The Number of Elements in a Finite Set

Counting the Elements in a Set

The solution to some problems in mathematics calls for finding the number of elements in a set. Such
problems are called counting problems and constitute a field of study known as combinatorics. Our study
of combinatorics is restricted to the results that will be required for our work in probability later on.

The number of elements in a finite set is determined by simply counting the elements in the set If A is a
set, then n( A) denotes the number of elements in A . For example, if
A={ 1, 2 , 3 ,... , 20 } , B={ a , b } , C={∅ }
then n ( A ) =20 , n(B)=2, and n(C )=1.
The empty set has no elements in it, so n(∅)=0. Another result that is easily seen to be true is the
following:
If A and B are disjoint sets, then
n( A ∪ B)=n (A )+ n(B)

EXAMPLE 1
If A={a , c , d }and B={b , e , f , g }, then n( A)=3 and n( B)=4 , so n( A)+ n(B)=7.
However, A ∪ B={a , b , c , d , e , f , g } and n( A ∪ B)=7 . Thus, equation n( A ∪ B)=n ( A )+ n( B) holds true in
this case. Note that A ∩ B=∅ .

In the general case, A and B need not be disjoint, which leads us to the formula
n( A ∪ B)=n (A )+ n(B)−n( A ∩ B)
To see this, we observe that the set A ∪ B may be viewed as the union of three mutually disjoint sets with
x , y , and z elements, respectively. This figure shows that
n( A ∪ B)=x + y + z
Also, U
A B
n( A)=x+ y and n(B)= y + z
so
n ( A ) +n ( B )=( x + y ) + ( y + z )
¿ ( x+ y+ z )+ y
¿ n( A ∪ B)+ n( A ∩ B)
Solving for n( A ∪ B), we obtain
n( A ∪ B)=n (A )+ n(B)−n( A ∩ B)
which is the desired result.

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EXAMPLE 2 Let A={a , b , c , d , e } and B={b , d , f , h} .
Solution
A ∪ B={a .b , c , d , e , f , h } so n( A ∪ B)=7
A ∩ B={b , d } so n( A ∩ B)=2
Furthermore,
n( A)=5 and n( B)=4
n( A)+ n(B)−n( A ∩ B)=5+ 4−2=7=n( A ∪ B)

EXAMPLE 3 Consumer Surveys

In a survey of 100 coffee drinkers, it was found that 70 take sugar, 60 take cream, and 50 take both sugar
and cream with their coffee. How many coffee drinkers take sugar or cream with their coffee?
Solution
Let U denote the set of 100 coffee drinkers surveyed, and let
A={x ∈ U∨x takes sugar }
B={ x ∈U ∨x takes cream }
Then, n( A)=70 , n(B)=60, and n( A ∩ B)=50 . The set of coffee drinkers who take sugar or cream with
their coffee is given by A ∪ B . Using formula, we find
n ( A ∪ B )=n( A)+ n(B)−n( A ∩ B)
¿ 70+60−50
¿ 80
Thus, 80 out of the 100 coffee drinkers surveyed take cream or sugar with their coffee.

An equation similar to n ( A ∪ B )=n( A)+ n(B)−n ( A ∩ B ) may be derived for the case that involves any finite
number of finite sets. For example, a relationship involving the number of elements in
the sets A , B and C is given by
n( A ∪ B ∪ C)=n ( A )+ n( B)+ n(C)−n( A ∩ B)−n( A ∩C)−n( B ∩C)+n( A ∩ B ∩C)

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EXAMPLE 4 Marketing Surveys
A leading cosmetics manufacturer advertises its products in three magazines: Cosmopolitan, McCall's,
and the Ladies Home Journal. A survey of 500 customers by the manufacturer reveals the following
information:
180 learned of its products from Cosmopolitan.
200 learned of its products from McCall's.
192 learned of its products from the Ladies Home Journal.
84 learned of its products from Cosmopolitan and McCall's.
52 learned of its products from Cosmopolitan and the Ladies Home Journal.
64 learned of its products from McCall's and the Ladies Home Journal.
38 learned of its products from all three magazines.

How many of the customers saw the manufacturer's advertisement in

a. At least one magazine?
b. Exactly one magazine?

Solution
Let U denote the set of all customers surveyed, and let
C={x ∈U ∨x learned of the products ¿ Cosmopolitan}
M ={ x ∈U ∨x learned of the products ¿ McCall ' s !
L={ x ∈U ∨x learned of the products ¿ the Ladies Home Journal }

The result that 38 customers learned of the products from all three magazines translates into
n(C ∩ M ∩ L)=38 (Figure a).
Next, the result that 64 learned of the products from McCall's and the Ladies Home Journal translates into
n ( M ∩ L )=64. This leaves
64−38=26
who learned of the products from only McCall ' s and the Ladies Home Journal .
Similarly, n(C ∩ L)=52. so
52−38=14
learned of the products from only Cosmopolitan and the Ladies Home Journal,
and n(C ∩ M )=84 , so
84−38=46

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learned of the products from only Cosmopolitan and McCall's. These numbers appear in the appropriate
regions in Figure b.

L U L U

14 26
38 38

C 46
C M M

(a) (b)
Continuing, we have n( L)=192 , so the number who learned of the products from the Ladies Home Journal
only is given by
192−14−38−26=114
Similarly, n( M )=200 , so
200−46−38−26=90
learned of the product from only McCall’s and n ( C )=180, so
180−14−38−46=82
learned of the product from only Cosmopolitan. Finally,
500− ( 90+26+114 +14+82+ 46+38 ) =90
learned of the products from other sources.

L 114 U

14 26
38
82 90
C 46
M

We are now in a position to answer questions (a) and (b).

a. Referring to Figure, we see that the number of customers who learned of the products from at least
one magazine is given by
n ( C ∪ M ∪ L ) =90+26+114 +14+ 82+ 46+38
¿ 410
b. The number of customers who learned of the products from exactly one magazine is given by
n ( L ∩C c ∩ M c )+ n ( Lc ∩C c ∩ M ) + n ( L c ∩C ∩ M c )=114 +90+82
¿ 286

Self-Check Exercises
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1. Let A and B be subsets of a universal set U and suppose that
n ( U )=100 , n ( A ) =60 , n ( B ) =40 and n ( A ∩ B )=20 . Compute:
(a) n ( A ∪ B ) (b) n ( A ∩ Bc ) (c) n( A c ∩ B)

2. In a survey of 1000 readers of Video Magazine, it was found that 900 own at least one VCR in the VHS
format, 240 own at least one VCR m the S-VHS format, and 160 own VCRs in both formats. How many
of the readers surveyed own VCRs in the VHS format only? How many of the readers surveyed do not
own a VCR in either format?

Concept Questions
1. a. If A and B are sets with A ∩ B=∅, what can you say about n ( A ) +n (B)? Explain.
b. If A and B are sets satisfying n ( A ∪ B ) ≠ n ( A ) +n(B), what can you say about A ∩ B? Explain.

2. Let A and B be subsets of U , the universal set, and suppose A ∩ B=∅. Is it true that
n ( A ) −n ( B )=n ( Bc )=n (A c )?Explain.

Exercises
1. verify the equation n( A ∪ B)=n ( A )+ n ( B ) for the given disjoint sets.
(a) A={a , e ,i , o , u } and B= { g , h , k , l, m }
(b) A={x∨x is a whole number between 0∧4 }
B={ x∨x is a negative integer greater than−4 }

2. Let A={2 , 4 , 6 , 8 } and B={6 , 7 , 8 ,9,10 }. Compute:

(a) n ( A ) (b) n ( B ) (c) n ( A ∪ B ) (d) n( A ∩ B)

3. Let U ={1 ,2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , a , b , c , d , e }. If A={1 , 2, a , e } and B={1, 2 , 3 , 4. a ,b , c }, find:

(a) n ( A c ) (b) n ( A ∩ Bc ) (c) n ( A c ∩ B ) (d) n( A c ∩ Bc )

4. Let A={a , e ,i , o , u ¿ and B={b , d ,e , o , u }. Verify by direct computation that

n( A ∪ B)=n ( A )+ n(B)−n( A ∩ B).

5. If n( A)=15, n ( A ∩ B )=4, and n( A ∪ B)=30, then what is n( B)?

6. If n( A)=10, n( A ∪ B)=15, and n(B)=8, then what is n( A ∩ B)?

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7. let A and B be subsets of a universal set U and suppose n(U )=200 , n( A )=100 , n(B)=80 , and
n( A ∩ B)=40, Compute:
(a) n ( A ∪B ) (b) n ( A c ) (c) n ( A ∩ Bc )
(d) n ( A c ∩ B ) (e) n ( Bc ) (f) n ( A c ∩ Bc )

8. Find n( A ∪ B) given that n ( A ) =6, n( B)=10 , and n( A ∩ B)=4 .

9. If n ( B )=6 , n (A ∪ B)=14 , and n( A ∩ 8)=3, find n( A) .

10. If n( A)=4 ,n(B)=5 , and n( A ∪ B)=9 , find n( A ∩ B).

11. If n( A)=16 , n ¿
and n( A ∪ B ∪C)=31, find n( A ∩ B ∩C).

12. If n( A)=12, n(B)=12 , n( A ∩ B)=5 ,n( A ∩C )=5,n(B ∩C)=4 ,n ( A ∩B ∩C)=2 , and

n( A ∪ B ∪ C)=24 , find n(C ).

13. A survey of 1000 subscribers to the Los Angeles Times revealed that 900 people subscribe to the
daily morning edition and 500 subscribe to both the daily and the Sunday editions. How many
subscribe to the Sunday edition? How many subscribe to the Sunday edition only?

14. On a certain day, the Wilton County Jail had 190 prisoners. Of these, 130 were accused of felonies
and 121 were accused of misdemeanors. How many prisoners were accused of both a felony and a
misdemeanor?

15. Of 100 clock radios sold recently in a department store, 70 bad FM circuitry and 90 had AM circuitry.
How many radios had both FM and AM circuitry? How many could receive. FM transmission only?
How many could receive AM transmission only?

16. In a survey of 120 consumers conducted in a shopping mall, 80 consumers indicated that they buy
brand A of a certain product, 68 buy brand B, and 42 buy both brands. How many consumers
participating in the survey buy
(a) At least one of these brands? (b) Exactly one of these brands?
(c) Only brand A ? (d) None of these brands?

17. In a survey of 200 members of a local sports club, 100 members indicated that they plan to attend
the next Summer Olympic Games, 60 indicated that they plan to attend the next Winter Olympic
Games, and 40 indicated that they plan to attend both games. How many members of the club plan
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 to attend
(a) At least one of the two games? (b) Exactly one of the games?
(c) The Summer Olympic Games only? (d) None of the games?

18. In a poll conducted among 200 active investors, it was found that 120 use discount brokers, 126 use
full-service brokers, and 64 use both discount and full-service brokers. How many investors
(a) Use at least one kind of broker? (b) Use exactly one kind of broker?
(c) Use only discount brokers? (d) Don't use a broker?

19. Of 50 employees of a store located in downtown Boston, 18 people take the subway to work, 12
take the bus, and 7 take both the subway and the bus. How many employees
(a) Take the subway or the bus to work? (b) Take only the bus to work?
(c) Take either the bus or the subway to (d) Get to work by some other means?
work?

20. In a survey of 200 households regarding the ownership of desktop and laptop computers, the
following information was obtained:
120 households own only desktop computers.
10 households own only laptop computers.
40 households own neither desktop nor laptop computers.
How many households own both desktop and laptop computers?

21. In a survey of 400 households regarding the ownership of VCRs and DVD players, the following data
was obtained:
360 households own one or more VCRs.
170 households- own one or more VCRs and one or more DVD players.
19 households do not own a VCR or a DVD player.
How many households own only one or more DVD players?

22. let A , B, and C be subsets of a universal set U and suppose n ( U )=100 , n ( A ) =28 ,
n ( B )=30 , n ( C ) =34 , n ( A ∩B )=8 , n ( A ∩C ) =10 , n ( B ∩C )=15 , and n ( A ∩ B∩ C )=5 . Compute:
(a) n( A ∪ B ∪ C) (b) n ( A c ∩ B∩ C ) (c) n [ A ∩ ( B ∪C ) ] (d) n [ A ∩ ( B ∪C )c ]
(e) n ( A c ∩ Bc ∩C c ) (f) n [ A c ∩ ( B∪ C ) ] (g) n [ A ∪ ( B∩ C ) ] (h)
n [( A c ∩ Bc ∩C c ) ¿ ¿ c ]¿

23. A survey of the opinions of 10 leading economists in a certain country showed that, because oil
prices were expected to drop in that country over the next 12months,
7 bad lowered their estimate of the consumer inflation rate.
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 8 had raised their estimate of the gross national product (GNP) growth rate.
2 had lowered their estimate of the consumer inflation rate but bad not raised their estimate of the
GNP growth rate.
How many economists had both lowered their estimate of the consumer inflation rate and raised
their estimate of the GNP growth rate for that period?

24. Data released by the Department of Education regarding the rate (percentage) of ninth-grade
students who don't graduate showed that, out of 50 states,
12 states bad an increase in the dropout rate during the past 2yr.
15 states bad a dropout rate of at least 30% during the past 2yr.
21 states bad an increase in the dropout rate and/or a dropout rate of at least 30% during the past
2yr.
a. How many states had both a dropout rate of at least 30% and an increase in the dropout rate
over the 2-yr period?
b. How many states bad a dropout rate that was less than 30% but that had increased over the
2-yr period?

25. A survey of 100 college students who frequent the reading lounge of a university revealed the
following results:
40 read Time.
30 read Newsweek.
2S read U.S. News & World Report.
15 read Time and Newsweek.
12 read Time and U.S. News & World Report.
10 read Newsweek and U.S. News & World Report.
4 read all three magazines.
How many of the students surveyed read
(a) At least one magazine? (b) Exactly one magazine?
(c) Exactly two magazines? (d) None of the magazines?

26. Results of a Department of Education survey of SAT test scores in 22 states showed that
10 states had an average composite test score of at least 1000 during the past 3 yr.
15 stares had an increase of at least 10 points in the average composite score during the past 3 yr.
8 states had both an average composite SAT score of at least 1000 and an increase in the average
composite score of at least 10 points during the past 3 yr.
a. How many of the 22 states bad composite scores of less than 1000 and showed an increase of
at least 10 points over the 3-yr period?
b. How many of the 22 states had composite scores of at least 1000 and did not show an increase
of at least 10 points over the 3-yr period?
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27. The 120 consumers were asked about their buying preferences concerning another product that is
sold in the market under three labels. The results were:
12 buy only those sold under label A.
25 buy only those sold under label B.
26 buy only those sold under label C.
15 buy only those sold under labels A and B.
10 buy only those sold under labels A and C.
12 buy only those sold under labels Band C.
8 buy the product sold under all three labels.
How many of the consumers surveyed buy the product sold under
(a) At least one of the three labels? (b) Labels A and B but not C?
(c) Label A? (d) None of these labels?

28. To help plan the number of meals to be prepared in a college cafeteria, a survey was conducted and
the following data were obtained:
130 students ate breakfast.
180 students ate lunch.
275 students ate dinner.
68 students ate breakfast and lunch.
112 students ate breakfast and dinner.
90 students ate lunch and dinner.
58 students ate all three meals.
How many of the students ate
(a) At least one meal in the cafeteria? (b) Exactly one meal in the cafeteria?
(c) Only dinner in the cafeteria? (d) Exactly two meals in the cafeteria?

29. In a survey of 200 employees of a company regarding their 401(k) investments, the following data
were obtained:
141 had investments in stock funds.
91 had investments in bond funds.
60 had investments in money market funds.
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 47 had investments in stock funds and bond funds.
36 had investments in stock funds and money market funds.
36 had investments in bond funds and money market funds.
5 had investments in some other vehicle.
a. How many of the employees surveyed had investments in all three types of funds?
b. How many of the employees had investments in stock funds only?

30. In a survey of 300 individual investors regarding subscriptions to the New York Times(NYT), Wall
Street Journal (WSJ), and USA Today (UST), the following data were obtained:
122 subscribe to the NYT.
150 subscribe to the WSJ.
62 subscribe to the UST.
38 subscribe to the NIT and WSJ.
28 subscribe to the WSJ and UST.
20 subscribe to the NYT and UST.
36 do not subscribe to any of these newspapers.
a. How many of the individual investors surveyed subscribe to all three newspapers?
b. How many subscribe to only one of these newspapers?

31. determine whether the statement is true or false. If it is true, explain why it is true. If it is false, give
an example to show why it is false.
(a) If A ∩ B=∅, then n ( A ∪ B )=n( A)+ n(B).
(b) If A ⊆B , then n(B)=n( A )+ n( A c ∩ B) .
(c) Ifn( A ∪ B)=n ( A )+ n( B) , then A ∩ B=∅.

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