experience
for all. Specifically, making collaboration and a sense of community palatable to
young children creates shared classroom experiences, high-standard learning
outcomes, and later in life, a society that nurtures and affirms plurality – these are
all hallmarks of a high-quality inclusion.
1.1. On expressions and concept of inclusion among young learners

The "Diversity Wheel" (Loden, 1996) is a framework on the understanding of
diversity and promoting respect, inclusion, cooperation, and responsibility. The
model establishes a strong association of grounds that create exclusion and
constructs like beliefs, class, gender and sexuality, physical abilities and
characteristics, age, race and ethnicity, and income. The constructs are
dimensions that an individual has no control; however, they are mostly the reason
for discrimination and marginalization (Loden, 1996). Loden's framework is as a
deductive argument, challenges institutions to create platforms for diversity
conversations about mitigating exclusion - and this includes school communities.
When the framework is translated to the context of inclusive education, by far, the
most comprehensive facilitator of the inclusive school community is the children's
adaptable skills.
This paper takes the seminal works of Piaget (1936), Erickson (1950), Sullivan
(1953), Bowlby (1969), and Kohlbergb (1969) as a basis for the extension of
children's role in the inclusive agenda. Although differing in practice, the authors'
carried a similar emphasis that the most sensitive period in the development of
social competencies in a person's life is during early childhood (McCartney &
Phillips, 2006). The claim is exhibited with how young children independently
interact with peers and big groups when schooling comes. Conversely, the
overlapping difficulties they experience in this domain is crucial in their
adjustment and development to later adult life. Hence, guide and support should
be provided during this time of transition (Denham, Bassett & Zinsser, 2012;

306
Fabes, Hanish & Martin, 2003; Halle & Darling-Churchill, 2016; Han & Kemple,
2006; Haslip et al., 2019; S. M. Jones, Zaslow, Darling-Churchill & Halle, 2016;
Kennedy, 2018; Odom et al., 2019; Visnjic Jevtic et al., 2019; Yoder, 2014).
As peer interaction increases during toddlerhood, social skill significantly

expands during early childhood (Han & Kemple, 2006; Han, 2014). The literature
agrees that children should become skilled in expressing their actions and feelings
with others, capable of controlling, adjusting and exhibiting their emotions and
behaviors appropriately during social interaction (Halle & Darling-Churchill,
2016; Han, 2014; Haslip et al., 2019; D. Jones et al., 2015; McCartney & Phillips,
2006; Odom et al., 2019; Visnjic Jevtic et al., 2019). Socially competent young
children exhibit positive interaction among peers and can build and maintain a
good relationship with others at the present and in their later adult life (Halle &
Darling-Churchill, 2016; Han, 2014; Han & Kemple, 2006; Haslip et al., 2019; D.
Jones et al., 2015; Kennedy, 2018; Odom et al., 2019; Visnjic Jevtic et al., 2019).
Additionally, social skills are not merely behaviors but are aspects of a persons'
behavior that facilitates awareness and understanding of one's environment
(Kennedy, 2018; Lynch & Simpson, 2010; Steedly, Scwartz, Levin & Luke, 2008).
Social skills provide the ability for an individual for reciprocity and propriety in
their social relationship (Haslip et al., 2019; Odom et al., 2019; Visnjic Jevtic et al.,
2019), acceptance of diversity, capacity to thrive in a bigger group (e.g., showing
empathy, participating in group activities, generosity, helpfulness,
communicating with others, negotiating and problem-solving) willingness to take
turns, deep respect of other's rights, and awareness and sensitivity of one's needs
and others (Halle & Darling-Churchill, 2016; Kennedy, 2018; Odom et al., 2019).
Children's social skills can be grouped into competencies, like interpersonal
knowledge and skills, cultural competence, and adaptive social values (Han & Kemple,
2006; Kennedy, 2018; Lynch & Simpson, 2010; McCartney & Phillips, 2006; Sendil
& Erden, 2012; Yoder, 2014). These "super skills" are quintessential skills that
create an "inclusive culture" as they are instrumental in establishing inclusive
values and inclusive communities (Booth et al., 2011; Odom et al., 2019).
It is imperative to note that the relationship formed with peers is fundamentally

different from what is developed at home. The former being freely chosen and
the latter being necessitated (McCartney & Phillips, 2006). As the nature of
relationships in the schools' community is fluid, facilitators of learning should
create mechanisms to support school children to develop positive learning social
skills. The development of social skills entails deliberate planning and
implementation of pedagogies. Subsequently, a high learning standard through
the participation of learners in the "inclusive curriculum" and "standard
curriculum" is facilitated and is attained(Kennedy, 2018; Odom, Buysse &
Soukakou, 2011; UNESCO, 2016).
1.2. On classroom strategies to reinforce expressions of inclusion

With the increasing heterogeneity in society, there is a challenge to introduce and
implement new and emerging interventions, so children have opportunities to
develop and refine their adaptive social behaviors. Children's social skills do not

307
only address the need to establish positive social practices but also equip the
children to unlearn maladaptive behaviors like aggression and other anti-social
conduct (Kennedy, 2018; McCartney & Phillips, 2006).
Previous documents showed that effective social skills instruction facilitates the
emergence and refinement of social skills among young children (Han, 2014; Han
& Kemple, 2006; Haslip et al., 2019; D. Jones et al., 2015; Kennedy, 2018; Odom et
al., 2019). The school environment is a critical platform through which children
must learn to navigate socially. It does situate schools in two different levels - a
training ground for the development of the social skills and arena to utilize those
skills (Darling-Churchill & Lippman, 2016; Halle & Darling-Churchill, 2016;
Haslip et al., 2019; S. M. Jones et al., 2016; Kennedy, 2018; Odom et al., 2019; Rose-
Krasnor & Denham, 2009; Steedly et al., 2008; Visnjic Jevtic et al., 2019).
There is an endless list of teaching strategies that can be utilized in the school
setting as social interaction is extensively integrated into classroom experiences
and collaboration. For example is direct training - which involves explicit
instruction, play strategies, problem-solving, and emotion understanding – which
is the most pervasive approach in facilitating the development of social skills
among children (Kennedy, 2018; McCartney & Phillips, 2006).
Additionally, the schools' social skills curricula should strike a balance in

facilitating learning individually and collaboratively. Most strategies like
modeling social skills through activities, games, role play, and feedback provided
by the teacher allow interaction (Kennedy, 2018; Steedly et al., 2008). Also,
strategies like direct instruction, learning from a peer, prevention of problem
behaviors, and children's books are useful techniques to promote social learning
(Kennedy, 2018; Lynch & Simpson, 2010).
Fox, Dunlap, Hemmeter, Joseph, and Strain (2003) proposed a hierarchy of

strategies in supporting children's emerging social competence. The framework
encourages teachers to begin with natural strategies such as creating meaningful
relationships and facilitating a supportive classroom environment. After this, the
teacher can proceed to more specific plans to provide opportunities for young
learners to internalize the skills and extend these super skills to the varied social
setting (Steedly et al., 2008). Social behaviors show evidence of stability during
early childhood (Denham et al., 2012; Halle & Darling-Churchill, 2016; Kennedy,
2018; McCartney & Phillips, 2006; Rose-Krasnor & Denham, 2009; Yoder, 2014).
Thus, the experiences children have in their formative years set a positive or
negative development that will be pre-requisite to later effective interaction in
their environment. Moreover, teachers as collaborators of children's learning are
potential facilitators of an enhanced emotional competence for an effective
societal integration (Denham et al., 2012).
Children – supporting – children platform in the context of inclusive education is

a powerful means of attaining durable inclusion. The literature discussed
suggests that children in the early grades are potential partners in the

308
implementation of inclusive education through the cultivation of inclusive values

and expression; however, it is a part of the inquiry that is mostly overlooked.
1.3. The study

This qualitative study set out to better understand the role of children in the
inclusive agenda. Children in the early childhood stage have agencies that
potentially promote inclusive values and cultures. Drawing upon the lived
experiences and tacit understanding of early-grades teachers, this study
investigated the emerging inclusive expressions and concepts in their early
childhood classroom and the strategies they utilized to reinforce these concepts
and expressions.

2.1. Design
Qualitative inquiry is used in this paper to address the research question as it
provides answers about the real world (Marshall & Rossman, 2016) through data
which are gathered from places, events, and narrative of people (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018). Specifically, this study utilized a transcendental
phenomenological approach to analyze the lived experience of the participants.
Transcendental phenomenology is a variant of phenomenological approach
which is focused on how the participants describe and create their meaning and
understanding of the phenomenon (Moustakas, 1994 ) – in this case, the emerging
inclusive concepts and expression of their early grade learners and the strategies
they employ to reinforce the construct. The inclusive agenda is a research interest
that the authors pursue and advocate. The need to problematize viable options in
implementing inclusion, such as co-opting children as co-constructors and
collaborators of an inclusive community, is of interest.
2.2. Data gathering procedure

From the perspective of EST, multiple means of data gathering were employed to
collect sufficient and reliable information that addresses the purpose of this study.
The author made use of standard open-ended interviews, focus group discussion
(FGD), and classroom observation in gathering data. In the semi-structured
interview, all the participants were asked the same basic questions in an open-
ended format. Further, follow – up questions and probing questions were asked
to clarify the participants' account of the phenomena being described. Each
interview lasted approximately 24-26 minutes. Secondly, a focus group discussion
was utilized, as it provides interaction among key actors (Creswell & Creswell,
2018; Maxwell, 1996). The FGD influences participants' ideas, thereby enriching
the description of their experiences (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The interview
and FGD were conducted at the time and place agreed by the participants. The
interview and FGD were audiotaped and transcribed for the accuracy of the
accounts. To capture highlights of the responses and summary of key insights,
the researcher made use of aid memoirs. Lastly, an observation was conducted to
gather meaning, perspectives, and tacit understanding of the theory-in-use of the
participants that were not obtained by relying exclusively on the interview and
focus group discussion (Maxwell, 1996). The researcher utilized a comprehensive
observation template as described by Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2002), which

309
gives structure to the researcher's field notes for a full description of the observed
phenomena. There were four observations conducted from different classes.
2.3. Ethical standards

To employ an ethical research standard, number codes for privacy and utmost
confidentiality to practice research ethics were used (i.e., Teacher 1 is tagged as
P1, Teacher 2 as P2, Teacher 3 as P3, and so on). Consent forms were distributed
and collected to establish a clear relationship between the researcher and the
participants. Further, permission to conduct a study was obtained from the
gatekeepers of the schools where the participants are connected. To ensure
validity and reliability in the data gathered, the researchers conducted a "member
check," where the transcribed information was returned to the participant to
solicit feedback about the data and conclusions derived (Creswell & Creswell,
2018). In this way, the possibilities of misinterpretation of the meaning of the
respondents' perspective, understanding, and experiences are ruled out
(Maxwell, 1996). For the class observation, an after-class checking was done by
the teacher of the classes observed (Cohen et al., 2002). Similarly, the informants
were informed of the final themes identified in the study for review.
2.4. Participants
Through purposive sampling, participants who have experienced the
phenomenon were selected. This paper selected 35 early-grades teachers from
public and private schools from the National Capital Region of the Philippines as
informants to provide data to answer the research questions. The inclusion criteria
in selecting the participants of this study are (a) early childhood education
background, (b) taught in an early childhood setting for a minimum of three years,
and (c) is teaching in a class with a minimum class size of 15 pupils.
2.5. Data Analysis

The qualitative data were analyzed and refined following the structured method
of inductive data analysis (Creswell & Poth, 2017; Hall et al., 2016; Moustakas,
1994). Initially, the researcher immersed deeply into the transcripts and
observation matrix to internalize the data. Next, a horizontalization was
conducted to give equal weight to the sentences and quotes provided by the
informants on how they experienced the phenomenon. Thirdly, the author
performed a reduction to eliminate statements that were not relevant in the
understanding of the informants' experiences. Additionally, a cluster of meanings
was determined, and themes were assigned labels. Several clustering was done
to refine the categories. Lastly, writing of textual, structural, and textual-
structural descriptions was done by rereading the transcripts and cluster of
meanings to determine the essence of the informants' experiences of the
phenomenon.
3. Results
One of the hallmarks of a durable inclusive education is the participation,
engagement, and high-quality learning outcomes for every member of a diverse
class. In the context of an early childhood classroom, identifying the emerging
inclusive concepts and expressions becomes lever in the promotion of the

310
inclusive agenda. Figure 1 provides a diagram on how the context of the

"children-supporting-children" platform is a powerful means of promoting
inclusion.
Figure 1. Dynamics of Children – supporting – children context in the inclusive

agenda
3.1. Emerging inclusive expressions of learners in the early grades

Four themes emerged on the inclusive concepts and expressions of children in the
early grades as experienced by their teachers (a) acceptance (b) sympathy (c)
sharing and (d) collaboration with other children. The informants were assigned
code in the statements presented to practice confidentiality.
Acceptance
(Respect for diversity and flexibility)
The most frequent response generated from the participants is on the children's
ability to show a degree of acceptance with other people in the school community.
Children come to school with different personalities, clothes, and even physical
appearance. It is during this stage that their emergent expression about acceptance
of diversity and flexibility is observed. According to the participants, this skill is
very much highlighted in the classroom, as evident in the following statements:
P14: "They have a classmate whose ears were not completely developed
during birth. I observed, nobody laughs at her, neither ask her about it.
[…..], everybody ignores her physical defect".
P26: "I have two Muslim students and one with atypical behavior
[…..]they accept the presence of their classmates in the class".

311
P8: "When we have parties, my students would always say, "Teacher, I

will not bring pork." […..] In one of our discussions, we talked about the
Muslim culture".
The accounts from the key informants described how they experience the essence
of acceptance as exhibited by their pupils. While in the early childhood stage,
children can internalize the essence of being together in a group even when
classmates have physical deformities, different religious orientations, and varied
cultures.
Sympathy
(Concern for other children)
Malti, Gummerum, Keller, Chaparro, and Buchmann (2012) opined that
sympathy is a pro-social behavior that entails feelings of concern and
understanding of other people based on the comprehension and apprehension of
the person's circumstances. Kienbaum (2014) further claimed that sympathy in
early childhood is often expressed through comforting behaviors. Most
participants agreed that sympathy is an emerging behavior of their pupils. There
are notable instances when their pupils express some degree of sympathy with
others as narrated below:
P29: "When somebody is bullied, automatically most would say, "stop
it!" Then I do not need to step forward and play the sergeant-at-arms.
Automatically, the class become great defenders and protectors (laughs)
P12: "It is so amazing how children consistently forgive and forget

(laughs). [….] they know how to say sorry, with almost no verbal prompt
from the teacher.
P3: "[…] they treat each other with care […] when someone starts to bully
her […..] Classmates would stand behind her and advocate for her. I can
see tolerance from them."
Sharing
(Taking turns, giving and receiving)
The two social skills discussed above (i.e., acceptance and sympathy) are
antecedents of the skill-sharing (Malti et al., 2012). Fundamental to the
development of sharing is the "ownership understanding" as it entails transferring
of ownership either temporarily or permanently, which significantly takes place
during early childhood and middle childhood (Brownell, Iesue, Nichols &
Svetlova, 2013; Brownell & Pajares, 1999). Thus, while ego-centrism is apparent
during toddlerhood (Feeny, Moravcik & Nolte, 2018), sharing as a pro-social
behavior emerges during early childhood (Malti et al., 2012).
The research participants described evidence of resource - sharing among their

pupils in varied expressions – sharing their food, toys, and other things, as
reported as follows:
P7: "[…..] pupils are self-centered regarding their things and toys or
blocks [….] as classmates share, they learn to be giving most of the time."

312
P26: "[…] a student who would only have boiled eggs and water for
snacks, and his classmates have a lot [….] Nobody laughs at his poor
snacks. Instead, they start to share and go around […]."
P29: "Sharing has already been a part of our everyday interaction. My

pupils know they should share what is inside the classroom."
Collaboration with other children

(Play, collaborative classroom activities)
As children collaborate in an activity, they develop their ability to form a balanced
relationship with other people to achieve a common goal. Collaboration promotes
the communication of ideas and knowledge (verbal and non-verbal) among
children at a level that everybody comprehends (Goncu, 1993). Peer interaction
facilitates a deep understanding of the child's social environment. This learning
experience allows them to share their perspective and accommodate others' in a
comfortable and nurturing ways (Goncu, 1993). This is an important skill which
possesses inclusive merits. The participants reported accounts of collaboration
among young children in their shared social world. To put it succinctly,
collaboration in their observation is when children actively participate and guide
each other towards a shared goal. Thus, they are reported below:
P27: "I have students whom I believe are born leaders […] through
collaboration, and peers were motivated by their leaders […] The next
thing I know; they all want to be leaders."
P13: "I have a cute student. She would always say, "Peacher (Teacher),
I will help my classmate." And other class members will follow
P17: "I always have little teachers in my class […] they work as team
members."
It can be inferred from the accounts above how children guide other children
through monitoring their peers on how to achieve a specific task.
Child-to-child support overcomes almost all forms of barriers to participation in

the class. Thus, it creates an optimal learning environment for every member to
thrive and succeed (UNESCO, 2016). Inclusion seeks to embrace differences in
others. Learners in the "standard curriculum" should be prepared to acquire and
develop competencies that mitigate exclusion. This is being achieved by
providing diversity in conversations, group collaborations, and opportunities to
refine adaptive social skills.
3.2. Classroom strategies employed to develop and refine expressions of

inclusion among children in the early grades
This paper clustered three macro strategies that teacher-participants utilize to
reinforced inclusive concepts and expressions among their learners. The
strategies emanated from the informants are (a) structured learning environment,
(b) spontaneous strategies, and (c) structured classroom strategies.

313
Structured learning environment

Participants described how they utilize environmental context in reinforcing
inclusive expressions among their pupils, as reported below. As defined, this
context includes physical structure and organization of the classroom, routines,
and the emotional environment (Han & Kemple, 2006).
P29: "We have rules to follow in the use of learning areas like – share a
toy, know when to say sorry, clean as you go, have fun with classmates."
P20: "The words sorry, please, thank you, and you are welcome are golden
words in our classroom."
P18: "[…]when I see actions and hear words that will give the negative
impact on other children, I am alert to process it [….] I heard my pupil
say, "We do not want to play with you. You belong to another table". So
I should be quick in talking to the group and make them understand the
negative behavior."
P10: "I am always intentional in supporting my pupils to learn the values

of being a good classmate. So even during snack time, […] I go around
and observe. During playtime, I observe. During choice time, I mingle
with the kids."
Well-defined learning areas (e.g., block area, art area, science area, drama and
creative corner, playhouse, among others) make the classroom for the young
children an exciting place to stay while learning. Most classes observed have
learning areas, especially among kindergarten classrooms. It is in these areas
where turn-taking, sharing, and collaboration take place. The teachers also note
that during choice time, they go around and observe small groups to ensure that
the routine is instrumental in implementing the curriculum in general and
targeting the multi-domain development of the learners in particular. The teacher
also shared how they implement classroom rules for meaningful interaction.
Simple and basic rules like using polite words, listening when somebody is
talking, staying silent when needed, using quiet hands and silent feet when asked,
using friendly voice, and showing friendly behaviors are among the top rules
implemented in the classroom.
Spontaneous Classroom Strategies

This section is a corollary to the previous strategy. Spontaneous strategies are
those that teacher employ that is naturally integrated into the whole process of
learning and interaction Strategies here are implemented during routines, choice
times, and instructional time. Accounts shared by the teacher also describes a
strategy where they target self – regulation among children. There are times when
children in their class exhibit self-centeredness. As the behavior is observed, they
approach the child and explain classroom rules and regulations, more so, the
relevance of displaying and expressing positive emotions. Most participants
believe that this helps their pupils control their emotions and later cope with
situations that bring frustration. Social reinforcement like gestures and oral
language (e.g., verbal praise, smile, pat on the back, wink, high five) are effective

314
means to support the development of social values. The following are vignettes
from the participants on naturalistic strategies.
P32: ". I try to use positive language consistently. I avoid saying "NO,"
"DON'T," or "STOP." Instead, I would say, "Class, thank you for not
laughing at your classmate."
P9: "When there is a heated situation in my class, we do not just talk

about it. I do a scenario building with my pupils. I let them answer the
question, "What if..?" What if you were the one who got hurt? You were
the one who gets bullied? […] And my pupils know what to do next."
Structured Classroom Strategies

This strategy is more structured as compared to the strategies discussed above.
The former allows the teacher to intentionally integrate the concepts and
expression in several strategies in the whole process of learning while the latter
puts the teacher in reasonable anticipation of situations to reinforce the concepts
and expression. The teacher plans classroom management strategies together
with the learning objectives for optimal learning success (Han & Kemple, 2006).
Structured activities can be (a) group affection activities – group activities like games,
plays, and songs; and (b) peer-assisted learning strategies (Han & Kemple, 2006).
The following accounts are shared by the participants to reinforce inclusion in a

structured strategy:
P10: "Role-playing is always part of lessons. It is in this way that their
self-esteem is developed and, more importantly, their values."
P15: "I always let my students work with a pair or small group. I
observed that they are learning to work well with their classmates. They
become responsible for their groupmates."
P13: "My favorite is "Learning Barkada (group/cell)." Every week, we

have a new cell group. […] they learn to monitor each other. Everybody
is also cooperative.
P2: "I facilitate meaning-making in their work. We do an art activity,

and I make sure we have time to discuss their work. [….] When we do an
art activity, it is either individual, by a pair or small group."
P8: "I am always careful with our worksheets. They should always be
inclusive. When we talk about places in the community, I do not just put
conventions. I have a Muslim pupil; I tell him to decorate the church that
it will look like a mosque. So having a Muslim classmate is already a
natural situation in my class."
All participants reported that group affection strategies are effective means to
increase the likelihood of enhancing social skills among children in the early
grades.

315
4. Discussion
To be a successful member of a diverse environment, there are different
competencies one should possess (Denham et al., 2012; Han & Kemple, 2006; S.
M. Jones et al., 2016; Kennedy, 2018; Rose-Krasnor & Denham, 2009) – like
acceptance, sympathy, sharing, collaboration. Katz and McClellan (1997) posited
that competent social individuals are those who engage in a meaningful
relationship with peers and adults. Thus, social competence is a parameter of
successful human interaction and integration and thus a pre-requisite to a
community that removes pressures to exclude (UNESCO, 2016). In the early
childhood context, there is a need to decide and orchestrate strategies on how to
develop and enhance the social skills of young children toward creating and
sustaining meaningful relationships.
Enhancing the culture and value of acceptance in a diverse group is a prelude to

a community that bars any form of marginalization. This data further confirms
that early childhood is a transition from infancy and toddlerhood where children
experience solitary play and almost slim chances for social interaction (Han, 2014;
Jones et al., 2015; Odom et al., 2019). As children approach early childhood, their
repertoire of social skills such as acceptance of other people emerges (Jones et al.,
2015; Kennedy, 2018; Odom et al., 2019). It is stated from the scripts that
differences are so much evident in their classes, but children exhibit recognition
with the way they relate with their peers.
Although the children's expression of acceptance may not significantly remove all
tensions in the class, there are notable high-level of acceptance with their peers
(Kennedy, 2018; Visnjic Jevtic et al., 2019), which is integral in sustaining
welcoming classroom environment (Baglieri & Shapiro, 2017). On the other hand,
this notion of acceptance is collective as it is manifested with peers and even
reinforced by the classroom teacher (Odom et al., 2011; UNESCO, 2016). From
the foregoing, one could deduce that social value often included in early
childhood development research is the value of community. Being part of a wider
community, a school for this matter requires that children bring with them
emerging awareness that they are part of a larger group. Thus, being considerate
of others become a skill that is beneficial to the group, themselves, and of others
(Baglieri & Shapiro, 2017; Han, 2014; Han & Kemple, 2006; D. Jones et al., 2015;
Kennedy, 2018; Odom et al., 2019; Pearson, 2016). Acceptance strongly coincides
with the active call to promote inclusive communities.
Next, sympathy as a pro-social skill is a pre-requisite to the development of

perspective-taking skills in middle childhood, and eventually, throughout the life
span. Perspective-taking is when the feeling of negative emotions when someone
else is experiencing distress is shared and felt by another person (Malti et al.,
2012). Thus, sympathy removes pressures to exclude (Malti et al., 2012) as
children learn to value others' feelings and circumstances (Kennedy, 2018; Odom
et al., 2019)
Pro-social skills like acceptance and sympathy are directly related to the person’s
ability to express skills of sharing. The experience of a child being around with
other children is not enough to develop social skills. It is essential that they build

316
rapport with each other to establish meaningful reciprocal interactions.

Opportunities to interact with classmates early on in the early childhood setting
is an avenue to refine values of sharing (National Scientific Council on the
Developing Child, 2004). Sharing promotes the community as it is a form of other-
oriented value, thereby highlighting inclusion in the diverse community.
Collaboration with other children provides an opportunity for the children to

stretch their cognitive and social skills (Haslip et al., 2019; Kennedy, 2018; Visnjic
Jevtic et al., 2019). They facilitate social skills that later would become significant
in promoting a classroom that celebrates diversity. The social skills – sharing,
sympathy, collaboration, acceptance of diversity- are all social skills in early
childhood that directly appeals to the value of community (Odom et al., 2019).
Building a sense of appreciation, acceptance, and participation in the classroom
community requires children to have an emerging awareness that they are part of
a large group (Han, 2014; Han & Kemple, 2006; Odom et al., 2019). Thus, they
represent critical factors like acceptance, participation, and achievement, which
are relevant standards of a pro-active inclusive practice.
A wide variety of strategies are warranted to support the development of social

competence like acceptance, sympathy, sharing, and collaboration among young
children. Fox et al. (2003) provided a hierarchy of strategies to support a
meaningful and supportive classroom environment. Han (2014) also presented
models to organize the strategies used by the teachers to reinforce expressions of
inclusion– environmental arrangements, natural strategies, and planned routine
activities. While concepts and expressions of inclusion are still emerging in the
early grades, it is also an opportune time to reinforce these expressions as children
refine their social skills. Strategies under the domain of environmental
arrangement are among the crucial strategies because it is here that children
interact with other children beyond the watch of an adult. It is during this time
when they do not need to modify their language and actions to meet the
expectations of adults. Thus, these are times when there are no inhibitions, and
the teacher can intensively observe their actual behavior during peer interaction
(Han & Kemple, 2006).
Further, spontaneous strategies necessitate the teacher's awareness, quick

thinking, and thoughtful, intentional use of strategies but only involves a
minimum amount of time and effort from the teacher to implement managerial
role in the classroom – conflict mediation and on-the-spot support (Kemple, 2004).
Han and Kemple (2006) defined "conflict meditation" as the process where the
teacher provides the much-needed scaffolding to support children's development
and enhancement of their ability to resolve conflict through spontaneous verbal
arguments without aggression. Further, "on-the-spot support" (Ramsey, 1991,
2008) deals with coaching and modeling, which takes place in a very natural
context. These are strategies where a verbal prompt is utilized by the teacher to
reinforce a specific social skill. Conroy and Brown (2002) claimed that this strategy
calls for "incidental teaching.”

317
Structured activities promote peer interaction and collaboration by creating a non-

threatening atmosphere through fun activities (Han & Kemple, 2006).
Meaningful group work presents different gains. Central to the completion of a
task is the active participation and significant contribution of each member in the
group and that one member cannot succeed without the success of others. This
then produces the need for each member to contribute and interact with the whole
group in positive ways (UNESCO, 2016). Participation, and achievement of each
member in a group are reflective of an acceptable standard of inclusion.
This study produced results which corroborate the findings of a great deal of
previous work in the development of children's social skills in sustaining and
upholding th tenets of inclusion (Baglieri & Shapiro, 2017; Han & Kemple, 2006;
D. Jones et al., 2015; S. M. Jones et al., 2016; Kennedy, 2018; Malti et al., 2012;
McCartney & Phillips, 2006; Odom et al., 2019; Pearson, 2016; UNESCO, 2009b,
2016, 1994). To promote inclusive culture and values in the society through the
classroom, it is an imperative for educational institutions to (a) integrate cultures
like acceptance, sympathy, collaboration, & celebration of diversity, and (b) put
high regard on intentional, appropriate and meaningful use of instructions,
prompts, rehearsals, feedback mechanisms, discussions, diversity conversations,
and specific combinations of these procedures. Moreover, classroom experiences
improve young children's useful establishment of a social relationship with their
peers – a pre-requisite to a culture that upholds and sustains inclusion amid
increasing heterogeneity.
5. Conclusion
In a diverse community, themes, and pressures that excludes are becoming
ubiquitous and evolving (Brown & Palaiologou, 2016). One means to combat
exclusionary cultures and values is to promote the concept that "everyone belongs
to a group, no matter what." For Brown and Palaiologou (2016), leading children
in the process of inclusive pedagogical practices and embedding cultural
relativism (p.75) is a powerful means of achieving inclusion and combating
exclusion in the early childhood classroom. The claim can be supported by
targeting the development and enhancement of children's social skills to promote
inclusive cultures and promote diversity.
This study adds to the growing body of evidence that suggests that there are
emerging inclusive concepts and expressions in an early childhood setting (e.g.,
acceptance, sympathy, sharing, and collaboration). The findings surfaced new
ways of claiming that "children supporting children" context is a powerful
platform in the implementation of inclusion (Baglieri & Shapiro, 2017; Pearson,
2016; UNESCO, 2016). Children, who were once regarded as a passive part of the
inclusive agenda, are co-constructors of inclusive communities as they are
considered valuable experts in their culture (Brown & Palaiologou, 2016, p. 75) who
have agency and voice. Therefore, it is essential to plan and implement learning
experiences that promote the development and refinement of social skills among
young children to support them to promote an inclusive culture and celebrate
diversity.

318
5.1. Significance of the Study

The combination of findings in this study provides some support for the
conceptual premise that early childhood is the onset of the development of social
skills –including expressions of inclusion – and that they are potent levers in
achieving inclusive goals. Hence, strategies that enhance this "super skill" should
be carried out in the school curriculum. For example, social skills should be
integrated into a systematic and well-defined curricular framework and practice
to ensure support in the positive social development of children. Second, teachers
should consistently reflect, plan, implement, and evaluate intentional strategies
by which inclusive expressions are reinforced in the early grade. Child-to-child
interaction provides significant potential in refining pro-social behaviors, more
so, in the attainment of a just and inclusive community of learners. On the other
hand, teacher and staff collaboration facilitates pro-active and consistent
modeling of pro-social skills among children and the whole school community.
Finally, the findings might help educators to prioritize play as a context for the
development and refinement of social skills that is beneficial to children,
especially in early childhood. Types of play like exploratory, constructive,
creative, pretend, fantasy, socio-dramatic, physical, and language play provide
meaningful and spontaneous experiences to children, which has a direct
relationship to the development and refinement of their social competence.
In an era where plurality significantly increases, and educational agency pushes

towards pro-active inclusive practices, regular classrooms must implement
effective school strategies and orchestrate the development and enhancement of
inclusive expressions. The process of expanding the participation and interaction
of all members of the school community reduces pressures to exclude (Baglieri &
Shapiro, 2017; Pearson, 2016; UNESCO, 2016) thereby, promoting a positive
learning environment where all children, with or without perceived differences,
learn, thrive and experience optimal success in the teaching-learning process.
5.2. Limitations of the Study

This paper addressed the research problem through the lenses of early childhood
Filipino educators and did not attempt to gather insights from the early graders
themselves. Also, findings cannot demographically represent the experiences of
teachers from other geographical locations, and learners from different grade
levels. To develop a full picture of the claim of this paper, additional studies are
needed to determine what are other concepts and expressions children from other
contexts (geographical location, culture, and grade levels) possess, which can be
a potential facilitator of inclusive school communities. Further, studies that will
take the variables in this paper into account will need to pursue the possibility of
advancing the teachers' competence in developing and enhancing children's social
skills.
6. References
Ahmmed, M., Sharma, U., & Deppeler, J. (2012). Variables affecting teachers' attitudes
towards inclusive education in Bangladesh. Journal of Research in Special
Educational Needs, 12(3), 132–140. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-
3802.2011.01226.x
Ahmmed, M., Sharma, U., & Deppeler, J. (2014). Variables affecting teachers' intentions to

319
include students with disabilities in regular primary schools in Bangladesh.

Disability & Society, 29(2), 317–331.
Artiles, A., Kozleski, E., Dorn, S., & Christensen, C. (2006). Chapter 3: Learning in Inclusive
Education Research: Re-mediating Theory and Methods With a Transformative
Agenda. Review of Research in Education - REV RES EDUC, 30, 65–108.
https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X030001065
Baglieri, S., & Shapiro, A. (2017). Disability studies and the inclusive classroom. Critical
practices for embracing diversity in education (2nd Ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.
Booth, T., Ainscow, M., & Vaughan, M. (2011). Index for Inclusion. Developing Learning and
Participation in Schools. Retrieved from
http://www.csie.org.uk/resources/inclusion-index-explained.shtml
Brown, Z., & Palaiologou, I. (2016). Inclusive practice in early childhood education. In Z.
Brown (Ed.), Inclusive education. Perspectives on pedagogy, policy, and practice. New
York, NY.
Brownell, C. A., Iesue, S. S., Nichols, S., & Svetlova, M. (2013). Mine or yours?
Development of sharing in toddlers in relationship to ownership understanding.
Child Development, 84(3), 906–920.
Brownell, M. T., & Pajares, F. (1999). Teacher Efficacy And Perceived Success In
Mainstreaming Students With Learning And Behavior Problems. Teacher
Education and Special Education, 22(3), 154–164.
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2002). Research methods in education. Routledge.
Conroy, M. A., & Brown, W. H. (2002). Preschool children: Putting research into practice.
Promoting Social Communication: Children with Developmental Disabilities from Birth
to Adolescence, 211–238.
Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. (2017). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five
approaches (4th Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage publications.
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-
methods approaches (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publication.
Darling-Churchill, K. E., & Lippman, L. (2016). Early childhood social and emotional
development: Advancing the field of measurement. Journal of Applied
Developmental Psychology, 45, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2016.02.002
Denham, S., Bassett, H., & Zinsser, K. (2012). Early childhood teachers as socializers of
young children's emotional competence. Early Childhood Education Journal, 40(3),
137–143.
Fabes, R. A., Hanish, L. D., & Martin, C. L. (2003). Children at Play: The Role of Peers in
Understanding the Effects of Child Care. Child Development, 74(4), 1039–1043.
Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3696202
Farrell, P. (2002). Making special education inclusive: from research to practice (M. Ainscow &
P. Farrell, eds.). London, UK: David Fulton.
Feeny, S., Moravcik, E., & Nolte, S. (2018). Who am I in the lives of Children? An introduction
to early childhood education (11th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson Education Limited.
Florian, L. (2012). Preparing Teachers to Work in Inclusive Classrooms: Key Lessons for
the Professional Development of Teacher Educators from Scotland's Inclusive
Practice Project. Journal of Teacher Education, 63(4), 275–285.
Florian, L., & Spratt, J. (2013). Enacting inclusion: A framework for interrogating inclusive
practice. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 28.

320
Forlin, C. (2010). Teacher Education for inclusion. Changing paradigms and innovative
approaches (Chris Forlin, ed.). London, England: Routledge.
Forlin, C. (2012). Future directions: What is needed now for effective inclusive teacher
education? In C. Forlin (Ed.), Future Directions for Inclusive Teacher Education. An
international perspective (pp. 173–183). New York, NY: Routledge.
Forlin, C., Loreman, T., & Sharma, U. (2014). A system-wide professional learning
approach about inclusion for teachers in Hong Kong. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher
Education, 42(3), 247–260. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359866X.2014.906564
Fox, L., Dunlap, G., Hemmeter, M. L., Joseph, G. E., & Strain, P. S. (2003). The Teaching
Pyramid: A Model for Supporting Social Competence and Preventing
Challenging Behavior in Young Children. Young Children, 58(4), 48–52.
Goncu, A. (1993). Development of intersubjectivity in social pretend play. Human
Development, Vol. 36, pp. 185–198. https://doi.org/10.1159/000278206
Hall, E., Chai, W., & Albrecht, J. A. (2016). A Qualitative Phenomenological Exploration
of Teachers' Experience With Nutrition Education. American Journal of Health
Education, 47(3), 136–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/19325037.2016.1157532
Halle, T. G., & Darling-Churchill, K. E. (2016). Review of measures of social and emotional
development. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 45, 8–18.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2016.02.003
Han, S. (2014). Supporting Early Childhood Teachers to Promote Children's Social
Competence: Components for Best Professional Development Practices. Early
Childhood Education Journal, 42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-013-0584-7
Han, S., & Kemple, K. (2006). Components of Social Competence and Strategies of
Support: Considering What to Teach and How. Early Childhood Education Journal,
34, 241–246. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-006-0139-2
Haslip, M., Allen-Handy, A., & Donaldson, L. (2019). How do Children and Teachers
Demonstrate Love, Kindness and Forgiveness? Findings from an Early Childhood
Strength-Spotting Intervention. Early Childhood Education Journal.
Jones, D., Greenberg, M., & Crowley, D. (2015). Early Social-Emotional Functioning and
Public Health: The Relationship Between Kindergarten Social Competence and
Future Wellness. American Journal of Public Health, 105, 1–8.
https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2015.302630
Jones, S. M., Zaslow, M., Darling-Churchill, K. E., & Halle, T. G. (2016). Assessing early
childhood social and emotional development: Key conceptual and measurement
issues. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 45, 42–48.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2016.02.008
Katz, L. G., & McClellan, D. E. (1997). Fostering children's social competence: The teacher's role.
Washington, DC: NAEYC.
Kemple, K. M. (2004). Let's be friends: Peer competence and social inclusion in early childhood
programs. Teachers College Press.
Kennedy, A. (2018). Promoting the Social Competence of Each and Every Child in Inclusive Early
Childhood Classrooms. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80858
Kienbaum, J. (2014). The development of sympathy from 5 to 7 years: Increase, decline, or
stability? A longitudinal study. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 468.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00468
Loden, M. (1996). Implementing diversity: Best practices for making diversity work in your
organization (J. Krames, Ed.). Toeledo, OH: McGraw-Hill, Education.
Loreman, T., & Deppeler, J. (2002). Working towards full inclusion in education. Access:
The National Issues Journal for People with a Disability, 3(6), 5–8.

321
Lynch, S., & Simpson, C. (2010). Social Skills: Laying the foundation for success.
Dimensions of Early Childhood, 38(2), 3–12.
Malti, T., Gummerum, M., Keller, M., Chaparro, M. P., & Buchmann, M. (2012). Early
sympathy and social acceptance predict the development of sharing in children.
PloS One, 7(12), e52017–e52017. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0052017
Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. (2016). Designing qualitative research (6th Ed.). Thousand Oaks,
CA: SAGE.
Maxwell, J. (1996). Qualitative research design. An interactive approach. Thousand Oaks,CA:
SAGE.
McCartney, K., & Phillips, D. (2006). Blackwell handbook of early childhood education.
Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing.
Moustakas, C. (1994). Phenomenological research methods.
National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. (2004). Young children develop in an
enviroment of relationships: Working paper No.1 (No. Working Paper No.1).
Odom, S., Buysse, V., & Soukakou, E. (2011). Inclusion for Young Children With
Disabilities: A Quarter Century of Research Perspectives. Journal of Early
Intervention - J EARLY INTERVENTION, 33, 344–356.
Odom, S., McConnell, S., & Brown, W. (2019). Social competence of young children:
Conceptualization, assessment, and influences. In W. Brown, S. Odom, & S.
McConell (Eds.), Social competence of young children: Risk, disability, and intervention
(pp. 3–29). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing.
Pearson, S. (2016). Rethinking children and inclusive education. Opportunities and complexities.
London, UK: Bloomsbury Academic.
Raguindin, P. Z. J. (2020). Integrating Concepts and Expressions of Inclusion in the K –
Curriculum: The Case of the Philippines. European Journal of Educational Research,
9(1), 305–317.
Ramsey, P. (1991). Making friends in school: Promoting peer relationships in early childhood.
New York: Teachers College Press.
Ramsey, P. (2008). Children's responses to differences. NHSA Dialog, 11(4), 225–237.
Rose-Krasnor, L., & Denham, S. (2009). Social-emotional competence in early childhood.
Handbook of Peer Interactions, Relationships, and Groups, 162–179.
Sendil, C. O., & Erden, F. T. (2012). Preschool Teachers' Strategies to Enhance Social
Interaction Skills of Children during Playtime. Procedia - Social and Behavioral
Sciences, 47, 918–923. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.06.757
Sharma, U., & Sokal, L. (2015). The impact of a teacher education course on pre-service
teachers' beliefs about inclusion: An international comparison. Journal of Research
in Special Educational Needs, 15(4). https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-3802.12043
Steedly, K., Scwartz, A., Levin, M., & Luke, S. (2008). Social skills and academic
achievement. Evidences for education. National Center for Children with Disabilities,
3(11), 1–7.
Thomas, G., & Loxley, A. (2007). Deconstructing Special Education Reconstructing Inclusion.
UNESCO. (1994). The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action. Policy, (June), 7–
10. Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org
UNESCO. (2009a). Guidelines for inclusion: ensuring access to education for all. Retrieved from
http://unesdoc.unesco.org
UNESCO. (2009b). Policy guidelines on inclusion in education. Retrieved from
http://unesdoc.unesco.org
UNESCO. (2016). Training tools for curriculum development. Reaching out to all learners: A

322
resource pack for supporting inclusive education. Retrieved from

http://www.unesco.org/education/pdf/15_62.pdf
Visnjic, J. A., Lapat, G., & Galinec, M. (2019). The Role of Early Childhood Education in
Developing Social Competence of Roma Children. 20, 77–91.
https://doi.org/10.15516/cje.v20i0.3323
Yoder, N. (2014). Teaching the whole child: Instructional practices that support social-emotional
learning in three teacher evaluation framework. Washington, DC: American Institutes
for Research Center on Great Teachers and Leaders.

323

Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 323-336, June 2020
The Impact of Educational Technologies on

University Teachers’ Self-efficacy
Nataliia Saienko, Yuliana Lavrysh and Valentyna Lukianenko

National Technical University of Ukraine “Igor Sikorsky Kyiv Polytechnic
Institute”, Kyiv, Ukraine
Abstract. The teaching profession is always evolving. Teachers have to

upgrade their knowledge and skills to be in line with students’ and
employers’ needs. The challenges teachers are facing are the
continuously changing conditions of the teaching process and
technological innovations. Unsuccessful and numerous attempts to
overcome these challenges negatively affect teachers’ self-efficacy. The
purpose of the study was to investigate the impact of educational
technologies on university teachers’ self-efficacy level changes using
quantitative (pre and post-self-efficacy test) and qualitative (peer-
observation, interviews) research methods. The study involved 60 in-
service ESP teachers with different length of teaching experience.
Teachers were exposed to a short practical course on technologies
integration into the teaching process, and after that, they had to
demonstrate the practical application of the knowledge obtained. The
findings showed that educational technologies integration had positive
influence on four components of teachers’ self-efficacy: classroom
management, instruction strategies design, students’ engagement and
technologies integration. During the course delivery, we dealt with two
problems: computer anxiety (senior teachers), as well as technology and
pedagogical content knowledge framework (novice teachers).
Keywords: educational technologies; self-efficacy; classroom

management; engagement
1. Introduction
The process of digitalization in education refers to the areas of socialization and
human development. It is indisputable that the use of information technologies
in education opens up new opportunities for both teachers and students to
upgrade their creativity, acquisition and consolidation of professional
competencies. Consequently, this process might increase the level of self-
education and professional self-efficacy that will positively impact teacher’s

324
creativity, will create conditions to foster the professional development and self-
realization (Abbitt, 2011; Paraskeva et al., 2008).
Analysis of the world trends in the field of vocational education shows

increasing requirements to pedagogical professionalism and personal qualities
of a teacher. The main challenges teachers encounter with are a constant
complication of the education content that enhances educational standards; the
need for continuous professional development in terms of continually arising
new educational technologies or innovations; adaptation of curricular to
employers’ and society changing requirements; performance in the information
environment that implies a rational use of information technology in the
educational process (Stavytskyi & Urazgaliyeva, 2018; Istifci, 2019; Saienko &
Lavrysh, 2020; Stefancik & Stradiotová, 2020; Saienko, Semyda & Akhmad, 2020;
Synekop, 2020).
To become a facilitator of educational technologies integration, educators should

demonstrate their positive perception about technologies, high level of
professional self-efficacy ‘and self-confidence (Brinkerhoff, 2006; Kim et al., 2013;
Ocak & Baran, 2019). In Ukraine, teachers still demonstrate some technology
anxiety, especially comparing with students who are “technology native”.
Teachers are afraid of making mistakes or admitting their lack of knowledge or
skills. It prevents the integration of technologies and creation of facilitating an
environment for studying that leads to students’ loss of interest and,
consequently, motivation to study. This gap between students’ expectations and
teachers’ abilities leads to poor academic performance and teachers’
disappointment in their profession and personal consistency. On the contrary,
an adequate level of teachers’ professional self-efficacy would lead to higher
levels of job satisfaction and lower levels of job-related stress which will result in
the enhancement of student learning achievement (Caprara et al., 2003; Fackler
& Malmberg, 2016).
Thus, the problem of studying the impact of educational technologies on

university teachers’ personal and professional characteristics is relevant, as a
successful teacher should facilitative interaction with students by means of
relevant and understandable for them tools. The specific objective of the study
was to assess the impact of teachers’ educational technologies integration skills
on professional self-efficacy. The hypothesis of our research was to verify the
assumption that if teachers employed educational technologies at their classes, it
would increase the level of professional self-efficacy.
Theory of self-efficacy was developed by Bandura (1999) in the seventies years
of the last century. He believes that main factors of self-efficacy are the
experience of previous success and failures, cognitive, emotional and
physiological personal components, observation of others achievements and the
ability to achieve one’s personal goals (Bandura, 1999). He also states that the
more pronounced sense of personal effectiveness and identity is in a person's
perception, the more a person is internally motivated, because external

325
motivation cannot compete with internal motivation in terms of personal

influence. Bandura (1999) believes that the expectation of success is not sufficient
to trigger the person’s motivation. The key idea of the concept of self-efficacy is
the assessment of personal ability to cope with a particular activity that
previously seemed impossible. It may enhance the motivation level because self-
efficacy is a crucial determinant of motivation.
While studying the literature sources, we singled out the most common for
many researchers definition of self-efficacy. Some of the experts (Banoglu,
Vanderlinde & Yildiz, 2015) understand it as a judgment about people's ability
to organize and perform some action required to achieve predefined output. The
concept of "self-efficacy" is regarded as a combination of competences, necessary
to achieve success, and confidence in his or her abilities to organize and perform
specific actions to achieve the goal (Bandura, 1999). Teacher’s self-efficacy might
be demonstrated via analytical, prognostic, projective and reflexive cognitive
skills. According to Bandura (1999), judgments on self-efficacy are based on four
sources of information:
− successful implementation of activities;
− observation for people who have successfully mastered the skill;
− social approval;
− low level of anxiety associated with the action.
With a view of the successful combination of self-efficacy and digital

competence, the scholars Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy (2001) state that
methods of self-efficacy development and assessment should be included into
the educational programs for pre-service teachers as well as into the programs
for continuous in-service teacher professional development. Prior studies on
teachers’ self-efficacy (Zajacova, Lynch & Espenshade, 2005; Skaalvik &
Skaalvik, 2007) reveal a strong correlation between knowledge, skills, attitude
and beliefs towards professional activity. On the contrary, a low level of
perceived teacher self-efficacy leads to job stress and burnout (Schwarzer &
Hallum, 2008). However, these factors should be regularly updated on the
demands of society, students and employers. In case it does not happen,
students do not achieve curricular outcomes and teachers’ self-efficacy level
decreases.
On the basis of the resources studied, we define pedagogical self-efficacy as a

belief, which is reflected in the teachers’ confidence in their own professional
competence, the ability to carry out pedagogical activity by choosing relevant
tools, which will result in the achievement of the educational process outcomes.
From the other side, Bandura (1999) defines factors that lower personality’s self-
efficacy. One of them is the loss of control over the process due to poor
awareness of its nature. Teachers’ inability to use and implement educational
technologies might lower their self-esteem. The complicated educational
technologies that are not subjected to the complete control might be a trigger for
the process of self-efficacy falling. The issue of teachers’ self-efficacy connection
with educational technologies integration is supported by researchers who study
the problem of “computer anxiety”. Behavior in this state is characterized by the

326
excessive caution when using computer or technologies, negative comments

about information technology, and attempts to avoid technologies penetration
into the professional area. Various authors (Howland, Jonassen & Marra, 2012)
highlight several ways to overcome computer anxiety:
− the formation of relevant motivational structure;
− preliminary practical training;
− the use of accelerating methods for the formation of skills necessary for
working with technologies;
− familiarity with the technology as a tool for successful professional
activity;
− friendly and creative learning environment;
− correspondence of the nature of information technology tools of the
assigned pedagogical task.
Ertmer and Ottenbreit-Leftwich (2010), in their study regarding the influence of

self-efficacy beliefs on technology integration point out on the connection
between knowledge and self-efficacy beliefs by stating that "although
knowledge of technology is necessary, it is not enough if teachers do not also
feel confident using that knowledge to facilitate student learning"(p.261).
Measures of both knowledge and beliefs independently can lead to obtaining
valuable results regarding the preparation of instructors to use technology to
create attractive and efficient classroom environments.
Self-efficacy beliefs regarding computer use impact teacher's ability to create

technology-friendly learning environment. In this context, it is important to
mention the research by Sahin, Akturk and Schmidt (2009) who investigated the
relationship between pre-service teachers' perceived knowledge in
Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) domains and their self-
efficacy beliefs regarding classroom teaching. The results showed that the high
level of knowledge in TPACK will increase the level of pre-service teachers’ self-
efficacy. These results are in line with other research (Abbitt, 2011). It was
proved that knowledge of technology increases self-efficacy beliefs about
technology integration. Among the factors that influence the use of technology
in the classroom, are self-efficacy beliefs, pedagogical beliefs, and cultural
contexts (p.140). These results are important for us and in this paper we will
focus on the issues of technology integration into education process and its
impact on teachers’ professional self-efficacy beliefs.
To sum up, all mentioned above, we consider self-efficacy as the leading

regulatory setting that influences the alteration of personal behavior and
thinking. Furthermore, we support the idea that one of the possible and
promising ways to stimulate and motivate teachers to carry out an efficient
pedagogical activity independently and creatively is the development of
professional self-efficacy.

327
3. Methods
Research Design
In order to verify the hypothesis of our research, we chose a mixed research
methodology framework (Creswell, 2014) for the research performance. As it
was necessary to know the level of teachers’ efficacy, we employed a test with
close-ended statements that represented us quantitative statistical data. Thus, we
could merge, compare and connect the data with participants’ apprehension of
the researched question. As a tool for qualitative method we applied interview
with open-ended questions to understand participants’ attitude and perception
of the issue. The combination of these tools supported the holistic approach to
the research data analysis and provided us with general statistical and more
personalized data. In the follow-up phase of the study, we carried out the
confirmation and analysis of qualitative data with quantitative results, providing
an understanding of results by consolidating the perspectives of individuals.
Therefore, our research was conducted according to the following scheme:
quantitative data collection and analysis followed up with qualitative data
collection and analysis producing meaningful interpretation.
Sample
The sample consisted of 60 in-service English teachers selected from the
Department of English for. The duration of their teaching experience was
different: 18 teachers with less than two years of experience, 20 teachers with
more than five years of experience and 22 teachers with more than 15 years of
experience. Among other variables were educational materials of field-related
orientation (humanities or engineering), number of students in groups, students’
language level that caused mixed ability instructions, different technologies for
integration according to planned syllabus outcomes. Among common conditions
were: all teachers had insufficient skill in technologies integration, student-
centered approach to teaching, ESP related syllabus, 1 class of ESP (90 min) per
week. The study aim and outcomes were explained to the participants. The
respondents were not obliged to participate in the study. Test results and
interviews answers were kept strictly confidential and were not identified by
name.
Instruments
The most well-known tools for assessing efficacy are Schmitz and Schwarzer
(1999)’s test and Bandura (1999) Teacher Self-efficacy Scales. These instruments
are extensive and aimed at assessing the efficacy for teachers considering
teachers’ attitude towards their decision-making skills, instructional and
disciplinary self-efficacy, parental and community involvement. However, we
wanted to focus on teachers’ efficacy regarding the successful and meaningful
combination of such pedagogical skills as interaction with students and
technological pedagogical content knowledge provision during formal
education for students of universities. We consider these two pedagogical skills
are the background for teachers to become closer to students, to test their needs,
to get more positive feedback because teaching is a two-sided process and
teachers‘ self-confidence and self-efficacy depend on the skills of smart
communication with students. Therefore, we adapted a short version of a test

328
(12 questions) developed by Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy (2001) and

added four items regarding education technologies implementation (Appendix
1). The original version of the test includes the assessment of three factors (four
questions each): efficacy in student engagement, efficacy in instructional
practices and efficacy in classroom management. Respondents assess their self-
efficacy level using a 5-point scale answering the same question “How much can
you do….?” (1 = nothing; 5 = a great deal of). We carried out the test twice
before and after the experiment to note the changes. To see qualitative changes,
we used one performance-based peer-observation of a technology-enhanced
class and an open-ended interview with teachers at the end of the experiment
discussing reasons for changes, teachers’ opinion about the experiment. The
class peer observation instrument was a rubric that measured if the content, the
proposed educational instructional strategies, and selected technology fitted
together within the overall instructional plan and learning outcome. The rubric
was an adaptation of a Technology Integration Assessment Rubric developed by
Harris, Grandgenett and Hofer (2010) and involved the following factors for
assessment: correspondence to curricular outcomes, matching the technology
and instructional strategy, correlation of pedagogy and technology, students’
engagement, effective technology operation. We chose this rubric as its
assessment factors correlated with those ones that are assessed by self-efficacy
test, namely: engagement, instructions, management and technology operation
and correspondence to content and pedagogy. The interview addressed issues
that emerged from the observations and allowed teachers to reflect on their
actions and thoughts.
Research Procedure and data analysis

Before entering the experiment, teachers assessed their self-efficacy level
employing our test. The results have been processed using the Fisher criterion
(Sidorenko, 2000, pp.158-163). The second step was participation in a short
introductory course on Educational Technology integration in terms of TPACK
framework that combines pedagogical content knowledge, technological content
knowledge and technological pedagogical knowledge (Schmidt et al., 2009; Koh,
2013; Kiray, 2016). The course goals were to help teachers redefine and reshape
their perspectives and opinion regarding the use of educational technologies and
to increase the awareness of technologies concepts to facilitate language learning
and professional self-efficacy. The course included four topics: classification of
educational technologies according to necessary skills development, designing
activities and assessment, collaborating and personalized educational
technologies for mixed-ability classes, applying project-based learning through
educational technologies. The course involved two lectures (1.5-hour duration)
on general information about technologies and five practical classes (2 hours
each) where teachers could train their skills with chosen technology. The next
step teachers conducted 3 ESP technology-enhanced classes, and one class had to
be peer-observed. The last step was retaking self-efficacy test followed up with
open-ended individual interviews focusing on the changes and their causes.

329
4. Results
The first set of analyses examining the initial and final levels of self-efficacy
revealed significant differences in data. For example, analyzing the dynamics of
self-efficacy in novice teachers after the experiment (Table 1), we observed a
significant increase in all factors of teachers’ self-efficacy: Engagement, by 38%
(φ= 4,68, p≤ 0,01); Instructional strategies, by 44% (φ= 6,14, p≤ 0,01); Classroom
management, by 36% (φ= 4,68, p≤ 0,01); Technologies integration, by 53% (φ=
6,27, p≤ 0,01).
Table 1. Self-efficacy in teachers with less than five years’ experience (n=18) before
and after taking the course
Factors of teachers’ Initial level % Final level % φ*
self-efficacy (max.5points) (max.5 points)
Student engagement 2,4 48 4,3 86 4,68*
Instructional 2,5 50 4,7 94 6,14*
strategies
Classroom 2,2 44 4 80 4,1*
management
Technologies 2 40 4.8 96 7,27*
integration
*p≤ 0,01
The analysis of the dynamics of self-efficacy in teachers with more than 5 years
of teaching experience before and after the experiment has also revealed a
considerable difference by all the factors (Table 2): Engagement, by 30% (φ= 4,89,
p≤ 0,01); Instructional strategies, by 8%; Classroom management, by 12%;
Technologies integration, by 56% (φ= 5,72, p≤ 0,01).
Table 2. Self-efficacy in teachers with more than five years of experience (n=42) before
and after taking the course
Factors of teachers’ Initial level % Final level % φ*
self-efficacy (max.5points) (max.5 points
Student engagement 3,2 64 4,7 94 4,89*
Instructional 4 80 4,4 88 -
strategies
Classroom 3,5 70 4,1 82 -
management
Technologies 1,5 30 4,3 86 5,72*
integration
*p≤ 0,01
Regarding the peer observation of a technology-enhanced class, the results

presented the following data: all teachers integrated technology at their classes;
20 participants (33,3%) used technologies for developing of language
competences; 10 participants (16,7%) used technologies for classroom

330
management, engagement and assessment; 12 (20%) teachers used technologies

for collaboration skills development; 18 teachers (30%) applied technologies for
project-based learning.
The overall results of the peer observation indicated the positive assessment of
technology-enhanced classes: 90% of participants exhibited meaningful
integration of technology, pedagogy and content knowledge; 94% of observed
demonstrated strong correlation of the technology and curricular outcome; 85%
teachers used technology that supported instructional strategies; 88% of teachers
succeeded in combining content, pedagogy and technology; in 96% of observed
classes students were fully engaged into the class; 73% of teachers operated the
technology without technical problems. Among the problematic issues, we
noted technical problems (Internet access, platforms compatibility, not suitable
device settings ) – 15%; poor students’ engagement due to low students’
technical or language background – 7%; weak correlation of pedagogy and
technology – 8%; over usage of technology that affected classroom management
– 6%.
Another research analysis tool was an interview with teachers followed

immediately after the class peer observation. The questions were mainly the
same: what do you consider as the most beneficial strategy of the lesson? What
was wrong? What would you change next time? Was technology integration
supported with pedagogical strategy? What curricular outcome was achieved by
the technology application? Did you feel more confident while conducting a
technology-enhanced lesson? Describe the challenges you encountered while
preparing or conducting the class. The questions presupposed open answers,
and we used content analysis to interpret the data.
All responders (n=60) agreed that technology integration facilitates

communication with students and engagement as well as their motivation to
study. Novice teachers (n=18) admitted that due to technologies, they felt more
confident dealing with classroom management by personalizing tasks according
to students needs or background. Another benefit they indicated was the
possibility to keep activities running smoothly by providing clear and
meaningful instruction. Among teacher with professional experience, 17
participants admitted that their skills of instruction performance did not change
much with technology integration. Majority of responders (n=41) confessed that
the most challenging issue was to produce meaningful pedagogy and
technology combination relevant to the field-related content and teacher would
like to have more training on this issue. A significant number of teachers (n=52)
found technologies efficient for the assessment as it became more objective, clear
for students and provided immediate feedback or grading that was very
important for students. Taken together, these results suggest that there is an
association between educational technologies integration and professional self-
efficacy level rising. The next part of the paper, therefore, moves on to discuss
the challenges and perspectives for teachers’ self-efficacy development.

331
5. Discussion
One of the skills that teachers must acquire is how to integrate modern
technology into teaching and learning in their classrooms. According to the data
collected with respect to the barriers to technology integration, there occur
difficulties in finding pedagogically sound technology for specific content and
specific skills due to lack of professional development and constant
development of new technologies (Schmidt-Crawford, Tai, Wang & Jin, 2016).
Among other challenges mentioned by teachers are the same as were discussed
in the study of Ertmer et al. (2012): Internet access problems, price for devices,
Web facilities, technical problems, lack of training. However, our experiment
proves that all these problems can be solved if teachers feel inner motivation and
get stimuli for professional development. After attending the course, visiting the
classes of colleagues with followed up discussions, teachers got some ideas on
how to create technology-friendly environment in the classroom. And the
perception of this knowledge and successful implementation of their insights
contributed to the self-confidence and self- efficacy levels elevation.
As it was mentioned by Howland et al. (2012), five factors demonstrate

meaningful pedagogy and technology integration: duration, knowledge
expression and reflection by means of technologies, authenticity, learning
autonomy and development of cooperative skills, which is in line with our
results. During the interviews, the majority of teachers reported the
enhancement of students’ academic achievements. Thus, students used
technologies to articulate their reflections on subject matter, simulated real-
world problems solutions via technologies, employed skills of self-learning to
enrich their knowledge, realized interdisciplinary collaborative projects. All
these positive changes impacted the general academic students’ achievements
and, as a consequence, led to the raising of teachers’ self-efficacy level.
Teacher self-efficacy is an umbrella term for variables that might comprise its
meaning depending on the subjects of teaching, institution type, personal
characteristics etc. Moreover, recent works (Depaepea & König, 2018) have
shown positive correlations between teachers’ self-efficacy and a range of
instructional outcomes. In a view of modern educational trends, we consider the
technology self-efficacy as a constituent that empowers teachers with confidence
and bridges the gap between teachers and digitally native young generations.
It is worth mentioning the difference in self-efficacy tests results between

inexperienced teachers, and experienced ones. Initial levels were higher among
experienced teachers and it is explained by their self-confidence, minor cases of
students’ academic failures and skills gained through years of practice.
However, they demonstrated the high level of technology anxiety and some
extend of resistance to implement technologies not to lose the self- confidence
and control over the educational process, which is in line with other studies
(Manoj, Sanjay & Aakriti, 2019; Setyarini, 2018). Another identified problem
was connected with the low level of students’ engagement. In contrast, novice
teachers demonstrated the low level of classroom management and instructional
strategies development. Teachers with less than five years of experience applied

332
different technological tools but without any pedagogical support, just for the
sake of using some interesting and interactive methods. Frequently such
application did not correspond to any curricular outcome but stimulated
students’ motivation and engagement. The key problem novice teachers
indicated was complete misunderstanding why these technologies did not lead
to any sound results. Consequently, both groups of teachers felt professional
disappointment and poor self-efficacy. Therefore, the key objectives of the
course suggested to teachers, were to demonstrate experienced teachers how to
combine technologies with their extended pedagogical knowledge, and what
pedagogical content should be supported by technologies for novice teachers.
As we see from the quantitative data obtained by the self-efficacy test, the
introduction of educational technologies impacted all components of teachers’
self-efficacy. Analyzing the results of experienced teachers, we can state that two
components were significantly changed: students’ engagement and more
meaningful and interactive pedagogical strategies application enhanced by
relevant technologies. These components are interrelated due to interactivity,
personalizing and student-centered nature of technologies (Martin & Bolliger,
2018; Sawang, O'Connor & Ali, 2017). Students demonstrated a higher level of
confidence when they successfully performed tasks according to their
educational background, were not afraid of subjective assessment and
participated more actively in activities. A significant amount of authentic
information suggested by the Internet stimulated ideas for projects and enabled
students to feel like partners with teachers because both participants of the
learning process had the knowledge to share. During the interviews, teachers
told that when they observed these changes, they felt empowered by the
increased personal value and self-efficacy that appeared due to the experience of
having a real influence on students’ motivation and behavior. The classroom
management and instructions development did not change much significantly;
however, on the interviews teachers noted that the meaning of these
components changed. By using technologies experienced teachers accepted the
idea that they were not a unique source of information anymore, and students
were more knowledgeable in some professional areas. So, the key
transformation of classroom management was the idea to use students as a
source of information about technologies and turn students to partners aimed at
achieving a common outcome. Therefore, we evidenced positive changes in all
components and, as a result, total positive change in assessing self-efficacy.
The key transformation novice teachers admitted during the interviews was the
evidenced results of technologies and pedagogy content combination
stimulating methodological changes in the use of technologies. The priority was
to determine the outcome and pedagogical strategy to achieve it, and only then
to find technology relevant to the chosen pedagogical strategy. This
transformation led to changes in instructions design and classroom
management. New instructions implied using critical and creative thinking as
well as the teamwork. It also made easier to manage the mix-ability groups as all
students participated in activities according to their educational background and
personal needs. All students got immediate feedback on their performance, so,

333
the assessment did not take much time and even stimulated self-corrective work.
All mentioned above facts allow us to claim that novice teachers’ self-efficacy
level increasing was proved by quantitative and qualitative results.
6. Conclusions
An initial objective of the research was to assess the impact of teachers’
educational technologies integration skills on professional self-efficacy level. The
research findings confirmed the hypothesis of the research, and we can state that
technologies integration increased teachers’ professional self-efficacy level. This
correlation might be explained by the holistic nature and extended influence of
technologies on crucial components of a teaching process: interaction with
students, instructions design, assessment, students’ engagement, classroom
management, application of a wide range of educational strategies for the
development of linguistic, field-related and twenty-first-century skills. Overall,
the successful and meaningful employment of these tasks determines the level of
teachers’ self-efficacy. This study is limited by the number of respondents and
geographical region, but in any way, this research showed the positive
tendencies and might attract more interest to further study of this issue. In our
future research, we intend to concentrate on broader spectrum of teacher beliefs
regarding the use of education technologies in teaching foreign languages.
7. References
Abbitt, J. T. (2011) An Investigation of the Relationship between Self-Efficacy Beliefs
about Technology Integration and Technological Pedagogical Content
Knowledge (TPACK) among Preservice Teachers. Journal of Digital Learning in
Teacher Education, 27(4), 134-143.
Bandura, A. (1999). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. In Roy
F. Baumeister’s (Ed.), The Self in Social Psychology (pp. 285-298). New York, NY,
US: Psychology Press
Banoglu, K., Vanderlinde, R., & Yildiz, R. (2015). Professional Self-Efficacy Scale for
Information and Computer Technology Teachers: Validity and Reliability Study.
Anthropologist, 20(1,2), 22-32. https://doi.org/0.1080/09720073.2015.11891720
Brinkerhoff, J. (2006). Effects of a Long-Duration, Professional Development Academy
on Technology Skills, Computer Self-Efficacy, and Technology Integration
Beliefs and Practices. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 39(1), 22-43.
Caprara, G. V., Barbaranelli, C., Borgogni, L., & Steca, P. (2003). Efficacy beliefs as
determinants of teachers’ job satisfaction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95,
821–832. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.821
Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods
approaches. SAGE.
Depaepea, F., & König, J. (2018). General pedagogical knowledge, self-efficacy and
instructional practice: Disentangling their relationship in pre-service teacher
education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 69, 177-190.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2017.10.003
Ertmer, P. A., & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A. (2010). Teacher technology change: How
knowledge, confidence, beliefs, and culture intersect. Journal of Research on
Technology in Education, 42(3), 255-284.

334
Ertmer, P., Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A., Sadik, O., Sendurur, E., & Sendurur, P. (2012).
Teacher beliefs and technology integration practices: A critical relationship.
Computers & Education, 59, 423–435.
Harris, J., Grandgenett, N., & Hofer, M. (2010). Testing a TPACK-based technology
integration assessment instrument. In C. D. Maddux, D. Gibson, & B. Dodge
(Eds.), Research highlights in technology and teacher education (pp. 323-331).
Chesapeake, VA: Society for Information Technology and Teacher Education.
Howland, J., Jonassen, D., & Marra, R. (2012). Meaningful learning with technology (4th
ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Istifci, I. (2019). A Case Study on Pre-Service English Teachers' Perceptions of Self-
Efficacy and Integration of Information-Communication Technologies. In S.
Sisman-Ugur & G. Kurubacak (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Learning in the Age
of Transhumanism (Advances in Educational Technologies and Instructional
Design) (pp. 306-322). https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-8431-5.ch017
Fackler, S., & Malmberg, L.-E. (2016). Teachers’ self-efficacy in 14 OECD countries:
Teacher, student group, school and leadership effect. Teaching and Teacher
Education, 56, 185-195. https://doi.org/0.1016/j.tate.2016.03.002
Kim, C., Kim, M. K., Lee, C., Spector, J. M., & DeMeester, K. (2013). Teacher beliefs and
technology integration. Teaching and Teacher Education, 29, 76-85.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2012.08.005
Kiray, S., (2016). Development of a TPACK self-efficacy scale for pre-service science
teachers. International Journal of Research in Education and Science, 2(2), 527-541.
https://doi.org/10.21890/ijres.64750
Koh, J. (2013). A rubric for assessing teachers’ lesson activities with respect to TPACK for
meaningful learning with ICT. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology,
29(6), 887-900. https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.228
Martin, F., & Bolliger, D. U. (2018). Engagement Matters: Student Perceptions on the
Importance of Engagement Strategies in the Online Learning Environment.
Online Learning, 22(1), 205-222. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v22i1.1092
Manoj, K. S, Sanjay, K., & Aakriti, S. (2019). Computer anxiety and individual failure in
computer usage among teacher educators. International journal of information
dissemination and technology, 9(4), 191-195. https://doi.org/10.5958/2249-
5576.2019.00037.2
Ocak, C., & Baran, E. (2019): Observing the Indicators of Technological Pedagogical
Content Knowledge in Science Classrooms: Video-Based Research. Journal of
Research on Technology in Education, 51(1), 43-62.
Paraskeva, F., Bouta, H., & Papagianni, A. (2008). Individual characteristics and
computer self-efficacy in secondary education teachers to integrate technology
in educational practice. Computers & Education, 50(3), 1084-1091.
Saienko, N., & Lavrysh, Y. (2020). Mobile assisted learning for self-directed learning
development at technical university: SWOT analysis. Universal Journal of
Educational Research, 8(4), 1466-1474. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2020.080440
Saienko, N., Semyda, O., & Akhmad, I. (2020). Using social networks in teaching ESP to
engineering students. Advanced Education, 7(14), 38-45.
Sahin, I., Akturk, A., & Schmidt, D. (2009). Relationship of preservice teachers'
technological pedagogical content knowledge with their vocational self-efficacy
beliefs. In C. D. Maddux (Ed.), Research Highlights in Technology and Teacher
Education (pp. 293-301). Chesapeake, VA: AACE.

335
Sawang, S., O'Connor, P., & Ali, M. (2017). IEngage: Using technology to enhance
students' engagement in a large classroom. Journal of Learning Design, 10(1), 11-
19. https://doi.org/10.5204/jld.v9i3.292
Setyarini, M. C. E. (2018). Understanding Teachers’ Computer Anxiety. ETERNAL
(English Teaching Journal), 6(1), 74-87. https://doi.org/10.26877/eternal.v6i1.2297
Stavytskyi, O., & Urazgaliyeva, M. (2018). Using Google classroom tools in teaching
students of economic specialities. Advanced Education, 5(10), 76-81.
Stefancik, R., & Stradiotová, E. (2020). Using Web 2.0 Tool podcast in teaching foreign
languages. Advanced Education, 7(14), 46-55. https://doi.org/10.20535/2410-
8286.198209
Schmidt-Crawford, D., Tai, S., Wang, W., & Jin, Yi. (2016). Understanding Teachers’
TPACK Through Observation. In M. C. Herring, M. J. Koehler & P. Mishra
(Eds.), Handbook of Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) for
Educators. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315771328
Schmidt, D., Baran, E., Thompson, A., Mishra, P., Koehler, M., & Shin, T. (2009).
Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK): The development and
validation of an assessment instrument for preservice teachers. Journal of
Research on Technology in Education, 42(2), 123-149.
Schmitz, G. S., & Schwarzer, R. (1999). Proaktive Einstellung von Lehrern: Konstrukt
beschreibung und psychometrische Analysen [Proactive attitude of teachers:
construct description and psychometric analyzes]. Empirische Pädagogik, 13(1), 3-
27. Retrieved from https://www.fachportal-
paedagogik.de/literatur/vollanzeige.html?FId=503968#vollanzeige
Schwarzer, R., & Hallum, S. (2008). Perceived teacher self-efficacy as a predictor of job
stress and burnout: Mediation analyses. Applied psychology: an international
review, 57, 152–171. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2008.00359.x
Sidorenko, E. (2000). Metody matematicheskoi obrabotki v psikhologii [Methods of
mathematical processing in Pychology]. St. Petersburg, Russia: Ltd Rech.
Skaalvik, E. M., & Skaalvik, S. (2007). Dimensions of teacher self-efficacy and relations
with strain factors, perceived collective teacher efficacy, and teacher burnout.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 99, 611-625. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-
0663.99.3.611
Synekop, O. (2020). Webquest as technology of differentiated ESP instruction at
university level. Journal of teaching English for specific and academic purposes, 8(1),
43-52. https://doi.org/10.22190/jtesap2001043s
Tschannen-Moran, M., & Woolfolk, H. A. (2001). Teacher efficacy: Capturing an elusive
construct. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17, 783-805.
https://doi.org/10.1016/s0742-051x(01)00036-1
Zajacova, A., Lynch, S. M., & Espenshade, T. J. (2005). Self-efficacy, stress, and academic
success in college. Research in Higher Education, 46, 677-706.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-004-4139-z

336
Appendix 1
Teachers’ Self-efficacy test

1. How much can you do to control behavior in the classroom?
2. How much can you do to motivate students who show low interest?
3. How much can you do to get students to believe they can do well in studying?
4. How can you integrate the instructional strategies with technology?
5. How much can you do to help your students value learning?
6. To what extent can you craft good questions for your students?
7. How much can you do to improve your technology skills?
8. How much can you do to get students to follow classroom rules?
9. How much can you do to calm a student who is disruptive?
10. How well can you establish a classroom management system with each
group of students?
11. How well do you select the technologies that you plan to use?
12. How much can you use a variety of assessment strategies?
13. To what extent can you provide an alternative explanation or example when
students are confused?
14.To what extend does technology impact your classroom management?
15. How much can you do to get students to work together?
16. How well can you implement alternative strategies in your classroom?
Efficacy in Student Engagement: 2, 3, 5, 15

Efficacy in Instructional Strategies: 6, 12, 13, 16
Efficacy in Classroom Management: 1, 8, 9, 10
Efficacy in Technologies Integration: 4, 7, 11, 14

337

Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 337-352, June 2020
UAE Elementary Teachers’ Use of ADHD

Referral and Management Strategies
Hala Elhoweris, Ahmed Mohamed, Osha Almuhairy,

Rachel Takriti and Najwa Alhosani
United Arab Emirates University, UAE
Abdelaziz Sartawi
Dar Zayed for Care Family
Abstract. The purpose of this study was four-fold: to identify factors

teachers perceive to contribute to their referral of students with attention
deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD); to examine management
strategies elementary teachers in the UAE use; to examine the effect years
of teaching experience, domain (general versus special education
teachers) and experience teaching children with ADHD have on their use
of referral and management strategies, and; to explore the relationship
between teachers’ use of referral and management strategies. The ADHD
Referral Scale and the ADHD Management Strategies Questionnaire
(AMSQ) were completed by 52 elementary special and general education
teachers. The results of the study revealed that inattention/distractibility
was perceived by both the special and general education teachers to be a
contributing factor for referring students with ADHD to special education
services. The general education teachers also noted hyperactivity to be a
contributing factor. The findings further revealed that while special and
general education teachers employed behaviour and academic
intervention strategies, special education teachers frequently used
home/parent intervention strategies. Finally, the MANOVA analyses
showed a significant main effect of teaching experience and teachers’
experience with ADHD.
Keywords: ADHD; elementary school teachers; management strategies;

referral; UAE

338
1. Introduction
The number of students with attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
varies among countries (Salehi, Noah & Jaafar, 2011). Globally, according to Liu,
Xu, Yan and Tong (2018), the prevalence rates of ADHD vary between 1% to about
20% among children and adolescents across the world. The number of children
diagnosed with ADHD around the world is increasing and it has changed over
time. According to Bu-Haroon, Eapen and Bener (1999), the prevalence rate of
ADHD in Al-Sharjah elementary schools is approximately 14.9%. Although the
prevalence rate of ADHD among Sharjah elementary school children is high, there
is no valid standardized rating scale to diagnose children with ADHD in the UAE.
Furthermore, it is unclear how school teachers identify and/or manage the
behaviours of students with ADHD in the UAE (Elhoweris, 2014).
ADHD is a developmental disorder that is defined by the American Psychiatric

Association (2013) as a continuous pattern of specific behaviours, including
inattention, overactivity, and impulsivity. Children with ADHD have a significant
poor attention span in comparison to their peers. Recently, various changes have
been evident in the diagnosis of ADHD. According to the 5th edition of the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-V), for a diagnosis
of ADHD, symptoms must occur by the age of 12 years. Furthermore, it is
imperative that several symptoms are present in more than one setting. Also, the
10th revision of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related
Health Problems (ICD) defined ADHD as a state of overactive restlessness,
particularly in children, marked by extreme excess of motor activity, restlessness,
fidgeting, aggressive-like behaviour and impulsivity. According to the ICD-10,
school children with ADHD cannot sit still and comply with rules, and also exhibit
low frustration levels (Doernberg & Hollander, 2016).
Identifying children with ADHD is complex because young children who are
naturally energetic may become even more active when they are tired, hungry,
and/or exposed to a new environment. Although such children may not have
ADHD, they may be labelled as having ADHD. Fabiano et al. (2013) noted that
teachers define ADHD loosely and have a tendency of overestimating the number
of children with ADHD. It is common for challenging children to be incorrectly
labelled as having ADHD. On the contrary, many children who do have ADHD
are not diagnosed as such. However, early and effective identification is
imperative to ensure that children are given the opportunity to realise their full
potential. Consequently, an understanding of the referral process in the UAE is
necessary.
The impact of ADHD on an individual's psychological development, education,

relationships, and family is immeasurable. Attention problems are prevalent
among students with ADHD (Salend, 2015). Findings gleaned from a previous
study suggested that approximately 16% of elementary school children have
difficulty in concentrating and paying attention during class activities (Rabiner &
Malone, 2004). Additionally, Bener, Al Qahtani and Abdelaal (2006) found that
students with higher symptoms of ADHD perform lower at school in comparison
to those children with lower symptoms of ADHD. In addition to the negative

339
impact of poor attention span among children with ADHD on academic

achievement (Faraone et al., 2015), attention problems are also associated with
behavioural issues and poor engagement with school-related activities (Rushton,
Giallo & Efron, 2019). Students with ADHD engage in several high-activity
behaviours when in class, including fidgeting with their hands and objects, calling
out, not sitting when they should, talking excessively and interrupting others
(Salend, 2015). From a social perspective, students with ADHD often exhibit
several inappropriate behaviours including stubborn, unhelpful, destructive,
insensitive, hostile, impulsive, unpleasant, and bossy behaviours that result in
their being rejected by their peers and adults (Friend & Bursuck, 2018).
Furthermore, child mental health problems are more closely related to student-
teacher conflict than to closeness (e.g., Drugli, 2013; Ewe, 2019; Portilla, Ballard,
Adler, Boyce & Obradovic, 2014). According to Rushton et al. (2019), children who
exhibited higher ADHD symptoms in their early school years, they felt less
positive about their school and learning in the later elementary school grades.
Throughout the years, several studies on various types of interventions for

children with ADHD have been conducted. Although the prescription of
psychostimulant medication is the most common intervention for students with
ADHD (Barkley, 2020), academic and behavioural interventions have
demonstrated to be very effective (DuPaul, Eckert & Viladro, 2012; Miranda,
Jarque & Tarraga, 2006; Salend, Elhoweris & VanGarderen, 2003; Schultz, Storer,
Watabe, Sadler & Evans, 2011). Literature has shown that ADHD does not only
affect the sufferers, but also the people around them, especially, family members,
teachers, and friends. Accordingly, it is widely accepted that the most effective
treatment for ADHD comprises a combination of strategies rather than only one
single course of action. Miranda et al. (2006) noted the necessity of expanding the
intervention repertoire to meet the unique needs of children with ADHD by
considering a multimodal intervention, which includes different types of
interventions. The multimodal intervention frequently includes medical
intervention in conjunction with parent intervention, school intervention, and
child intervention. Classroom management is a complex skill that comprises
employing academic, behavioural and/or combined intervention strategies to
address students’ inappropriate behaviours (Epstein, Atkins, Cullinan, Kutash &
Weaver, 2008; Korpershoek, Harms, de Boer, van Kuijk & Doolaard, 2016).
Although considerable evidence related to the academic and social difficulties

children with ADHD experience abounds, not much is known about teachers’
actions and knowledge. Previous studies have revealed that because of a lack of
training, primary school teachers experience difficulties understanding and
managing ADHD behaviours (Arcia, Frank, Sanchez-LaCay & Fernaindez, 2012).
Öner, Vatanartiran and Karadeniz (2019) found that teachers reported ADHD
symptoms 2.5 to 3.6 times more often in students who were young for their grade.
Furthermore, previous studies have demonstrated that teachers usually lack
knowledge of ADHD and how it may affect the social and academic achievement
of students with ADHD (Gwernan-Jones et al., 2016; Ljusberg, 2011). However,
Ohan, Visser, Strain and Allen (2011) found that teachers who had considerable
knowledge of ADHD had healthier attitudes towards children with ADHD and

340
treated them more positively. In a study that examined in-service teachers’

knowledge of classroom management procedures, Owens et al. (2017) found that
in-service teachers lack the awareness to meet the behavioral demands of children
with ADHD. Reinke, Stormont, Herman, Puri and Goel (2011) revealed that early-
childhood and elementary in-service teachers lack the necessary knowledge and
skills to address the needs of those students with mental health problems.
Furthermore, in a U.S. national study, in-service teachers reported that they used
low-intensity behavioural support such as praise and reprimands and
antecedents control to manage their students’ behaviours (cited in Poznanski,
Hart & Cramer, 2018). In a study, in Africa, that examined teachers’ knowledge
about ADHD, the use of management strategies and the relationship between
teachers’ knowledge and management strategy use it has been found that
although teachers knew about ADHD diagnosis and symptoms, teachers were
found to have less knowledge about ADHD evidence-based interventions.
Additionally, there was no significant correlation between teachers’ knowledge
about ADHD and classroom practices (Blotnicky-Gallant, Martin, McGonnell &
Corkum, 2014). Findings of a research study that examined Saudi teachers’
knowledge of ADHD characteristics, causes, and appropriate interventions
revealed that Saudi teachers had some knowledge about general characteristics of
ADHD and little knowledge about the causes and appropriate treatments for
ADHD (Abed, Pearson, Clarke & Chambers, 2014).
Martinussen, Tannock and Chaban (2011) investigated the level of in-service

training in ADHD among general and special education teachers, as well as the
relationship between teacher training in ADHD and the use of instructional and
behaviour management approaches. They found that the participating teachers,
including general and special education teachers, had no or hardly any in-service
training in ADHD. Furthermore, the general education teachers with moderate to
extensive in-service training in ADHD noted significantly higher use of the
management strategies than the general education teachers with hardly any or no
training in ADHD. Vereb and DiPerna (2004) found that there is a significant
positive correlation between ADHD training and teachers’ awareness of ADHD
and behaviour management strategies. More specifically, the teachers who
participated in ADHD training demonstrated more knowledge about ADHD and
acceptability of the management strategies for ADHD children. Additionally,
findings from recent studies that examined the impact of training programs on
teachers’ knowledge of ADHD and ADHD intervention and attitudes toward
students with ADHD revealed that teachers who participated in training
programs showed higher scores on ADHD knowledge, attitudes and behavioral
interventions for ADHD students (Alabd, Mesbah & Alboliteeh, 2018; Lasisi, Ani,
Lasebikan, Sheikh & Omigbodun, 2017). Sciutto et al. (2016) conducted a study
with teachers from four different continents comprising Europe, America, Asia,
and Africa to examine the relationship between teachers’ prior experience with
ADHD and receipt of ADHD training and teachers’ knowledge of ADHD.
Findings of this study indicated that some form of ADHD training and prior
experience with ADHD students’ variables were associated with more teachers’
knowledge of ADHD in the majority of the participating countries in this study.

341
Students with ADHD in the UAE are placed in general education classes.
Therefore, the inputs from general and special education teachers are imperative
for identifying ADHD and addressing the sufferers’ needs. Although diagnosing
children with ADHD is complex, there is an unexpected lack of empirical
evidence related to teachers’ referral decisions and their reasons thereof for
students with ADHD in the UAE. Furthermore, it is unclear what types of
interventions have been employed for children with ADHD in the country.
Accordingly, the purpose of this study was four-fold: first, to identify factors
teachers perceive to contribute to their referral and management of students with
ADHD; second, to examine management strategies elementary teachers in the
UAE use; third, to examine the effect years of teaching experience, domain
(general versus special education teachers) and experience teaching children with
ADHD have on their use of referral and management strategies; and finally, to
explore the relationship between teachers’ use of referral and management
strategies.
2. Methodology
2.1 Participants
Random sampling was employed to maximize the demographic and geographic
diversity across the sample. The participants included 52 teachers (71% general
educators and 29% special educators) who taught in UAE government schools.
The participants were recruited from six elementary schools from different
Emirates. Of the 52 teachers who completed the questionnaire, 15 were special
education teachers and 37 general education teachers. Furthermore, the majority
of the participants had a bachelor’s degree. Of the participants, 44 were female
and 8 were male. Finally, the majority of the participants indicated that they had
been teaching for more than ten years. The participants’ demographic information
is displayed in Table 1.
Table 1: Study Sample Demographic Variables

Variable Category N
Years of teaching 1-3 years 13
experience 4-6 years 6
7-9 years 8
10+ years 25
Gender Male 8
Female 44
Educational level high school 1
Diploma 1
Bachelor 45
Higher education 5
Domain Special education 15
General education 37
Experience with ADHD No experience 14
Moderate 22
High 16

342
2.2 Instruments
2.2.1 The ADHD Referral Scale
The ADHD Referral Scale comprises items that assess the likelihood of teachers
referring students with ADHD. The scale assesses whether students who should
be referred for special education needs assistance typically display particular
behaviours. The questionnaire comprises 36 items, which are assessed on a four-
point Likert scale, ranging from 4 (Always) to 1 (Rarely). To develop the scale,
several sources were examined, including the diagnostic criteria for ADHD
specified in the DSM-V, ICD-10, various instruments, well-known books and
scholarly articles on ADHD (e.g., Salend, 2015; Tannock & Martinussen, 2001). To
ensure the content validity of the scale, four academics from special education and
psychology departments of universities rated the domains and the items included
in the scale. These specialists rated each item based on the degree it reflects the
skill it is supposed to measure, precision of the language and ability to observe
the skill targeted. The percentage of agreement amongst the specialists was 80%,
which provided evidence of each item’s level of content validity. The participants
were also required to provide their demographic information, including the
number of years they had taught, whether they were trained as special needs or
general education teachers and their gender. They were subsequently asked to
indicate their level of experience with ADHD students by classifying themselves
into one of three categories’ namely, highly experienced, moderately experienced
and inexperienced.
The initial examination of the sample size was performed by employing Bartlett’s
Test of Sphericity. The results of this analysis indicated that the sample was
adequate. Furthermore, correlation matrix analysis showed that all the items were
positively inter-correlated. Exploratory factor analysis with oblique rotation was
performed by employing SPSS. Factors were identified in accordance with Kaiser’s
rule of Eigenvalue greater than one and confirmed by an examination of the scree
plot. The items had to load on a single factor with an absolute value of .50 or
higher. Principal components factor analysis with oblimin rotation was performed
to identify which items loaded onto similar factors. Three factors emerged, which
accounted for 70.16% of the total variance. In Table 2, the items that loaded onto
each factor are displayed. The items were employed to create a scale and reliability
analysis was performed for each factor. Cronbach’s alpha exceeded .70 and thus,
the scales were deemed to be reliable. This information is also presented in Table
2. The three scales measured the following referral behaviours:
inattention/distractibility, hyperactivity and disruptive behaviours.
Table 2: Sub-scales, Cronbach’s alpha of the ADHD Referral Questionnaire

Scale 1: Inattention/Distractibility Cronbach’s
alpha .86
N Item
1 Quiet often does not seem to listen when talking to him
2 Most of the time cannot complete his/her homework on time
3 Often has difficulty organizing tasks and activities
4 Often forgets the necessary school supplies
5 Always makes trivial or careless mistakes in homework

343
6 Often cannot focus on task for a long time

7 Often cannot pay attention while performing class assignments
8 Often has difficulty in following directions
9 Often fails to finish assigned task in class
10 Often gets distracted by external stimuli
11 Often has difficulty concentrating in-class activities
12 Often moves from one activity to another without completing the first activity
13 Does not show enthusiasm in learning new skills
14 Often avoids doing the work that requires mental effort
19 Always has difficulty remembering everyday activities
26 Often acts before thinking
27 Often has difficulty in turn-taking
28 Often interrupts others when they are talking
34 Often rushes through work
35 Often has hard time following directions
Scale 2: Hyperactivity Cronbach’s

alpha .79
N Item
15 Achieves below academic expectations
16 Always on the move in or outside the classroom
17 Always on the move in and outside the classroom
18 Often has difficulty sitting quietly for a long time compared to his/her peers
20 Often jumps in situations in which it is inappropriate
21 Often fidgets with hands and moves his/her feet constantly
22 Often speaks and is noisy in the classroom
23 Often overtly expresses distress
24 Talks excessively in the classroom
25 Often plays with things in the classroom
32 Often he/she cannot control his/her reaction to various situations
Scale 3: Disruptive Behaviours Cronbach’s

alpha .81
N Item
29 Often breaks or damages things inside the classroom
30 Often breaks or destroys things outside the classroom
31 Always fights with others
33 Often blurts out
36 Lacks social skills

344
2.2.2 The ADHD Management Strategies Questionnaire (AMSQ).

The AMSQ, the second instrument employed, was developed to identify
management strategies used by elementary school teachers to reduce ADHD
children’s disruptive behaviours. The questionnaire comprises 19 items, which
are assessed on a four-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (rarely) to 4 (always).
All the items in the AMSQ were derived from the literature to ensure content
validity. The researchers also used their clinical judgment to select the items. The
content validity of the AMSQ was assessed by three specialists in the field of
special education who were asked to determine the intended content. The
percentage of agreement amongst the specialists was 75%. The researchers tested
the two questionnaires to determine whether the instruments were clear and
appropriate. The reliability of the AMSQ instrument was established by
administering the Referral Scale and AMSQ on 20 elementary teachers and re-
administered two weeks after its initial administration. The correlation between
individuals’ first and second scores was high (r = .88, p ˂ .01).
Principal components factor analysis with oblimin rotation was employed to

identify which items loaded onto similar factors. Three factors emerged, which
accounted for 62.03% of the total variance. In Table 3, the items loaded onto each
factor are displayed. The items were employed to create a scale and reliability
analysis was conducted for each factor. Cronbach’s alpha exceeded .60 in each
instance and thus, the scales were deemed to be reliable; this is presented in Table
3. The following types of management were measured by the three scales:
behavioural intervention, home/parent intervention and academic intervention.
Table 3: Sub-scales, Cronbach’s alpha of the ADHD Management Strategies

Questionnaire
Scale 1: Behaviour Intervention Cronbach’s
alpha .85
N Item
1 Use positive words, smiles and gifts in reducing hyperactivity, impulsivity,
and/or inattention behaviours.
5 Allow children with ADHD to play quietly and with educational games in my
classroom.
6 Minimize classroom tasks or assignment for students with ADHD.
7 Assign responsibilities (e.g., a trip to the office, turning on the computer) for
students with ADHD to use their excessive amount of energy.
9 Use technology in my teaching to help children with ADHD focus in my
classroom.
10 Encourage my students to use self-management strategies to deal with their high
activity behaviours.
11 Give students with ADHD an opportunity to have a choice of classroom
activities.
12 Use positive and negative reinforcement to reduce hyperactivity and/or
inattention problems.
16 Frequently reinforce the classroom rules through visible modes of presentation.

345
Scale 2: Home/Parent Intervention Cronbach’s

alpha .71
N Item
3 Advise parents to use drugs to treat ADHD
4 Advise parents to allow their ADHD child to move around and give them
reasonable chores at home
8 Advise parents that diet plays a significant role in attention deficit and impulse
control.
15 Advise parents to train their children with ADHD to follow their daily schedule.
17 Help parents identify all available community resources that help them deal with
their children with ADHD.
Scale 3: Academic Intervention Cronbach’s

alpha .63
N Item
2 Use several strategies such as time out, ignoring inappropriate behaviours, and
punishment to reduce hyperactivity.
6 Minimize classroom tasks or assignments for students with ADHD.
13 Minimize irrelevant stimuli from the student's environment.
14 Tie up a student with ADHD to his/her chair during the lesson to stop distracting
other students.
18 Keep students with ADHD away from irrelevant activities that distract their
attention.
19 Write the classroom rules with clear consequences on board and review it every
day with my students with ADHD.
3. Results
To determine what factors teachers perceive to contribute to referring students
with ADHD to special education services, a one-sample t-test was conducted to
examine the statistical difference between the sample mean and a hypothesized
or virtual mean (2.5). This hypothesized mean was obtained by dividing the sum
of the Likert categories (1 to 4) by four. The results are presented in Table 4. Special
education teachers perceived inattention/distractibility to be a contributing factor
for referring students with ADHD, t (14) = 2.65, p < .01. However, general
education teachers perceived inattention/distractibility, t (36) = 3.90, p < .01 and
hyperactivity, (t (36) = 6.18, p < .01) to be contributing factors.
To determine what management strategies UAE general and special education

teachers use primarily when dealing with students with ADHD, a one-sample t-
test was conducted to examine the statistical difference between the sample mean
and a hypothesized or virtual mean (2.5). The results revealed that the
management strategies that were frequently used by special education teachers
included behaviour intervention, t (14) = 4.28, p < .01, home/parent intervention,
t (14) = 2.76, p < .01 and academic intervention, t (14) = 2.15, p < .01, general
education teachers frequently used behaviour intervention, t (36) = 8.45, p < .01
and academic intervention, t (36) = 3.95, p < .01.

346
Table 4: Means, Standard Deviations, and One-Sample t-test results of the ADHD
Referral Questionnaire
General Education Special Education Teachers
Teachers (df = 36) (df = 14)
M SD t M SD t
Behaviour intervention 3.20 0.50 8.45 ** 3.28 0.69 4.38 **
Home/parent intervention 2.59 0.64 0.90 2.92 0.59 2.76 **
Academic intervention 2.83 0.51 3.96 ** 2.84 0.62 2.15 **
Inattention/distractibility 2.87 0.58 3.90 ** 2.94 0.65 2.65 **
Hyperactivity 3.00 0.49 6.18 ** 2.83 0.67 1.90
Disruptive behaviours 2.70 0.64 1.88 2.59 0.84 0.40
To determine the effect of years of teaching experience, domain (general versus

special education teachers), and teachers’ experience of ADHD on the referral and
management subscales, a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was
conducted. Whereas the independent variables included teachers’ experience,
domain, and teachers’ experience with ADHD, the dependent variables
comprised the subscales of the referral and management questionnaires. The use
of MANOVA allowed for the control of type I errors. Levene’s test of equality of
error variances for the dependent variables was not statistically significant (p ˃
.05). The means, standard deviations, F values, and eta squared values are
displayed in Table 5. The results revealed a significant main effect of years of
teaching experience; Wilks’ Lambda F (6, 21) = 14.16, p < .01, η2 = .35 for behaviour
intervention and Wilks’ Lambda F (6, 21) = 5.30, p < .05, η2 = .20 for home/parent
intervention. To analyse the main effect, Bonferroni tests were employed as post-
hoc measurements. Effect sizes were interpreted as follows: .01 = small, .06 =
medium, and .14 = large (Cohen, 1988). The results revealed that the effect size of
the main effect of teachers’ experience for the two subscales was large. Post-hoc
analyses revealed that those who had ten years or more experience scored
significantly higher than those who had taught between one and three years in
both the behaviour intervention subscale, F (1, 26) = 14.66, p ˂ .01, η2 = .35 and the
home/parent intervention subscale, F (1, 26) = 5.30, p ˂ .05, η2 = .17. The
MANOVA results also revealed a significant main effect of teachers’ experience
with ADHD; Wilks’ Lamda F (12, 42) = 3.58, p < .05, η2 = .28 for the
inattention/distractibility subscale and Wilks’ Lamda F (12, 42) = 4.95, p < .05, η2
= .22 for the hyperactivity subscale. The effect size of this main effect was large.
Post-hoc analyses showed that the group with moderate experience of ADHD
scored significantly higher than the group with much experience in the
hyperactivity subscale, F (2, 26) = 3.57, p ˂ .05, η2 = .22. The group with moderate
experience also scored significantly higher than the inexperienced group, F (2, 26)
= 4.95, p ˂ .01, η2 = .28. The main effect of the domain (special versus general
education teachers) was not statistically significant.

347
Table 5: Means, Standard Deviations, F values, and eta Squared Values of Years of
Teaching Experience, Domain, and Experience with ADHD
Subscale Teachers’ experience
F (6, 21) η2
Behaviour intervention 14.16 ** .35
Home/parent intervention 5.30 * .20
Academic intervention 2.66 .09
Inattention/distractibility 1.01 .02
Hyperactivity .003 .001
Disruptive behaviours .074 .009
Domain
F (6, 21) η2
Behaviour intervention 1.07 .04
Home/parent intervention .01 .00
Academic intervention .41 .02
Inattention/distractibility .23 .01
Hyperactivity 1.37 .05
ADHD Experience
F (12, 42) η2
Behaviour intervention .47 .04
Home/parent intervention .91 .07
Academic intervention 2.74 .17
Inattention/distractibility 3.58 * .22
Hyperactivity 4.95 * .28
Behaviour intervention .47 .04
Pearson product-moment correlation was used to explore the relationship

between the referral and management subscales. The results showed that there
was a positive correlation between the academic intervention subscale and the
inattention/distractibility subscale, r = .46, p ˂ .01. The relationships among the
subscales of the two scales are presented in Table 6.
Table 6: Correlations among the Subscales of the Two Questionnaires
Behavio Home/ Academi Inattentio Disrupti
ur parent c n/ ve
intervent intervent intervent Distractibi Hyperacti Behavio
ion ion ion lity vity urs
Behaviour
intervention - .54** .56** .24 .13 .07
Home/parent
intervention - .39** .08 .03 -.03
Academic
intervention - .46** .26 .19
Inattention/Distrac
tibility - .70** .57**
Hyperactivity - .65**
Disruptive
Behaviours -

348
4. Discussion
The purpose of this study was to explore how teachers in the UAE identify
children with ADHD and to examine the management strategies elementary
school teachers in the UAE use to reduce ADHD behaviours. These research
findings provide empirical support in relation to the factors teachers perceive
contribute to their referral of students with ADHD. The results revealed that both
general and special education teachers in the UAE perceived
inattention/distractibility to be a contributing factor for referring students with
ADHD to special education services, but not disruptive behaviour. This finding
concurs with previous research (e.g., Gwernan-Jones et al., 2016; Ljusberg, 2011)
that revealed that teachers lack knowledge of ADHD and the possible effects on
the social and academic achievement of students with ADHD. Additionally,
special education teachers in this study did not perceive hyperactivity to be a
contributing factor. This could be because they feared that they might refer
students with behavioural problems for special education services too quickly.
In relation to the management strategies that are frequently employed by special

education and general education teachers in the UAE, the findings of this study
revealed that in-service teachers often employed behaviour intervention and
academic intervention management strategies. However, the home/parent intervention
management strategy was commonly used only by special education teachers.
The fact that general education teachers know less about intervention
management strategies for students with ADHD corroborates findings of
previous studies conducted in Africa (Blotnicky-Gallant et al., 2014) and Saudi
Arabia (Abed et al., 2014). Besides, the MANOVA results revealed that the more
experienced teachers used different management strategies, including behaviour
intervention and home/parent intervention than the less experienced teachers. This
finding concurs with Vereb and DiPerna (2004) who found a positive significant
relationship between teachers’ knowledge of ADHD, years of teaching experience
with ADHD and medication acceptability. Additionally, post hoc analyses
indicated that teachers with moderate experience with ADHD scored higher than
inexperienced teachers in the hyperactive scale, which suggests that teachers with
moderate experience perceived hyperactivity to be a contributing factor to refer
students with ADHD to special education services. This finding is consistent with
a previous cross-national study’s findings, which found that prior experience with
ADHD was associated with more teachers’ knowledge of ADHD (Sciutto et al.,
2016). With respect to the relationship between teachers’ responses to the referral
and management scales, the results revealed that there was a positive correlation
between the academic intervention subscale and the inattention/distractibility subscale.
Thus, the frequent use of academic intervention management strategies was
positively related to in-service teachers’ perceptions of the
inattention/distractibility scale as a contributing factor to referring ADHD
students to special services. This finding concurs with previous research, which
revealed that appropriate classroom management strategies are linked to in-
service teachers’ knowledge base (Han & Weiss, 2005).

349
5. Conclusion
Findings of this study revealed that general and special education teachers lack
knowledge of all contributing factors for ADHD referral. More specifically,
general and special education teachers in this study did not perceive disruptive
behaviour as a contributing factor. This finding may suggest that elementary school
teachers in the UAE do not have adequate knowledge about the symptoms of
ADHD. It is thus recommended that teacher training programmes may need to
include more aspects of ADHD symptoms in their curriculum to equip teachers
with the necessary knowledge to refer students to special education services.
Previous researchers indicated that teacher training programs have a positive
impact on increasing teachers’ knowledge of ADHD and appropriate
interventions for ADHD students (e.g., Alabd et al., 2018; Lasisi et al., 2017; Sciutto
et al., 2016). Additionally, this study revealed that general education teachers in
the UAE do not use home/parent intervention management strategies. It is
imperative that all teachers in the UAE utilize multimodal intervention including
advising parents, teacher intervention and child intervention because students
with ADHD are a heterogeneous group. Thus, there is no single intervention that
will enhance the functioning of all of these students in classrooms. It is also
imperative that general education teachers in the UAE elementary schools know
that research has revealed that advising and training parents on how to deal with
their children with ADHD respond very positively to reducing these children’s
inappropriate behaviours. Additionally, managing students with ADHD
behaviours is a complex issue that should take into account the students’
academic, behavioural and home intervention strategies to address students’
inappropriate behaviours when they emerge. The relationship between teachers’
knowledge of ADHD and teaching experience has always been an important issue
to consider as more experienced teachers have the ability to control inappropriate
behaviours. In this study, probably the more experienced teachers’ were less likely
to refer children with attention deficits and hyperactivity symptoms because they
are more skilful in managing and changing students’ behaviours. It is
recommended that future research addresses the various limitations of this study
such as the small sample of elementary school teachers from six schools so that
the findings can be generalized.
Acknowledgement: This research is funded by the Research Office at the United

Arab Emirates University.
6. References
Abed, M., Pearson, S., Clarke, P., & Chambers, M. (2014). Saudi Arabian teachers'
knowledge and beliefs about ADHD. Journal of the International Association of
Special Education, 15(1), 67-74.
Alabd, A. M., Mesbah, S. K., & Alboliteeh, M. (2018). Effect of educational program on
elementary school teachers’ knowledge, attitude, and classroom management
techniques regards attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. International Journal of
Studies in Nursing, 3(3), 159-171. https://doi.org/10.20849/ijsn.v3i3.528
Arcia, E., Frank, R., Sanchez-LaCay, & Fernaindez, M. C. (2012). Teacher understanding
of ADHD as reflected in attributions and classroom strategies. Journal of Attention
Disorders, 4(2), 91–101. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F108705470000400203

350
American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental

Disorders (5th edition). Arlington, VA., American Psychiatric Association.
Retrieved from https://www.adhd-health.com/adhd/adhd-dsm-iv-diagnosis
Barkley, R. (2020). Taking Charge of ADHD: The Complete, Authoritative Guide for Parents (4th
edition). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
Bener, A., Al Qahtani, R., & Abdelaal, I. (2006). The prevalence of ADHD among primary
school children in an Arabian society. Journal of Attention Disorders, 10(1), 77–82.
Blotnicky-Gallant, P., Martin, C., McGonnell, M., & Corkum, P. (2014). Nova Scotia
teachers’ ADHD knowledge, beliefs and classroom management practices.
Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 30(1), 3-21.
Bu-Haroon, A., Eapen, V., & Bener, A. (1999). The prevalence of hyperactivity symptoms
in the United Arab Emirates. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 53(6), 439–442. Retrieved
from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/289284099_The_prevalence_of_hyp
eractivity_symptoms_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers
Doernberg, E., & Hollander, E. (2016). CNS Spectrums, 21, 295–299. Retrieved from
https://www.cambridge.org/core
Drugli, M. B. (2013). How are closeness and conflict in student-teacher relationships
associated with demographic factors, school functioning and mental health in
Norwegian school children aged 6-13? Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research,
57(2), 217–225. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2012.656276
DuPaul, G. J., Eckert, T. L., & Vilardo, B. (2012). The effects of school-based interventions
for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A meta-analysis 1996-2010. School
Psychology Review, 41(4), 387-412. Retrieved from
https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-323144111/the-effects-of-
school-based-interventions-for-attention
Elhoweris, H. (2014). The effect of the label “giftedness” on United Arab Emirates pre-
service teachers’ diagnosis decisions. International Journal of Education and Research,
2(11), 515–524. Retrieved from
https://www.ijern.com/journal/2014/November-2014/42.pdf
Epstein, M., Atkins, M., Cullinan, D., Kutash, K., & Weaver, R. (2008). Reducing behaviour
problems in the elementary school classroom: A practice guide. Washington, DC:
National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of
Education Sciences. Retrieved from
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED502720.pdf
Ewe, L. P. (2019). ADHD symptoms and teacher-student relationship: a systematic
literature review: A systematic literature review. Emotional and Behavioural
Difficulties, 24(2), 136–155. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632752.2019.1597562
Fabiano, G., Pelham, W., Majumdar, A., Evans, S., Manos, M., Caserta, D., & Carter, R.
(2013). Elementary and middle school teacher perceptions of attention deficit/
hyperactivity disorder prevalence. Child & Youth Care Forum, 42(2), 87–99.
Faraone, S. V., Asherson, P., Banaschewski, T., Biederman, J., Buitelaar, J. K., Ramos-
Quiroga, J. A., & Franke, B. (2015). Attention deficit/hyperactive disorder. Nature
Review Diseases Primers, 1, 15020.
Friend, M., & Bursuck, W. D. (2018). Including Students with Special Needs: A practical guide
for classroom teachers (8th edition). Boston, MA: Pearson.

351
Gwernan-Jones, R., Moore, D., Cooper, P., Russell, A., Richardson, M., Rogers, M.,
Thompson-Coon, J., Stein, K., Ford, T., & Garside, R. (2016). A systematic review
and synthesis of qualitative research: The influence of school context on
symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Emotional and Behavioural
Difficulties, 21, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632752.2015.1120055
Han, S. S., & Weiss, B. (2005). Sustainability of teacher implementation of school-based
mental health programs. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33, 665–679.
Korpershoek, H., Harms, T., de Boer, H., van Kuijk, M., & Doolaard, S. (2016). A Meta-
analysis of the effects of classroom management strategies and classroom
management programs on students’ academic, behavioural, emotional, and
motivational outcomes. Review of Educational Research, 86, 643–680.
Lasisi, D., Ani, C., Lasebikan, V. Sheikh, L., & Omigbodun, O. (2017). Effect of attention-
deficit–hyperactivity-disorder training program on the knowledge and attitudes
of primary school teachers in Kaduna, North West Nigeria. Child Adolesc.
Psychiatry Ment. Health, 11, 15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-017-0153-8
Liu, A., Xu, Y., Yan, Q., & Tong, L. (2018). The prevalence of attention deficit/hyperactivity
disorder among Chinese children and adolescents. Scientific Reports, 8, 11169.
Ljusberg, A.-L. (2011). The structured classroom. International Journal of Inclusive
Education, 15(2), 195–210. http://doi.org/10.1080/13603110902763433
Martinussen, R., Tannock, R., & Chaban, P. (2011). Teachers' reported use of instructional
and behaviour management practices for students with behaviour problems:
relationship to role and level of training in ADHD. Child & Youth Care Forum,
40(3), 193–210. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-010-9130-6
Miranda, A., Jarque, S., & Tarraga, R. (2006). Intervention in school settings for students
with ADHD. Exceptionality, 14(1), 35–52.
https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327035ex1401_4
Ohan, J., Visser, T. A. W., Strain, M. C., & Allen, L. (2011). Teachers' and education
students' perceptions of and reactions to children with and without the diagnostic
Label "ADHD." Journal of School Psychology, 49(1), 81–105.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2010.10.001
Öner, Ö., Vatanartiran, S., & Karadeniz, S. (2019). Relationships between teacher-reported
ADHD symptom profiles and academic achievement domains in a no referred
convenience sample of first- to fourth-grade students. Psychiatry and Clinical
Psychopharmacology, 29(4), 502-508.
Owens, J. S., Coles, E. K., Evans, S. W., Himawan, L. K., Girio-Herrera, E., & Schulte, A. C.
(2017). Using multi-component consultation to increase integrity with which
teachers implement behavioural classroom interventions. A pilot study. School
Mental Health, 9(3), 218–234. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-017-9217-4
Portilla, X. A., Ballard, P. J., Adler, N. E., Boyce, W. T., & Obradovic, J. (2014). An
integrative view of school functioning: Transactions between self-regulation,
school engagement, and teacher-child relationship quality. Child Development,
85(5), 1915–1931. https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fcdev.12259
Poznanski, B., Hart, K. C., & Cramer, E. (2018). Are teachers ready? Preservice teacher
knowledge of classroom management and ADHD. School Mental Health, 10(3),
301–313.
Rabiner, D. L., Malone, P. S., & the Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group (2004).
The impact of tutoring on early reading achievement for children with and

352
without attention problems. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 32, 273-284.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/B:JACP.0000026141.20174.17
Reinke, W. M., Stormont, M., Herman, K. C., Puri, R., & Goel, N. (2011). Supporting
children’s mental health in schools: Teacher perceptions of needs, roles, and
barriers. School Psychology Quarterly, 26, 1–13.
https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0022714
Rushton, S., Giallo, R., & Efron, D. (2019). ADHD and emotional engagement with school
in the primary years: Investigating the role of student-teacher relationships.
British Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(S1), 1–17.
https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12316
Salehi, S., Noah, S., & Jaafar, W. (2011). Primary school teachers’ perceptions about attention
deficit and sense of time among ADHD children. Paper presented at the 4th
International Conference of Cognitive Science, Tehran, Iran.
Salend, S. (2015). Creating Inclusive Classrooms: Effective and Reflective Practices for all
Students (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.
Salend, S., Elhoweris, H., & VanGarderen, D. (2003). Educational interventions for
students with ADD. Intervention in School and Clinic, 38(5), 280–288.
Sciutto, M. J., Terjesen, M. D., Kučerová, A., Michalová, Z., Schmiedeler, S.,
Antonopoulou, K., Shaker, N. Z., Lee, J.-Y., Alkahtani, K., Drake, B., & Rossouw,
J. (2016). Cross-national comparisons of teachers’ knowledge and misconceptions
of ADHD. International Perspectives in Psychology: Research, Practice, Consultation,
5(1), 34–50. https://doi.org/10.1037/ipp0000045
Schultz, B., Storer, J., Watabe, Y., Sadler, J., & Evans, S. (2011). School-based treatment of
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Psychology in the Schools, 48(3), 254–
262. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20553
Tannock, R., & Martinussen, R. (2001). Reconceptualizing ADHD. Educational leadership,
59 (3), 20–25. Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-
leadership/nov01/vol59/num03/Reconceptualizing--ADHD.aspx
Vereb, R. L., & DiPerna, J. C. (2004). Teachers' knowledge of ADHD, treatments for
ADHD, and treatment acceptability: An initial investigation. School Psychology
Review, 33(3), 421–428.

353

Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 353-369, June 2020
Exploring Accounting Teachers’ Views on the

Quality of Accounting Prescribed Textbooks in
South Africa
Jabulisile C. Ngwenya and S’khumbuzo H. Mbili

University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
Abstract. Textbooks are regarded as the primary conduits for delivering

knowledge content to the students. As a result, teachers base their lesson
plans on the material given in textbooks to ensure the effectiveness of
instruction. This study focuses on teachers’ views on the quality of grade
12 Accounting prescribed textbooks. An interpretive, qualitative case
study design was employed to get an in-depth understanding of teachers’
views. We used semi-structured interviews to obtained data from ten
purposively selected Accounting teachers. What emerged from the
findings is that, although textbooks are aligned with the curriculum in
terms of topics covered, teachers found textbooks wanting in guiding and
supporting teachers with regard to teaching new content and assessment
activities. A lack of support and guidance in textbooks compelled teachers
to use other support materials to compensate for the shortfalls in the
prescribed textbooks. The study recommended that more than one
prescribed textbook should be bought for students. In addition to the
prescribed textbooks, teachers should be provided with more books for
consultation during lesson preparations and teaching. Other learning and
teaching support materials should be made available to avoid heavy
reliance on textbooks.
Keywords: Accounting teachers; Accounting prescribed textbooks;

quality textbooks
1. Introduction
The quality of the education system depends on the quality interaction between
students and teachers through the use of learning and teaching resources.
Teachers regard textbooks as one of the significant resources that they need to
deliver content effectively. Studies globally show that the majority of teachers
routinely used textbooks since they provide them with teaching strategies,
activities and assessment tasks (Chirwa & Naidoo, 2016; Freahat & Smadi, 2014;
Swanepoel, 2010; Tarmana & Kuran, 2015). Textbooks are regarded as an essential
instructional material used for teaching and learning. The implication is that in

354
many countries textbooks are used by teachers as the predominant source of

teaching and learning activities. As a result, they have turned out to be the
curriculum on which teachers rely (Freahat & Smadi, 2014; Morales & Baker, 2018;
Tarmana & Kuran, 2015). Thus what is taught in the classroom is predominantly
guided, organised and restricted to what is contained in the textbook.
In South Africa, the Minister of Basic Education emphasised the critical role of
textbooks in schools as a dominant resource to maintain the implementation of
the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS). In its attempt to
improve the quality of education in South Africa, textbooks were being
reintroduced in classrooms as a crucial resource for students and teachers as one
of the ways of improving teaching and learning. This is supported by Yang and
Sianturi (2017), who stressed that during the process of educational reform
textbooks are used to support teachers in the enactment of the curriculum as they
offer appropriate pacing and weighting of content. Consequently, textbooks are
regarded by the Department of Basic Education (DBE) as an ‘effective tool that is
being used to ensure consistency, curriculum and assessment scope, suitable
pacing and better quality in terms of teaching in implementing a curriculum’
(Department of Education (DoE), 2009, p.9). As such, textbooks strongly influence
what students learn because they help teachers decide what to teach, how to teach
it, and what types of exercises to assign to students. As textbooks are viewed as
the most effective tools through which to deliver the curriculum and support
assessments, textbooks need to be aligned with the recognised curriculum
(Sunday, 2014).
However, while the Department of Basic Education stresses the use of textbooks
as the primary resource for teachers, shortage of textbooks still persists in South
Africa. Despite the DBE recommendation that teachers should use of a minimum
of three textbooks in planning and teaching (DBE, 2011), in several schools,
especially in the disadvantaged context, only one textbook is prescribed for both
teachers and students due to financial constraints. As a result, teachers often
depend excessively on the prescribed textbook.
The prominence of textbooks is also apparent in Accounting. Accounting is a

discipline that requires consistent practice due to its practical nature (Barac & du
Plessis, 2014; Erasmus & Fourie, 2018; Myers, 2016). As the subject requires
frequent application exercises, textbooks are expected to support teachers and
students in the learning process with suitable activities and a wide range of
examples that support students’ reflection (Adeoye & Olabiyi,
2011). Furthermore, the Accounting curriculum requires students to participate
in effective learning that enhances creative, problem solving and critical thinking
skills (Barac & du Plessis, 2014; DBE, 2011). These skills are expected to be
delivered by the textbooks that are being used in schools.
However, in many schools in South Africa, teachers are likely to rely heavily on
textbooks as they are the only source of information for content to be taught.
While the practical nature of the subject compels Accounting teachers to give
students a variety of assessment tasks, teachers often find it challenging to use

355
textbooks sparingly or supplement with other materials due to a shortage of

adequate resources. As a consequence, most teachers, including new teachers,
treasure textbooks as their sole teaching and learning resource. This is because
textbooks provide teachers with class activities and homework to allow students
to practice different skills learned in class (Davidson & Baldwin, 2005; Myers,
2016; Terblanche & de Clercq, 2020). Because textbooks are likely to be the critical
definers of what is taught and learnt, teachers are more likely to follow closely
what is offered in the textbook. In addition, the subject Accounting has been
overwhelmed with recurring curriculum changes due to global changes in
Accounting standards. As the Department of Basic Education regards textbooks
as useful tools for curriculum delivery, textbooks should provide teachers with
adequate support and guidance in teaching the new topics effectively. Although
textbooks are an integral element in the educational process, there is still
considerable debate on the quality of prescribed textbooks. Since Accounting
teachers are known to rely on textbooks (Terblanche & de Clercq, 2020), it is
imperative that quality of textbooks be investigated to ascertain the extent to
which they contribute to attaining the desired learning objectives.
While there is substantial literature on textbooks internationally (Cho, 2017;

Morales & Baker, 2018; Liang & Cobern, 2013; Lin & Yang, 2015; Sunday, 2014;
Tarmana & Kuran, 2015; Yang & Sianturi 2017), few studies have been embarked
on textbooks in South Africa (Arek-Bawa & Dhunpath, 2017; Bargate, 2012;
Bharath, 2015; Chirwa & Naidoo, 2016). Furthermore, literature shows that there
is a shortage of research on the quality of Accounting textbooks. This consequent
paucity makes the findings reported in this paper particularly remarkable as the
study adds to knowledge by filling in the gap in the current literature in
Accounting, especially on teachers’ views on the quality of prescribed textbooks.
The research is guided by the following question: What are the Accounting
teachers’ views on the quality of the grade 12 Accounting prescribed textbooks?
In order to shed light on the teachers’ views on the quality of Accounting
textbooks, the relevant literature on the importance of textbooks in teaching and
learning, the nature of the Accounting subject and the use of textbooks and the
quality of textbooks and characteristics of a quality textbook will be reviewed.
Furthermore, literature on the preceding studies on teachers views on the quality
of textbooks will be provided.
2.1 Importance of textbooks in teaching and learning

Fan (2013) and Gök (2012) view a textbook as a pool of the knowledge, ideas,
concepts, and values of a particular topic which is usually written by education
specialists who are experts in a particular field. Literature shows that textbooks
assist in the implementation of curriculum reforms because textbooks support
teachers in the interpretation and execution of the curriculum (Chirwa & Naidoo,
2016; Freahat & Smadi, 2014; Yang & Sianturi, 2017; Tarmana & Kuran, 2015).
Textbooks are often used as a curriculum guide and the primary organiser of the
content that students are required to learn. Therefore, textbooks convey thorough
explanations of topics to be taught. In other words textbooks link the planned

356
curriculum to the enacted curriculum or implemented curriculum (Fan, 2013;

Swanepoel, 2010). This implies that the utilisation of the textbook in teaching and
learning will ensure that the objectives of the curriculum are reached and the
students understand the content of the subject.
Students’ opportunities to learn are largely determined by textbooks as they often

directly influence teachers’ choice of content and instructional strategies (Fan,
2013; Lin & Yang, 2015). The textbooks help teachers to organise their teaching by
identifying the topics and also attempt to specify how classroom lessons can be
structured with suitable exercises and activities. In this way, textbooks give
teachers the opportunity to provide their students with more content knowledge,
examples and assessment activities. It is therefore important for teachers as
facilitators of learning to be conscious of the quality and limitations of the
prescribed textbooks because the quality of textbooks has a significant influence
on the quality of teaching.
2.2 The nature of the Accounting subject and the use of textbooks
In Accounting, textbooks are regarded as the most commonly used teaching and
learning support material as it entails a specific form of practice and instruction
(Abbott & Palatnik, 2018; Erasmus & Fourie, 2018; Pereira & Sithole, 2020). This is
because learning in the subject occurs mostly through the regular practice of
different skills due to the practical nature of the subject. (Erasmus & Fourie, 2018;
Myers, 2016). Accounting textbooks provide an important source of material for
reviewing and recapping the lessons taught in the class. It therefore, encourages
self-study and independent work among the students which is of utmost
importance in a practical subject like Accounting. Consequently, Accounting
textbooks provide extra opportunities for students to do their work
independently at their own pace to cover the complex nature of the subject and to
expand conceptions of the discipline (Abbott & Palatnik, 2018).
According to Barac and Du Plessis (2014), students should be given a range of

assessment tasks to equip them with a variety of skills. In Accounting, the first
skill that learners should acquire is the understanding of concepts. Mastering
concepts serves as a basis for application, analytical and evaluation skills in each
Accounting topic (DBE, 2011). The textbooks provide clear definition of such key
concepts and core knowledge while providing clear learning progressions. This
encourages students to understand financial concepts and increase their
knowledge by providing activities that promote critical thinking skills. The
implication is that frequent exposure to financial problems and scenarios is
essential for students to develop capability and the skills. This entails teaching
approaches that stimulate active student learning through projects, problem-
solving, case studies and authentic scenarios (Pereira & Sithole, 2020; Tarmana &
Kuran, 2015). It is assumed that prescribed Accounting textbooks should have
these activities.
As the subject Accounting is hierarchical in nature, textbook provides insight to

the teacher in planning lesson as it helps him to decide about the limits and depth
of coverage of the content to be presented to the students while teaching. The

357
logical and psychological sequencing followed in a textbook helps the teachers in

presenting the subject matter in an orderly and systematic sequence. This further
shows the importance of the textbook in Accounting as a subject. It is for this
reason that the teachers’ views regarding the quality of these textbooks need to be
explored.
2.3 Teachers views on the quality of textbooks

Extensive research has been conducted to investigate the quality of textbooks
from the teachers’ viewpoint in History, Geography Biology, Science,
Mathematics and English. Fan (2013), Lin and Yang (2015); Kimmons (2015),
Salam and Shahrill (2015), Sunday (2014), and Yang and Sianturi (2017) conducted
studies on teachers' views and perceptions of quality of Maths textbooks.
Kimmons (2015), in his study teachers indicated that the textbooks they used in
teaching Mathematics in Turkey do not have a good quality of activities for
examination preparation. He found that textbooks provided insufficient activities
to prepare the students to pass exams. Similarly, in Yang and Sianturi’s (2017)
study, most teachers in Singapore felt that Maths textbooks do not have enough
activities for learners to practice and this was having an impact on learning. Salam
and Shahrill (2015) in Singapore found that Maths textbooks had more higher-
order level questions on linear function topics. On the contrary, Yang and Sianturi
(2017) found that teachers were concerned about the level of cognitive demand
for assessment in mathematics textbooks. While the textbooks covered all the
content and concepts adequately, trigonometry textbooks contain questions that
largely entail lower levels of cognitive demand. The concern was that such
textbooks do not enhance student learning since students are seldom asked to
tackle challenging problems.
Janko and Knecht (2013); Lee and Catling (2016); Tarmana and Kuran (2015);
Yang, Wang and Xu (2015) did studies on Geography textbooks. Tarmana and
Kuran (2015) conducted a study on Social Studies textbooks. They found that
textbooks contained insufficient higher-order cognitive level questions. Similarly,
Lee and Catling (2016) found that there was a scarcity of assessment tasks in
Junior Geography textbooks in the United Sates. Teachers were worried that a
shortage of activities in textbooks is probably restricting students' opportunities
to improve different abilities and skills unique to Geography. Like Lee and
Catling, in Yang, Wang and Xu’s (2015) study, Geography teachers in secondary
schools in China had difficulties in assigning extra classwork or homework to
nurture and reinforce what learners have learned in class due to a shortage of
activities. Janko and Knecht (2013) examined the visuals included in Czech
geography textbooks and found that realistic visuals were dominant in Czech
geography textbooks. However, Lee and Catling (2016) found that there were few
visuals in geography textbooks. Furthermore, there were no connections between
subject matter and visuals like pictures that are meant to help learners understand
new content.
Morales and Baker (2018) conducted a study on teachers' views on Open Science
textbooks. They found that science textbooks were lacking severely in terms of
content coverage. Although topics were mentioned, textbooks content had not

358
been covered thoroughly. Contrary to Morales and Baker, Cho (2017) investigated
teachers' beliefs about Biology textbooks and found that textbooks were aligned
to the curriculum in terms of content. Although the end of chapter assessments
were according to students’ mental development level, teachers found textbooks
lacking in terms of real-life activities.
Liang and Cobern (2013) investigated the teachers' perceptions on the quality of
the New Interchange English textbook. They found that the teachers were of the
same opinion that the content of the textbook was challenging, inspiring and
pertinent to students' development. However, they were not satisfied with the
layout of the textbooks since they were not organised appropriately (Liang &
Cobern, 2013). Their study is in line with Freahat and Smadi’s (2014) study on
teachers’ perspectives on the English textbooks in Jordan who found that
textbooks appeared to be wanting in terms of layout. They suggested that
textbooks need to be revised regarding its layout and design.
The literature reviewed shows that there is a shortage of studies on teachers’

perceptions and views on the quality of Accounting textbooks.
2.4 Characteristics of a quality textbook

A good textbook is one that has the characteristics and features that allow it to
support both students and teachers during the process of learning and teaching
(Chirwa & Naidoo, 2016; Terblanche & de Clercq, 2020). Because textbooks have
a strong influence on the effectiveness of instruction, a textbook is of good quality
if the students who use the textbook achieve the learning outcomes they are
supposed to attain (Swanepoel, 2010). In this regard, the availability of good
textbooks is one of the key elements in the effective implementation of curriculum
transformation (Chirwa & Naidoo, 2016; Swanepoel, 2010). Furthermore, research
has shown that textbooks should comply with the curriculum with regard to
content, learning activities and assessment, layout and teacher guidance
(Aggarwal, 2001; Swanepoel, 2010). According to Aggarwal (2001), the quality of
textbooks could be evaluated on organisation and presentation of content, verbal
and visual communication. For this article, teachers’ views were explored on the
guidance and support provided by textbooks in teaching and learning in terms of
how they reflect the requirements of the CAPS curriculum as regards to topics
coverage, explored on the guidance and support provided by textbooks in
teaching and learning in terms of sequencing of topics, background information,
learning objectives, motivational strategies and learning and assessment
activities.
3. Methodology
The interpretive qualitative case study approach was considered suitable for this
study as we were interested in understanding the meaning teachers have
constructed in making sense of the quality of their prescribed textbooks (Cohen,
Manion & Morrison, 2018). We believe that there are multiple meanings to a
phenomenon that are socially-constructed. The researcher construct meaning of
data from his viewpoint (Marshall & Rossman, 2014). We adopted a qualitative
case study design since the aim was to gain an in-depth understanding of

359
Accounting teachers’ views (Cohen et al., 2018; Marshall & Rossman, 2014). In the
case study, the main assumption is that the phenomenon is investigated as a
bound system (Creswell, 2014). In this study, the bound system was a group of
ten Accounting teachers.
3.1 Sampling
In this study, ten teachers who were teaching Accounting in Grade 12 were
purposively selected from ten schools that were conveniently sampled in the
Hibiscus coast District in KwaZulu-Natal. The number of participants is
supported by Schulze (2003), who writes that in a qualitative research study only
a few participants are involved because it aims at understanding and describing
a phenomenon as it develops in a natural setting.
3.2 Data generation

Semi-structured one-on-one interviews were used to probe the Accounting
teachers’ views on the quality of textbooks. The participants’ workplace was used
to conduct interviews during their free periods. Each interview took
approximately 45 minutes. These interviews were recorded and transcribed
verbatim to ensure that the participants’ views were captured correctly during
transcribing. Participants’ views on the quality of textbooks were supplemented
through teacher reflective journals. Teachers were asked to write their views in
their personal journals.
3.3 Data analysis

The data set obtained from semi-structured interviews was analysed using
thematic analyses (Cohen et al., 2018). The process of analysing data began by
write out audio-data to textual-data. We then read the transcripts numerous times
to identify units of meaning, in order to access the deeper meaning of the
responses received. During the process of open coding, categories were identified,
revised and gathered into particular themes that were used to report the findings.
Reflective journals were then analysed using themes that were developed from
the interviews
3.4 Ethical consideration

The ethical code of conduct was adhered to by acquiring permission to conduct
the research from the university where the authors are based. Other ethical
procedures which included informed consent, confidentiality and anonymity, and
voluntary participation were explained to the participants and adhered to
throughout the duration of the study. All participants were kept anonymous by
giving them pseudonyms.
4. Findings
The study aimed to explore teachers’ views on the quality of prescribed
Accounting textbooks. During the process of analysing the data gained from semi-
structured interviews, the literature on characteristics of quality textbooks were
used to develop the themes. To discuss the findings in this paper, we draw on
three themes that emerged during data analysis. These themes are as follows:
Textbooks’ alignment with the curriculum, the support provided by textbooks in
teaching new concepts and guidance and support in terms of assessment

360
activities. In the presentation of our findings, verbatim quotes are given to ensure
that the views of teachers are not lost.
4.1 Textbooks’ alignment with the curriculum

Teachers were asked about their views on the alignment of the Accounting
textbooks with the Accounting curriculum. The findings revealed that the main
topics in the textbooks are covered according to the curriculum stipulation.
Teachers, therefore, viewed textbooks as the supplementary resources to the
curriculum. However, they were concerned with sequencing and inadequate
information in other textbooks.
4.1.1 Topics and content coverage

The teachers’ views were unanimous concerning how topics were covered in their
textbooks about the specification in the Accounting curriculum. They were all
satisfied with the coverage of topics in their prescribed textbooks. Miss Nkomo
indicated that her textbook contains all topics as stipulated in the Accounting
curriculum: ‘Most textbooks cover all the topics that are in the Curriculum and
Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS). All topics are listed in the table of content like in
the CAPS’.
While teachers were content with the alignment of the textbooks with the
curriculum in terms of coverage of the main topics, teachers voiced concerns
regarding the coverage of content within the main topics. Teachers indicated that
some other textbooks did not have sufficient content, and as a result, they find it
problematic to prepare lessons. Miss Gusha expressed her dissatisfaction
regarding inadequate information in her prescribed textbook. This shortcoming
forced her to use more than one textbook to teach: ‘Textbooks do cover all the content,
but in some cases, you will find that a certain textbook explains much better than the other
textbook.’
Teachers were apprehensive about insufficient content on the new topics found
in the textbooks. They believed that Accounting textbooks should give students a
detailed background to lay a solid foundation during the introduction of new
topics. Mr Nyathi indicated that while the new topics appear in the textbooks, the
information provided is not comprehensive enough for students to understand
the topic. In addition, textbooks do not give the teachers sufficient content
required to explain the topics thoroughly in class: ‘The topic is there; the buyback of
shares is not explained clearly.’ Furthermore, while teachers are expected to prepare
students for examinations, some new topics do not appear at all in the Accounting
textbooks. Miss Nala expressed her disappointment: ‘We were told that Shareholding
would be examined, but it is not in the textbooks. We use exam guidelines.’
Teachers indicated that the information that is provided in the textbooks in

outdated and deceptive. Some of the scenarios found in the textbooks are based
on the old information. Teachers added that some prescribed books are ragged
and falling apart as they were bought while the new curriculum was implemented
in 2013 and schools are struggling financially to replace textbooks.

361
4.1.2 Sequencing of topics

The sequencing of topics in textbooks supports the learning of new knowledge by
helping teachers present the learning material in a logical order. However,
teachers found most textbooks to be misaligned with regard to the structure, as
they do not follow the same sequence as the Accounting curriculum. Most of the
textbooks were found elusive in terms of helping teachers with the sequencing of
their teaching. Miss Ndlovu said that: ‘In other textbooks the topics are mixed. Topics
are not arranged according to the CAPS and this is not helping us when teaching. That is
why we use examination guidelines’.
Teachers believed that chronological presentation of information is vital for

students' ability to understand what they are learning. Without a sequence in the
delivery of information, students could miss important details and remain
confused.
4.2 Support provided by textbooks in teaching new concepts

4.2 1 Learning outcomes and introductory information
While a textbook is expected to assist students achieve the learning objectives they
are required to reach, teachers were concerned about their textbooks because they
failed to provide learning outcomes. They expressed their dissatisfaction that they
have to constantly consult with the curriculum because textbooks do not give
them guidance in terms of depth of topics by outlining explicit learning outcomes.
This is what Miss Nyoka said: ‘There are no learning outcomes and there is nothing in
the textbook that guides me on how deep I must go with the teaching. I use my experience’.
Due to the absence of specific learning outcomes in the textbooks, teachers often
resorted to their own experience and understanding of the subject when teaching
particular topics.
Teachers indicated that some books have a checklist at the end of the chapter to
summarize the learning outcomes. Teachers were of the view that there is a huge
relationship between the learning objectives of the chapter and the checklist. They
firmly believed that textbooks should have objectives at the beginning of the
chapter and checklist at end of the chapter to guide and assist in verifying and
ensuring that all subtopics have been taught. Mr Ndlovu said that: ‘If textbooks do
not have checklists at the end of the topic, it disadvantages both students and teachers
because you need to check if you have covered everything in the topic. We end up using
CAPS and the ATP’.
The absence of learning outcomes and checklist in the textbooks is misleading
because teachers could not verify the content coverage within the topic. Hence
teachers relied heavily on the CAPS and the ATP.
4.2.2 Information on new concepts

In Accounting, understanding of concepts is essential for students to be able to
interpret financial information. Teachers felt that understanding of Accounting
concepts depends on the information found in the textbooks. What is remarkable
is that prescribed textbooks do not provide a detailed explanation of the unique
concepts. Mr Gama confirms this: ‘Textbooks should give students depth knowledge
about new Accounting terminology. Definitions are there but are not giving full

362
information.’ While textbooks were expected to provide detailed information on

concepts, they fall short in providing teachers with adequate information on the
new concepts.
4.2.3 The use of visuals in teaching and learning of new concepts

Textbooks should use different types of visuals to assist in reminding teachers and
students of the critical information on the topic. Teachers stated that textbooks
gave them less support concerning signifying the important information. Miss
Nene added that their textbooks have little indicators like bold words that caution
them with respect to the important concepts or information: ‘In my textbooks there
is a very minimal indication, if the concepts are written in bold, it sends a message to the
learner that this word is important’. Miss Jobe indicated that her textbook has key or
word boxes that alert her of essential concepts. Teachers specified that if the
information or concepts are written in boxes on the side of the text, it draws the
students’ attention.
Some teachers pointed out that their textbooks use different visuals, although they
were not introduced at the beginning of the textbook to give clarity on its meaning
and how they are used in the textbooks. Because they have been using the
textbooks for a long time, they know that essential concepts or information were
emphasised in small boxes and sometimes written in bold.
Additionally, Miss Nkomo revealed that her textbook also has graphics in the
form of pictures. These pictures assisted in explaining important information.
However, they were blurry since they were in black and white: ‘There are pictures
in my book, sometimes they give me more information, but they are in black and white’.
Other teachers added that in their textbooks there were cartoons that reminded
them about the new terms. Mr Josephs further alluded to the type of cartoon that
was found in one of his textbooks that highlighted the important information: ‘In
the format of cash-flow statement, there is a cartoon of an elephant. That on its own makes
me know that this information is important’.
Teachers believed that graphics assisted students in better comprehending what

they are learning because a picture stays much longer in memory and this helps
students to recall new content, especially if they understand the meaning of the
graphics.
4.2.3 Linking new content to students’ experience and prior knowledge

They usually consulted other textbooks when preparing the new topic as they
cannot rely on the prescribed books only because they have limited information
on different topics. Mr Ndlovu added that using more textbooks in addition to the
prescribed one allowed him to formulate diverse strategies when explaining in
class: ‘The information is there but I think it is not sufficient for my teaching and that is
why I sometimes combine all of them during the introduction of the new topic’.
It is imperative in Accounting to relate unique concepts to students’ experience

when introducing and clarifying new knowledge. Teachers encountered
difficulties when introducing new chapters as the textbooks had insufficient

363
information to allow them to use students’ experiences to expand on their

explanations. Teachers’ felt that other topics in Accounting are not easy to relate
to students’ experiences as a result they use examples that are not familiar to
students. They believed that it depends on the topic they were introducing. To
confirm this, Mr Gama responded: ‘Other topics are complicated to introduce using
what students know. Even in the textbook, there is no simple clarity on Debtors and
Creditors reconciliations in the textbooks’.
Teachers raised concerns about information that is provided by textbooks in terms

of prior experience that a learner is expected to have before attempting the new
topic. Teachers’ responses revealed that textbooks fell short in providing support
regarding previous knowledge required in learning new knowledge.
Miss Nala further outlined that textbooks are not the same. Some textbooks allow
students to use their experiences as they use examples from what students see or
practice almost every day: ‘The textbook gave an example of sand and cement in the
manufacturing of blocks when teaching manufacturing’.
Teachers believed that it hinges on the textbook that is used by the individual
teacher. They made mention that this particular textbook gave good support and
guidance compared to all other prescribed textbooks they are currently using. The
textbook provides a detailed introduction that gives an outline of what is covered
in each topic. The textbook also offers in-depth background information about the
sub-topic. Furthermore, at the beginning of each topic, teachers are reminded of
the prior knowledge that a learner is expected to have before attempting the new
topic. Ms Nene also enunciated that the textbook also provided revision activities
to remind students of the previous knowledge and to assess their readiness for
the new chapter:
“In the introduction of financial statements, you will find that textbooks
start with activities on theory to remind students that in Grade 10 and
11, they were introduced to the financial statement. I have to buy my
copy.”
However, teachers expressed concern that the textbook which gives them
adequate support and guidance is expensive and the schools cannot afford to
prescribe it for students because of financial constraints.
4.3 Guidance and support in terms of assessment activities

Teachers specified that prescribed textbooks did not have enough activities to
allow students to review what has been learnt in class. Teachers expressed their
worries about the shortage of activities. Further, they mentioned that the
textbooks were incompatible with the requirements of the Annual Teaching Plan
in terms of the number of assessments for each topic:
“The activities are not enough, you will find that CAPS requires you as
the teacher to give students eight activities but the textbook has five
activities. That is why I use previous question papers”. (Miss Gusha)
Teachers shared the same sentiments concerning the support given by textbooks
in preparing the students for external examination. They were worried that

364
activities found in their textbooks did not match the standard of questions in the
NSC examination papers in terms of level of challenge.
“In the exam you will find that students are expected to fill in the missing
figures in the balance sheet and such activities are not there in the
textbooks, the standard of the activities is very low”. (Miss Nyoka)
Findings revealed that most textbooks have creative and problem-solving

activities that allow students to make evaluative judgements using the financial
information provided, although they were insufficient. However, teachers were
concerned that textbooks do not have creative real-life problem solving questions
that require students to identify problems from a range of financial information.
5. Discussion
Findings revealed that prescribed textbooks were aligned with the curriculum in
terms of topics coverage. While teachers viewed textbooks as complements for the
curriculum, teachers found them deficient in terms of information required to
teach the new content adequately. In Accounting it is crucial that regular revision
of teaching resources and textbooks are done to incorporate current Accounting
standards and legislations in order to familiarize students and teachers with the
authenticities (Bargate, 2012; Ngwenya & Arek-Bawa, 2019). However, findings
revealed that most textbooks had insufficient information on the new topics.
The Accounting curriculum emphasises conceptual coherence, sequence and

progression of knowledge in a manner that assists the teachers with planning and
teaching and to facilitate ease of comprehension (Arek-Bawa & Dhunpath, 2017;
Bharath, 2015; DBE, 2011). However, in this study teachers indicated that
textbooks were misleading in terms of helping teachers in structuring teaching in
a logical order. This finding is supported by the views of teachers in Yang and
Sianturi, 2017 who found that the content or the topics in the instructional
materials were not properly arranged or sequenced. They believed that a disarray
of topics hinders students' ability to understand what they were learning.
Findings revealed that prescribed textbooks were unsuccessful in supporting

teachers in introducing new topics and providing learning outcomes. In this
regard, Freahat and Smadi (2014) assert that textbooks are expected to consistently
provide a detailed introduction with clearly stated learning outcomes at the
beginning of the topic to focus all instructional and assessment and to consolidate
learning. This gives guidance on how deep the teachers are expected to go when
teaching the topic.
Research shows that effective learning happens when students are able to use
existing knowledge to learn the new concepts (Arek-Bawa & Dhunpath, 2017;
Freahat & Smadi, 2014; Ngwenya & Arek-Bawa, 2019). In this study, teachers were
of the view that most prescribed textbooks were silent in terms of reminding
students of foundational knowledge needed to learn new knowledge. This finding
is similar to Sunday (2014) study who found that mathematics teachers often
struggled when introducing new topics because of insufficient background
information on some topics in textbooks.

365
According to Tarmana and Kuran (2015), relating new knowledge to students’

experiences assists students to understand the new concepts. It is therefore,
imperative in Accounting to relate unique concepts to students’ experience, and
this is regarded as the fundamental strategy when introducing and clarifying new
knowledge. Teachers pointed out that most textbooks fell short in guiding
students by relating the content to their daily real life experiences. Consequently,
it was challenging to introduce unfamiliar topics due to unique concepts and
complex knowledge found in the subject. According to Terblanche and de Clercq
(2020), students find it very difficult to master new knowledge if it is not related
to their experiences as they may be unaware of the key learning points on each
topic. This impacts negatively to students’ conceptual understanding of the new
content. As a result, teachers had to devise their own strategies of introducing the
particular topics.
The use of visuals is crucial in emphasising new Accounting concepts and to

understanding and retaining information (Stephenson, 2017; Sunday, 2014).
Teachers were of the view that most textbooks succeeded in providing suitable
graphics and other features to motivate learning and stimulate thinking while
guiding the teacher, although pictures were not clear. This findings is supported
by Sunday (2014) and Tarmana and Kuran (2015), who found that graphics should
be included in textbooks in a manner that attracts, engages meaningfully and
stimulates the imagination to promote students’ understanding.
Accounting as a practical subject requires more activities to equip students with

relevant skills. This means that assessment activities found in textbooks must
cover the content of the subject as well as the range of skills to cater for students’
different abilities (Barac & du Plessis, 2014; Freahat & Smadi, 2014). Teachers
indicated that textbooks were lacking in providing enough activities. However,
most textbooks had appropriate activities that allow students to engage in
problem solving and creative thinking. This is contrary to Yang and Sianturi
(2017) who found that mathematics textbooks had activities that mainly involve
lower-order level questions. Furthermore, findings revealed that teachers were
concerned that students were only involved in less structured problems as
textbooks had no unfamiliar open-ended questions that require students to use
deep processing critical thinking skills. Such questions often fail to expose
students to unstructured and challenging financial problems.
Although textbooks were compatible with the curriculum, they fell short in
guiding and supporting teaching and learning. However financial limitations
hampered teachers from prescribing the textbooks with all the parameters of
quality textbook. Furthermore, teachers found it hard to use only one textbook as
they had flaws. Teachers ultimately relied on other resources like examination
guidelines, annual teaching plan and past examination papers that encourages
teachers to teach to test.

366
6. Conclusion
This article sought to explore teachers’ views on the quality of Accounting Grade
12 textbooks. Despite the teachers’ views that all prescribed textbooks are
compatible with the Accounting curriculum in terms of topic coverage, textbooks
were found wanting in supporting and guiding teaching and learning of
Accounting. While learning in Accounting is developmental and underpinned by
the notion of a hierarchy of knowledge and skills, teachers revealed that the
sequencing of content in the textbook is incompatible with the Accounting
curriculum. This discrepancy may deny students the opportunity of learning
everything that they should be learning. This may also confuse the novice teachers
who often rely heavily on textbooks. Furthermore, teachers viewed some of the
textbooks as unsuccessful in allowing students to grow gradually within the
subject. As a result, teachers found it challenging to tailor lessons to the
knowledge and interests of students. There was an outcry from teachers regarding
the shortages of activities and poor questioning styles that do not cohere with the
question style found in the external papers. In conclusion, it could be said that
while textbooks continue to contribute to effective teaching and learning of
Accounting, teachers also acknowledge their constraining or limiting factors in
supporting teaching and learning. All participants expressed common views in
terms of the deficiencies in the quality of Accounting grade 12 prescribed
textbooks.
This study is limited in that the findings only represent the views of only ten
teachers. Therefore findings cannot be generalised beyond this sample.
Furthermore, the interview schedule or questions for interviews are likely to
influence the findings as any inferences are circumscribed by and restricted to the
information contained in them.
From the research findings, it may be noted that there is a potential for further
research, especially a study in which teachers will be observed using textbooks in
class. Moreover, more research will be needed to shed light on the broader scope
of views on the quality of textbooks which could yield diverse results. There is a
need to conduct a quantitative study with a large number of Accounting teachers.
Subsequent research could include the views of Accounting learners to determine
how they view their prescribed textbooks in terms of assisting them to achieve the
learning outcomes they supposed to attain.
The recommendations offered to the writers of the textbooks are that it is better to
modify or revise textbooks based on the characteristics of quality textbooks. To
meet this requirement and overcome the above-mentioned deficiencies viewed by
teachers in Accounting textbooks, the textbook writers must have an additional
responsibility to ensure that the textbooks reflect the basic characteristics of
quality textbooks. Since teachers seem to rely heavily on textbooks as teaching
resources, textbook scrutiny is needed to analyse the contents of the textbook and
to know the extent of quality of their textbooks. Teachers should also be included
during evaluation process to identify issues related to textbooks effective use and
suggesting strategies for improvement.

367
The lacking guidance and support given to teachers and students by the
prescribed textbooks, coerces teachers to rely heavily on other support materials
that encourage teachers to teach to the examination. In trying to refraining from
this habit, the teachers should be trained on teaching materials development. This
will increase their knowledge of developing supplementary materials and
adapting materials to suit their needs. This suggests that experienced teachers
should develop their own resources, especially assessment activities, or turn to
other sources such as the Internet to supplement textbooks. Teachers can also
share materials and information with their colleagues from neighbouring schools
or clusters. This may help teachers curb shortcomings identified in the prescribed
textbooks. In addition, if the identified gaps in the textbooks can be addressed
accordingly, teachers will gain more confidence in their prescribed textbooks and
it will support their teaching greatly.
7. References
Abbott, J. I., & Palatnik, B. R. (2018). Students’ perceptions of their accounting class:
Implications for instructors. Accounting Education, 27(1), 72–93.
Adeoye, B. F., & Olabiyi, O. S. (2011). Basic Technology Textbooks in Nigerian Secondary
Schools. A Quality and Content Analysis, 14(2), 153-168.
Aggarwal, J. C. (2001). Principles, methods and techniques of teaching (2nd ed.). New Delhi,
India: VIKAS publishing.
Arek-Bawa, O., & Dhunpath, R. (2017). Assessment and Cognitive Demand in Higher
Education Accounting Textbooks. Alternation, 24(2), 139-165.
https://doi.org/10.20853/34-1-3370
Barac, K., & Du Plessis, L. (2014). Teaching pervasive skills to South African accounting
students. Southern African Business Review, 18(1), 53-79.
https://doi.org/10.25159/1998-8125/5645
Bargate, K. (2012). The readability of managerial accounting and financial management
textbooks. Meditari Accountancy Research, 20(1), 4-20.
Bharath, P. (2015). An investigation of progression in historical thinking in South African
History textbooks (Doctoral Thesis). University of KwaZulu-Natal:
Pietermaritzburg.
Chirwa, G. W., & Naidoo, D. (2016). Teachers' perceptions of the quality of the new
Expressive Arts textbooks for Malawi primary schools. South African Journal of
Childhood Education, 6(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajce.v6i1.411
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2018). Research methods in Education (8th ed). New
York: Routledge.
Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches
(4th ed). London, England: Sage.
Davidson, R. A., & Baldwin, B. A. (2005). Cognitive skills objectives in intermediate
accounting textbooks: Evidence from end-of-chapter material. Journal of
Accounting Education, 23(2), 79-95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaccedu.2005.05.001
Department of Basic Education. (2011). Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement. Grades
10-12. Accounting. Pretoria: Government Printers.
Department of Education. (2009). Report of the task team for the review of the implementation
of the National Curriculum Statement. Pretoria: Government Printers.

368
Erasmus, L. J., & Fourie, H. (2018). Inclusive accountancy programmes in South African
higher education: A revised teaching approach. Accounting Education, 27(5), 495-
512. https://doi.org/10.1080/09639284.2018.1507828
Fan, L. (2013). Textbook research as scientific research: towards a common ground on
issues and methods of research on mathematics textbooks. ZDM, 45(5), 765-777.
Freahat, N. M., & Smadi, O. M. (2014). Lower-order and higher-order reading questions
in secondary and university level EFL textbooks in Jordan. Theory and Practice in
Language Studies, 4(9), 1804-1813. https://doi.org/10.4304/tpls.4.9.1804-1813
Janko, T., & Knecht, P. (2013). Visuals in Geography Textbooks: Categorization of Types
and Assessment of Their Instructional Qualities. Review of International
Geographical Education Online, 3(1), 93-110.
Kimmons, R. (2015). Open Education Resources (OER) quality and adaptation in K-12: Comparing
teacher evaluations of copyright-restricted, open, and open/adapted textbooks. The
International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 16(5), 39-57.
https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v16i5.2341
Liang, L., & Cobern, W.W. (2013). Analysis of a typical Chinese high school biology
textbook using the AAAS textbook standards. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics,
Science & Technology Education, 9(4), 329–336.
https://doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2013.942a
Lee, J., & Catling, S. (2016). Some perceptions of English geography textbook authors on
writing textbooks. International Research in Geographical and Environmental
Education, 25(1), 50-67. https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.2015.1106204
Lin, Y. C., & Yang, D. C. (2015). Examining the Differences of Linear Systems between
Finnish and Taiwanese Textbooks. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science &
Technology Education, 11(6), 1265-1281.
https://doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2015.1483a
Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. B. (2014). Designing qualitative research (6th ed). London,
England: Sage.
Morales, R., & Baker, A. (2018). Secondary Students’ Perceptions of Open Science
Textbooks Secondary Students’ Perceptions of Open Science Textbooks. Journal of
Interactive Media in Education, 1(4), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.5334/jime.455
Ngwenya, J., & Arek-Bawa, O. (2019). Exploring the quality of Grade 12 accounting
education textbooks. The Journal for Transdisciplinary Research in Southern
Africa, 15(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.20853/34-1-3370
Salam, N. H. A., & Shahrill, M. (2014). Examining classroom interactions in secondary
mathematics classrooms in Brunei Darussalam. Asian Social Science, 10(11), 92-103.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ass.v10n11p92
Schulze, S. (2003). Research methodology: Study Guide. Pretoria: University of South Africa.
Stephenson, S. S. (2017). Accounting Community of Practice pedagogy: a course
management invention for developing personal competencies in accounting
education. Accounting Education, 26(1), 3-27.
Sunday, A. S. (2014). Mathematics textbook analysis: A study on recommended
mathematics textbooks in school use in the southwestern states of Nigeria.
European Scientific Journal Special Edition, 1, 140-151.
Swanepoel, S. (2010). The assessment of the quality of science education textbooks: conceptual
framework and instruments for analysis (Doctoral Thesis). University of South Africa,
Pretoria.
Tarmana, B., & Kuran, B. (2015). Examination of the cognitive level of questions in social
studies textbooks and the views of teachers based on Bloom taxonomy.

369
Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 15(1), 213-222.

https://doi.org/10.12738/estp.2015.1.2625
Terblanche, E. A. J., & de Clercq, B. (2020). Factors to consider for effective critical thinking
development in auditing students. South African Journal of Accounting Research,
34(2), 96-114. https://doi.org/10.1080/10291954.2019.1669293
Yang, D. C., & Sianturi, I.A. (2017). An analysis of Singaporean versus Indonesian
textbooks based on trigonometry content. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics Science
and Technology Education, 13(7), 3829–3848. https://doi.org/10.12973/
eurasia.2017.00760a
Yang, D., Wang, Z., & Xu, D. (2015). A comparison of questions and tasks in geography
textbooks before and after curriculum reform in China. Review of International
Geographical Education Online, 5(3), 231–248.

370

Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 370-386, June 2020
Rurality and Exclusion in Ordinary Level

Mathematics in Zimbabwe:
A Document Analysis
Simon Vurayai
University of Johannesburg, South Africa
Abstract. This conceptual paper fuses literature review and document

analysis in examining the nexus between rurality and social exclusion in
Ordinary level mathematics education in Zimbabwe. The paper utilizes
Bourdieu’s cultural capital theory to examine the content and context of
mathematics problems in textbooks and examinations focusing on
language and cultural experiences. Globally, rural education has been
neglected and Zimbabwe is no exception. I argue that the role of
nonmaterial deterrents like lack of cultural and language capital in
achievement in mathematics education has not been accorded due
attention. I conclude that the context of mathematics problems in
textbooks and examinations is alien to rural learners. The readability of
textbooks is also beyond the reach of many rural learners. I recommend
that the mathematics curriculum should be inclusive of the diverse
cultural experiences of learners and the language used should be
intelligible to all. The mathematics educators and related stakeholders
should know that every child is capable of doing mathematics hence all
forms of social closure should be eradicated.
Keywords: mathematics; Ordinary level; rural areas; language; cultural

capital; social exclusion
1. Introduction
The current structure of a six-year secondary education in Zimbabwe is two years
of general education at Junior Level, two years leading to Ordinary Level
Certificate in which students sit for examinations at the end of the fourth year,
then two years of Advanced level with national examinations in the sixth year.
Students’ mathematical proficiency in Zimbabwe is normally used for making
decisions regarding further schooling and job opportunities (Channon, McLeish-
Smith, Head, Macrae & Chasakara, 2011), yet most pupils underperform in the
subject particularly in the rural areas. I argue that rural learners have always been
marginalized and excluded in education due to various factors such as poverty,
language, cultural experiences, technological divide, and others (Mupa, 2015).

371
Oscar Lewis, the founding father of the culture of poverty theory laments on the
state and plight of a poor rural learner and admits that “…his environment is not
only poverty-stricken in economic terms but also cultural terms. The catalogue of
deficiencies of the culturally deprived child includes linguistic, experiential,
cognitive, and personality deficiencies, and a wide range of substandard
attitudes” (Haralambos & Holborn, 2008, p. 632). I agree that beyond deficient
material requirements, rural students are also subject to nonmaterial cultural
deterrents in the teaching and learning of mathematics.
Considering that I am overwhelmed by the burden of rural learners, I am going

to examine the possible impact of language and cultural experiences as factors of
social exclusion in mathematics education. Specifically, this conceptual paper uses
document analysis in which I examine the role of textbooks and past examination
question papers in reinforcing the social exclusion of rural learners. I agree that
there has been an attempt to promote equality of educational opportunities in
Zimbabwe but mathematics education is still riddled with inequalities (Mupa,
2015). I examine whether those students also have access to mathematics
education, particularly those in poor rural schools. Following the idea of
Education for All (EFA), the National Council for Teachers of Mathematics
(NCTM) (1998) advocates for the implementation of the Equity Principle in which
all learners are given a chance to do Mathematics. I am motivated by the need to
establishing the state of mathematics for all in poverty-stricken rural schools,
particularly at Ordinary level (‘O’ level), concerning the principles of inclusivity.
Why specifically focusing on ‘O’ level mathematics? ‘O’ level mathematics
proficiency in Zimbabwe is used as the basis for decisions regarding further
schooling and job opportunity (Mupa, 2015; Nziramasanga, 1999). With specific
reference to the value of mathematics in entrepreneurship, NCTM (1998) notes
that employment opportunities in fields such as health care, construction, auto-
manufacturing, and fashion design require a more sophisticated knowledge of
mathematics. The learners who are enrolled and succeed in ‘O’ level mathematics
have the advantage of getting more access to highly rewarding occupational
opportunities as compared to those who would have failed the subject(Channon
et al., 2011). In this theoretical paper, I start by presenting the background and
statement of the problem of rurality and exclusion in mathematics education.
Bourdieu's cultural capital theory as the bedrock of this study is discussed
together with brief existing literature on the effects of language and cultural
experiences on learners’ performance in mathematics education.
2. Background to the problem

The government of Zimbabwe, in 1980, was unfortunate to inherit from Britain a
system that was skewed in favour of the white minority population in sectors such
as economics, politics, and technology. A dualistic socio-economic system had a
dominating white population that occupied the rich sectors such as mining,
manufacturing industries, and commercial farms. Economically, there also
existed, African peasants that lived in abject poverty, disease, and undeveloped
infrastructure (Protracted Relief Programmes, 2012). In other words, Zimbabwe
had rural areas that were characterized by peasant agriculture, and the urban
income was characterized by large scale industries and transport services.
Following independence, Zimbabwe introduced corrective measures of

372
centralised economic planning and socialist-oriented policies. The government

embarked on a programe of improving the lives of the population that was
marginalized previously (Mavhunga, Madondo & Phiri, 2009). The previously
marginalised population refers to the socially excluded poor Zimbabweans who
had limited access to education, particularly those in rural areas.
Towards the end of the first decade of independence, the Zimbabwean economy
nose-dived as shown by most indicators such as the primary health care and
education sectors whose standards were on the decline. The economy of
Zimbabwe suffered a serious deterioration in the mid-1990s (Murisa, 2010).
According to Nzingo (2010), the declining economy and the political crisis in the
country gave rise to abject poverty. The social decline in rural areas entailed
deterioration in the provision and quality of social services such as education and
health.
The Zimbabwean rural areas, as has been previously captured (Mavhunga et al.,
2009), are the most affected by poverty. They have challenges in areas such as
road networks, health, safe water, sanitation, and food supply (Robertson, 2011).
Previous studies (Nziramasanga, 1999; Mavhunga et al., 2009) reveal that pupils’
academic performance in rural areas in Zimbabwe has been an area of concern. In
mathematics education, Mupa (2015) notes that poor rural learners find it difficult
to pass without adequate textbooks because they will not be able to see examples
and can hardly share experiences on their own. Mupa (2015) further adds that
Mathematics is a subject that requires material resources for the students such as
graph books and mathematical sets which they struggle to afford. Studies on
poverty and mathematics education in Zimbabwe have been broad and general
and focusing on deficient tangible material resources(textbooks, graph books,
calculators, etc) as the major cause of dismal performance (Chattaraj, 2020;
Mupa,2015; Rammala, 2009). Very few studies have been focusing on non-
material resources like language and cultural experiences and this makes this
study unique. Most previous studies have been centred on primary data, hence
this study distinguishes from the rest as it relies on literature review and
documentary analysis to draw inferences that can be added to existing findings.
The study also utilised the benefits of document analysis as discussed in the
methodology section of this paper.
3. Statement of the problem

Students’ mathematics proficiency in Zimbabwe is often used for decisions
regarding schooling and job opportunity (Channon et al., 2011), yet the pass rate
in the poverty-stricken schools in rural areas is persistently catastrophic (Mupa,
2015). Given that rural learners are prone to various forms of inequalities (material
and nonmaterial), I am motivated to examine how textbooks and past
examination question papers reinforce social exclusion particularly through
language and cultural experiences.
4. Pierre Bourdieu and the cultural capital theory

Pierre Bourdieu is a neo-Marxist Frenchman who developed the cultural capital
theory. Bourdieu argues that education in a capitalist society secures cultural
continuity and barricades poor children’s access to higher learning. Rather than

373
culture in totality, regardless of class as claimed by functionalists (Haralambos &

Holborn, 2008), it is an exclusive vehicle for middle-class culture as a definitive,
overriding construct (Haralambos, Holborn & Heald, 2014). If Bourdieu is right
that affluent children bring relevant cultural capital to school, I infer that
mathematics instruction may be doing exactly the privileging exercise postulated
by his theory. It attempts to make mathematics more assimilable to ‘less-
privileged’ classes and does the exercise while slightly disguised. It leaves the
less-privileged worse off since the gap between them and the privileged may even
widen in the process of remediation. This is because it is more than likely that the
privileged class has developed a natural aptitude, aided and abetted by a large
array of acclimatising/facilitating mechanisms at its disposal that naturally tend
to put it in the lead. Bourdieu’s theory was helpful in the choice of documentary
analysis as a data-gathering technique to ascertain the nexus between
mathematics teaching and learning and rural learners’ cultural experiences.
Verbal skills and mental processes that give privileged children an advantage
(Applebaum & Chambliss, 1995) referred to by Bourdieu as cultural capital,
enables learners to decode education and show flair and excellence due to prior
conditioning assimilated in the earliest years of life during primary socialisation
(Blackledge & Hunt, 1985). The less-privileged class experience disorientating
culture shock when exposed to the ‘normal’ educational world of their privileged
peers. The disorientation of cultural shock naturally accompanies entry into an
unfamiliar world (Macionis, 1989). Assuming, therefore, that Bourdieu is right ‘it
stands to reason’ (i.e. mutatis mutandis) that less-privileged learners are bound to
find mathematics difficult.
According to Bourdieu (Haralambos et al., 2014), the affluent groups effectively

oppress their less privileged peers by dictating their understanding of the world
as final and inarguable, and, therefore, arrogantly imposing penalties on less
privileged groups for not deferring (whether willfully or by default) to their self-
proclaimed preconception of the world (Haralambos & Holborn, 2008). As noted
above, besides securing middle-class cultural continuity, the function of
education is to barricade the less privileged from entering higher levels of
education (cf. Bourdieu; (Bilton, Bonnet, James & Sheared, 1989). Barrier
mechanisms are examination failure and self-elimination (Haralambos &
Holborn, 2008). The barriers may be depicted by high low pass rates and high
dropout rates in mathematics in rural areas. The efficacy of the first of these
barriers resides in the lack of cultural capital by the bulk of learners in rural
schools who are less-privileged. The second, related barrier is the dropout rate,
which makes failure self-induced, again for lack of cultural capital, which imparts
the appearance of an unscalable height to the prospect of entering the realm of
higher education. In these circumstances, failure at mathematics examinations
seems preordained for the less-privileged who are conditioned to believe that the
system will not tolerate their entry into higher levels of mathematics education
(Haralambos et al., 2014). The point is driven home by Bourdieu in the following
statement:
“As pupils move up the ladder, those from the dominated class are
progressively eliminated and shunted into less prestigious forms of
knowledge. On the other hand, the primary socialization of those from the

374
dominant class provides them with cultural capital which translates into
academic and eventually occupational success “(Bilton et al., 1989,
p.33).
I apply Bourdieu’s assumptions to mathematics by logical extension, with the

result that these views could be applied towards determining the influence
attributable to the language and cultural capital on mathematics teaching and
learning in rural schools. Although Bourdieu did not specifically refer to
mathematics education and rural contexts in his theory, I assume that this claim
may mean that mathematics education is tilted in favour of the culture of the
dominant groups and marginalizes the culture of the poor rural children.
5. Cultural experiences of learners and access to mathematics education

in rural contexts
Snowman, McCown and Biehler (2001) observed that middle-class children are
exposed to a variety of experiences and these experiences accumulate and make
school learning more familiar and easier than it would be otherwise. For instance,
Smith and Noble (1995) cited in Haralambos and Holborn (2008) observe that
working-class children fail to afford shopping or educational trips, and, as a
result, they may fall behind their school work. The common observation here is
that learning also takes place beyond the classroom. As such, affluent children
bring to school relevant experiences that aid their learning of mathematics than
their non-affluent counterparts. The curriculum is designed in such a way that it
alienates the rural learner who cannot use the local examples to relate to the
curriculum context (Rammala, 2009). As a result, rural children may fail to
understand the context in which some mathematics problems are presented
leading to failure.
Learning in mathematics education depends on the ability of students to connect

new ideas with what they already know or experience. New knowledge will
hardly make meaning unless it connects or relates well the existing knowledge
(Crawford, 2001; Compton, Fielding & Scott, 2007; Zengin, 2019). Richard Skemp
identifies two types of understanding in mathematics as instrumental and
relational (Compton, Fielding & Scott, 2007). Instrumental understanding entails
learning and comprehending the rules of mathematics and being able to apply
them while relational understanding means connecting new ideas with existing
ones. Mwakapenda (2008) acknowledges the importance of relational
understanding in that;
“…connections are at the heart of the definition of mathematics. These
connections are concerned with what mathematics is: where it comes from
— human activity, a construction, development and contestation that is
time- and socially-dependent — and what it does: problem-solve and
understand the world and daily living. Mathematics is not about the
reasoning for its own sake. It is concerned with reasoning, symbolizing,
and thinking — processes that are connected to activities and problems of
the social, physical, and mathematical worlds involving human practices
in all cultures”. (p190).

375
In a more recent observation, Siregar and Siagian (2019) confirm that;

In learning mathematics mathematical connections ability is one of the
mathematical abilities that must be possessed by students. The strong
connection between concepts in mathematics implies that mathematical
connections ability also contains other mathematical aspects or vice versa.
Viewing mathematics as a whole is very important in learning and
thinking about connections between topics in mathematics. (p1).
By implication, I argue that it is relational understanding which is more important

to the learners since they can make meaningful connections between what they
know and what they learn in mathematics.
Bourdieu cited in Haralambos et al. (2014) aver that the affluent children have
familiar cultural experiences and the progress in education is directly influenced
by the culture the child gets from the family. On the other hand, working-class
children underperform in education. After all, they experience culture shock
because they lack related experiences. Bourdieu cited in Bol and Berry (2005)
further states that there is a mismatch between poor student, home culture, and
the culture valued by the school. According to Bush (2005), mathematics
education has virtually ignored rural contexts. Graven (2014) observes that
irrespective of corrective reforms and innovations in mathematics education,
rural learners still experience social exclusion in mathematics education that
matters. The mathematics that many students learn is connected to neither them
nor their communities. From the studies above, I theorize that the language and
contexts of some mathematics problems are not related to the experiences of the
rural learners and as a result, they underperform.
6. Language and access to mathematics education in rural contexts

Language, which the child brings from home is an important resource in learning.
Durkin (1991) cited in Nziramasanga (1999 p. 331) puts forth that “mathematics
education begins and proceeds in language, advances and stumbles because of
language and its outcomes are often assessed in language”. An earlier study by
Ezewu (1983) reveals that fundamental to the learning of all other subjects is the
mastery of good English as it is the language of instruction in English speaking
nations. Bourdieu’s cultural capital theory states that the language of education
is closer to that of the dominant class than that of any other class. The relevant
language is a key in which children from the dominant class internalize during
primary socialization and they use it to unlock the message transmitted in the
classroom (Haralambos & Holborn, 2008). Children with high socioeconomic
backgrounds have a linguistic advantage which they will use in learning (Nurul
& Yunus, 2020). These studies note that in English speaking nations, those
students from affluent background have an advantage in that they are fluent in
the English Language which is also a language of instruction. As a result, it
becomes very easy for them to master mathematics concepts when they are taught
in English.
Berns (2010) also acknowledges that parents from middle socioeconomic status
are important role models in the education of their children. I infer that those
parents who speak and understand English well have their children better placed
for success in mathematics education. A good understanding of the English

376
language helps learners to engage in complex tasks and understand word

problems and instructions in textbooks and examinations (Sao, 2008; Musaisia,
Nakhanu & Wekesa, 2012; Bethel 2016; Magableh & Abdullah, 2020). In other
words, the English language can be a tool for inclusion or exclusion in
mathematics education for rural learners (Mtisi & Maposa, 2016). Ledibane,
Kaiser and Van der Walt (2018) acknowledge that:
“We teach through the medium of language. It is our major means of
communication. Learners build understanding as they process ideas
through language. We diagnose and assess learners’ understanding by
listening to their oral communication and by reading their mathematical
writings.” (p1).
In a related observation, Graven (2014) avers that the language used in

mathematics textbooks is far removed from non-affluent students’ everyday
speech and this becomes a major force of alienation in its own right. Berns (2010)
also notes that children from a higher socio-economic background with good
language also a good mastery of the English language which aids them in
understanding word problems and several tasks in mathematics instruction. A
poor command of the English Language results in challenges in performing
mathematics tasks. Teachers may also hold low expectations on those learners
with a poor command of the English Language to the extent that they are given
less attention during instruction (Kaur, 2013; Chattaraj, 2020).
In more recent studies, Robertson and Graven (2020) put forth:

“…the power of language to either include or exclude certain groups of
students from genuine opportunities for mathematical sense-making.
Should not be underestimated…because English is widely perceived as the
language of opportunity, it is, by grade 4, overwhelmingly the chosen
language of learning and teaching. The epistemological and pedagogical
consequences of this choice are evidenced in the poor performance of the
country’s students on national and international assessments of
mathematical proficiency. The dominance of a single language of power
as the medium for education has major implications for access to learning
for those who do not speak this language at home and who are often
already marginalized in terms of access to social and economic goods…In
this respect fluency in the dominant language of learning, teaching, and
assessment is a key issue for inclusivity and equity.” (p1).
I infer that has the power to influence performance and pedagogy. It is a tool that
can determine who is to be included or excluded in mathematics education. It is
therefore important to consider the point that the language that the learners bring
from home is a key factor on which further learning will rest upon.
In Zimbabwe, Nziramasanga (1999) admits that:

“For the average Zimbabwean child, the use of the English language in
mathematics education is far more complex than an education system has cared to
admit. Many pupils have problems with English. If mathematics is intricately
related to language, in this case, English, there can be no doubt that many pupils’
mathematical development is being retarded on account of language and not lack
of mathematical ability.” (p337).

377
From the above, I argue that English Language proficiency is a critical element in
teaching and learning of mathematics. In this study, I examine the contexts of
mathematics problems in textbooks and examinations concerning their cultural
and language experiences of poor rural learners. I further establish the extent to
which the experiences of rural learners are connected to the teaching and learning
of various mathematics topics in the ‘O’ level syllabus. I also examine the specific
mathematics topics in the ‘O’ level syllabus and textbooks that are presented in a
difficult language, in which children living in rural poverty may find it difficult
to comprehend.
7. Methodology
In this study, I used document analysis. I found it important to conceptualise
document analysis and discuss its benefits concerning this study. Document
analysis entails
“…a systematic procedure for reviewing or evaluating documents—both
printed and electronic (computer-based and Internet-transmitted)
material. Documents that may be used for systematic evaluation as part
of a study take a variety of forms. They include advertisements; agendas,
attendance registers, and minutes of meetings; manuals; background
papers; books and brochures; diaries and journals; event programs (i.e.,
printed outlines); letters and memoranda; maps and charts; newspapers”
(Bowen, 2009, p. 27).
It is important to note that document analysis is a process that involves skimming

(superficial examination), reading (thorough examination), and interpretation of
content to provide answers to research questions (Parveen & Showkat, 2017). In
this study, I examined the content and context of O’ level mathematics and came
up with an interpretation of the state of social exclusion it presents to rural
students. I followed the steps below as suggested by Parveen and Showkat (2017);
(a) Identify your research question/objective.
(b) Select your sample
(c) Skim the material selected through the aforementioned procedure and
make a list of main themes you plan to analyse.
(d) Can classify the content based on these themes or categories. (p38).
With the main objective of examining the extent to which the rural learners are
excluded in mathematics education, I selected a sample of O’ level mathematics
textbooks and past examination question papers. I skimmed through the content
which I classified focusing on themes related to the exclusion of rural learners
based on language and cultural context. The detail is presented in the next
section.
I utilised several advantages by choosing document analysis as an approach in
this study. It is important to note that document analysis offers the following
advantages as simplified by (Bowen ,2009);
• Efficient method: Document analysis is less time-consuming and therefore more efficient
than other research methods. It requires data selection, instead of data collection.
• Availability: Many documents are in the public domain, especially since the advent of
the Internet, and are obtainable without the authors’ permission. This makes document

378
analysis an attractive option for qualitative researchers. Locating public records is limited
only by one’s imagination and industriousness.
• Cost-effectiveness: Document analysis is less costly than other research methods and is
often the method of choice when the collection of new data is not feasible. The data
(contained in documents) have already been gathered; what remains is for the content and
quality of the documents to be evaluated.
• Lack of obtrusiveness and reactivity: Documents are ‘unobtrusive’ and ‘non-reactive’—
that is, they are unaffected by the research process.
• Stability: As a corollary to being non-reactive, documents are stable. The investigator’s
presence does not alter what is being studied. Documents, then, are suitable for repeated
reviews.
• Exactness: The inclusion of exact names, references, and details of events makes
documents advantageous in the research process.
• Coverage: Documents provide broad coverage; they cover a long period, many events,
and many settings (p31).
Document analysis proved to be very effective in this study especially when
travelling and contact with the respondents was difficult due to the global
measures to curb the spread of the COVID1-19 pandemic. I simply collected the
data which I analysed concerning the existing literature and the research
questions to come up with the findings for the study.
8. Document analysis: Cultural experiences and the context of

mathematics problems
A documentary analysis in this section focuses on the nexus between the context
of mathematics problems in main textbooks and past examination question
papers and the experiences of rural learners. Specifically, I analyse the main
textbooks used in the Zimbabwean schools studied which are: Focus on
Mathematics Book 4, and New General Mathematics Books 4 and 3. These are the
main textbooks that are used for teaching and learning at ‘O’ level mathematics
in Zimbabwe. These textbooks have been approved by the ministry of education
as the best in line with the requirements of the current syllabus. From the
textbooks, my interest is the context in which the problems are presented
concerning whether the students from poor rural schools could comprehend them
given their poverty and cultural deprivation. I also analyse the past examination
question papers using the same approach with the textbooks. I classify the
questions in such a way that those from the textbooks are presented first followed
by questions from past examinations papers. In my document analysis (scrutiny
of textbooks and exam papers) I note that settings of mathematics problem
formulations are foreign to students’ experiential world (poor rural settings), and
this places them at a significant disadvantage, compared to the more culturally
privileged and affluent suburban, and peers(see the 8 examples).

379
Example 1:
i. Thomas and Sam have played each other at tennis 12 times. Thomas has won 10
times. They play each other in a competition. Find the probability that
a) The match will be drawn
b) Tendai will win
c) Either Tendai or Samuel will win
Solution:
a. Tennis matches are either won or lost. They are never drawn. Probability of a
draw = 0.
[Source: The New General Mathematics Book Four page 158, example 1]
Tennis courts are unknown in the vicinity of rural students with the result that
effectively, the question is misleading in that it calls for some familiarity with the
rules of the game. Students would, therefore, understandably be at a loss to
provide the correct answer. But even so, knowing the answer would say nothing
about their mathematical ability or insight since knowing the answer required
familiarity with rules, not mathematical insight (Siregar & Siagian, 2019;
Mwakapenda, 2008). Usually, the game is associated with rich elite and urban
schools in Zimbabwe. Since most students in rural areas do not play tennis, they
do not know the rules, that for example, tennis matches are never drawn, they are
either won or lost. Due to a lack of relevant experiences with tennis matches and
related rules, most rural students are more likely to face challenges in providing
the solution. In another context taken from Focus on Mathematics Book 4 page
307, example 4, read as:
Example 2
A furniture firm offers a lounge set for $21 000 cash or a deposit of $ 6 000 and 12 monthly
installments of $1 500 each.
(a) Determine the total amount due and payable if the suite is bought on credit
(installment plan).
(b) What is the difference in price between a transaction on terms (installment plan),
and a cash transaction if the price is calculated less deposit?
Again, the formulation of this problem does not fall within the range of relevant
parents’ experiential world since most do not qualify for credit transactions, thus
leaving children at a loss as to relate to the particulars of the transaction
presupposed in the problem formulation, and therefore unable to provide an
answer to the question. In this instance, the setting places children in poor rural
settings at a disadvantage. Most parents of the students in rural schools are
unemployed, therefore, do not qualify for higher purchase terms and conditions.
By implication, they cannot purchase big furniture sets such as the lounge suite,
suggesting that their children rarely interact with statements of account. Such
lack of experience could imply problems in interpreting statements of accounts on
the part of the children. Given such a problem, poor rural students may struggle
to interpret the context to understand the concepts behind hire purchase terms
and conditions, before providing a correct solution.

380
Example 3
a) Mr. Moyo’s water meter reading for the end of March and April was 15674 and
15718, respectively. Given that there is a fixed monthly charge of $12.50, the unit
charge is 62 cents and rates work were charged at 10 %/dollar, find the amount
Mr. Moyo will be charged for water used in April [Source: Focus on Mathematics
Book 4 page 328, example 4]
Again, students in rural areas are not exposed to the concepts of paying for water
use at all, let alone at a fixed monthly charge. Therefore, they would again be at a
disadvantage caused by unfamiliarity, this time with the conceptual framework
of municipal services and routine payments made to the supplier. Unfamiliarity,
might, therefore, tend to derail their attempts to deal with the problem. Most rural
schools do not have tapped water with meter readers. The students have probably
never been exposed to water units and water bill statements. Such a lack of prior
knowledge of concepts like fixed monthly charge, unit charge, and rates work
could cause problems in their interpretation of water bill statements. In their
impoverished areas, most rural learners would not be able to conceptualize this
and other related questions.
Example 4:
The following graph represents the acceleration of a car that starts from rest in 1 st gear
and then changes to second gear at an appropriate speed.
(a) Give the acceleration rate and distance covered in 1st gear.
(b) If the car travels 54m in 2nd gear, find the value of v and the acceleration rate
achieved in that gear.
[Source: New General Mathematics Book 3 page 280 number 8]
Most students in rural schools have no cars at home, suggesting that they have no
prior knowledge of how gears work. Those who have cars at home have prior
experience of how car gears work and are better placed to interpret this question.
When applied to kinematics as in the problem above, the students would struggle
with the context before the concept and the doing of mathematics. Unfamiliarity
with motor vehicles and their performance characteristics (car ownership is rare
among rural poor) would leave students unable to relate intelligently to the
question and, therefore, at a loss as to answer it correctly.

381
Example 5:
The diagram shows a swimming pool of uniform cross-section ABCDEF, length 50m, and
breadth 40m.
AB = 50m, BC = 3, 5 m, DC = FE = 20 m, AF = 1, 5 m, and BÂF = A𝐹̂ E = B𝐶̂ D = A𝐵̂C

= 90o
(a) Calculate
(i) The cross-sectional area ABCDEF [3]
(ii) Swimming-pool capacity in kilolitres [1]
(iii) The length of DE [2]
(b) The vertical walls of the pool area to be painted. Given that 7 litres of paint are
needed to cover 10m2 of wall surface and that the paint is sold in 5 litre containers
at $27each.
Calculate
(i) Total area to be painted [2]
(ii) Number of containers of paint required; [3]
(iii) Financial consideration implied. [1]
[Source: Mathematics Paper 2 June 2010 number [11]
Most rural schools nor the communities surrounding them have no swimming
pools, which are status symbols in Zimbabwe. Students would, therefore, be
contextually be confused with the question since swimming-pools are not part of
their experiential world. The learners who have never seen a swimming pool have
no obvious understanding of the context and the related concepts as compared to
the affluent children who have the day to day experiences with swimming pools.
Such lack of prior experience or knowledge of swimming pools could imply
problems in their interpretation of the cross-sectional area of the swimming pool
and other related questions above, for example, they might mistakenly include
the top of the figure representing the pool as a surface to be painted merely
because they are unfamiliar with the phenomenon as a whole.
The examples above are a small sample of numberless questions of the same kind
that are beyond the ken of the rural poor, who need to understand the context to
visualize the situation successfully and apply their minds to the particulars of the
question within the parameters of the envisaged context. As noted (Graven, 2014;
Zengin, 2019) students from a poor rural background are disadvantaged by the
task of overcoming the hurdle of understanding the context or setting first, and
only then, within the relevant contextual parameters, address the mathematical
particulars of the problem at issue. In a sense, therefore, questions such as those
considered above are coded, and the rural poor lack the key to the code, unlike
their privileged peers, because they are unfamiliar with the contextual framework
of the questions put to them. They are, therefore, effectively locked out of the inner

382
sanctum of the contextual world of their privileged peers. Hence, their

underperformance at mathematics is not because of an innate incapacity but is
because of poverty, a factor beyond their control.
9. Documentary analysis: Language demands in mathematics education.

The documentary analysis also indicates several long and wordy questions from
textbooks and past examination papers which demand proficiency in the English
Language (see examples 6-8).
Example 6
i. The mortgage rates go up from 17% to 18%. What difference is this going to make
to someone who has a mortgage? Answer the following questions to obtain some
idea of the difference it will make and the different ways of coping with the increase.
Repayment started recently so the amortisation of capital is still negligible. It
would be advisable to answer this question with the aid of a calculator.
(a) A man has a loan of $40 000. At present he is paying it off over 20 years and
the interest rate is 17%.
(i) Calculate his monthly repayment.
(ii) Calculate the total amount he would pay during 20 years at 17%.
(iii) If the interest goes up to 18%, calculate the new monthly repayment if the
loan is still to be paid off in 20 years.
(iv) Calculate the new total amount he will pay for 20 years at 18%.
(v) Compute the percentage increase in the monthly repayments.
(vi) Compute the percentage increase in the total amount repaid.
(vii) If he decides that rather than pay the whole monthly increase he will
reschedule his loan so that it is now repayable over 25 years, calculate the
monthly repayment at 18% over 25 years.
(viii) Calculate the total amount repaid over 25 years in this case.
(ix) Calculate the percentage increase in monthly repayments from 17% over
20 years to 18% over 25 years.
(x) Calculate the percentage increase in total payment from 17% over 20
years to 18% over 25 years.
[Source: Focus on Mathematics Book 4 page 341 number 21]
The question above is too long and wordy to the extent that the students with a
poor command of the English language are more likely to get confused.
Eventually, such students would fail to solve the questions in the problem
(Magableh & Abdullah, 2020). Aspects of this question on mortgage and
amortization of capital are unfamiliar to the students from poor rural
backgrounds. Students are declared incapable of coping with the level of
formulation from the viewpoint of English proficiency, exacerbated by the

383
multifaceted, or rather hierarchical nature of the problem. For example, the

successive steps in answering the question depended on producing a correct
answer in dealing with the preceding step, so an error at the first step precluded
the possibility of earning marks for subsequent steps which, perforce, would
proceed from a wrong premise in each instance. Besides that, the student is doubly
disadvantaged because the context of the problem is alien to the student’s
experiential world, with the result that unfamiliarity would tend to throw
him/her mentally off-balance.
Example 7
A shopkeeper has two brands of soft drinks namely Kula and Sundown, which are packed
in cans of identical size. He intends to order fresh supplies and finds that he has room for
up to 1 000 cans. He knows that Sundown is more popular and so proposes to order at
least twice as many cans of Sundown as Kula. He wishes, however, to have at least 100
cans of Kula and not more than 800 cans of Sundown. Taking x to be the number of Kula
and y to be the number of cans of Sundown which he orders, write down the four
inequalities involving x and/or y which satisfy these conditions.
(a) The part (x; y) represents x cans of Kula and y cans of Sundown. Using the scale of
1cm to represent 100 cans on each axis construct and indicate clearly by shading the
unwanted regions, the region in which (x; y) must lie.
(b) The profit on a can of Kula is 3c and on a can of Sundown is 2c. Use your graph to
estimate the number of cans each that the shop keeper should order to maximise his/her
profit.
[Source: New General Mathematics Book 4 page 147 number 10]
Example 8
You should answer this question on a sheet of graph paper.
Mr. Hove manufactures tables and chairs using softwood and hardwood. A table requires
5m of softwood and 3m of hardwood. A chair requires 3m of softwood and 4m of hardwood.
Mr. Hove has 45m of softwood and 40m of hardwood. Consider x to represent the number
of tables made and y to represent the number of chairs made.
(a) Using the above information, write down the inequalities which satisfy these
conditions. [4]
(b) For Mr. Hove to make a profit, he should manufacture more than 2 tables and at
least 4 chairs. State the two inequalities which satisfy these conditions. [2]
(c) The point (x; y) on the graph represents x tables and y chairs manufactured.
Using a scale of 2cm :2 tables on the x-axis and 2cm:2 chairs on the y-axis, draw
the axes for 0 ≤ x ≤ 16 and 0 ≤ y ≤ 16 indicate the regions in which (x;y) should
lie. [4]
(d) Write down all possible combinations which give the maximum number of tables.
[2]
[Source: Mathematics Paper 2 June 2008, number 12]

384
Examples 7 and 8 above are also too long and wordy, as such, could confuse those
students with a weaker comprehension of the English language. The evidence has
been shown before from the studies by Bethel (2016), Magableh and Abdullah
(2020) and Nurul and Yunus (2020). By implication, students could experience
problems in interpreting the question into accurate graphical work. The examples
cited above are just but a few from ‘O’ level mathematics past examination
question papers and ‘O’ level mathematics textbooks in current use. As noted
above, such long and wordy questions are more likely to pose a challenge to most
poor rural students who have weaker comprehension of the English language.
The examples cited above typify previous ‘O’ level examination papers from
which they were taken, therefore, the poor rural students to whom they are
presented typically perform poorly at mathematics education.
10. Mapping way forward

The problem affecting rural students is the fact that besides having to deal with
the bare facts of mathematical problems that severely challenge their
mathematical skills and proficiency in the first place, they are wildly unfamiliar
with the language and contexts in which mathematical problems are presented to
them. This unfamiliarity, therefore, presents a mental barrier that had to be
overcome in addition to the challenge to their mathematical ability – a double
burden, compared to their more fortunate peers. I proffer the suggestion that
mathematics textbooks and examinations should have multicultural and diverse
contexts to cater for the heterogeneous society. The readability of texts and
questions should also be accommodative so that learners from diverse contexts of
the multilingual society equally enjoy the opportunity to do mathematics.
11. Summary and conclusion

The foregoing paper employs Bourdieu’s cultural capital theory to guide in
document analysis on how language and cultural capital influence achievement
in mathematics education by rural learners. The cultural capital theory was
considered to determine the possibility that, in the instances under review, the
education system is biased in favour of the dominant culture, thus, foregrounding
that culture at the expense of socially eliminating the lesser culture (ie.
representatives who lack ‘cultural capital’). It seems reasonable to conclude that
mathematics education in the chosen setting conforms essentially to the position
of Bourdieu, namely, that where mathematics education is concerned, middle-
class children routinely find themselves on familiar territory. The rural students
lack the relevant cultural experiences that place them in a privileged context in
which mathematics problems are presented. Rural learners bear a double burden
in their quest for mathematical knowledge because they have to come to terms
with the shockingly unfamiliar context and language first, and then assimilate
within that context, the mathematical knowledge presented to them. In these
circumstances, they are likely to learn by rote without truly internalising the
conceptual framework at issue, with the result that their knowledge is not
operationalised and cannot be applied in practice or linked to prior knowledge.
Learning that cannot be applied is meaningless to the learner. Rural learners’
problems in comprehending the English language could lead to difficulties in
learning mathematics because the readability of ‘O’ Level Mathematics textbooks
and examinations word problems were found to be too high for them.

385
12. References
Applebaum, R. P., & Chambliss, W. J. (1995). Sociology. New York: Harper and Collins.
Berns, R. M. (2010). Child, Family, School and Curriculum, Belmont: Wordsworth.
Bethel, G. (2016) Mathematics Education in SubSaharan Africa: Status Challenges and
Opportunities: The World Bank Washington DC.
Bilton, I., Bonnet, K., James, F., & Sheared, K. (1989). Introduction to Sociology. London:
MacMillan.
Blackledge, D., & Hunt, B. (1985). Sociological Interpretation of Education. London:
Groomhelm.
Bol, L., & Berry, R. Q. (2005). Secondary Maths Teachers’ Perception of the Achievement Gap.
North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press.
Bowen, G. (2009). Document Analysis as a Qualitative Research Method. Qualitative
Research Journal, 9(2), 27-40. https://doi.org/10.3316/qrj0902027
Bush, W. S. (2005). Improving research on mathematics learning and teaching in rural
contexts. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 20(8). Retrieved
from http://jrre.psu.edu/articles/20-8.pdf
Channon, J. B., McLeish-Smith., A., Head, H. C., Macrae, M. F., & Chasakara, A. A. (2011).
New General Mathematics Book 3. Essex: Longman.
Channon, J. B., McLeish-Smith., A., Head, H. C., Macrae, M. F., & Chasakara, A. A. (2011).
New General Mathematics Book 4. Essex: Longman.
Chattaraj, D. (2020). Strategies for Facilitating Listening Skills among Foreign Language
Learners in US Universities. International Journal of Learning Teaching and
Educational Research, 19(4),150-169. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.4.10
Compton, A., Fielding, H., & Scott, M. (2007). Supporting Numeracy. London: Paul
Chapman Publishing.
Crawford, M. L. (2001). Teaching Contextually: Research Rationale and Techniques for
Improving Student Motivation and Achievement in Mathematics and Science. Texas:
CCI Publishing.
du Preez, M. (2018). The factors influencing Mathematics students to choose teaching as a
career. South African Journal of Education, 38(2).
https://doi.org/10.15700/saje.v38n2a1465
Ezewu, E. (1983). Sociology. Lagos: Longman.
Graven, M. H. (2014). Poverty, Inequality and Mathematics Performance: The case of
South Africa’s Post Apartheid Context. ZDM Mathematics Education, 46(7), 1039-
1049. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-013-0566-7
Haralambos, M., & Holborn, M. (2008). Sociology: Themes and Perspectives. London: Collin
Unwin.
Haralambos, M., Holborn, M., & Heald, M. (2014). Sociology: Themes and Perspectives.
London: Collin Unwin.
Kaur, R. (2013). Rural Education in India. Education Blogs. Retrieved from:
https://www.mapsofindia.com/my-india/education/india-needs-education-
especially-rural-education
Ledibane, M., Kaiser, K., & Van der Walt, M. (2018). Acquiring mathematics as a second
language: A theoretical model to illustrate similarities in the acquisition of English
as a second language and mathematics. Pythagoras, 39(1), a347.
https://doi.org/10.4102/ Pythagoras.v39i1.347
Macionis, J. J. (1989). Sociology. London: Prentice-Hall.
Magableh, I. S. I., & Abdullah, A. (2020). Effectiveness of differentiated instruction on
primary school students’ English reading comprehension Achievement.

386
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 19(9), 20-35

Mavhunga, D. P., Madondo, M., & Phiri, M. (2009). Education for All in Zimbabwe: A
Mirage? Zimbabwe Journal of Educational Research, 21(1), 25-47.
https://doi.org/10.4314/zjer.v21i1.44066
Mtisi, N., & Maposa, C. (2016). Challenges Encountered in the Teaching and Learning of
Natural Sciences in Rural Schools in South Africa. Journal of Social Science, 47(1),
58-67. https://doi.org/10.1080/09718923.2016.11893544
Mupa, P. (2015). Foundation for success in the teaching of O level mathematics in rural
secondary Schools in Masvingo District. Journal of Education and Practice, 6(19),
133-139.
Musaisia, M. A., Nakhanu, B. J., & Wekesa, W. D. (2012). Investigation of factors that
influence syllabus coverage in Secondary School Mathematics in Kenya.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 2(15), 31-34.
Murisa, T. (2010). Social Development in Zimbabwe. Harare: DFZ.
Mwakapenda, W. (2008). Understanding connections in the school mathematics
curriculum. South African Journal of Education, 28(2), 189–202.
https://doi.org/10.15700/saje.v28n2a170
National Council for Teachers of Mathematics [NCTM]. (1998). Standards of Teaching
Mathematics. Reston: VA.
Nsingo, E. (2010). Zimbabwe Now a Factory of Poverty. Harare: National Statistical Agency.
Nurul, A. B. A., & Yunus, M. M. (2020). Undergraduates Student Perceptions’ of Social
Networking Sites to Improve English Writing Skills in Malaysia. International
Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 19(9), 329-351.
Nziramasanga, C. (1999). Zimbabwe Report on the Presidential Commission of Inquiry into
Education and Training. Harare: Government Printers.
Parveen, H., & Showkat, N. (2017). An Integrative Approach to Content Analysis. The
Content Analysis Guidebook, 36–69. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071802878.n2
Protracted Relief Programme. (2012). Understanding Drivers of Poverty in Zimbabwe. Harare:
PRP.
Rammala, M. S. (2009). Factors contributing Towards Poor Performance of Grade 12 learners at
Manosh and Mokwatedi High Schools (Med Dissertation). Turfloop Graduate School
of Leadership, Gaborone.
Robertson, J. (2011). Salaries of Ordinary Zimbabwean Far Below the Poverty Datum Line.
Harare: National Statistical Agency.
Robertson, S., & Graven, M. (2020). Language as an including or excluding factor in
mathematics teaching and learning. Mathematics Education Research
Journal, 32, 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13394-019-00302-0
Sao, L. Y. T. (2008). Barriers to learning mathematics in rural secondary schools (Med
Psychology thesis). University of Stellenbosch.
Siregar, R., & Siagian, M, D. (2019). Mathematical connection ability: teacher's perception
and experience in learning. International Seminar on Applied Mathematics and
Mathematics Education IOP Conf. Series: Journal of Physics: Conf. Series, 1315. Cimahi,
Indonesia. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1315/1/012041
Snowman, J., Mc Cown, R., & Biehler, R. (2001). Psychology Applied to Teaching. Belmont:
Wardsworth.
Zengin, Y. (2019). Development of mathematical connection skills in a dynamic learning
environment. Education and Information Technologies, 24(3), 2175–2194.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-019-09870-x

387

Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 387-400, June 2020
Emergency Online Teaching in Economic and

Management Sciences Necessitated by the
COVID-19 Pandemic: The Need for Healthy
Relations in a Rural Schooling Context
Habasisa Molise
Sol Plaatje University, South Africa
Bekithemba Dube
University of the Free State, South Africa
Abstract. To prevent the spread of the COVID-19 virus, the pandemic has
necessitated new ways of teaching that favour online learning.
Emergency online teaching (EOT) was adopted to address various
challenges, such as a lack of competence in teachers for teaching online
using digital learning management systems, shortcomings regarding
internet connectivity, and resistance by teachers to using EOT. Relational
leadership couched the study, with an emphasis on constructing positive
relationships to forge sustainable learning conditions. A Whatsapp group
was created to facilitate focus group discussions. The study found that
EOT and learning is desirable and doable, even though various challenges
need to be overcome, especially in rural schools. Therefore, there is a need
for teachers to adjust their subject teaching plans, assessment details and
teaching materials, and to adopt new ways of interacting with learners
through EOT during the COVID-19 pandemic. The argument of the paper
is that, in the context of COVID-19, education stakeholders should invest
in healthy relationships to facilitate the adoption of EOT, in order to
construct conducive learning conditions in rural contexts.
Keywords: emergency online teaching; teaching and learning; COVID-

19; economic and management sciences; rural schools
1. Introduction
The world has been hit by an outbreak of the acute respiratory syndrome
coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the highly infectious virus that causes COVID-19.
At the time of writing this paper, 14,348,8581 people had contracted the disease,
1 This data was provided by World Health Organization on 21 July 2020.

388
and over half a million people have died (World Health Organization, 2020). In
response to the pandemic, many countries have resorted to locking down their
citizens, thereby halting the production of economic services and products – also
in the Global South (Ebrahim, Ahmed, Gozzer, Schlagenhauf & Memish, 2020).
Social distancing, self-isolation, and prohibiting people from gathering in large
numbers (Krishnakumar & Rana, 2020) have become the new normal, thus,
affecting the education sector too. Consequently, the global COVID-19 pandemic
has reconstructed the teaching and learning terrain, causing many schools and
teachers around the world to look into how they can continue teaching their
learners remotely to compensate for lost face-to-face learning time (Aboderin,
2015; Adedeji, 2011; Afolabi, 2015). Many schools have turned to online learning
as an alternative to traditional ways of teaching, and mini-videos, online
consultation time and live streaming (Afolabi, 2015; Bir, 2019) have become the
new normal. According to Mwakyusa (2016), online learning is defined as the
conducting of learning activities across various information and communication
technology (ICT) platforms, such as computers, software and the internet.
According to Amry (2014), online learning goes beyond the classroom walls, and
allows the lecturer and the student to interact in spite of distance and time
constraints. While the idea of online learning is good, and seen as a way to save
the academic year, many countries are under the mistaken impression that their
schools are ready for emergency online teaching (EOT), despite teachers and
learners having little or no experience or training in the use of the new mode of
learning (Krishnakumar & Rana, 2020).
Sintema (2020) reports that few developing countries are ready to implement
online education. Lack of training and experience is exacerbated by inadequate
resources to support online teaching and learning. Teachers of economic and
management sciences (EMS) experience a variety of challenges in infusing EOT in
their teaching (Amadi, 2013). Bradley and Stewart (2002, p. 250) define EOT “as a
collective term for a wide range of software, telecommunications and information
management techniques, applications and devices, that are used to create,
produce, analyze, process, package, distribute, receive, retrieve, store, and
transform information”. In the context of this paper, EOT refers to EMS teachers
using computers and cell phones to share information or to exchange ideas,
thereby making human interaction and teaching easier and more convenient.
The problems of using online teaching as an alternative to face-to-face teaching

are not unique to South Africa. Countries such as Nigeria faced a similar
challenge, even before the outbreak of COVID-19 (Ogunyinka, Okeke &
Adedoyin, 2015). In Zimbabwe, as argued by Musarurwa (2016), despite
computers being donated to some schools, neither teachers nor learners were
capacitated to use computers. African schools, particularly those in rural areas,
such as Thabo Mufatsanyana, where this study was based, should increase their
use of EOT (Olugbeko & Izu, 2013); perhaps it is a new normal that will continue
to be used, even post-COVID-19.
While the government of South Africa has realised the importance of developing
EOT for teaching purposes, in practice, little has materialised regarding the
provision of EOT technology, especially in rural areas, the capacitation of

389
teachers, or the provision of free or cheap data. In South Africa, data is expensive
and poor connectivity is a common constraint at rural schools (Dube, 2020; Du
Plessis & Mestry, 2019). What we have observed is that, even though there is
evidence that more computers are available in schools in South African townships
today, problems, such as lack of skills and training needed for computer use,
persist. We argue that, for progress to promote learning during the COVID-19
pandemic, there is a need for teachers in rural contexts to adopt online learning
with rational, calm, cautious and optimistic attitudes, and without panic. The
outbreak is a reminder that we are part of a global community that shares an
uncertain future and that no one can meet common challenges alone
(Czerniewicz, Trotter & Haupt, 2019). Therefore, teachers need to be capacitated
to revise their subject teaching plans, assessment details (Mtetwa, Chabongora,
Ndemo & Maturure, 2015) and teaching materials, and to adopt new ways of
interacting with students. EOT teaching and classroom teaching differ in terms of
methods and skills needed (Keskin, 2019), hence, teachers need to change learning
styles, from those suitable for a traditional classroom setup, to virtual learning.
Teachers have to adapt to EOT, and fully integrate ever-emerging technology,
contents and pedagogies. Using video to simulate human interactions in a
classroom is one of the factors that makes video teaching successful. In addition,
teachers should take note of issues relating to learners’ privacy, their home
environment, whether they have access to good-quality Wi-Fi connections at
home, their network speed and stability (Basilaia & Kvavadze, 2020),
cybersecurity and time differences for students in different regions.
2. The conception of emergency online teaching in the rural context

during the COVID-19 crisis
The COVID-19 pandemic presents ambivalence for most schools in rural settings
(Cristobal-Fransi, Montegut-Salla, Ferrer-Rosell & Daries, 2020) in terms of the
execution of curriculum packages. According to Dieltiens (2008, p. 40), “rural
schools certainly have problems particular to them; predicaments which require
systemic effort and creative ideas”. Despite the trajectories facing them, teachers
are expected by the Department of Basic Education to hit the ground running and
save the academic year, while the Department ignores the challenges teachers face
with regard to online teaching – despite calls by governments that EOT must be
carefully designed and planned to facilitate learning (Czerniewicz et al., 2019;
Krishnakumar & Rana, 2020). We argue that the threat posed by COVID-19 affects
teaching and learning at rural schools worst, yet, there are expectations that
learning should continue through EOT. EOT requires a shift of “instructional
delivery to an alternate delivery mode due to crisis circumstances” (Du Plessis &
Mestry, 2019, p. 9) – though these modes of delivery may continue to be used in
schools, even after the COVID-19 pandemic. The primary objective in these
“circumstances is not to re-create a robust educational environment but rather to
provide access to instruction and instructional supports in a manner that is quick
to set up and is reliably available during an emergency or crisis” (Hodges, Moore,
Locke, Trust, & Bond, 2020, p. 1).
Using EOT provides flexible teaching and learning, which can take place
anywhere and at any time (Dube, 2020). We argue that, while the idea of going
online seems to be a good one, one that will help teachers to learn about and

390
implement online teaching, support for teachers is undoubtedly more available at

urban than at rural schools. We argue that, in the present COVID-19 crisis,
learning facilitators will not be able to offer the same level of support to all
teachers, considering a narrow preparation window. Our argument is informed
by the understanding that teachers who are near the centre or city often gain better
skills than those on the periphery, such as rural teachers, which affects
performance at rural schools. Therefore, this paper advises considering the
availability of infrastructure or learning devices around EOT that have been set
up to support teaching and learning, such as computers/laptops, internet access,
and counselling in rural contexts. We argue that EOT is an instructional
component of an overall teaching and learning environment, which was
specifically designed to support learners, and which, in the spirit of curriculum
justice, should also be accessible to rural learners. Ultimately, effective EOT
requires an investment in an environment that is geared to provide support to
both teachers and learners, an environment that takes the time to identify the
needs for rural schools (Vilppu, Södervik, Postareff & Murtonen, 2019).
Therefore, this paper supports the use of EOT during the COVID-19 crisis, but
cautions that its implementation should be sensitive to different school contexts,
since rural schools struggle with technology infrastructure and capacitation, and
cannot, therefore, ensure expanded instructional opportunities. Furthermore,
healthy relations between teachers, learners and department officials are essential
for the success of learning during the COVID-19 crisis.
3. Relational leadership in the context of COVID-19

We couched this paper in relational leadership, in order to interrogate effective
EOT and to enhance curriculum delivery at rural schools during the COVID-19
crisis (Akrama, Leia & Haidera, 2016). We grounded this study in relational
leadership because “it shifts attention from leadership, being what leaders do and
instead” (Cleary, Du Toit, Scott & Gilson, 2018, p. 11). The theory sees “leadership
as an emergent relational accomplishment that seeks to help in the acclimatization
of educators in EOT crises and forges alternatives to problem-solving techniques
through nonthreatening and in respectful ways” (Moona, Choib & Armstrong,
2018, p. 44). Relational leadership can “contribute to enhancing curriculum
processes and reducing unnecessary resistance in executing curriculum
packages” (Breedt & Niemandt, 2013, p. 20). Relational leadership offers an
“overarching social influence process (a desire to change for the better) through
which emergent coordination and change of values, attitudes, behaviours and
ideologies construct a conducive milieu” (Cleary et al., 2018, p. 19) for teaching
and learning in the time of COVID-19. We chose relational leadership since it is
“purposeful and builds commitment towards positive change which is inclusive
of people with diverse points of view and empowers those involved in the
curriculum implementation process” (Wong, Ramalu & Chuah, 2019, p. 5).
Relational leadership “represents the influencing processes wherein school
leaders connect people, purpose and practices in order to improve efficiency and
effectiveness” of EOT process. Furthermore, relational leadership emphasises the
“reciprocal interrelating between workers and managers to make sense of a
situation, to determine what is to be done and how to do it” (Karaaslan, 2015, p.
22). Moreover, relational leadership creates the “concept of reciprocal control, a

391
form of control that is not coercive but attempts to coordinate all functions
collectively, underpinned by self-control” (White, 2015, p. 22). Moreover,
relational leadership enables “participation and collectively creating a sense of
direction [as opposed] to control and exercising authority” (Zhang & Yao, 2019,
p. 11). Informed by relational leadership, EOT implementation can be a
satisfactory journey, which will involve teachers and school administrators
travelling together to construct new learning spaces that are not common in rural
contexts.
4. Problem statement
The “emergency online teaching (EOT) requires careful thinking about how
learners and teachers are equipped for the shift and serious consideration about
whether the teaching style is still effective when taken from the classroom and
transposed to technological devices” (Basilaia & Kvavadze, 2020, p. 5). Most
learners in rural areas lack internet connectivity, laptops at home, and supportive
parents (Dube, 2020, p. 8), while teachers lack skills for teaching using technology,
and access to resources to support online learning.
5. Research method and design

This qualitative study used focus group discussions to gather data. The groups
comprised 10 teachers in Thabo Mofutsanyane district in the Free State province
of South Africa. Focus group discussion “is frequently used as a qualitative
approach to gain an in-depth understanding of social issues. The method aims to
obtain data from a purposely selected group of individuals rather than from a
statistically representative sample of a broader population” (Nyumba, Wilson,
Derrick & Mukherjee, 2018, p. 1). “[F]ocus group discussions are relevant for this
study because it is made of relatively homogeneous groups of participants have
the opportunity to stimulate, support and build on each other’s ideas on the topic”
(Balch & Mertens, 1999, p. 276). For sampling, we used purposive sampling
(Onwuegbuzie, 2007), which enables the researcher to locate knowledgeable
individuals who can contribute to the study of the phenomenon under discussion.
To complement the purposive sampling, the study also used the snowball or chain
method to achieve a good representation of the population. Snowballing helps to
complement purposeful sampling, and involves interviewees giving the
researcher the names other potential interviewees, to enrich the composition of
the research team with knowledgeable people (Kirchherr & Charles, 2018). The
study comprised 10 participants, each with more than five years teaching
experience in rural contexts. This experience was important for providing deeper
perspectives of the realities faced by rural teachers, and the alternatives they have
used over the years to address crises. Due to the need for social distancing as a
measure to contain COVID-19, we created Whatsapp focus group discussions
(Reeve & Partridge, 2017). The Whatsapp group provided fast and effective
discussions among the participants. The participants responded to two questions:
What are the COVID-19 EOT challenges experienced by economic and
management sciences teachers in the rural context? How can healthy relations
enhance learning in the context of COVID-19? To collect data, the researchers and
participants discussed and responded to the research questions for an hour twice
a week. The entire research took three weeks to complete. The research adhered

392
to ethics considerations and was covered under the University of the Free State
ethics protocol UFS-HSD2017/0998. The research participants consented to
participate in this research, and pseudonyms were used to protect the identities
of the participants. The participants were also assured that the data collected
would only be used for academic purposes, with the specific aim of enhancing
online learning in the context of COVID-19.
6. Data analysis and ethics considerations

For data analysis, the thematic approach proposed by Laws, Harper and Marcus
(2003, p. 59) was used. The seven steps of the approach are the following:
Step 1: Reading and rereading all the collected data;
Step 2: Drawing up a preliminary list of themes arising from the data;
Step 3: Rereading the data;
Step 4: Linking the themes to quotations and notes;
Step 5: Perusing the categories of themes to interpret them;
Step 6: Designing a tool to help discern patterns in the data; and
Step 7: Interpreting the data and deriving meaning.
The data collected through the Whatsapp group discussion was transcribed,
coded and arranged into themes that emerged as a response to the research
questions (Birt, Scott, Cavers, Campbell, & Walter, 2016; Gunawan, 2015). To
ensure that data reflected the views of participants, member checking was done,
thus, we returned the themes that had been generated to the participants to verify
if they reflect the discussions. Member checking is used to validate, verify, or
assess the trustworthiness of qualitative results (Doyle, 2007). Furthermore,
member checking is ideal for qualitative research, since it explores whether results
resonate with participants’ experiences (Birt et al., 2016, p. 1807). During the
member checking process, the themes were identified, and these themes will be
discussed in detail in the findings section.
7. Findings
The following themes emerged as findings from the data that was analysed:
teachers’ capacitation for EOT in a rural context, maximising internet connectivity
in a rural context, and reducing teachers’ resistance to using EOT during the
COVID-19 crisis.
Teachers’ capacitation in a rural context for emergency online teaching

Despite various efforts to promote online learning, it appears that rural teachers
are left behind compared to urban teachers, which impedes efforts by teachers to
integrate EOT in the school curriculum. Groundwork to ensure that teachers are
computer literate must be done at the pre-service teacher education level.
Mr Mofokeng (a participant) confessed that,

“For me using EOT is a great challenge as I am technologically
challenged. I didn’t grow up having a computer at home; I did not use it
during my training of becoming a teacher. So due to the lack of
competency I have in EOT, I prefer to use the old method that I know.
Because these new things are making my lesson planning harder”.

393
It is apparent from this extract that teachers’ lack of competence in operating EOT
hinders the infusion of EOT at rural schools for delivering EMS lessons. According
to Amadi (2013, p. 10), the “lack of personal access, technical problems, or a lack
of teacher competence can lead directly to a lack of teacher confidence”.
Mrs Lesiba added,

“These children are intelligent; they catch fast compared to us
technologically challenged old women. They even help us in preparing the
lesson after school during the afternoon studies. Slowly but surely we will
get there and utilise EOT effectively at our poor school will be of a great
transformation”.
Mrs Lesiba’s words show that teachers need to be capacitated on how to facilitate
their lessons online. Capacitation can be successful if teachers are receptive to
change and embrace the new way of teaching. Through this, rural teachers can
become confident about using EOT effectively in their teaching.
Maximising internet connectivity in a rural context for effective emergency online

teaching
The literature found that teachers complained about how difficult it was to gain
access to computers (Dube, 2020). Devices remain a serious challenge that hinders
the success of online learning. In this regard, Letuka said,
Mr Moloi: Honourable Sebeko, the materials and resources play a vital
role in the implementation and infusion of EOT with the teaching and
teaching and I am sure you know that. I as Moloi realize that the
motivation and confidence to infuse EOT in the teaching and teaching
can only come from having an access to EOT equipment, material or
resources.
Other participants added to the discussion:

Mr Dipadi: Ms Matsikane our situation here in rural places is so sad. It
is hard for us to apply for jobs online or at the internet because of the thing
on our computers that always says “no internet access” and poor
connectivity.
Ms Matsikane: Mr Dipabi I hear you complain about internet and poor
connectivity. Can you use a computer?
Mr Dipadi: Khidik! Hell mme waka ke mobe haholo [I am too good]. When
I get to towns visiting my step father, where there is internet access I
download and download these novels internet and print them out because
I read them when I am back at the villages because I get bored.
From the words of the participants, it is evident that the lack of internet
connectivity in rural areas compromises the opportunities for effective online
teaching. Most rural schools “continue to lag behind compared to urban ones,
while (internet) connectivity is quite inferior compared to the availability of
computers in all schools and geographic contexts” (Cristobal-Fransi et al., 2020, p.
33).

394
Reducing teachers’ resistance to emergency online teaching during the COVID-19

crisis
The literature found that,
“teachers’ attitudes and beliefs toward the use of technology in their
classroom play a major role in the extent to which they will integrate
computers into their classrooms and provide their students opportunities
to engage with technology for educational purposes” (Du Plessis &
Mestry, 2019, p. 11).
To this end, the participants reported the following. Miss Moloi said,
“in my times I was doing very well at school, I used to write the notes the
teachers wrote for us on the chalkboard and study them when I got home…
I don’t think teachers have to be put under pressure to get EOT training
because they know how to teach well using chalk and chalkboards“.
Mrs Morobi added,

“The problem I have is that I trained as a teacher long back before the
computers were introduced so adjusting to this online thing is rather very
difficult. Sometime I feel I should just do nothing and wait for schools to
open”.
These comments show that some teachers resist change, because they are attached
to the traditional or old ways of teaching and learning. By introducing EOT as a
new mechanism of teaching, we realise that humans, including parents and
educators, tend to be reluctant to adapt new methods, as they feel comfortable
with the traditional habits they have used for many years. Mr Moreki had this to
say:
“I think this is the reason why they are not showing any interest to use
computers for online learning. They think that it is so hard to learn how
to use a computer or they might do something wrong and break
something.”
There is a need to demystify and reduce fear of using technology that some
teachers have. Encouraging teachers to invest more time in interacting with
technology and online learning packages can assist in demystifying their fear.
According to Tarusikirwa (2016, p. 12), “lack of time is a factor that hinders
technology integration in schools”. To illustrate this, Mrs Selepe explained:
“Time is very precious and should and should be utilized as productive as
much as possible. In infusing EOT, time remains jealous. It is going fast,
so that leaves our teachers no time to be equipped with needed skills. When
we concentrate on the equipping learners and teachers in terms of EOT,
we lag behind with regard to the syllabus and department official are
always on our case. It is really hard to make provision as nowadays we
are compelled to even work on Saturdays. There is really no time to
practice and be equipped because the implementation of our curriculum
doesn’t really make a provision for such activities. Time is not enough”.
Adedeji (2011, p. 45) reports that “participants complained of being burden with
teaching load, planning duties and other school work such that they had no time
to learn, to keep up with and plan to use new software”.

395
8. Need for healthy relationships in curriculum implementation during

COVID-19
Another finding of the study is that, to ensure the success of curriculum during
the COVID-19 pandemic, there is a need for education stakeholders to set aside
their differences, and to embrace and invest in ensuring healthy relationships.
COVID-19 is now a new normal, which requires people to work collectively with
the aim of ensuring that curriculum packages are executed in a way that assists
learners, especially those from deprived contexts, like rural schools. With healthy
relationships, the study found that teachers, department officials and learners
could share useful learning information and ideas about using various gadgets to
support learning in times of crisis. Based on this finding, we agree with Komives,
Lucas and McMahon (1998, p. 104), who argue that, “when school leaders,
curriculum planners and politicians frame relations in respect, there is the
possibility of collaboration, reflection, feedback, civil confrontation, community
building, and a level of profound understanding called meaning-making”.
Alsubaie (2016, p. 11) agrees, and states that “teachers and other stakeholders
need to create a culture of continuous improvement of relations underpinned by
respect, justice, hard work and a desire for the successful execution of curriculum
packages”. This finding resonates with the study’s theoretical framing, which
emphasises good relations as the best way to forge curriculum in the context of
crisis. This confirms James’ (2010, p. 11) argument, that “healthy relations offers
an opportunity that allows the containment of emotions, and restrains anger and
victimisation”, which is necessary for creating conducive learning environments
during the COVID-19 crisis.
9. Discussion of findings
The findings discussed above suggest that implementing EOT during COVID-19,
while schools are closed because of the pandemic, can be successful if different
school contexts (including rural contexts) are considered, and if teachers are
capacitated on executing EOT ( Dube, 2020; Shenoy, Mahendra & Vijay 2020). To
achieve these prerequisites, “there is a need for extensive preparation, adequate
time, and ongoing support for teachers to ensure they have the knowledge, skills,
and confidence in teaching” with EOT systems (Schaefer, Rahn, Kopp, Fabian &
Brown, 2019, p. 2). The likelihood of success lies in the leadership of schools, and
whether they offer moral support to teachers who have to adjust to the new
normal. By ensuring inclusivity, the department of basic education ensures that
rural areas are considered as deprived sites for learning that require more
assistance than urban areas. In addition, many rural teachers suffer from a form
of digital inequality, as they lack connections and devices for teaching remotely
(Mitchell, 2014). Therefore, to avert disaster in rural schools, the government of
South Africa must reconsider support given to rural teachers; the support must
be given in the spirit of emancipating teachers to adjust to the new working
environment. Accordingly, the work required of teachers must be adjusted, to be
more reasonable and flexibility with deadlines for assignments (Hodges et al.
2020) in a friendly though professional manner, which takes the new life of many
rural teachers into consideration. In essence, the school management team must
understand the school context in which EOT has to be executed, and the reasons
for teachers’ resistance to adapting to the digital space required by EOT, especially

396
in rural contexts. In the same vein, teachers should be willing to learn new things
and to accept change and implement it accordingly. This mutual willingness to
change could be made possible by enacting healthy relationships that are
buttressed by the adoption of relational leadership.
We remain hopeful that the COVID-19 threat will end someday, and that the skills
acquired during the pandemic can continue to be utilised to support effective
learning – it is likely, considering future public health and safety concerns, and
schools being closed due to public protests and natural disasters, such as wildfires
or hurricanes (Vilppu et. al., 2019), and now COVID-19. Thus, learning about EOT
must become part of teachers' professional development, so that teachers are
equipped to use online teaching and learning, instead of being forced by
circumstances to engage in EOT.
10. The way forward on emergency online teaching during the

COVID19-crisis
Informed by the foregoing, we conclude that school management teams need to
take into consideration relationships with teachers when planning for EOT during
the COVID-19 pandemic, so that teachers have clear guidelines and the necessary
capacitation when they enter the digital learning space. We argue that framing
EOT or, broadly, digital learning spaces, in relational leadership safeguards
against teacher anxiety, and victimisation, which could characterise embarking on
EOT during the COVID-19 crisis. In addition, as proposed by Mahlomaholo
(2013), relational leadership enables education stakeholders to unleash their
human power and potential to transform an otherwise transient situation, such as
the COVID-19 pandemic, permanently. Rethinking EOT from the lens of
relational leadership offers an opportunity for positive change – change that can
improve rural school contexts, and which does not intend to expose teachers’ lack
of preparedness for EOT, but is aimed at emancipating them.
The distinctiveness of this article is that we used relational leadership theory in

the EOT space. The article’s view is that relationships are essential to ensure
success in the teaching and learning of EMS. Again, we make the case that
relations should remain framed in collegiality and professionalism, to emancipate
education stakeholders in curriculum implementation during and after the
COVID-19 crisis. The paper emphasises that school leaders must play a role in
“creating relations that capacitate teachers for EOT as well as promote social
justice and emancipation to enable teachers to confront new realities with a sense
of confidence” (Dube & Jita, 2018, p. 13). In addition, the article departed from
common EOT narratives that “teachers cannot effectively implement the EOT, but
has argued that when relations are healthy, collaboration and effective
implementation are facilitated because teachers feel part of the digital learning
space” (Dube & Jita, 2018, p. 12). Finally, the paper exposed how the EOT space
can cause anxiety due to unpreparedness, and can create misunderstandings
between rural teachers and the school management team in the preparation and
execution of EOT.

397
11. Concluding reflections

In this paper, we highlighted various opportunities for implementing EOT during
the COVID-19 crisis. The study reveals that capacitation and support of rural
teachers could reduce anxiety and prepare teachers to implement EOT, to
safeguard continued teaching during the lockdown period caused by the COVID-
19 pandemic. The paper is couched in relational leadership, a theory that
emphases the need for good relationships to champion and facilitate curriculum
adoption among all stakeholders working together to achieve efficiency in
education. The paper was qualitative in nature, with 10 participants being selected
using random sampling and snowballing. The study adhered to ethics
considerations and hid the identities of the participants, who consented to
participate in the study. The main argument is that education stakeholders need
to invest in building capacity for EOT in stakeholders at rural schools. By doing
so, educators are more likely to cooperate in implementing EOT, as a way to
address instructional challenges caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, effectively
and efficiently, and to the benefit of teachers and learners in rural contexts.
12. References
Aboderin, O. S. (2015). Challenges and prospects of e-learning at National Open
University of Nigeria. Journal of Education and Learning, 9(3), 207–216.
https://doi.org/10.11591/edulearn.v9i3.1728
Adedeji, T. (2011). Availability and use of ICT in South-Western Nigeria colleges of
education. African Research Review, 5(5), 315–331.
https://doi.org/10.4314/afrrev.v5i5.25
Afolabi, A. A. (2015). Availability of online learning tools and the readiness of teachers
and students towards it in Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko,
Ondo State, Nigeria. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 176, 610–615.
Akrama, T., Leia, S., & Haidera, M. J. (2016). The impact of relational leadership on
employee innovative work behavior in IT industry of China. Arab Economic and
Business Journal, 11, 153–161. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.aebj.2016.06.001
Alsubaie, M. A. (2016). Curriculum development: Teacher involvement in curriculum
development. Journal of Education and Practice, 7(9), 106–107.
Amadi, M. N. (2013). In-service training and professional development of teachers in
Nigeria: Through open and distance education. Bulgarian Comparative
Education Society. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Bulgarian
Comparative Education Society. Plovdiv, Bulgaria, May 14-17, 2013.
Amry, B. A. (2014). The impact of WhatsApp mobile social learning on the achievement
and achievement of female students compared with face to face learning in the
classroom. European Scientific Journal, 10(22), 116-136.
Balch, G. I., & Mertens, D. M. (1999). Focus group design and group dynamics: Lessons
from deaf and hard of hearing participants. American Journal of Evaluation, 20(2),
265–277. https://doi.org/10.1177/109821409902000208
Basilaia, G., & Kvavadze, D. (2020). Transition to online education in schools during a
SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic in Georgia. Pedagogical Research,
5(4), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.29333/pr/7937
Bir, D. D. (2019). Comparison of academic performance of students in online vs traditional
engineering course. European Journal of Open, Distance and e-Learning, 22(1), 1-13.
https://doi.org/10.2478/eurodl-2019-0001

398
Birt, L., Scott, S., Cavers, D., Campbell, C., & Walter, F. (2016). Member checking: A tool
to enhance trustworthiness or merely a nod to validation. Qualitative Health
Research, 26(12), 1802–1811. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732316654870
Bradley, L., & Stewart, K. (2002). A Delphi study of the drivers and inhibitors of internet
banking. International Journal of Bank Marketing, 20(6), 250-260.
Breedt, J. J., & Niemandt, C. J. P. (2013). Relational leadership and the missional church.
Verbum et Ecclesia, 34(1), 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/ve.v34i1.819
Cleary, S., Du Toit, A., Scott, V., & Gilson, L. (2018). Enabling relational leadership in
primary healthcare settings: lessons from the DIALHS collaboration. Health Policy
and Planning, 33, 65–74. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapol/czx135
Cristobal-Fransi, E., Montegut-Salla, Y., Ferrer-Rosell, B., & Daries, N. (2020). Rural
cooperatives in the digital age: An analysis of the Internet presence and degree of
maturity of agri-food cooperatives' ecommerce. Journal of Rural Studies, 74, 55–66.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2019.11.011
Czerniewicz, L., Trotter, H., & Haupt, G. (2019). Online teaching in response to student
protests and campus shutdowns: academics’ perspectives. International Journal of
Educational Technology in Higher Education, 16(1), 43–55.
Dieltiens, V. (2008). As long as the rain still falls we must cultivate: Africanist challenges
to liberal education. Journal of Education, 45, 29-42.
Doyle, S. (2007). Member checking with older women: A framework for negotiating
meaning. Health Care for Women International, 8, 888–908.
Du Plessis, P., & Mestry, R. (2019). Teachers for rural schools – a challenge for South Africa.
South African Journal of Education, 39(1), 1-9.
https://doi.org/10.15700/saje.v39ns1a1774
Dube, B. (2020). Rural online learning in the context of COVID-19 in South Africa: Evoking
an inclusive education approach. Multidisciplinary Journal of Educational Research,
10(2), 135–157.
Dube, B., & Jita, T. (2018). Trajectories of the new curriculum in Zimbabwe. Rethinking
rational leadership to reconstruct the contested terrain in curriculum
implementation. Issues in Educational Research 28(4), 1–18.
Ebrahim, S. H., Ahmed, Q. A., Gozzer, E., Schlagenhauf, P., & Memish, Z. A., (2020).
COVID-19 and community mitigation strategies in a pandemic. BMJ, 2020(368),
1066. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m1066
Gunawan, J. (2015). Ensuring trustworthiness in qualitative research. Belitung Nursing
Journal, 1(1), 4-11. Retrieved from
http://belitungraya.org/BRP/index.php/bnj/article/viewFile/4/pdf
Hodges, C., Moore, S., Locke, B., Trust, T., & Bond, A. (2020). The difference between
emergency remote teaching and online learning. Educause Review, March 27.
Retrieved from https://er.educause.edu/articles/2020/3/the-difference-
between-emergency-remote-teaching-and-online-learning
James, C. (2010). The psychodynamics of educational change. In A. Hargreaves, A.
Lieberman, M. Fullan, & D. Hopkins (Eds.), International handbook of educational
change. London: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2660-6_3
Karaaslan, O. (2015). From “cogito ergo sum” to “vivo ergo sum”: Current theoretical
trends and changing perspectives in leadership. Open Journal of Leadership, 4, 153–
163. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ojl.2015.44014

399
Keskin, S. (2019). Factors affecting students’ preferences for online and blended learning:
Motivational vs. cognitive. European Journal of Open, Distance and e-Learning, 2(2),
72–86. https://doi.org/10.2478/eurodl-2019-0011
Kirchherr J., & Charles, K. (2018). Enhancing the sample diversity of snowball samples:
Recommendations from a research project on antidam movements in Southeast
Asia. PLoS ONE, 13(8), e0201710. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0201710
Komives, S. R., Lucas, N., & McMahon, T. R. (1998). Exploring leadership: For college students
who want to make a difference. London: John Wiley and Sons.
Krishnakumar, B., & Rana. S. (2020). COVID 19 in INDIA: Strategies to combat from
combination threat of life and livelihood. Journal of Microbiology, Immunology and
Infection, 53(3), 389–391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmii.2020.03.024
Laws, S., Harper, C., & Marcus, R. (2003). Research for development. Sage.
Loewenson, R., Laurell, A. C., Hogstedt, C., D’Ambruoso, L., & Shroff, Z. (2014).
Participatory action research in health systems: A methods reader. Harare: TARSC,
AHPSR, WHO, IDRC Canada, EQUINET.
Ma, J., Li, C., & Liang, H. (2019). Enhancing students’ blended learning experience through
embedding metaliteracy. Education Research International, 6791058.
https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/6791058
Mahlomaholo, S. G. (2013). Naivety of empiricism versus complexity of bricolage in creating
sustainable learning environments. Proceedings of International Conference of
Education, Research and Innovation. 18-20 November 2013, Seville, Spain.
Mitchell, A. (2014). Online courses and online teaching strategies in higher education.
Creative Education, 5. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ce.2014.523225
Moona, Y. J., Choib, M., & Armstrong, D. J. (2018). The impact of relational leadership and
social alignment on information security system effectiveness in Korean
governmental organizations. International Journal of Information Management, 40,
54–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2018.01.001
Mtetwa, D., Chabongora, B., Ndemo, Z., & Maturure, E. (2015). Features of continuous
professional development (CPD) of school mathematics teachers in Zimbabwe.
International Journal of Educational Science, 8(1–2), 135–147.
Musarurwa, C. (2016). Teaching with and learning through ICTs in Zimbabwe’s teacher
education colleges. US-China Education Review, A 12(2011), 1–9.
Mwakyusa, P. (2016). Impediments of e-learning adoption in higher learning institutions
of Tanzania: An empirical review. Journal of Education and Practice, 7(30), 152–169.
Nyumba, T. O., Wilson, K., Derrick, C. J., & Mukherjee, N. (2018). The use of focus group
discussion methodology: Insights from two decades of application in
conservation. Methods Ecology and Evolution, 2018(9), 20–32.
https://doi.org/10.1111/2041-210X.12860
Ogunyinka, E. K., Okeke, T. I., & Adedoyin, R. C. (2015). Teacher education and
development in Nigeria: An analysis of reforms, challenges and prospects.
Education Journal, 4(3), 111–122. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.edu.20150403.14
Olugbeko, S. O., & Izu, G. O. (2013). The reality and challenges of e-learning education in
Africa: The Nigeria experience. International Journal of Humanities and Management
Sciences (IJHMS), 1(3), 205–209.
Oloruntegbe, K. O., & Collins, K. M. T. (2011). Teachers’ involvement, commitment and
innovativeness in curriculum development and implementation. Journal of
Emerging Trends in Educational Research and Policy Studies, 2(6), 443–449.
Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2007). A typology of mixed methods: Sampling designs in social
science research. The Qualitative Report, 12(2), 281–316.

400
Pei, L., & Wu, H. (2019). Does online learning work better than offline learning in
undergraduate medical education? A systematic review and meta-analysis.
Medical Education Online, 24(1), 1–13.
Reeve, M. A., & Partridge, M. (2017). The use of social media to combat research isolation.
Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 110(5), 449-456.
https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aesa/sax051
Schaefer, T., Rahn, J., Kopp, T., Fabian, C. M. & Brown, A. (2019). Fostering online learning
at the workplace: A scheme to identify and analyse collaboration processes in
asynchronous discussions. British Journal of Educational Technology, 50(3), 1354–
1367. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12617
Shenoy, V., Mahendra, S., & Vijay, N. (2020). COVID 19 lockdown technology adaption,
teaching, learning, students engagement and faculty experience. Mukt Shabd
Journal, 9(4), 698–702.
Sklaveniti, C. (2016). Relational leadership theory. In A. Farazmand (Ed.), Global
encyclopaedia of public administration, public policy, and governance. Springer.
Retrieved from: https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783319209272
Sintema, E. J. (2020). Effect of COVID-19 on the Performance of Grade 12 Students:
Implications for STEM Education. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and
Technology Education, 16(7), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/7893
Sun, A., & Chen, X. (2016). Online education and its effective practice: A research review.
Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 15, 157–190.
Tarusikirwa, M. C. (2016). Modelling teacher development through open and distance
learning: A Zimbabwean experience. Universal Journal of Educational Research,
4(12), 2706-2715. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2016.041203.
Vilppu, H., Södervik, I., Postareff, L., & Murtonen, M. (2019). The effect of short online
pedagogical training on university teachers’ interpretations of teaching–learning
situations. Instructional Science, 47(1), 679-709. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-
019-09496-z
White, P. (2015). A missional study of Ghanaian Pentecostal churches’ leadership and
leadership formation. HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies, 71(3), 1-8.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/hts.v71i3.2865
Wong, H. C., Ramalu, S. S., & Chuah, F. (2019). An overview of leadership and the
emergence of relational leadership. Journal of Human Resource and Leadership, 4(1),
32-43.
World Health Organization. (2020). WHO coronavirus disease (COVID-19) dashboard.
Retrieved from: https://covid19.who.int/
Zhang, X., & Yao, Z. (2019). Impact of relational leadership on employees’ unethical pro
organizational behavior: A survey based on tourism companies in four countries.
PLoS ONE, 14(12), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0225706

PUBLISHER International Journal of Learning, Teaching and
Society for Research and Knowledge Management Educational Research
Port Louis
Republic of Mauritius
www.ijlter.org The International Journal of Learning, Teaching
and Educational Research is an open-access
Chief Editor journal which has been established for the dis-
Dr. Antonio Silva Sprock, Universidad Central de semination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the
Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER
welcomes research articles from academics, ed-
Editorial Board
ucators, teachers, trainers and other practition-
Dr. Fatima Zohra Belkhir-Benmostefa
ers on all aspects of education to publish high
Dr. Giorgio Poletti
quality peer-reviewed papers. Papers for publi-
Dr. Chi Man Tsui
cation in the International Journal of Learning,
Dr. Fitri Suraya Mohamad
Teaching and Educational Research are selected
Dr. Hernando Lintag Berna
through precise peer-review to ensure quality,
Dr. Charanjit Kaur Swaran Singh
originality, appropriateness, significance and
Dr. Abu Bakar
readability. Authors are solicited to contribute
Dr. Eglantina Hysa
to this journal by submitting articles that illus-
Dr. Mo'en Salman Alnasraween
trate research results, projects, original surveys
Dr. Hermayawati Hermayawati
and case studies that describe significant ad-
Dr. Selma Kara
vances in the fields of education, training, e-
Dr. Michael B. Cahapay
learning, etc. Authors are invited to submit pa-
Dr. Bunmi Isaiah Omodan
pers to this journal through the ONLINE submis-
Dr. Vassiliki Pliogou
sion system. Submissions must be original and
Dr. Meera Subramanian
should not have been published previously or
Dr. Muhammad Kristiawan
be under consideration for publication while
Dr. Wahyu Widada
being evaluated by IJLTER.
Dr. Som Pal Baliyan
Dr. Reem Khalid Abu-Shawish
Dr. Froilan Delute Mobo
Dr. Mohamed Ali Elkot
Dr. Anabelie Villa Valdez
Mr. Teody Lester Verdeflor Panela

Vol 19 No 6 June 2020

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Vol 19 No 6 June 2020

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Vol 19 No 6 June 2020

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

IJLTER.

Society for Research and Knowledge Management

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational

Aims and Objectives

The main objective of this journal is to provide a platform for educators,

Indexing and Abstracting

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational

We are very happy to publish this issue of the International Journal of

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational

We are grateful to the editor-in-chief, members of the Editorial Board

The Editorial Board is composed of renowned people from across the

We will endeavour to ensure the reputation and quality of this journal

Editors of the June 2020 Issue

Technology-Driven Self-Directed Learning of Graduate Pharmaceutists: Adding Value through Entrepreneurship

Mass Media Internships in Vocational Training of Students Majoring in Journalism............................................... 238

Situating "children-supporting-children" Platform in the Context of the Inclusive Agenda: A Phenomenological

The Impact of Educational Technologies on University Teachers’ Self-efficacy ........................................................ 323

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

The Emergency Remote Learning Experience of

Keywords: emergency remote learning; online learning; higher

©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

As a result of the threat posed by COVID-19, educational institutions have hurried

©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Table 1: Number of affected academic institutions, learners and

Elementary School 149,435 25,203.371 556,969

Junior High School 40,559 10,112,022 302,116

Senior High School 13,495 4,976,127 212,715

TOTAL 425,451 60,121,609 2,251,284

School closure is one of the critical components of numerous non-pharmaceutical

©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

learning, since well-planned online learning experiences are substantially

This study focused on understanding how remote learning during COVID-19

Some articles published in peer-reviewed Indonesian journals focus on online

©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Figure 1. Theoretical Model

Research on the implementation of home learning during COVID-19 in Indonesia

©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

2. Materials and Methods

A phenomenology is a philosophical approach to the analysis of phenomena that

©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

The researcher paid close attention to data triangulation to develop a

The complete elimination of non-response bias from the study is impossible.

In analyzing the data, the researcher adopted a two-stage coding model

©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Emergency Remote Learning during

Conventional Flexible Challenging

Figure 2. Research findings

©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Figure 3. Data analysis process

©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

3.1 Blended Learning

Table 2. Learning media/methods & frequency of being mentioned by participants

Media/Methods Frequency Categories

Reading E-book & E-Journal 56 e-learning & m-learning

YouTube & Video 52 e-learning & m-learning

Online Meeting (Zoom or Google Meet) 50 e-learning & m-learning

Browsing Internet 42 e-learning & m-learning

Educational Website 35 e-learning & m-learning

Podcast 33 e-learning & m-learning