MAULANA AZAD NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY Bhopal 462051

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

2010-2011 MAJOR PROJECT REPORT on

A STUDY OF PROTECTION OF TRANSMISSION LINE BY RELAY COORDINATION

GUIDED BY: Dr. D.M.Deshpande

SUBMITTED BY:
Pushp Raj Patel Anustup Chattopadhyay Shaleen Singhi 071113003 071113012 071113013

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DECLARATION

We hereby declare that the work which is being presented in the project report titled

STUDY OF PROTECTION OF TRANSMISSION LINE BY RELAY COORDINATION

in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of technology in Electrical engineering is an authentic record of our own work carried out under the able guidance of

Dr.D.M.Deshpande.

The work has been carried out in

Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal and has not been submitted for any other degree or diploma. This is to certify that the above declaration is correct to the best of our knowledge.

Pushp Raj Patel Anustup Chattopadhyay Shaleen Singhi

071113003 071113012 071113013

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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

THIS

IS

TO OF

CERTIFY

THAT

PUSHP

RAJ

PATEL,

ANUSTUP HAS

CHATTOPADHYAY AND SHALEEN SINGHI STUDENT OF FINAL YEAR, BACHELOR TECHNOLOGY OF IN (ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING) BY SUCCESSFULLY COMPLETED THEIR MAJOR PROJECT A STUDY OF PROTECTION COORDINATION ENGINEERING. TRANSMISSION THE PARTIAL LINE RELAY OF THE FULFILLMENT

REQUIREMENT OF THEIR BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN ELECTRICAL

_________________________
Dr. (Mrs.) Ganga Agnihotri (HOD)

______________________ Dr. D.M.Deshpande (Project Guide)

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ACKNOLEDGEMENT
We feel it our proud privilege to express our deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to Dr. D. M. Deshpande for providing his painstaking and untiring supervision. We own my deep sense of gratitude and thanks for his constructive criticism, valuable suggestions and constant encouragement at all stages of development of this project.

We also wish to express our sincere thanks to Dr. R .P. Singh (Director of MANIT), Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal, for providing a conducive environment for proper development of project and the necessary facilities for completion of project.

We also express our sincere thanks and gratitude to Dr. (Mrs.) Ganga Agnihotri (HOD), Shri Pankaj Swarnkar (Assistant Professor) and all the faculties of Electrical Engineering Department, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, (Bhopal) without whose constant support and guidance, this project would not have been a success.

Pushp Raj Patel Anustup Chattopadhyay Shaleen Singhi

071113003 071113012 071113013

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INDEX S.No Chapter name 1 2 3 4 Introduction Protective devices Relays Protection of transmission line by over current relays Calculations Page number 6 9 17 33

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41

Source Code and simulation 45 (C) Conclusion 52

CHAPTER 1
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INTRODUCTION General
With the increasing dependence on electricity supplies, in both developing a n d developed countries, the need to achieve an acceptable level of reliability, quality and safety at an economic price becomes even more important to customers. A furt h e r r e q u i r e m e n t i s t h e s a f e t y o f t h e e l e c t r i c i t y s u p p l y . A p r i o r i t y o f a n y s u p p l y s y s t e m is that it has been well designed and properly maintained in order to limit the number of faults that might occur. Associated with the distribution networks themselves are a number of ancillary systems to assist in meeting the requirements for safety, reliability and quality of supp l y . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f t h e s e a r e t h e p r o t e c t i o n s y s t e m s w h i c h a r e i n s t a l l e d t o c l e a r faults and limit any damage to distribution equipment. Amongst the principal causes of faults are lightning discharges, the deterioration of insulation, vandalism, and tree branches and animals contacting the electricity circuits. The majority of faults are of a transient nature and can often be cleared with no loss of supply, or just the shortest of interruptions, whereas permanent faults can result in longer outages. In order to avoid damage, suitable and reliable protection should be installed on all circuits and electrical equipment. Protective relays initiate the isolation of faulted sections of the network in order to maintain supplies elsewhere on the system. This then leads to an improved electricity service with better continuity and quality of supply .A properly co-ordinated protection system is vital to ensure that an electricity distribution network can operate within preset requirements for safety for individual items of equipment, staff and public, and the network overall. Automatic operation is necessary to isolate faults on the networks as quickly as possible in order to minimise damage. The economic costs and the benefits of a protection system must be considered in order to arrive at a suitable balance between the requirements of the scheme and the available financial resources. In addition, minimising the costs of non distributed energy is receiving increasing attention. Electrical power system Electric power systems consist of four major categories: generating stations, transmission lines, distribution lines, and utilization systems. The electric power system industry converts and transports energy for utilization by numerous industrial, commercial, and residential customers.

Power System Protection

Power system protection is a branch of electrical power engineering that deals with the protection of electrical power systems from faults through the isolation of faulted parts from the rest of the electrical network. The objective of a protection scheme is to keep the power system stable by isolating only the components that are under fault, whilst leaving as much of the network as possible still in operation. Thus, protection schemes must apply a very pragmatic and pessimistic approach to clearing system faults. For this reason, the technology and philosophies utilized in protection schemes can often be old and well-established because they must be very reliable.

Protection zones
The general philosophy for the use of relays is to divide the system into separate zones, which can be individually protected and disconnected on the occurrence of a f a u l t , i n o r d e r t o p e r m i t t h e r e s t o f t h e s y s t e m t o c o n t i n u e i n s e r v i c e w h e r e v e r p o s s i b l e . In general a power system can be divided into protection zones generators, transformers, groups of generator transformers, motors, bus bars and lines.

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Type of Protection Primary and back-up protection

All the elements of the power system must be correctly protected so that the r e l a y s o n l y operate on the occurrence of a fault. Some relays, designated as unit type protection, o p e r a t e only for faults within their protection zone. Other relays designated as non-unit protection, are able to detect faults both within a particular zone and also outside it, usually in adjacent zones, and can be used to back up the primary protection as a second line of defence. It is essential that any fault is isolated, even if the associated main protection does not operate. Therefore, wherever possible, every element in the power system should be protected by both primary and back-up relays.

Primary protection
Primary protection should operate every time an element detects a fault on the power system. The protection element covers one or more components of the power system, such as electrical machines, lines and bus bars. It is possible for a power system component to have various primary protection devices. However, this does not imply that they all have to operate for the same fault, and it should be noted that the primary protection for one item of system equipment might not necessarily be installed at the same location as the system equipment; in some cases it can be sited in an adjacent substation.

Back-up protection
Back-up protection is installed to operate when, for whatever reason, the primary protection does not work. To achieve this, the back-up protection relay has a sensing element which may or may not be similar to the primary protection, but which also i n c l u d e s a t i m e - d e l a y f a c i l i t y t o s l o w d o w n t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e r e l a y s a s t o a l l o w t i m e for the primary protection to operate first. One relay can provide back-up protection simultaneously to different pieces of system equipment. Equally the same equipment can have a number of different back-up protection relays and it is quite common for a relay to act as primary protection for one piece of equipment and as back-up for another.

Directional protection
An important characteristic of some types of protection is their capacity to be able to d e t e r m i n e t h e direction of the flow of power and, by this means, their ability to inhibit opening of the associated switch when the fault current flows in the o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n to the setting of the relay. Relays provided with this characteristic are important in protecting mesh networks, or where there are various generation sources, when fault currents can circulate in both directions around the mesh. In these cases, directional protection prevents the unnecessary opening of switchgear and thus improves the security of the electricity supply. On protection schematic diagrams the directional protection is usually represented by an arrow underneath the appropriate symbol, indicating the direction of current flow for relay operation.

Components use for protection

Current and voltage transformers to step down the high voltages and currents of the electrical power system to convenient levels for the relays to deal with; Protective relays to sense the fault and initiate a trip, or disconnection, order; Circuit breakers to open/close the system based on relay. 5 3

Batteries to provide power in case of power disconnection in the system. Communication channels to allow analysis of current and voltage at remote terminals of a line and to allow remote tripping of equipment. Fuses are capable of both sensing and disconnecting faults.

Protection schemes
It is difficult to define precisely the protection schemes that should be adopted for an electricity distribution system, given the large number of valid alternatives for each situation, but some schemes will be presented as a guide for protecting the various elements that make up a power system. However, any protection scheme should strike a balance between the technical and economic aspects so that, for example, sophisticated protection devices are not used for small machines or for less important power system elements.

Line protection
Line protection generally consists of overcurrent, distance, and directional overcurr e n t r e l a y s a n d , depending on the voltage level at which the line is operating, schemes indicated below are in general use.

Medium voltage lines

These circuits should be protected with overcurrent relays, and directional overcurrent relays should be used on an MV ring, while MV radial circuits should include reclose relays within the protection scheme. It is common practice on MV feeders for the trip-ping of instantaneous relays to be routed via the reclosing relays. This ensures that the reclosing relay is energised from a protection relay trip to start a reclose operation. Time-delay units are often used to produce a definite time trip, i.e. without the possibility of a reclose operation occurring.

High voltage lines

HV lines would normally have distance and directional overcurrent protection, plus carrier wave receive and reclosing relays. Duplication of the main protection can sometimes be justified on important lines, or the use of some other type such as differential protection. When radial circuits are involved, directional overcurrent relays can be replaced by non directional overcurrent relays.

CHAPTER 2

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PROTECTIVE DEVICES General

Design of power system protection requires the proper application of fuses, circuit breakers, protective relays, and other special purpose over current protective devices. This chapter provides detailed information about various protective devices.

Fuses
A fuse is a non-adjustable, direct acting, single phase device that responds to both the magnitude and duration of current flowing through it. Fuses may be time delay or non-time delay, current-limiting or non-current-limiting, low-voltage or high voltage

A miniature time-delay fuse used to protect electronic equipment, rated 0.3 amperes at 250 volts. 1.25 inches (about 32 mm) long.

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200A Industrial fuse. 80 kA breaking capacity. In electronics and electrical engineering a fuse is a type of sacrificial over current protection device. Its essential component is a metal wire or strip that melts when too much current flows, which interrupts the circuit in which it is connected. Short circuit, overload or device failure is often the reason for excessive current. A fuse interrupts excessive current (blows) so that further damage by overheating or fire is prevented. Wiring regulations often define a maximum fuse current rating for particular circuits. Over current protection devices are essential in electrical systems to limit threats to human life and property damage. Fuses are selected to allow passage of normal current and of excessive current only for short periods.

Operation of Fuse
A fuse consists of a metal strip or wire fuse element, of small cross-section compared to the circuit conductors, mounted between a pair of electrical terminals, and (usually) enclosed by a non-conducting and non-combustible housing. The fuse is arranged in series to carry all the current passing through the protected circuit. The resistance of the element generates heat due to the current flow. The size and construction of the element is (empirically) determined so that the heat produced for a normal current does not cause the element to attain a high temperature. If too high a current flows, the element rises to a higher temperature and either directly melts, or else melts a soldered joint within the fuse, opening the circuit.

Circuit breaker
A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to detect a fault condition and, by interrupting continuity, to immediately discontinue electrical flow. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then has to be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect an individual household appliance up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city.

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An air circuit breaker for low voltage (less than 1000 volts) power distribution switchgear

A 2 pole miniature circuit breaker

Operation
All circuit breakers have common features in their operation, although details vary substantially depending on the voltage class, current rating and type of the circuit breaker. The circuit breaker must detect a fault condition; in low-voltage circuit breakers this is usually done within the breaker enclosure. Circuit breakers for large currents or high voltages are usually arranged with pilot devices to sense a fault current and to operate the trip opening mechanism. The trip solenoid that releases the latch is usually energized by a separate battery, although some high-voltage circuit breakers are self-contained with current transformers, protection relays, and an internal control power source. 5 3

Once a fault is detected, contacts within the circuit breaker must open to interrupt the circuit; some mechanicallystored energy (using something such as springs or compressed air) contained within the breaker is used to separate the contacts, although some of the energy required may be obtained from the fault current itself. Small circuit breakers may be manually operated; larger units have solenoids to trip the mechanism, and electric motors to restore energy to the springs.

When a current is interrupted, an arc is generated. This arc must be contained, cooled, and extinguished in a controlled way, so that the gap between the contacts can again withstand the voltage in the circuit. Different circuit breakers use vacuum, air, insulating gas, or oil as the medium in which the arc forms. Different techniques are used to extinguish the arc including:

Lengthening of the arc Intensive cooling (in jet chambers) Division into partial arcs Zero point quenching (Contacts open at the zero current time crossing of the AC waveform, effectively breaking no load current at the time of opening. The zero crossing occurs at twice the line frequency i.e. 100 times per second for 50Hz and 120 times per second for 60Hz AC) Connecting capacitors in parallel with contacts in DC circuits

Finally, once the fault condition has been cleared, the contacts must again be closed to restore power to the interrupted circuit.

Arc interruption
Miniature low-voltage circuit breakers use air alone to extinguish the arc. Larger ratings will have metal plates or non-metallic arc chutes to divide and cool the arc. Magnetic blowout coils deflect the arc into the arc chute. In larger ratings, oil circuit breakers rely upon vaporization of some of the oil to blast a jet of oil through the arc.[2] Gas (usually sulfur hexafluoride) circuit breakers sometimes stretch the arc using a magnetic field, and then rely upon the dielectric strength of the sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) to quench the stretched arc. Vacuum circuit breakers have minimal arcing (as there is nothing to ionize other than the contact material), so the arc quenches when it is stretched a very small amount (<23 mm). Vacuum circuit breakers are frequently used in modern medium-voltage switchgear to 35,000 volts. Air circuit breakers may use compressed air to blow out the arc, or alternatively, the contacts are rapidly swung into a small sealed chamber, the escaping of the displaced air thus blowing out the arc. Circuit breakers are usually able to terminate all current very quickly: typically the arc is extinguished between 30 ms and 150 ms after the mechanism has been tripped, depending upon age and construction of the device.

Types of circuit breaker

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Low voltage circuit breakers

Low voltage (less than 1000 VAC) types are common in domestic, commercial and industrial application, and include:

MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)rated current not more than 100 A. Trip characteristics normally not adjustable. Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation. Breakers illustrated above are in this category. MCCB (Molded Case Circuit Breaker)rated current up to 2500 A. Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation. Trip current may be adjustable in larger ratings. Low voltage power circuit breakers can be mounted in multi-tiers in low-voltage switchboards or switchgear cabinets. Medium-voltage circuit breakers Medium-voltage circuit breakers rated between 1 and 72 kV may be assembled into metal-enclosed switchgear line ups for indoor use, or may be individual components installed outdoors in a substation. Air-break circuit breakers replaced oil-filled units for indoor applications, but are now themselves being replaced by vacuum circuit breakers (up to about 35 kV). Like the high voltage circuit breakers described below, these are also operated by current sensing protective relays operated through current transformers. The characteristics of MV breakers are given by international standards such as IEC 62271. Mediumvoltage circuit breakers nearly always use separate current sensors and protective relays, instead of relying on built-in thermal or magnetic overcurrent sensors.

High-voltage circuit breakers

Main article: High-voltage switchgear

Russian 110 kV oil circuit breaker

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115 kV bulk oil circuit breaker

400 kV SF6 live tank circuit breakers Electrical power transmission networks are protected and controlled by high-voltage breakers. The definition of high voltage varies but in power transmission work is usually thought to be 72.5 kV or higher, according to a recent definition by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). High-voltage breakers are nearly always solenoid-operated, with current sensing protective relays operated through current transformers. In substations the protective relay scheme can be complex, protecting equipment and buses from various types of overload or ground/earth fault. High-voltage breakers are broadly classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc.

Bulk oil Minimum oil Air blast Vacuum SF6

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Protective relay
A protective relay is a device that detects the fault and initiates the operation of the circuit breaker to isolate the defective element from the rest of the system. The relays detect the abnormal conditions in the electrical circuits by constantly measuring the electrical quantities which are different under normal and fault conditions. Electrical quantities which may change under fault conditions are voltage, current, frequency and phase angle. Through the changes in one or more of these quantities, the faults signal their presence, type and location to the protective relays. Having detected the fault, the relay operates to close the trip circuit of the breaker. This results in the opening of the breaker and disconnection of the faulty circuit.

The relay circuit connections can be divided into three parts viz.

1. First part is the primary winding of a current transformer (C.T) which is connected in series with the line to be protected. 2. Second part consists of secondary winding of C.T and the relay operating coil.

3. Third part is the tripping circuit which may be either AC or DC. It consists of a source of supply, the trip coil of the- circuit breaker and the relay stationary contacts.

Types of relays
Overcurrent relay Induction disc overcurrent relay Distance relay Current differential protection Static relays Digital protective relays

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A microprocessor-based digital protection relay

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CHAPTER 3
RELAYS

Defination
A protective relay is a device that detects the fault and initiates the operation of the circuit breaker to isolate the defective element from the rest of the system. The relays detect the abnormal conditions in the electrical circuits by constantly measuring the electrical quantities which are different under normal and fault conditions. Electrical quantities which may change under fault conditions are voltage, current, frequency and phase angle. Through the changes in one or more of these quantities, the faults signal their presence, type and location to the protective relays. Having detected the fault, the relay operates to close the trip circuit of the breaker. This results in the opening of the breaker and disconnection of the faulty circuit.

The relay circuit connections can be divided into three parts viz.

1.

First part is the primary winding of a current transformer (C.T) which is

connected in series with the line to be protected.

2.

Second part consists of secondary winding of C.T and the relay

operating coil. 3. Third part is the tripping circuit which may be either AC or DC. It consists of a

source of supply, the trip coil of the- circuit breaker and the relay stationary contacts.

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FUNDAMENTAL REQUIREMENTS OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING

The principle function of protective relaying is to cause the prompt removal from service of any element of the power system when it starts to operate in abnormal manner or interface with the effective operation of the rest of the system. In order the protective relay system may perform this function satisfactorily; it should have the following qualities:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Selectivity Speed Sensitivity Reliability Simplicity Economy

(i) Selectivity: It

is the ability of the protective system to select correctly that part of system in trouble and disconnect the faulty part without disturbing the rest of the system.

In order to provide selectivity to the system, it is a usual practice to divide the entire system into several protection zones. When a fault occurs in a given zone, then only the circuit breakers within that zone will be operated. This will isolate only the faulty circuit or apparatus, leaving the healthy circuits intact.

The system can be divided into the following protection zones:

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Generators Low-tension switchgear Transformers High-tension switchgear Transmission lines

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(ii) Speed :

The relay system should disconnect the faulty section as fast as possible for the following reasons :

(a) Electrical apparatus may be damaged if they are made to carry the fault currents
for a long time.

(b) A failure on the system leads to a great reduction in the system voltage. If the
faulty section is not disconnected quickly, then the low voltage created by the fault may shutdown consumers' motors and the generators on the system may become unstable. (c) The high speed relay system decreases the possibility of development of one type of fault into the other more severe type.

(iii) Sensitivity:
quantity.

It is the ability of the relay system to operate with low value of actuating

Sensitivity of a relay is the function of the volt-amperes input to the coil of the relay necessary to cause its operation. The smaller the volt- ampere input required to cause relay operation, the more sensitive is the relay. Thus, a 1 VA relay is more sensitive than a 3 VA relay. It is desirable that relay system should be sensitive so that it operates with low values of volt- ampere input.

(iv) Reliability:

It is the ability of the relay system to operate under the pre-determined conditions. Without reliability, the protection would be rendered largely ineffective and could even become a liability.

(v) Simplicity:

The relaying system should be simple so that it can be easily maintained. Reliability is closely related to simplicity. The simpler the protection scheme, the greater will be its reliability

(vi) Economy: The most important factor in the choice of a particular protection scheme is the
economic aspect. Sometimes it iseconomically unjustified to use an ideal scheme of protection and a compromise method has to be adopted. As a rule, the protective gear should not cost more than 5% of total cost. However, when the apparatus to be protected is of utmost importance (e.g. generator, main transmission line etc.), economic considerations are often subordinated to reliability.

MAIN AND BACKUP PROTECTION

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I Primary protection is essential protection provided for protecting an equivalent machine. As a precautionary measure an additional protection is [generally provided and is called backup protection. The primary protection is first lo act and backup protection is net in the line of defense, if primary protection fails ,the backup protection comes into action and removes faulty part from the ihealthy system.

Backup protection is provided for the following reason. If due to some (reason ,the main protection fails ,the backup protection serves the purpose of protection. Main protection can fail due to failure of one of the components in the protective system such as relay auxiliary relay, CT, PT, trip circuit, circuit breaker etc. If the primary protection fails there must be an additional protection otherwise the fault may remain un cleared resulting in disaster .When main protection is made inoperative for the purpose of maintenance Testing etc, the backup protection acts like main protection.As a measure of economy ,back up protection is given against short circuit protection and generally not for other abnormal conditions.The extent to which back up protection is provided depends upon economic and technical consideration

CLASSIFICATION OF RELAYS
1 Electromagnetic attraction type relay 2 Induction Type relay 3 Distance relay 4 Overcurrent relay

ELECTROMAGNETIC-ATTRACTION TYPE RELAY

Here we shall consider plunger-type and attracted-armature-type a-c or d-c relays that are

actuated from either a single current or voltage source.

OPERATING PRINCIPLE
The electromagnetic force exerted on the moving element is proportional to the square of the flux in the air gap. If we neglect the effect of saturation, the total actuating force maybe expressed: F = K1I2 - K2, Where , F = net force. K1 = a force-conversion constant. I = the rms magnitude of the current in the actuating coil. K2 = the restraining force (including friction). When the relay is on the verge of picking up, the net force is zero, and the operating characteristic is: K1I2 = K2, Or I =(k2/k1)=constant

RATIO OF RESET TO
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PICKUP
One characteristic that affects the application of some of these relays is the relatively large difference between their pickup and reset values. As such a relay picks up, it shortens its air gap, which permits a smaller magnitude of coil current to keep the relay picked up than was required to pick it up. This effect is less pronounced in a-c than in d-c relays. By special design, the reset can be made as high as 90% to 95% of pickup for a-c relays, and 60% to 90% of pickup for d-c relays. Where the pickup is adjusted by adjusting the initial air gap, a higher pickup calibration will have a lower ratio of reset to pickup. For overcurrent applications where such relays are often used, the relay trips a circuit breaker which reduces the current to zero, and hence the reset value is of no consequence. However, if a low-reset relay is used in conjuction with other relays in such a way that a breaker is not always tripped when the low-reset relay operates, the application should be carefully examined. When the reset value is a low percentage of the pickup value, there is the possibility that an abnormal condition might cause the relay to pick up (or to reset), but that a return to normal conditions might not return the relay to its normal operating position, and undesired operation might result.

TIME CHARACTERISTICS
This type of relay is inherently fast and is used generally where time delay is not required. Time delay can be obtained, as previously stated, by delaying mechanisms such as bellows, dash pots, or escapements. Very short time delays are obtainable in d-c relays by encircling the magnetic circuit with a low-resistance ring, or "slug" as it is sometimes called. This ring delays changes in flux, and it can be positioned either to have more effect on air increase if time-delay pickup is desired, or to have more effect on air-gap-flux decrease if time-delay reset is required.

DIRECTIONAL RELAY-ELECTROMAGNETIC ATTRACTION TYPE.

Directional relays of the electromagnetic-attraction type are actuated by d-c or by rectified a-c quantities. The most common use of such relays is for protection of d-c circuits where the actuating quantity is obtained either from a shunt or directly from the circuit.

OPERATING PRINCIPLE
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Figure illustrates schematically the operating principle of this type of relay. A movable armature is shown magnetized by current flowing in an actuating coil encircling the armature, and with such polarity as to close the contacts. A reversal of the polarity of the

actuating quantity will reverse the magnetic polarities of the ends of the armature and cause the contacts to stay open. Although a "polarizing," or "field," coil is shown for magnetizing the polarizing magnet, this coil may be replaced by a permanent magnet in the section between x and y. There are many physical variations possible in carrying out this principle, one of them being a construction similar to that of a d-c motor. The force tending to move the armature may be expressed as follows, if we neglect saturation:

F = K1IpIa - K2, F = net force where K1 = a force-conversion constant. Ip = the magnitude of the current in the polarizing coil. Ia = the magnitude of the current in the armature coil. K2 = the restraining force (including friction).

Ip and Ia are assumed to flow through the coils in such directions that a pickup force is produced, as in Fig. 6. It will be evident that, if the direction of either I p or Ia (but not of both) is reversed, the direction of the force will be reversed. Therefore, this relay gets its name from its ability to distinguish between opposite directions of actuating-coil current flow, or opposite polarities. If the relative directions are correct for operation, the relay will pick up at a constant magnitude of the product of the two currents. 5 3

If permanent-magnet polarization is used, or if the polarizing coil is connected to a source that will cause a constant magnitude of current to flow, the operating characteristic :

Ia=K1/K2Ip
Ia still must have the correct polarity, as well as the correct magnitude, for the relay to pick up.

EFFICIENCY
This type of relay in much more efficient than hinged-armature or plunger relays, from the standpoint of the energy required from the actuating-coil circuit. For this reason, such directional relays are used when a d-c shunt is the actuating source, whether directional action is required or not. Occasionally, such a relay may be actuated from an a-c quantity through a full-wave rectifier when a low-energy a-c relay is required.

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INDUCTION-TYPE RELAYS-GENERAL OPERATING PRINCIPLES

Induction-type relays are the most widely used for protective-relaying purposes involving a- c quantities. They are not usable with d-c quantities, owing to the principle of operation. An induction-type relay is a split-phase induction motor with contacts. Actuating force is developed in a movable element, that may be a disc or other form of rotor of non-magnetic current-conducting material, by the interaction of electromagnetic fluxes with eddy currents that are induced in the rotor by these fluxes.

THE PRODUCTION OF ACTUATING FORCE

Figure shows how force is produced in a section of a rotor that is pierced by two adjacent a-c fluxes. Various quantities are shown at an instant when both fluxes are directed downward and are increasing in magnitude. Each flux induces voltage around itself in the rotor, and currents flow in the rotor under the influence of the two voltages. The current produced by one flux reacts with the other flux, and vice versa, to produce forces that act on the rotor.

Since sinusoidal flux waves were assumed, we may substitute the rms values of the fluxes for the crest values in equation 3. 5 3

Apart from the fundamental relation expressed by equation 3, it is most significant that the net force is the same at every instant. This fact does not depend on the simplifying assumptions that were made in arriving at equation 3. The action of a relay under the influence of such a force is positive and free from vibration. Also, although it may not be immediately apparent, the net force is directed from the point where the leading flux pierces the rotor toward the point where the lagging flux pierces the rotor. It is as though the flux moved across the rotor, dragging the rotor along. In other words, actuating force is produced in the presence of out-of-phase fluxes. One flux alone would produce no net force. There must be at least two out-of-phase fluxes to produce any net force, and the maximum force is produced when the two fluxes are 90 out of phase. Also, the direction of the force-and hence the direction of motion of the relay's movable member-depends on which flux is leading the other.A better insight into the production of actuating force in the induction relay can be obtained by plotting the two components of the expression inside the brackets of equation 2, which we may call the "per-unit net force." Figure shows such a plot when is assumed to be 90. It will be observed that each expression is a double-frequency sinusoidal wave completely offset from the zero-force axis. The two waves are displaced from one another by 90 in terms of fundamental frequency, or by 180 in terms of double frequency. The sum of the instantaneous values of the two waves is 1.0 at every instant. If were assumed to be less than 90, the effect on Fig. would be to raise the zero-force axis, and a smaller per-unit net force would result. When is zero, the two waves are symmetrical about the zero-force axis, and no net force is produced. If we let be negative, which is to say that 2 is lagging 1, the zero-force axis is raised still higher and net force in the opposite direction is produced. However, for a given value of , the net force is the same at each instant.

In some induction-type relays one of the two fluxes does not react with rotor currents produced by the other flux. The force expression for such a relay has only one of the components inside the brackets of equation 2. The average force of such a relay may still be expressed by equation 3, but the instantaneous force is variable, as shown by omitting one of the waves of Fig.. Except when is 90 lead or lag, the instantaneous force will actually reverse during parts of the cycle; and, when = 0, the average negative force equals the average positive force. Such a relay has a tendency to vibrate, particularly at values of close to zero. Reference 2 of the bibliography at the end of this chapter gives more detailed treatment of induction-motor theory that applies also to induction relays.

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TYPES OF ACTUATING STRUCTURE

The different types of structure that have been used are commonly called: (1) the "shaded- pole" structure; (2) the "watthour-meter" structure; (3) the "induction-cup" and the "double-inductionloop" structures; (4) the "single-induction-loop" structure. Shaded-Pole Structure. The shaded-pole structure, illustrated in Fig. , is generally actuated by current flowing in a single coil on a magnetic structure containing an air gap. The air- gap flux produced by this current is split into two out-of-phase components by a so-called "shading ring," generally of copper, that encircles part of the pole face of each pole at the air gap. The rotor, shown edgewise in Fig. , is a copper or aluminum disc, pivoted so as to rotate in the air gap between the poles. The phase angle between the fluxes piercing the disc is fixed by design, and consequently it does not enter into application considerations. The shading rings may be replaced by coils if control of the operation of a shaded-pole relay is desired. If the shading coils are short-circuited by a contact of some other relay, torque will be produced; but, if the coils are open-circuited, no torque will be produced because there will be no phase splitting of the flux. Such torque control is employed where "directional control" is desired, which will be described later. Watthour-Meter Structure. This structure gets its name from the fact that it is used for watthour meters. As shown in Fig. 10, this structure contains two separate coils on two different magnetic circuits, each of which produces one of the two necessary fluxes for driving the rotor, which is also a disc. 5 3

5 3

INDUCTION-CUP AND DOUBLE-INDUCTION-LOOP STRUCTURES

. These two structures are shown in Figs. . They most closely resemble an induction motor, except that the rotor iron is stationary, only the rotor-conductor portion being free to rotate. The cup structure

employs a hollow cylindrical rotor, whereas the double-loop structure employs two loops at right angles to one another. The cup structure may have additional poles between those shown in Fig. 11. Functionally, both structures are practically identical. These structures are more efficient torque producers than either the shaded-pole or the watthour-meter structures, and they are the type used in high-speed relays. Single-Induction-Loop Structure. This structure, shown in next Fig. , is the most efficient torqueproducing structure of all the induction types that have been described. However, it has the rather serious disadvantage that its rotor tends to vibrate as previously described for a relay in which the actuating force is expressed by only one component inside the brackets of equation 2. Also, the torque varies somewhat with the rotor position.

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ACCURACY
The accuracy of an induction relay recommends it for protective-relaying purposes. Such relays are comparable in accuracy to meters used for billing purposes. This accuracy is not a consequence of the induction principle, but because such relays invariably employ jewel bearings and precision parts that minimize friction.

DISTANCE RELAYS
Perhaps the most interesting and versatile family of relays is the distance-relay group. In the preceding chapter, we examined relays in which one current was balanced against another current, and we saw that the operating characteristic could be expressed as a ratio of the two currents. In distance relays, there is a balance between voltage and current, the ratio of which can be expressed in terms of impedance. Impedance is an electrical measure of distance along a transmission line, which explains the name applied to this group of relays.

THE IMPEDANCE-TYPE DISTANCE RELAY

Since this type of relay involves impedance-type units, let us first become acquainted with them. Generally speaking, the term "impedance" can be applied to resistance alone, reactance alone, or a combination of the two. In protective-relaying terminology, however, an impedance relay has a characteristic that is different from that of a relay responding to any component of impedance. And hence, the term "impedance relay" is very specific. In an impedance relay, the torque produced by a current element is balanced against the torque of a voltage element. The current element produces positive (pickup) torque, whereas the voltage element produces negative (reset) torque. In other words, an impedance relay is a voltage-restrained overcurrent relay

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THE MODIFIED IMPEDANCE-TYPE DISTANCE RELAY

The modified impedance-type distance relay is like the impedance type except that the impedance-unit operating characteristics are shifted, as in Fig. 9. This shift is accomplished by what is called a "current bias," which merely consists of introducing into the voltage supply an additional voltage proportional to the current,2 making the torque equation as follows: T = K1I 2 - K2 (V + C I)2 The term (V + CI) is the rms magnitude of the vector addition of V and C I, involving the angle between V and I as well as a constant angle in the constant C term. This is the equation of a circle whose center is offset from the origin, as shown in Fig. 9. By such biasing, a characteristic circle can be shifted in any direction from the origin, and by any desired amount, even to the extent that the origin is outside the circle. Slight variations may occur in the biasing, owing to saturation of the circuit elements.

THE REACTANCE-TYPE DISTANCE RELAY

The reactance-relay unit of a reactance-type distance relay has, in effect, an overcurrent element developing positive torque, and a current-voltage directional element that either opposes or aids the overcurrent element, depending on the phase angle between the current and the voltage. In other words, a reactance relay is an overcurrent relay with directional restraint. The directional element is arranged to develop maximum negative torque when its current lags its voltage by 90. The induction-cup or double-induction-loop structures are best suited for actuating high-speed relays of this type. If we let the control-spring effect be -K 3, the torque equation is: T = K1I 2 - K2VI sin - K3 where is defined as positive when I lags V. At the balance point, the net torque is zero, and hence; K1I 2 = K2VI sin + K3

5 3

THE MHO-TYPE DISTANCE RELAY

The mho unit has already been described, and its operating characteristic was derived in connection with the description of the starting unit of the reactance-type distance relay. The induction-cylinder or double-inductionloop structures are used in this type of relay. The complete distance relay for transmission-line protection is composed of three highspeed mho units (M1, M2, and M3) and a timing unit, connected in a manner similar to that shown for an impedance-type distance relay, except that no separate directional unit is required, since the mho units are inherently directional.

OVERCURRENT RELAY
Overcurrent relays are the most common f o r m o f p r o t e c t i o n u s e d t o d e a l w i t h e x c e s s i v e c u r r e n t s o n p o w e r s y s t e m s . T h e y s h o u l d not be installed purely as a means of protecting systems against overloads which are associated with the thermal capacity of machines or 5 3

lines since over current protection is primarily intended to operate only under fault conditions. However, there lay settings that are selected are often a compromise in order to cope with both overload and overcurrent conditions.

Types of overcurrent relay

Based on the relay operating characteristics, overcurrent relays can be classified into three groups: definite current or instantaneous, definite time, and inverse time. The characteristic curves of these three types are shown in given below which also illustrates the combination of an instantaneous relay with one having an inverse time characteristic.

Definite-current relays
This type of relay operates instantaneously when the current reaches a predetermined value. The setting is chosen so that, at the substation furthest away from the source, the relay will operate for a low current value and the relay operating currents are progressively increased at each substation, moving towards the source. Thus, the relay with the lower setting operates first and disconnects load at the point nearest to the fault. This type of protection has the drawback of having little selectivity at highv a l u e s o f s h o r t c i r c u i t c u r r e n t . A n o t h e r d i s a d v a n t a g e i s t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f d i s t i n g u i s h i n g between the fault current at one point or another when the impedance between these points is small in comparison to the impedance back to the source, leading to the possibility of poor discrimination.

Definite-time/current or definite-time relays

This type of relay enables the setting to be varied to cope with different l e v e l s o f c u r r e n t by using different operating times. The settings can be adjusted in such a way thatthe breaker nearest to the fault is tripped in the shortest time, and then the remaining breakers are tripped in succession using longer time delays, moving back towards the source. The difference between the tripping times for the same current is called the discrimination margin. Si n c e t h e o p e r a t i n g t i m e f o r d e f i n i t e - t i m e r e l a y s c a n b e a d j u s t e d i n f i x e d steps, the protection is more selective. The big disadvantage with this m e t h o d o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n is that faults near to the source, which result in bigger c u r r e n t s , m a y b e c l e a r e d in a relatively long time. This type of relay has a current or pick-up setting also known as the plug or tap setting to select the value at which the relay will start , plus a time dial setting to obtain the exact timing of the relay operation. It should be noted that the time-delay setting is independent of the value of the overcurrent required to operate the relay. These relays are used a great deal when the source impedance is large compared to that of the power system element being protected when fault levels at the relay position are similar to those at the end of the protected element.

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Inverse-time relays
The fundamental property of these relays is that they operate in a t i m e t h a t i s i n v e r s e l y proportional to the fault current, as illustrated by the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c u r v e s s h o w n l a t e r . Their advantage over definite-time relays is that, for very high currents, much shorter tripping times can be obtained without risk to the protection selectivity. Inverse-time relays are generally classified in accordance with their characteristic curve that indicates the speed of operation; based on this they are commonly defined as being inverse, very inverse, or extremely inverse. Inverse-time relays are also referred to as inverse definite minimum time or IDMT overcurrent relays.

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CHAPTER 4
PROTECTION OF TRANSMISSION LINE BY OVER CURRENT RELAYS INTRODUCTION
Any transmission line can be subdivided into segments of radial feeders supplying the consumers. Generally, power is generated at 11KV and stepped up by step-up transformer by 11/132 KV. Power is then transmitted at 132 KV to a receiving substation, where voltage is stepped down to 66KV for further transmission to a distribution substation. At distribution substation voltage is further stepped down to 11 KV for feeding the distribution system. 11KV feeders terminate at pole mounted transformer 11KV/415V. 415 distributors, in turn, feed the consumers. Transmission lines are protected by over current and earth-fault relays. Current transformers transform the current suitable for relays. Relays upon operation when fault occurs, will signal the circuit breaker for clearing the fault in feeders. These relays have to be coordinated to achieve selectivity and speed. Selectivity means the operation of relay only for the faults in the zone which is assigned to the relay. Speed means the minimum possible time of isolating the faulty section from the healthy system after the instant of fault inception. Three methods of discrimination are popular to achieve these two important properties of protective relaying system.

RELAY CO-ORDINATION
Relay co-ordination can be done by selecting proper plug setting and time multiplication setting of the relay, considering the full load current and maximum fault current at the relay location. After selecting the plug setting and time multiplier setting, the co-ordination can be checked graphically. When plotting co-ordination curves, certain time intervals must be maintained between the curves of various protective devices in order to ensure the correct sequential operation of the devices when co-ordinating inverse time over current relays, the time interval is usually 0.3 sec to 0.4 sec. This interval consists of the following components. 1. Circuit breaker opening time (5 cycles ) = 0.08 sec. 2. Over travel =0.10 sec 3. Safety Factor = 0.12. Sec to 0.22 sec.

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Selection of Protective Relays for Proper Coordination (Over current relay)

In power systems the inverse definite minimum time relays are being widely used either as main protection or for providing back up to unit protection schemes. These relays are normally connected to the secondary side of CT. These relays are simple in construction, cheap and reliable. For a given operating current the operating time of IDMT relay is jointly determined by its plug and time multiplier settings. Thus this type of relay is most suitable for proper coordination. Operating characteristics of this relay is usually given in the form of a curve with operating current of plug setting multiplier along the X axis and operating time along Y axis.

Data required for the Co-ordination Study

1. Single line diagram with the following parameters Apparent power and voltage rating as well as the impedance and connection of all transformers. Normal and emergency switching condition. Name plate rating and sub transient reactance of all major motors and generators plus synchronous reactance of generator. Conductor sizes, types and configuration Current transformer ratios Relays, direct acting trip and ratio characteristics and range of adjustment.

2. Complete short circuit current study. 3. Time current characteristics of all the device under consideration. 4. Maximum loading in any circuit 5. Relays and their characteristics and settings, etc.

METHODS OF DISCRIMINATION :
The selectivity or discrimination can be achieved by three methods Current discrimination Time discrimination 5 3

Current-time discrimination

1)Current Discrimination :
The magnitude of fault current is the maximum for the fault near the power source and goes on decreasing for faults farther to the source. This fact is used for current discrimination. When current discrimination is used, the over current relays are adjusted to pick up at currents progressively decreasing from the source to the remote end of the line.

Disadvantages of current discrimination :

1) This method does not provide the remote backup protection

2) If source impedance Zs (impedance from source to the relaying point) is large compared to the line impedance Z1 (impedance from relaying point to the fault point), this method fails to discriminate between in zone faults and external faults. This is because the currents in both the cases will differ by negligible amount.

3) The relaying system does not exploit the short time current capability of the equipment to be protected.

4) It does not take into account the transient stability limit of the machine .As such the generators can feed short circuit power for sometime without losing synchronism and the transient fault may vanish within this time.

5) Instantaneous over current relay suffer from the problem of over reach. Thus they would maloperate for the fault external to their assigned zone.

6) The magnitude of fault current with three phase fault (L-L-L) is more than that with double line fault, (L-L). It would be impossible to set the instantaneous over current relays in this regard .If the relay is set for (L-L) fault at the end of protected section it would over reach for triple line fault. And if the relay is set for (L-L-L) fault at the end of protected section it would under reach for phase to phase fault.

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2)Time Discrimination :
Time discrimination is used to overcome the difficulties of current discrimination system. In this method the relays are definite time over current relays and are set to operate after times progressively decreasing. The pick up are so decided that the relay in one sub station will act as a remote back up to the relay in the next sub station away from the source. When there are many line sections in series the tripping time for a fault near the power source may be dangerously high. This is undesirable because such faults involve large currents and are very destructive if not removed quickly. Thus, the fundamental weakness of time graded over current relays is the fact that the heaviest fault is cleared the slowest. This difficulty can be overcome by introducing an instantaneous over current element inbuilt in the definite time limit. In this case, the faults nearer to the relaying point are cleared instantaneously and those away from the relaying point are taken care by definite time units.

3)Current Time Discrimination :

It is obvious that farther the fault from the source less is the magnitude of fault current and more time can be allowed to clear the fault. Similarly, nearer the location of fault from the power source , the circuit breaker should be tripped faster. This fact is the basis for employing current time discrimination for obtaining selectivity and speed.

IMPORTANT TERMS RELATED TO OVERCURRENT RELAYS PICK-UP CURRENT

It is the minimum current in the relay coil at which the relay starts to operate. So long as the current in the relay is less than the pick-up value, the relay does not operate and the breaker controlled by it remains in the closed position. However, when the relay coil current is equal to or greater than the pickup value, the relay operates to energize the trip coil which opens the circuit breaker.

CURRENT SETTING
It is often desirable to adjust the pick-up current to any required value. This is known as current setting and is usually achieved by the use of tapings on the relay operating coil. The taps are brought out to a plug bridge. 5 The plug bridge permits to alter the 3

number of turns on the relay coil. This changes the torque on the disc and hence the time of operation of the relay. The values assigned to each tap are expressed in terms of percentage full-load rating of C.T with which the relay is associated and represents the value above which the disc commences to rotate and finally closes the trip circuit.

Pick-up current = Rated secondary current of C.T x Current setting.

For example, suppose that an over current relay having setting of 125% is connected to a supply circuit through a current transformer of 400/5. The rated secondary current of C.T is 5 amperes. Therefore, the pick-up value will be 25% more than 5 A i.e. 5 x1.25 =6.25 A. It means that with above current setting, the relay will actually operate for a relay coil current equal to or greater than 6.25 A.

PLUG-SETTING MULTIPLIER(P.S.M.)
It is the ratio of fault current in relay coil to the pick-up current i.e. P.S.M = Fault current in the relay coil Pick-up current = Fault current in the relay coil Rated secondary current of C.T x Current setting For example, suppose that a relay is connected to a 400/5 current transformer and set at 150% with a primary fault current of 2400 A, the plug-setting multiplier can be calculated as under: Pick-up value = Rated secondary current of C.T x Current setting = 5x1.5 = 7.5 A Fault current in relay coil = 2400 x 5/400 =30 A P.S.M =30/7.5 = 4

TIME-SETTING MULTIPLIER(T.S.M.)
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A relay is generally provided with control to adjust the time of operation. This adjustment is known as time setting multiplier. The time- setting dial is calibrated from 0 to 1 in steps of0.5 sec. These figures are multipliers to be used to convert the time derived from time/P.S.M curve into the actual operating time. Thus if the time setting is 0.1 and the time obtained from the time/P.S.M curve is 3 seconds , then the actual relay operating time = 3 x 0.1 = 0.3 second. For instance, in an induction relay, the time of operation is controlled by adjusting the amount of travel of the disc from its reset position to its pickup position.

CALCULATION OF PLUG SETTINGS

The choice of plug setting is made by considering 1. Normal full load current and permissible over load 2. CT primary Current For each relay location K = Full load current x CTSC/CTPC CTSC-CT Secondary Current CTPC - CT Primary Current The plug setting will be the plug position nearest to the value of K on higher side.

CALCULATION OF RELAY OPERATING TIME

In order to calculate the actual relay operating time, the following things must be known. 1. Time/PSM Curve 2. Current Setting 3. Time Setting 4. Fault Current 5. Current Transformer Ratio The procedure for calculating the actual relay operating time is as follows. i) Convert the fault current into the relay coil current by using the current transformer ratio. 5 3

ii) Express the relay current as a multiple of current setting, i.e calculate the PSM iii) From the Time/PSM curve of the relay, read off the time of operation for the calculated PSM iv) Determine the actual time of operation by multiplying the above time of the relay by timesetting multiplier in use.

RULES FOR SETTING THE IDMT RELAYS PLUG SETTINGS

Plug settings are decided considering three factors1. The relay shall reach at least up to the end of next protected zone. This is required to ensure the back up protection. 2. The plug setting must not be less than the maximum load including permissible continuous overload unless monitored by an under-voltage relay, otherwise the relay will not allow the normal current to be carried.

3. In estimating the plug setting, an allowance must be made for the fact that the relay pick up varies from 1.05 to 1.3 times the plug settings as per standard. It is quite possible that R3 picks up at 1.3 times its plug setting and R2 at 1.05 its plug setting. This arithmetically means P.S. of R2 > 1.3 P.S. of R3 / 1.05

TIME SETTING
The time multiplier setting must be chosen to give the lowest possible time for the relays at the end of the radial feeder. Often this T.M.S. is decided based on the characteristic of a fuse or an M.C.C.B. protecting a distributor. In preceding sections towards the source the time multiplier should be chosen to give the desired selective interval from the previous relay at the maximum fault conditions. T.M.S. of R2 is based on three phase fault just after relaying 5 3

point of R3. For calculating the fault current, one will require the details of impedances in ohms, per unit or per cent of all power transformers, rotating machines and feeder circuits. It is generally sufficient to use machine transient reactance xd for such calculations. The time multiplier setting should allow not only for the time of breaker but also for the overshoot of the relay and allowable time errors in the time of operation of successive relays. Relay R3 , gives signal to the breaker and breaker starts tripping its contacts separate , arc is drawn between the contacts and arc finally gets quenched. This breaker operation takes a finite time of the order 1 cycle to 5 cycles depending on the and design of breaker. Once the breaker trips the fault it is said to be cleared. But during this time disc of relay R2 was rotating at quite a high speed in case of induction disc type IDMT relay. At the instant of fault clearing, the of relay R2 keeps on rotating for a small time due to moment of inertia. This time is termed as time of overshoot. Thus T.M.S. of relays are selected to keep discriminating time margin of 0.4 seconds ( considering 5 cycle breakers) between the successive relays.

CHAPTER 5
CALCULATIONS

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Relays R1, R2, R3 and R4 are standard IDMT over current relays with normal inverse characteristics and plug setting range 50-200% of C.T. secondary rating. Fault level at 6.6kV bus and 415 V bus are 45kA and 42kA respectively. 5 3

CALCULATION OF PLUG SETTINGS

Plug setting of relay R4 has to be decided on the basis of rated secondary current of unit transformer. The rated secondary current of unit service transformer = 1600103 /3 433 = 21.33.39 amp =71.11% of 3000 amp Therefore P.S. of relay R4 is selected as 75% of C.T. rating. A transformation of this current is required to be carried out while finding P.S. of R3 P.S. of R3 > 1.3/1.05 433/6600 .75 3000 > 182.759 amp > 91.38 % of 200 amp Therefore the of R3 is selected as 100% of C.T. rating.

P.S. of R2 can be decided w.r.t. the rated secondary current of unit auxiliary transformer. Rated secondary current of U.A.T. = 15 106 /3 7 103 = 1237 amp =82.47 % of 1500 amp Hence P.S. of R2 is selected as 100% of C.T. rating. Finally P.S. of R1 > 1.3/1.05 7/15.75 1500 > 825.39 amp > 137.56 % of 600 amp Therefore P.S. of R1 can be selected as 150 % of its C.T. rating.

PLUG SETTING IN C.T. PRIMARY TERMS

For R1= 150% of 600 =900 amp 5 3

For R2=100% of 1500 = 1500 amp For R3= 100% of 200 =200 amp For R4= 75% of 3000 =2250 amp

CALCULATION OF P.S.M.
While coordinating relays R3 and R4 fault level on 415 V bus is to be considered , whereas while grading relays R1, R2 , R3 fault level on 6.6 kV bus is to be considered.

For fault on 415 V bus

Fault current in primary of C.T. of R3= 42433/6600 = 2.75 kA Hence P.S.M. R3 = 2.75kA/200 A =13.77 Fault current in primary of C.T. of R4 =42 kA Hence P.S.M. R4 = 42kA/2250A =18.66

For fault on 6.6 kV bus

Fault current in primary of C.T. of R1= 457/15.57 =20 kA Hence P.S.M. R1=20kA/900A=22.22 Fault current in primary of C.T. of R2=45kA Hence P.S.M. R2=45kA/1500A=30 Fault current in primary of C.T. of R3=45kA Hence P.S.M. R3= 45kA/200A=225

TIME SETTING
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Time of operation of relays R1 ,R2 and R3(TMS=1) for fault at 6.6 kV bus are 2.20, 2.00 and 2.00 sec respectively. As the margin of 0.4 sec has to be maintained for operation different relays.R1,R2 and R3 are set at new TMS 0.7,0.55 and 0.35 respectively. Time of operation of relays R3 andR4 (TMS=1) for fault at 415V bus are 0.35 and 0.20 sec respectively R3 and R4 are set at new TMS 0.35 and 0.20 respectively.

CALCULATION TABLE
Relay Plug Setting in C.T. Primary terms(amp) Fault current in bus (kA) 45 45 45 42 R4 2250 42 20 45 45 2.75 42 22.22 30 225 13.77 18.66 Fault Current in primary(kA) P.S.M Time of Operation At TMS=1 (sec) 2.20 2.00 2.00 2.55 2.55 0.7 0.55 0.35 0.35 0.20 TMS Time of Operation at PSM set (sec) 1.54 1.10 0.70 0.8925 0.45

R1 R2 R3

900 1500 200

CHAPTER 6
Source Code and simulation (C)
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#include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> #include<dos.h> void print_relay(int,int); void main() { clrscr(); int n,f; print_relay(0,0); getch(); clrscr(); printf("\nFault at which Bus (1-6.6KV Bus 2-415V Bus): "); scanf("%d",&n); printf("\n1. Normal relay operation"); printf("\n2. Faulty relay operation"); printf("\n Your option: "); scanf("%d",&f); clrscr(); print_relay(n,f); getch(); }

void print_relay(int bus, int fault) { int i=2,j=5,relay,bus1,bus2,r1=0,r2=0,r3=0,maxtime1,maxtime2,k,time=0; int r[]={4,8,13,17}; if(bus==1 && fault==1) 5 3

{ r2=13; r3=8; } else if (bus==1 && fault==2) { r1=8; r2=13; r3=4; } else if(bus==2 && fault==1) { r2=20; r3=17; } else if(bus==2 && fault==2) { r1=17; r2=20; r3=13; } gotoxy(39,1); printf("(~)"); if(bus>0) { print_relay(0,0); getch(); if(fault==2) 5 3

{ gotoxy(53,r1); printf("(OPERATING)"); } if(bus==1) { maxtime1=10000; maxtime2=1000; gotoxy(53,r2); printf("(OPERATING)"); gotoxy(53,r3); printf("(OPERATING)"); } else { maxtime1=11250; maxtime2=1500; gotoxy(53,r3); printf("(OPERATING)"); } for(k=0;k<maxtime1;k++) if(k%50==0) { delay(10); time++; if(fault==2) { gotoxy(47,r1); 5 3

printf("(%d)",time); } if(bus==1) { gotoxy(47,r2); printf("(%d)",time); } gotoxy(47,r3); printf("(%d)",time); } if(fault==2) { gotoxy(53,r1); printf(" ");

gotoxy(53,r1); printf("(FAILED)"); for(k=0;k<maxtime2;k++) if(k%50==0) { delay(100); time++; gotoxy(47,r3); printf("(%d)",time); } gotoxy(53,r3); printf("(OPERATING)"); } } 5 3

//Vertical line. for(i=2;i<22;i++) { if(i>=r3 && i<=r2) relay=179; else relay=219; gotoxy(40,i); printf("%c",(char)relay); } //relay print. for(i=0;i<4;i++) { gotoxy(41,r[i]); printf("%c%c R%d",(char)196,(char)178,(i+1)); } //loads. gotoxy(5,11); printf("%c",(char)186); gotoxy(5,12); printf("LOAD"); //first horizontal. if(bus==1) bus1=196; else bus1=223; for(j=5;j<=75;j++) { 5 3

gotoxy(j,10); printf("%c",(char)bus1); } gotoxy(67,9); printf("6.6KV Bus"); //loads. gotoxy(75,11); printf("%c",(char)186); gotoxy(72,12); printf("LOAD"); gotoxy(5,21); printf("%c",(char)186); gotoxy(5,22); printf("LOAD"); //second horizontal. if(bus==2) bus2=196; else bus2=223; for(j=5;j<=75;j++) { gotoxy(j,20); printf("%c",(char)bus2); }

gotoxy(68,19); printf("415V Bus"); gotoxy(75,21); 5 3

printf("%c",(char)186); gotoxy(72,22); printf("LOAD"); }

CHAPTER 7
Conclusion
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This project was an endeavour to find out the optimum time settings of relays during fault conditions. We, while setting the plug setting multipliers of the relays, we are keeping in mind the time in which the relay needs to operate in what amount of fault current. Also, the tie setting multipliers are changed to adjust the time of operation. In one relay fails to operate, other relays attached to the same system must trigger the breaker circuit in order that the generator or the loads stay unaffected. This improves the reliability of the system up to a great deal. The time of operation of the next relay needs to kept in such a manner that that relay operates just after the failed relays supposed time of operation. This is also dine using the plug setting multiplier and the time setting multiplier. We have taken a problem system in this project and have calculated the time of operation for optimum operation. The failure of relays has also been taken into consideration. Then we have simulated the circuit in C language and have shown the working of the relays using those calculated time of operation.

Future Scope
Relay coordination is an important aspect of power systems and helps in a big way to increase the reliability of the system. After this problem is done, a future scope to take a real life power system and place proper relays with proper time settings can be thought of. Then, after calculating the optimum time settings, a similar program can be made that will trigger the relay to further trigger the circuit breakers can be made. Adaptation of that program in real time control systems remains the final step of the work that will help to successfully adapt this system of relay coordination is real life power systems.

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REFERENCES

POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION B Y Y. G. PAITHANKAR, S. R. BHIDE

POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION BY PAITHANKAR, Y. G.,BHIDE

POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION BY SINGH, RAVINDRA P.

POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION BY MA DATE, BHUVNASH OZA

POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION BY B.RAM

POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION BY P M ANDERSON

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