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607 views166 pagesDSA Organizer 3rd Sem
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© © All Rights Reserved
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For 3" Semester
DATA STRUCTURE. |
& ALGORITH
& RGANIZES Organizer
Data Structure
&
Algorithms
Computer Branch
Tilia Sem.
| Strictly as per new syllabus | .
Aditya Prakashan . Po
Data Structure & Algorithms
Copyright © by Adityn Prakashan All rights reserved, No part of
this publication may be reproduced, copied, or stored in a retrieval
system, distributed or transmitted in any form or by any means, in-
cluding photocopy, recording, or other electronic or mechanical meth-
‘ods, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by the way
of trade or otherwise, by lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circu-
lated without the publisher's prior written consent in any forms be
binding or cover other than which it is published and without a simi-
lar condition including this condition being imposed on the subse-
quent purchaser and without limiting the rights under copyright re-
served above.
Printed at : Gayatri Offset,
Published by :
Aditya Prakashan
Branch Office: Naya Tola patna
Mobile : 9473307711
Aditya Book Code - DSA 0032 Modute 1: Lecture 4 hrs.
Introduction : Bsic ‘Terminologies : Elementary Data Organizations, Data Structure
Operations; insertion, deletion, traversal ete.; Analysis of an Algorithm, Asymptotic
Notations, Time-Space trade off
Module 2: Lecture 10 hrs.
Stacks and Queues : ADT Stack and its operations ; Algorithms and their complexity
analysis, Applications of Stacks : Expression Conversion and evaoluation corresopnding
algorithms and complexity analysis. ADT queue, Types of Queue : Simple Queue,
Circular Queue, Priority Queue; Operations on each Type of Queues : Algorithm and
their analysis.
Module 3 : Lecture 6 hrs.
Linked Lists : Singly linked lists : Representation in memory, Algorithms of several
operations : Traversing, Searching, Insertion into, Deletion from linked list; Linked
representation of Stack and Queue, Header nodes, doubly linked list; operations on it
and algorithmic analysis; Circular Linked Lists; all Operations their algorithms and th
complexity analysis.
Module 4 Lecture 12 hrs.
Searching, Sorting and Hashing : Linear and Binary Search Technique and their
complexity analysis. Objective and properties of different sorting algorithms Section.
Sort, Bubble Sort, Insertion Sort, Quick Sort, Merge Sort, Heap Sort; Performance and
Comparison among all the methods; Hashing.
Module 5 Lecturs 8 hrs.
Trees : Basic Tree Terminologies, Different types of Trees; Binary Tree, Threaded
Binary Tree, Binary Search Tree, AVL Tree; Tree operations on each of the trees and
their algorithms with complexity analysis. Applications of Binary Trees. B Tree, B*
Tree : definitions, algorithms and analysis,
Graph : Basic Terminologies and Representations, Graph search and traversal algo-
rithms and complexity analysis. Introduction + Bsic Terminologies : Elementary Data Organizations, Data Structure
Perations; insertion, deletion, traversal ete.; Analysis of an Algorithm, Asymptotic
Notations, Time-Space trade off, :
Module 2 ;
Module 1 ;
gorithms and their complexity,
: icks : Expression Conversion and evaoluation Corresopnding
algorithms and complexity analysis, ADT queue, Types of Queue : Simple Queue,
Circular Queue, Priority Queue; Operations on each Type of Queues : Algorithm and
their analysis,
Module 3:
Linked Lists : Singly linked lists : Representation in memory, Algorithms of several
Operations : Traversing, Searching, Insertion into, Deletion from linked list; Linked
Tepresentation of Stack and Queue, Header nodes, doubly linked list; operations on it
and algorithmic analysis; Circular Linked Lists; all operations their algorithms and th
complexity analysis, :
Module 4
Searching, Sorting and Hashing : Linear and Binary Search Technique and their
complexity analysis. Objective and properties of different sorting algorithms Section
Sort, Bubble Sort, Insertion Sort, Quick Sort, Merge Sort, Heap Sort; Performance and
Comparison among all the methods, Hashing.
Module 5
Trees : Basic Tree Terminologies, Different types of Trees; Binary Tree, Threaded
Binary Tree, Binary Search Tree, AVL Tree; Tree operations on each of the trees and
their algorithms with complexity analysis. Applications of Binary Trees, B Tree, B’
Tree : definitions, algorithms and analysis.
Graph : Basic Terminologies and Representations, Graph search and traversal algo-
rithms and complexity analysis. INTRODUCTION
_—
& Chapter at a Glance :
© Data (plural of "datuni"), refers to qualitative or quantitative attributes of a variable or set of
veriables. Typically, data are the results of measurements and can be the basis of graphs,
images or observations of a set of variables.
© Metadatn is a data, containing a description of other data, Earlier term for metadata is
‘ancillary data,
© Data structure: Data may be organized in many different ways. The logical or mathematical
model of a particular organization of data is called data structure,
© Classification: Data structure can be classified as linear and non-linear.
Linear data structure: The data structure is said to be linear, if its element.forms a sequence
cor linear list, Linear data stiuctures organize their data elements in a linear fashion:
Non-linear data structure: In nonlinear data structures, data elements are not organized in a
sequential fashion. A data item in a nonlinear data structure could be attached to several other
deta elements to reflect a special relationship among them and all the data items cannot be
traversed in a single run. “ :
* Various operations can be performed on data structure. List of some frequently used
operations are given below:
1. Traversing: sometimes also called as visiting, means accessing the required record so as to
process the data, :
2. Searching: finding the location of record to be processed.
3. Inserting: adding a new recofd to the structure
4. Deleting: removing the record from the structure.
5. Sorting: arranging the record in some logical order.
6. Merging: combining two different sets of records to form a final set of records.
* Abstract data type (ADT): Abstract Data Types are a set of data values and associated
operations that are precisely independent of any particular implementation. The term abstract
signifies that the data type will only set the rule of it's usage but how it will be used depends
on the implementation, For-example stacks and queues are called abstract data types. The
stack data type defines two abstract methods PUSH and POP.
© The basic properties of an algorithm are:
Input: Each algorithm is supplied with a zero or more external quantities.
: Each .algorithm must produce atleast one quantity.
Definiteness: Each instruction myst be clear and unambiguous.
Finiteness: The algorithm must terminate after a finite number of steps wit
Effectiveness: Each instruction must be sufficiently basic and also be feasible,
© Analysis of an algorithm means, to determine the amount of resources (such as time and
storage) necessary (o execute it. Most algorithms are designed to work with inputs of arbitrary
length. Usually the efficiency or running time of an algorithm Is stated as a function relating
the input length to the number of steps (time complexity) or storage locations (space
complexity).
* In theoretical analysis of algorithms it is common to estimate their complexity in the
asymptotic sense, i.e., to estimate the complexity function for arbitrarily large input. Big O
finite ti
me, INTRODUCTION
a
@ Chapter at a Glance :
/e or quantitative attributes of a variable or set of
© Data (plural of "datum"), refers to qualitativ
Tneasurements and cin be the basis. of graphs,
~ variables. Typically; data are the results of
images or observations ofa set of variables.
* Metadata is a data, containing a description of other data, Earlier term for, metadata is
ancillary data,
© Data structure: Data may be organized in many different ways. The logical or mathematical
model of a particular organization of data is called data structure. sitet ete:
* Classification: Data structure can be classified as fiwear and non-linear. ;
Linear data structure: The data structure is said to be linear, if its element forms a sequence
-or linear list. Linear data structures organize their data.elements in a linear fashion.”
Non-linear data structui ear data structures, data elements are not organized in a
sequential fashiori: A data item in.a nonlinear data structure could be attached to sevesal.other,
data elements to reflect a special relationship among them and, all the data items ‘cannot be
traversed iniasingierun." *
+. . Various operations can be: performed, on data structure. List, of some ‘frequently used
operations are given below:
1. Traversing: sometimes aléo called as visiting, means accessing the required record 50 as to
process the data.
2. Searching: findirig the location of record to’be processed.
3. Insertin,
ddding a new. record to the structure
removing the record from the stricture.
5. Sorting: arranging the record in some logical order.~
6. Merging: combining two different sets of records to'form a final set of records.
© Abstract data type (ADT): Abstract ‘Data Types are a set of data values and associated
operations that are'precisely independent of any particular implementation: The teri abstract
Signifies that the, data type will only set.the rule of it’s-usage but how it will be used depends
on the implementation. For-example stacks and.queues are called. abstract. datatypes. The
stack data type defines two abstract methods PUSH and POP.
© The basic properties of an algorithm are:
Input: Each sch algorithm is supplied with'a zero or more asain vanes: i
‘Output: Each
: n
has the complexity 0 (log n).
Define Big 5 0, Q,@ notations. Explain the conceptual differences among these
three representatives. oe
_ And, Define Big O notation. Answer:
1 Part: i
A)= Rely Ps
Fn Meme
= Aln-3)417(n-2}41, nel)
v
FRDH aH,
SIN 4124173 +, td ‘
w {pes of numbers are called Harmonic numbers.
a e can evaluate this type of series just by integtating I/x from 4 ton + '4.
fer integrating, we get the result as In(n + %4) - In %
i | =Inn-0.7
rence, we can write the.complexity as O(log n).
+1dn-l +10
Big O notation: :
The I + Oh (the "O” stands for “order of") notation is used to classify functions by their
growth function and hence finding the time complexity of an algorithm.
two types of complexities of an algorithm, time complexity ‘and space
comp <\ity. The timie complexity of an algorithm is the amount of time the computer
Tequir:s to execute the algorithm. The space complexity of an algorithm is the amount of
memory the ‘computer needs to run to,complete the execution of the algorithm. The
algorithms are compared based on their performances.’ The performance is measured in
terms of time complexity & space complexity. Based on the nature of the input, time
complexity cari be of three different types: best case, average case and. worst case.
The different computing functions are measured as:
1, W?, n', logan, nlog2n, 2".
The rate of growth of all these functions is shown below:
aa an TA STRUCTURE & ALGORITH.
a:
Let flr) and gq) he functions, wh is itive t ‘ 2 .
and only if g(n) = Oy(n)) here n is a positive integer. We write fin) = 2(e(n)) if
@:
Let fim) and g(n) be functions, where 1 is a positive integer. We writ =0 .
and only if g(n) = O(f(n)). and (nn) = 2(f(n)). rite fin) = O(g(n)) if
3. Derive values re }d to the average case and worst case behaviour of Bubbl
le
Sort algorithm. Also, confirm that the best case behavior is O(n).
OR,
Write an algorithm for sorting a list numbers in ascer
technique and find its time complexity. neind order being bubbte sort
Answer:
The algorithm for bubble sort is given as follows:
Procedure: BubbleSort (List{])
Inputs: List[] - A list of numbers
Locals: i, j - integers
Bégin:
For i = Q to List.Size-1
. For j = i+] to List.Size-1
If List(i] > List[{j], Then
Swap List{i] and List{j]
End If é
Next j
Next i
Analysis: :
The size of the sorting problem is related to th
expect tht execution time to increase as well.
The inriermost instruction is to swap two list elements. Regardless of how long the list is,
this always takes the same amount of time, and so the swap instruction is O(1) with
respect to N. Surrounding that instruction is an if statement, which either executes its
body,-or does not; in the worst case, it will execute its body. Again, the if statement is
(1). 2S “* 7 2
The if statement is executed as many times as the inner loop iterates, and the inner loop
executes as many times as the: outer loop iterates. During the figst iteration (i = 0), the
s N increases, we
‘size N of the list.
inner loop executes N — | times, during the second itergtion {i = 1), N~ 2 times, and so
on.
wet
o( Sww-i= ye La, )) 00-9.
B ee
aymber-of-loops time-per-loop .
So the complexity is O(N2) in the average case as well worst case. 7
The best case would be if the list were already sorted. : '
There will be comparisons as it is but no exchanges and execution time is in O(N2).
But if we keep:a track of exchanges in each pass and terminate the program checking if
no there are no exchanges, then the program would require only one pass and max. (N-!)
laterite a, it the complex:
.d we can say that Plexity
Comparisons are required in that single pass 4” Ying
order of O(N), '
; What is linear cata structure? ora linear lis |
oe uence inear list,
A data structure is snid to be linear iris elements form a Sea
Examples:
* Arrays
* Linked Lists |
* Stacks, Queues
The Operations that ean be done on linear struct
* Traversal: Travel through the data structure for a given element
* Search: Traversal through the data structure for ea
+ dnsertion: Adding new elements to the data str
tures are:
{
ructure ;
Deletion: Removing an clement from the eee i
Sorting: Arranging the elements in some ee ane aq
Merging: Combining two similar data structu! {
|
5. Prove that, O(f{x)) + O(9(x)) = O (maxtf 01%)
Answer:
. (8). g(x) because two times, |
Suppose q(x) is in O(fRx) + g(x) ) then q(x) is in, O(max(! the |
greatest of f(x) and g(x) is greater than ican to the sum. More precisely:, \
(x) <= + <= 2c(max(f(x), B(%) |
Newt ian Om. a(x) then q(x) is in OCC) + BCX) ) because the |
Breatest of f(x) and g(x) -is"less than or equal the.sum of the two (assuming the two |
functions are positive valued). In formulas:
q(x) <= ¢ max (f(x),g(x),h(x)) <= ¢ © (Fx) ¥ g(x).
Hence proved,
6. What is an Abstract Data Type? What do you mean by a Dynamic Data
Structure? .
Answer: . Do
An abstract data type (ADT) is an object with a generic description: independent of
implementation details. If for a particular collection of data only thé structure of data an
the functions to be performed. on the data is defined but the implementation i omy
defined, then such a collection of data is called Abstract data type.
In dynamic Data Structure memory allocation for the data structure takes place at thea
time and only required amount of memory is allocated.
E.g.: Link lists, Stacks, Queues, Trees . B
7. T(n) = 4n+ 3n log n, express T(n) in Big (0) notations.
Answer: In Big (0) notation the complexity is O(n’). DATA STRUCTURE #& ALGORITHM
8. Write the difference betwoen a ] [] and ‘a.
Answei ;
The main difference between multidimensional arrays (a[]{]) and arrays of pointer (##a)
refers to an array of particular datatype arrays (a pointer to pointers to that datatatype) is
the fact that multidimensional arrays are rectangular data structures, with the same
number of clements allocated for each specified dimension. This constraint is not
hecessarily present in an array of poittters.
8. Do a comparison among Data Typo, Abstract Data Type and Data structure,
Answer: :
Data type consists of the values it represents and the operations defined upon it.. Integer
or character data types are found in nearly all computers, and they have well-defined
operations that can be done with them. For example, the integer data type has operations
for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, The computer knows chow to
Perform these arithmetic operations with any two integers because these operations are
part of the integer data type.
A data type can be considered abstract when it is defined in terms, of operations on it,
and its implementation is hidden (so that we can always replace one implementation with
another for, eg., efficiency reasons, and this will not interfere with anything in the
Program). Thus, speaking about such a type, we leave its implementation aside
considering it irrelevant to the topic, unless we directly discuss the implementation.
A data structure is an arrangement of data in a computer's memory or even'disk storage.
An example of several common data structures are arrays, linked lists, queues, stacks,
binary trees, and hash tables. Data Structure is an implementation of ADT. Many ADT
can be implemented as the same Data Structure.
10. What are the differences between linear and non-linear data structures?
Answer: +
Data structure can be classified as Ijnear and non-linear.
“Linear data structure: The data structure is said to-be linear, if its element forms a
sequence or linear list. There are two basic ways of representing such structure in
memory. Here the elements are traversed sequentially starting from thie beginning.
(1) Linear relationship between data elements is representéd by means of sequential
memory locations. Ex: Arrays. =
(2) Linear relationship between data elements is represented by means of pointers and
links. Ex: Linked list.
Non-linear data structure: They are’ used to represent the data having a hierarchical
relationship between elements. Here the elements are not traversed sequentially, rather
they are traversed in a non linear fashion. For example, in case of the tree, we have to
start from the root but we have to traverse either-left subtree or right subtree, but not the
both.
Ex: Graphs and Trees. 14. What are the characteratice of algorthi"?”
Answer ro
+ Precision ~ the steps are precisely siteilter defined avid only depend on the ing
© Uniqueness ~ results of each step are uniquely hy
and the result of the preceding steps: structions are exec
Finiteness - the algorthn stops after a finite number of i ; tte, |
Tuput = the algorithm receives input. : 1
Output = the algorithm produces oul
Generality — the algorithm applies to
put.
a set of inputs:
as Int a (5][71;
r form and co!
Base address Is 4000, Ping
12, a) Suppose one 2-D array Is Initlallzed jumn major form,
the location of element a {2][4] In row m2)
b) Define Sparse Matrix.
Answer:
a) Assume that the size of each element is
In row major order the address will be :
Loc (A(ij)) = Lo+ (irl) #0 + GD) *¢ :
Therefore, “aye 74 (d= iy) #4 4000+ (7 +3) °4
s 4 bytes.
Loc (A(2,4)) = 4000 + ((2
= 4000 + 40= 4040 {
a" Part) of Short Answer Type Questions.
|
b) Refer to Question No. 1
° y do we néed to typecast it;
43, What is the default return type of malloc()? Wh:
‘Answer: .
malloc returns a void pointer (void +), which indicates that it is a pointer to
region of unknown data type. . ’
The (char*) or (int*) is.an explicit type conversion, converting the poinig
returned by malloc from a pointer to anything, to a pointer to char or integer. Thij
is unnecessary in C, since it is done implicitly, and it-is recommended not to
this, since it can hide some errors.
thlt T(n) =a, +4,x+0,x" +a,x" +...+4,x", then prove T(n)=0(:")
Answer: . .
To prove that f{n) = @(g(n)) we have to find cl, c2 > 0 and fo *
such that 0 < cig(n) no:
casge Goda,
\ DATASTRUCTURE é ALG
where
}
renter (fo
Vm
Hence proved.
ion
4. Write short note on Abstract Data Type.
Answer: Refer to Question No. 6 of Short Answer Type Questions.
2. Define pseudo-code. [MODEL QUESTION]
Answer: : ‘
Actual purpose of using pseudo-code is that it is easier for humans to understand than
conventional programming language code, and that it is an efficient and environment-
independent description of the key principles of an algorithm.
Pseudo-code is an artificial and informal language that helps programmers develop
algorithms. It is a "text-based" detail (algorithmic) design tool.Pseudo-code is a compact
and informal high-level description’ of a computer programming algorithm that uses the
Structural conventions of a programming language, but is interided for human reading
rather than machine reading, Pseudo-code typically omits details that are not essential for
human understanding of the algorithm, such as variable declarations, system-specific
| code and subroutines. ‘ :
Examples: .
1. If stydent's grade is greater than or equal to 80
Print "passed"
else
Print "failed"
2, Set total to zero
Set grade counter to one
While grade counter is less than or equal to. ten
Input the next grade
Add the grade into the total
Set the class average to the total divided by ten
Print the class average.
3. Initialize total to zero .
Initialize counter to zero . . ,
Input the first grade
while the user has not as yet entered the sentinel
ada this grade into the running total
add. one to the ‘grade counter ee the next grade (possibly the sentinel)
le counter is not equal to zero ter
Bet the average to the total divided by the coun
print the average
else
print 'no grades were entered’
4, initialize passes to zero
initialize failures to zero
initialize student to one
while student counter is less than or equal, to fen
input the next exam result
if the student passed
add one to passes.
else
add one to-failures
add one to student counter
print the number of passes
print the number of failures
if eight or more ‘students passed
print "raise tuition" STACKS & QUEUES
ee
@ Chapter at a Glance
© Stacks: A stack is an abstract data type, which declares two methods PUSH and POP. Stacks
are implemented either by an array or by a linked list,
* The PUSH operation allows us to insert data at the end of an array or linked
‘The POP operation allows us to remove data from the end of an array or linked list.
A STACK is called a last in first out (LIFO) system. .
* A stack may be represented by a linked list. The first node of the list will be the topmost
element of the stack and is pointed by a top pointer. This type of stack representation is called
linked stack. The stack can be declared as follows:
typedef struct linked_list
{
- int. data;
struct linked_list *next;
) lstack;
Astack ‘top;
* Various types of expressia:
operations (operators),
Infix notation: operand! operator operand2, A+B
Prefix notation: operator operand! operand2, + A B
Postfix notation: operand! operand? operator, A B+
* Conversion from INFIX to POSTFIX expression: In order to convert the infix to its
corresponding postfixes form; we need to do the following steps:
% Fully parenthesize the expression according to the priority of different operators.
> Move all operators so that they replace their corresponding right parentheses.
% Delete all parentheses.
‘The priorities of different operators are given below:
: A mathematical expression involves constants (operands) and
© Priority Queue: A priority queue is. essentially a list of items in which each item has
associated with it a priority. In general, different items may have different priorities and we
speak of one item having a higher priority than another. Given such a list we can determine
which is the highest (or the lowest) priority item in the list. Items are inserted into a priority
queue in any, arbitrary order. However, items are withdrawn from a priority queue in order of
their priorities starting with the highest priority item first. Two elements with: the same,
priority are processed according to the order in which they were added to the queue.
© De-queue: De-queue is a linéar data structure, where insertions and deletions are nade to or
from either end of the structure, Multiple Choice Type Questio!
1. A linear |
the aa enna @lemonts can bo added or removed at elther end but Poti
Anawers (b) b) deque ' 0) stack d) tree
2. The profix ex i
Pression for the infix exprossion a* (b + ¢)/o~f Is
a)latbe ip! Non
Answer: (a) ~ b)-I+ abcof c)-ta+ bof —_d) None of thegg,
3. Ls of stacks required to Implement mutual recursion en
non
Answer: (3) m2 at 8) M008 of hy
4. Priority queue can be implemented using
a) array b) linked list c) heap 4) all of theay
Answer: (d) .
5. Reserve Polish notation is often known as
a) Infix b) Prefix c) Postfix d) none of thes
Answer: (c)
6. The evaluation of the postfix expression
3,5,7,*, +, 12, % is
a2 3 oo 4)3.17
Answer: (a)
7. The operation for adding an entry to a stack is traditionally called
a) Add b) Append - ¢) Insert d) Push
Answer: (d) .
8. The best data structure to evaluate an arithmetic expression in postfix form is
a) Queue: . b) Stack . c)Tree ) Linked List
Answer: (b) i
9. The heap (represented by an array) constructed from the list of numbers 30,
80, 60, 15, 55, 17 Is — 3 pee °
a) 60, 80, 55, 30, 10, 17, 15 b) 80, 55, 60, 15, 10, 30, 17
c) 80, 60, 30, 17, 55, 15, 10 d) none of these 3
Answer: (b) . Z
40. The postfix equivalent of the prefix *+ab—cd is
a)ab+cd-* b) abed+-*. c) ab+cd*- d)ab+-cd*
Answer: (a)
oe DATA STRUCTURE & ALGORITHM
41. The following sequence of operations Is erformed a fd stack: push (1), push
(2), pop, push (1), push (2), pop, pop, pop, push (2), PoP. The Sequence of popped
out values aro
a)2,2,4,4,2 b)2,2,4,2,2 ©) 2,142,211 4) 2,1,2,2,2
Answer: (a)
42. Stack cannot be used to ‘
a) evaluate an arithmetic expression in postfix form
b) implement recursion .
¢) allocate resources (like CPU) by the operating system ;
d) convert infix expression to Its equivalent postfix expression
Answer: (c)
43. The following sequence of operations Is performed on a stack
push(1), push(2), pop ), push(1), push(2), pop( ), Pop( ), PoP( ), push(2), pop ),
the sequence of popped out values are
224,24 b)2,2,4,4,2 ©) 2,1,2, 2.2 d) 24,224
Answer: (b)’: :
44, The deque can be used F
“ a) as a stack - b) as a queue
¢) both as a stack and as a queue d)none of these
‘Answer: (b)
15. Iniserting an item into the stack when stack is not full is called ....
operation and deletion of item from the stack, when stack is not empty is called
ssseeseee OPOFAtiON.
a) push, pop b) pop, push
c)insert, delete d) delete, insert
Answer: (a)
16. To make a queue empty, elements can be deleted till
a) front = rear +1 b) front = rear— 1
¢) front = rear. d) None of these
Answer! (a) :
: .
4, a) Convert the following infix expression into equivalent postfix expression
using stack:
(A+B)*C-(D-E)/(F +6).
b) What is a Max Heap? Answer:
a)
| Symbol seanns ——Output__ ‘
| 4
IN eo A
Lt a A
B + AB
Fi Abe
: ; [ave |
[Ce ae
: : ABC?
( ‘AB#C*
D ~( ABHC'D
- amm|Ee ABHC*D
E = ~__[ ABiC*DE
) AB#C*DE-
L ; 1. AB+C*DE- .
“{¢ a ‘AB+C*DE:
F Tit ‘ABYC*DE-F
+ ~_ | lee ‘ABIC*DE-F
c “Ge | ABYC*DE-FG.
) = ‘ABYC*DE-FG+
NONE EMPTY ‘AB+C*DE-FG#/-
b) A heap is a tree-based data structure’ that satisfies the heap property: if B is,a child:
node of A, then key(4) > key(B). This implies that an element. with the greatest key is
always in the root node, and so such a heap is sometimes called a max-heap.
2. What is a priority queue?
Mention the different design options for priority queue.
Answer:
A priority queue is essentially a list of items in which each item has associated-with ita
priority. In general, different items may have different priorities and we speak of one
item having a higher priority'than another, Given such a list we can determine which is_
the highest (or the lowest) priority item in the list. items are inserted into a Priority queue
in any, arbitrary order. However, items are withdrawn from a priority queue in order ot
their priorities starting with the highest priority item first. °
Two elements with the same priority are processed according to the.order in which tie
were added to the queue. ;
Often a type of binary tree called a heap is used to store the items in a priority queue. A
heap has a root’node (usually draw at the top) and it has two ‘children, a left child anda
right child. Bach node (parent, and left or right child) has a value associated with it, with
the property that the parent's value is more than either of its children. When we add an |
ae DATA STRUCTURE & ALGORITHM
more or less than it, If it is more,
item to the heap we check to see if the parent’s value is
and maybe swap again, until the
then we swap the child with the parent. We check again,
tree is "balanced," (i.c. that it obeys the heap property).
There are some other methods of implementing priority
They are
Sorted list implementation:
Unsorted list implementation: Keep a list of
append it to the end, To get the next clement, search th
the highest priority.
queue which are not so efficient.
f elements as tie queue. To add an element,
rough all elements for the one with
3. Define dequeue?
OR, -~
What Is dequeue?
Answer?
Dequeue is a linear data structure,
cither end of the structure.
where insertions and deletions are made to or from
4. Convert the following infix expression to postfix notation by showing the
operator stack and output string after reading each input token:
A B4+C*(D-E)-F*G bo
Answer: i .
Symbol scanned Stack. Output
A A
* ws A
B * AB
+ + ABY
c + ‘ABYC
* # ABYC
( #( «| ABYC -
D #( AB*CD
5 HC ABCD
E FE ‘ABCDE,
) -- ‘AB*CDE-
5 + ‘AB*CDE-*
F + AB‘CDE-*F
* ‘ABYCDE-*F-
G ‘AB*CDE-*FG
NONE. NONE. AB*CDE-*FG*-+ A 8 SF 4
then cale
ress 2000, Ulaty
in major ordering 4,
ginning of the array t0 any By
5. a) Consider the array in the ba
it a [40] [10] an
address of the array a {2] [3] Milt row and colum
Answer: be
In fow major ordering the linear offset from we
element Afrow][col be computed 2°
[row]fcolumn] ee owe COLS + column
Thus a[2}(3} will have address = 2000 + 2*1043 = 2023 ;
computed as:
In column major ordering the memory offset could then be
1
‘Ss
fm n*NUMROWS
offset = row + solu 9032
Thus af2][3] will hive address = 2000 + 243°!
joue.
b) Write the advantage of circular queue ove linear qué
Why circular queue is better than simple auens?
Why circular queue is used over simple queue,
Answer:
Refer to Question No: $ of Long Answer Type Questions.
6. Evaluate the following postfix expression:
4,5, 4,2, A, 4,522, 449 3) 1— J
Write pseudo code for evaluating postfix expression.
Answer:
1" Part:
2" Part: Refer to Question No. 2 of Long Answer Type Questions.
7. How many types of priority queues are there? Can you consider stack a
priority queue? If yes, how?
‘Answer: ; |
Mainly there are two kinds of priority queue: 1) Static priority queue 2) Dynamic pri
queue. : o i
Stack can be considered as a priority queue where the priorities’ of each element
inserted are considered higher than the previous one. This will let it behave e like al
structure (i.e., stack). e DATA STRUCTURE & ALGORITHM
8. Suppose a quoue Is Implomentod by an array. Write an algorithm to Insort a new
element at tho kth position of the artay,
Answer:
static int head, tail; // Declare global indices to head and taiji
of queue
static char theQueue|MAX_STZE]; // The queue
Pfnnnnns-e a
// Punction: InitQueue()
7/ Purpose: Initialize queue to empty.
7/ Returns: void ~
ue
void InitQueue()
(
head = tail = -2;
7/ Bunction: Enqueue()
// Purpose: ‘Enqueue an item into the kth position of ‘queue.
// Returns: TRUE if enqueue was successful
uw or FALSE if the enqueue failed.
int Enqueue(char ch, k)
{
int ‘¢; : : é
// Check to-see if, the Queue is full
if(isFull()) return FALSE; °
“// Increment tail index
.tail++;
for (c = MAXSIZE - 1; c'>= k = 1: ¢-7)
array(c+1] = array(cli .
array[position-1] = ch;
return TRUE;
4. Write the difference between stack and queue and implement the operations of
priority queue. : :
Answer:
¥* Part: . eee
A Stack is a (ordered) collection of items, where all insértions are made to the end of.the
sequence and all deletions always are made from the end of the sequience. In principle a
stack isa container of data items, from which we get. data’ items out in reverse order
compared to the order they have been put into the container. We can.also. say that the
item that has been put last in is coming first out. That's why a stack is also called LIFO a
fe aat Fits Ou list), Wi the item,
i 1). ell say that
is Ret last om First ‘e can as well say
A Queue is
which i put Fist in the con,
of;
neat
ie reserves the order of ty
This means that the queue is @ contac i Fre queue is taken “f
© can also say that the item that is put
a first into the queue jg).
Me. We can also say that the item which is put Ny,
t hn First Out: FIFO),
Dut there, W
from the q
first out,
2™ Part:
. wing three operations,
A priority queue is an abstract data type that siupports the follo\
i ociated priority
isertWithPriority: add an element to the queue with an ass
shest priority. and return j
BetNext: remove the element from the queue that has Cee ails Sa iaiel if
/*C implementation using array of size MAX. Assum
struct data .
(
int val,p,o;
“Yataxy;
int front=rear=-1; /#initial values*/
‘Li
7* insertWithPriority*/ © _
void insert (data dl)
{
if (rear==MAX-1) a
printf (*Priority Queue-is Full")
else
€
rear++;
d[rear}
if (£xon!
data ‘temp;
for (int:
for(int
if(afil.p > d{j]-p) |
(
temp=d[i};
alil=alj);
a[jl]=temp;
. )
else
{
. if(d{i} .p:
cena ane pnt fo DATA STRUCTURE & ALGORITHM
temp=dli};
ati}=a(3):
d(jj=temp;
)
)
data getNext ()
(
data dl;
if(£ront==-1)
print£(*Priority Queue is Empty");
else
di=d[front);
if (front==rear)
front=rear=-1;
front++;
réturn dl;
d
2. Write an algorithm to convert an infix expression to postfix using stack.
OR,
Write an algorithm to evaluate a postfix expression
Answer:
Scan the Infix string from left to right.
© Initialise an empty stack.
© If the scanned character is an operand, add it to the Postfix string. If the scanned
character is an operator and if the stack is empty Push the character to stack.
© If the scanned character is an Opferand and the stack is not empty, compare the
precedence of the character with the element on top of the stack (topStack). If
topStack has higher precedence over the scanned character Pop the stack else Push
the scanned character to stack. Repeat this step as long as stack is not empty and
topStack has precedence over the character. :
© Repeat this step till all the characters are scanned.
(After all characters are scanned, we have to add any character that the stack may
have to the Postfix string.) If stack is not empty add topStack to Postfix string and
Pop the stack, Repeat this step as long as stack is not empty. °
Return the Postfix stting. {
tebe nen ong eeemney- enters oentnper radar ytenreny erm rcaettno rs a
jostfix form Is as
ee C-Function to convert an infix expression (0 W's eat alent pr Rhy
low:
rs Post fix(char x{})
int i= 0;
rae (LDP & ory
if (isalpha(x(i]))
printf("te", x{i});
ae df (x{d) 22 ')')
while (s{top} != '(*)
print£(" oc", pop()):
pop(); // delete '(' symbol
else .
‘ uy) i
while (isp(s[top])>= icp(x' an /
printé(" %c",. pop()); push(x{i])7
1
td; : ; '
while (top >°0) j
print£(*" tc", pop()):
) : }
1
int isp(char-a) : 1
{
if (asst tt jj a=
return (3)
else if (a
return (2);
else if (a==' (")
“return, (1)
else if (a == ' # ') i
return ( ~ 1); |
else if (a= ‘) ') . |
return (0);
)
int icp(char a)
{ . .
if (ace 8 [| ase
return (3);
elseif. (a=='+' |] asst >)
return (2)} ;
else if (a == '' (")
return (4);
else if (a
: return (0);
jt |ja ss 18")
') DATA STRUCTURE & ALGORITHM
3. a) Define circular queue,
Answer:
Refer to Question No. 5(1"" & 2" Part) of Long Answer Type Questions.
'b) Write an algorithm to Insert an Item In circular queue,
Answer:
void QInsert (int item)
t .
if (rear == N-1)
printf("Queue Is Full");
return;
)
CQol+trear) = item;
if (front == - 1)
front = 0;
}
c) What is input restricted Dequeue?
Answer:
An input-restricted Dequeue is one where deletion can be made from both ends, but input
can only be made at one end.
4. a) What is a Stack ADT?
b) Write a C function of popping an element from a stack implemented using linked
list. é oS
¢) Explain three uses of stack data structure.
Answer: . :
a) A Stack ADT is a (ordered) collection: of items, where all, insertions are made to the
end of the sequence and all deletions always’ are made from the end of the sequgnce. In
principle a stack is a container of data items, from which we get data items out in reverse
order compared to the order they have been put into the container. We can also say that
the item that has been put last in is coming first out. That’s why a stack is also called
LIFO ((Last In First Out list). We can as well say that the item, which is put first:in the
container is get last out (First In Last Out: FILO).
b) Assume that the list is defined as below:
typedef struct node ‘*nptr;
struct node
{
int data;
nptr next;
Ve
7/* function pop.-*/*"
int pop(nptr 5) /*Function to pop the elements’ ’
{ 2
nptr temp;
int y; TT ag
if (8~>next==NULL)
printé(*Undert1 P
Petuen (eer eto on Pop?)
}
Else
F ’
Y=S->next->data;
temp=s->next;
S~>next=temp->next;
free(tenp) ;
potent): :
i
¢) Use of stack
Reversing Data: We can use stacks to reverse data.
(example: files, strings). It is very useful for finding palindrowes:
Consider the following pseudocode:
1) read (data)
2) ° loop (data not.EOF and stack not full)
1) push’ (data)
2) read (data)
2) Loop (while stack notEmpty)
1) pop (data)
2) print (data)
Converting Decimal to Binary:
Consider the following pseudocode :
Redd (number) .
Loop (number > 0)
1) digit = number modulo. 2
+2) print (digi
3) number = number / 2
The problem with this code is that it will print the binary number backwards. (ex: \
becomes 11001000 instead of 00010011.)
To remedy this problem, instead of printing the digit right away, we can push it onto tk
stack, Then after the number-is done being converted, we © pop the digit out of the stad
and print it.
Evaluating arithmetic expressions. 7
In high level languages, infix notation cannot be used to evaluate expressions, We mis
analyze the expression to determine the order in which we evaluate it. A comma
technique is to convert a infix notation into postfix'notation, then evaluating it. Thist
done using stack.
5, I) What Is Circular queue?
ii) Write Q-insert algorithm for the circular quet
OR,
” Write an algorithm to insert an element into circular queue. DATASTRUCTUR
Answer: .
{) The two algorithms QINSERT & QDELETE can be very wasteful of storage if the
front pointer F never manages to catch up the rear pointer. Actually an arbitrary large
amount of memory would be required to accommodate the elements. The method of
performing operations on a Queue should only be used when the queue is emptied at
certain intervals, : ‘
Let us consider the following sequence of operations. F and R represents the front and’ _
rear pointers.
We PE
insertA InsertB insertC
(Hee|
iH , ij ie FR.
deleteA, deleteB inset - insert E
: ai overflow
To avoid this problem we can think an altemative representation of a-queue, ‘which
prevents an excessive use of memory. In this representation elements are arranged as ina
circular fashion where the rear again points to the front. This.type of queue is known
circular queues. | , : :
So the above sequence of operations can be represented are shown below (in circular
= PDE IPEEE)
. deleteA + delete B insert D insert E-
As we can see that the overflow issue in the. previous case while inserting E is resolved
by redirecting the rear to the front. This is the essence of circular queue.
ii) Let us now write the insert and delete functions of the circular queue implementation.
Let us also assume that F and R represents front and rear pointers respectively © °°
void CQInsert(int item) . 7
: ;
if (rear == N-1)
{
printf ("Queue Is’ Full"); return;
CQlssrear] = item:
4£ (fronts. ~ 4)
front = 0;
he CQDelete()
int x;
if (front == ~ i)
€
Printf£(*Queue Is Empty");
exit (0);
x = €Q[front);
CQ{front] = - 1;
if (front == rear}
front = rear = -
else
front++
return x;
In linear queue the condition for queue fill is
QREAR=MAXLIMIT. : .
Suppose maxlimit is ten and queue is full now if we délete 9 element from queue then
inspite of queue is empty we cannot insert any element in the queue.’ This: wastage ‘of
memory is solved through circular queue where queue full condition is”
QREAR=Ofront+! L
6. Define the ADT. for stack. Show the Implementation of the stack data structure
- using linked list. - :
Answer:
The Stack ADT has two main functions:
Push ~ : vy
input: a stack data object; an element of the base type B
output: boolean indicating whether the operation was successful
effect: the élement is added to thé sequence in the stack, in the top position
Pop
input: a stack data object...’ ;
output: a boolean indicating whether the operation was successful
effect: the element in the top position in the sequence in the stack is removed
Stack Implementation
First, let us define the linked list data structure.
typedef struct linked_list
{
int data;
4 DATA STRUCTURE & ALGORITHM
struct linked_list ‘next;
) Node;
For us to be able. to test our code, we need to define a way to display our stack. The
following code uses recursion to display stack.
// recursively display the contents :
71 of the stack
void DisplayStack(Node* currentNode)
(
// recursive termination condition
if (currentNode == NULL)
{
return;
}
// the node is not null
// display the data
printf£(" -> %d", currentNode->data)
7/ xecursively call the display to
// display the next element in the stack
. DisplayStack(currentNode->next) ;
) '
The code for pushing an element onto the stack is as given below.
// push item on the stack
// this is same as adding a node
// at the top of the list
void Push(int dataToadd)
( : ap ;
// assumption: head is already defined elsewhere “in the
program - . i . :
// 1. create the new node
Node *temp = new Node;
ttemp->data = dataToAdd;
// 2. insert it at the first position
temp->next = “head;
// 3. update the head to’point to this new node
/ “head = temp;
ie one
‘The code for popping an element from stack is given below.
// pop an element from the stack
7/ this is same as removing the first element
// from the list
Node* Pop()
{
// check for. empty list
if (head == NULL)
; :
printf ("Stack is empty\n");
return NULL; // get the toy
Pp node
ike “firstNode = head;
he Move the head
ead = head->next;
#7 Aisconnect the node
77 from the list
firetNode-snext. = NULL
‘7 return the top node
), Teturn firstnode:
Trghat are the differences between stack and Queue? Write the algorithy 4)
Insertion and deletion in a circular Queue.
Answer:
1" Part: Refer fo Question No. 1(I" Part) of Long Answer Type Questions,
_ 2" Part: Refer to Question No. 5 of Long Answer Type Questions.
8. a) Evaluate the postfix expression using stack:
316245126,- °°
©) Convert the infix expressioin into Its equivalent prefix expression'using stick,
atb*c+(d*e+ f)eg.
Answer: .
8) The steps are as shown below:
3,.16, 2, +, %12,6, ,- ais
Tuput i Stack contents Details
token -_ OPeration (top on the right)
~ 3 Pushon the stack -3
16 - Push onthe stack ° "3, 16 . :
2 Push onthe stack 3, 16,2 .
. on 18: Pop two values: 16 and 2 and push th
a ene ~ 318+ result 18 on the stack ;
on : ; Pop two values: 3 and 18.and push te
°° Multiply a result 54 on the stack -
12 _ Push on the stack 54,12 :
6 Pushonthestack _-54, 12,6
Dike Pop'two values: 12 and 6 aiid puis th
1. “Divide 5h result 2 on the stack |
a Lo Pop two values: 54 and 2 and puish
- 54:2 resuit 52 on:the stack
(End oF (Return the result) 52 -° . Pop the only value 52 and retuim it” DATA STRUCTURE & ALGORITHM’
b) First, the symbol “a” is read, so it is passed through to the output. Then '# is read and
pushed onto the stack. Next “b” is read and passed through fo the otitput. The state of
affaires at this juncture is as follows:
Next a '*' is reads The top entry on the operator stack has lower [= than "**,
nothing is output and '*" is put.on the.
stack. Next, “c” is read and output. Thus far, we have
» i
‘ ~~ coe BME tenth rae
The next symbol is a+", Checking the sik, we find that we will pop a'** and pce iton
the output, pop the’other +, which is not oflower
but equal peer on the ‘stack, and then push the ‘+.
The next symbol read’is an ‘(, which, being of highest pando is plced on
the stack. Then “d” is read and output.
Output
Stack i
We continue by reading a‘. Since open parentheses do not = removed except
when a closed parenthesis is being processed, there is no output. Next, “e” is read and
Output Cn EE
The next symbol remd is a4 We pop and output ‘and then push THEN We ny
and output,
+
‘Stack Output
Now we read a) so the stack is emptied back to the". We output a'¥.
Stack °
Output
‘We read a" next itis pushed énto the stack. Then ““g” is read and output.
pe
| abertder ing ;
Ly]
Stack
: tac! Output .
The input is now empty, so we pop and output symbols from the stack until it is empty.
abeted
+eee
Stick |. Output
8. Convert the ‘infix expression 945*7-642+15/3into its equivalent postfix
seaession and evaluate that postfix expression, clearly showing the state of the
stack. :
Answer: : : : na
‘Symbol scanned ‘Stack Output,
9 9
+. + “[s
5. s
. # 95
Z LS 957 AT, IRE & ALGORITH
Symbol scanned - Stack Output
S TE 9574+
6 : 95746
“ A 957*+6
2 * 957° 162 :
ss + 957"+62- oe
[3s = 957 HONS ~-
1 _ (4 9576215 '
3 +f 957"462"153
[NONE NONE 9576462"153/¢ ——
— Chapter at a Glance
ited
* Simgly linked lists: A linked list is a data structure where data can be represenied as a
of nodes. Each node of a linked lst contains two parts: one is the address part another i iig
data part. The caress pan ede the address of the node which is next to OF Previous to i |
current node. i §
Typically the frst node ofa linked isis called the HEAD node. Ifthe head nods stn
then the entire list gets destroyed as well. Depending on the traversal eal following ai lig
can be designed as circular, bi-directional etc. In it’s sirmplest.form the ef iad 'B diagram
. shows the structure of a uni-directional linked list also known as singly linked list.
© Several operations: (Insertion, deletion, Traversing, Searching) oe
*,_ Insertion:-The algorithm for inserting in the above manner is given below: i
Let us assume that x is data value to be inserted after the node containing the data value y, 5
initially contains the address of the head node. -
Start traversing the linked list from the head node
the data value of the head node is not equal to y goto step 8
create a new node
place x'to the data field of the new node
: place the next address of the head node to the next address of the new node
‘Step 6:.change the next address of the head node by the new node address
Step 7: Goto Step 13
‘Step 8: Identify the address of the node containing data value y as follows
Step 8a) if the data value of the next node of p is equal to y
“Step 8b) else change p by its next node address
Step 9: create a new node
lace y to the data field of the new node .
lace the next address of p node to the next address of new node
thange the next address of the p node by the new node address
End
© Circular linked fist: the circular linked list, the address of the last node contains the address
of the first node, as shown in the figure below: .
ty Ti h ins two link fields, instead of ont
‘One link is used to point to the predecessor node, i.e, the previous node & the other link
used to point to the successor node, i.e., the next node. So, the two links are directed, ont
towards the front and another towards the back. .
2000 2050
‘4000 3030 DATA STRUCTURE & ALGORITHM
+ Linked! representation of polynomial: In general any polynomial A(x) can be written as
x
5 q ACS) = at ayn gst eee Hale OTF a”
Each a, ' is i term of the polynomial, where x is rib a, is its coefficient & ¢ is the
exponent. Ifay=0, then the term is zero term, otherwise i
Multiple Choice e Questions
4. In_a circularly linked list organization, Insertion of a record involves the
modification of
a)no pointer —_—b) 4 pointer ¢) 2 pointers d) 3 pointers
Answer: (c)
2. Linked list are not suitable for :
a)Stack = b) Deque c) AVL Tree d) Binary search
Answer: (4) *
3. Dynamic‘memdry allocation use
a)Calloc .°. —b) Malloc ¢) Free i) allof these
‘Answer: (d) ;
44. Which type of linked List contains a pointer to the next as well as previous node
in the sequence?
a) Singly Linked List b) Circular Linked List
¢) Doubly Linked List q) All of these
Answer: (c)
5. Linked list is not suitable data structure for which one of the following
problems?
a) insertion sort . . byradixsort + =
c) binary search d) polynomial addition
Answer: (c)
6. Self-referential pointer is used in defining
a) an array; b) a node of linked-list
c)aqueue | d) all of these
Answer: (4) .
:
7. Inserting a node after'a given node in a doubly linked list requires
a) four pointer exchanges b) two pointer exchanges
c) one pointer exchange d) no pointer exchange
Answer: (b)
8. Binary search is not possible for
a) array b) linked list ¢) stack . d) queue
Answer: (b) q
|
i
9. Alin }
i ee wud lat can bo traversed using by both a) and (c) are correc i i
¢) stack d) both (a) and (c) are wrong |
Answer: (a) |
10. The data structuro used to solve rocursive problem is
a) Linked list b) Queuo ‘) Btack ) none Of they
Answer: (c)
Short Answer
4. Write an algorithm to add two polynomials.
Answer:
Let us assume that the two polynomials are represented using linked list and the “a
is also using a linked list.
Let pheadl, phead2 and phead3 represent the pointers of the three lists unde
consideration, *
Let each node contain two integers; exp and coff.
Let us assume that the two linked lists already contain relevant data about the tw
polynomials,
Also assume that we have got a function append to insert a new node at the end of the
given list.
2
S
io
a
pl = phead1; fn
p2 = phead2;
Let us call malloc to create a new node p3 to build the third list
p3 = phead3;
/* now traverse the lists till one list gets exhausted ii -
while ((p1 != NULL) || (p2 != NULL)) 7
/* if. the exponent of pl is higher than that of p2 then the next term.in:final list is)
going to be the node of pl* /
while (pl ->exp > p2.-> exp ) |
t : s |
p3 ->'exp = pl--> exp;
P3 -> coff = pl -> coff ;
append (p3, phead3);
/* now move to the next term in list 1*/
pl'= pi -> next;
/*if p2 exponen turns out to be higher than make p3 same as p2 and append to final
list */
while (pl ->exp < p2 -> exp )
(
p3 -> exp
3 -> cofé
p2 -> exp;
P2 -> coff ;. DATA STRUCTU!
RITHM
append (p3, phead3) ;
) p2 = p2 -> next;
/* now consider the possibility that both exponents are same , then we must add the
coefficients to get the term for the final list #/
while (pl ->exp = p2 -> exp )
c
P3-> exp = pl-> exp;
P3->cofft
Pl->coff + p2-> coff ;
append (p3, phead3) ;
Pl = pl->next’;
p2->next ;
/* now consider the possibility that list2 gets exhausted , and there are terms remaining
only in list. So all those terms:have to be appended to end of list3. However, one does
not have to do it term by term, as pl is already pointing to remaining terms, so simply
append the pointer p! to phead3 */ :
if (pl != NULL)
append (pl, phead3) }
else :
jor eBPPENA (p2, ‘phead3);
2. Write the key. features of circular linked list'and state why it is important in case
of Josephus problem. :
Answer: -
A circular list node is identical to a singly-linked list node. However, the circular list has
a reference to its tail node instead of its head node, The tail node has a reference, to, the
head node. This makes it possible to get to both ends of the list in constant time.
Josephus problem is stated as: ;
There are people standing in a circle waiting to be executed. After the first man is
executed, certain number of people are skipped and one man is.executed.-Then again,
people are skipped and a man is executed. The elimination proceeds around the ¢ircle~
(which is becoming smaller and smaller as the executed people sre removed).,until only
the last man remains, who is given freedom.
The task is to choose the place in the initial circle so that you survive (are the last one
remaining). ‘ :
The easiest and most.logical way to solve the problem is to simply simulate it using a
circular link list as shown below. .
|; /*linked list structure */
struct node {
int item;
node* next; .
Ve . E
/* function*/
int simple_simulation(int N, int M) tesitem = 1; t-snext
//Construct the list
a (Los 2; i ce Ny dee) t
X = (x->next = new node ().)1
X->item = i;
x-anext = t;
/7Pind the’ survivor
a (x }= x+>next)
for (i = 1; i next;
X->next = x->next->next; N--i
)
return x->item;
d
3. What are the advantages of linked list over an 7
Write an algorithm to insert a data X after a specific data item Yin a.linked list,
Answer:
1* Part:
The advantages of linked list over an array are:
Refer to Question No. 5 of. oe Answer Type Questions.
2™ Part: :
Assuming the linked list already contains n integer elements. The algorithm t to insen
data X after a specific data item Y ina linked list is as follows:
node *insertXafterY(node *p, int y, int x)
{
*r, tm;
r = (node*)malloc(sizeof (node) ) ;
while (p->next != NULL)
{7 z
m= pi S
if (p->data == x)
{ :
break;
}
else a
= p-pnext; 3 DATA STRUCTURE & ALGORITHM
r->data
r->next
m->next =r;
return (q);
)
>next;
Heagom Can @ Polynomial such ae Gx‘ 44x ~2x+10 be represented by a linked
ist’
Answer:
We can represent the polynomial by a linked list, where each node contains deg, coef and
a pointer to the next node. So, the eet will be as =
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of linked list data structure over
array?
Answer:
Linked list advantages over array
1. Linked lists do.not need contiguous blocks of memory; extremely large data sets
stored in an array might not be able to.fit in memory.
2. Linked list storage does not need to be preallocated (oesin, due to arrays needing
contiguous memory blocks).
3. Inserting or removing an element into a linked list requires one data update, inserting
or removing an element into an array requires n (all élements after the modified index
need to be shifted).
Linked list disadvantages over array:
1. Arrays have contiguous memory allocation which makes it easy to.access elements in
between.
2. As memory is allocated during compilation makes the program faster.
3. Fixed in size so if.we' are aware of the exact size of datas then there can be no.
memory wastage which is also an advantage linked list has. . “
4. Insertion and deletion at the.end of the array is easy but not in between.
5.” Accessing data is easy. Example, a[2].
6. Write a C language function to delete nth node of a singly-linked list. The error
conditions are to be handled properly.
Answer:
struct node* DeleteNode(struct node* head, int n) (
struct node* temp = head;
int length = LinkedbistLength(temp) ;
int i;
if(n <= 0-|| n> length) {
printf ("ERROR: Node 'does not exist! \n");
Jelse{ .
if(m == 1)( ad (1st node) to
second node head = head-snext; //move from he
else, dict
for(i =.1; 4 < net; ##i)( //move through 146|
temp = temp-next:
)
temp->next = temp->next->next;
}
return head;
)
7. a) How the polynomial 4x2 ~ 10x? +3 can be represented using a linked list 4
5) Compare and contrast between an array and a single linked list.
Auswer:
» 8) We can represent the polynomial by a linked list. where each node contains deg.
and'a pointer to the next node. So, the diagram will be as follow:
b) Refer to Question No. 5 of Short Answer Type Questions.
8. What is a self referential structure?
Answer: .
A self-referential structure is one of the data structures which refer to the. pointer
(points) to another-structure of the same type. For example, a linked list is supposed to
a self-referential data structure. The next node of a node is being pointed, whi
same struct type. For example, .
typedef struct listnode { 4
void *data; ; “4
struct listnode *next;
} linked_list; . : ‘
In the above example, the listnode is a self-referential structure — because the *next is
the type sturct listnode.- *
9. Write an algorithm to find the largest and smallest element in a single linear
Answer: .
Linked List definition in C:
typedef struct linked_list
{ “
int data;
struct linked_list ‘next;
) Node;
Code to find largest and smallest elements.
// finds the largest and smallest in vos sist
// assumes that head pointer is defined elsewhere DAT: JCTURE, RIT
int MaxMinInList(int max, int *min)
i :
// start at the root
Node *currentNode = head;
if (currentNode == NULL)
return 0; // list is empty i
// initialize the max and min values to the. first node
‘max = *min = currentNode->data;
// loop through the list
for (currentNode = currentNode->next; currentNode != NULL;
currentNode = currentNode->next)
{
if (currentNode->data > *max)
*max = currentNode->data;
else if (currentNode->data < ‘min)
*min = currentNode->data;
)
// we found our answer
return 1; :
)
10. Write an algorithm to delete the last node of a linked-list.
Answer:
C function to delete last node is as given below:
struct node *delete(struct, node. *head)
C
struct node *temp =héad;
struct node *t,
if (head->nex!
{
free(head);
head=NULL;
)
welse
{
while(temp->next != NULL)
t yaa
tetemp;
temp=temp->next;
ee
free(t->next) ;
t->next=NULL;
)
xeturn head;
)
41. Write an algorithm to insert an element in the middle of a linked list. “nswer:
| Node Structure for Singly Linked Lit
struct node (
int data;
struct node ‘next;
| Ystart = NULL:
Insert node at middle position ; Singly Linked List
| void insert_mid 0
| .
int pos, i;
ai : *templ;
struct node *new_node, ‘current, *temp, teeet node) ) +
New_node=(struct node *)malloc(sizeof (str'
Printf("nEnter thé data : ");
Scanf("%d", knew_node->data) ;
new_node->next=NULL;
sti:
print£(*nEnter the position : ");
scant (*§d", &pos) ;
if(pos>=(length() +1))
t
printf("nfrror : pos > length
goto ‘st;
} 1 ,
if(start==NULL) :
, ;
start=new_node;
current=new_node;
)
else
(
temp = start;
temp = temp->next;
?
templ=temp->next;
temp->next = new_node;
new_node->next=temp! ;
)
) :
1
|
i
i
12, What is the difference between array and linked-list?
Answer: x :
The primary difference between an array or AtrayList-and a linked list is that the arrayt
ArrayList permits random access into the list structure using a subscript; each data it
has a “named” storage location (named by the subscript). In contrast, with a linked listd
locations are relative to the next or previous locations. With an array or ArrayList, wea
| access the 10" data item, say, with one probe to subscript 9 (indexing zero-up). Wit URE. RITHM
linked list, we cannot access the 10% item without first traversing the first nine items.
Scarching through a linked list is thus inherently a sequential process.
On the other hand, because all locations are relative, additions and deletions to a linked
list can be made without affecting any of the data items already stored in the list.
insertions and deletions require only that the next and previous pointers be changed
exactly as needed; no data needs to be moved, When a deletion takes place; no hole is
let, The deleted node becomes unused memory. :
413. Show how linked list can be used to add the following polynomials:
xt + Sx" 40? + 8x43
3x" 4 2n? £7048,
Answers.
Let us assume that the two polynomials (p! and p2) are represented using linked list and
the resultant is also using a linked list. .
Let each nodé contain two integers: exp and coff. ,
The two linked lists already contain relevant data about the two polynosnials. We will
create a linked list list3 (p3) with a single node to begin with.
Steps: We traverse the lists till one list gets exhausted 7
1) if the exponent of pl is higher than that of p2 then the next ferm in final list is
going to be the node of pl * .
2 i p2 exponent turns out to be higher than_make p3 same as p2.and append to
inal list
3) now consider the possibility that both exponents are same , then we must add the
coefficients to get the term for the final list :
4) now consider the possibility that list2 gets exhausted , and there are terms
remaining only in list!. So all those terms have to be appended to end of list3._
The final solution would be 5x™4 + 8x*3.+ 12x42 + 15x + IT’ based on the above
algorithm. :
44. How a polynomial such as 8x° +4x"-9x" +2x—17 can be represented using @
linked list? What are the advantages and disadvantages of linked list over an
array? . . *
Answer:
1" part:
We can represent the polynomial by a linked list, where each node contaiis deg, coef and
a pointer to the next node. So, the diagram will.be as follow:
518 >3|5-> 2-9 1|20}-17
2™ part: Refer to Question No. 5 of Short Answer Type Questions. 15. ¢ .
Answer? 2° contrast linked tat with static and dynamic array
sit is stored randomly in linked lists.
Compare; my
7 nat stay isthe data structure that contains a collection of similar type data ele
v ey
fetes the linked list is considered as non-primitive data structure contains a collec,
of unordered linked elements known as nodes,
2. Accessing an clement in an array is fast, while linked list takes linear time, sq ity
quite a bit slower,
Arrays are of fixed size, Linked lists are dynamic and flexible and can expang bY
Contract its size,
4._ In addition’ memory utilization is jneificient in an array. Conversely, memay
utilization is efficient in the linked list,
Long Answer Type Questions
1. a) How can a Polynomial such as Sx*~3x? +9x-11 be’represented by a linkey
list?
Answer:
We can represent the polynomial by a linked list, where each. node contains deg, ¢,,
efficient and a pointer to the next node. So, the diagram will be as follow:
[-E T+ EE PET
b) Write an algorithm to delete a node from a doubly linked list, where a Node
Contains one data and two address (prev & next) portion.
oR,
Write an algorithm for deletion of a node from a doubly-linked list.
Answer: ‘
/*C function*/
void deleteNode(node *n)
{
node ‘np = n->prev;
node *nn = n->next;
np->next = n->next;
nn->prev = n->prev;
- delete n; DATA STRUCTURE & ALGORITHM
2. a) Do you consider the following data-structure as linear? Circular doubly linked
list.
b) Represent the following polynomial by linked list (show the diagram only)
9x5 43x! —8x415, ,
¢) Write an algorithm to delete all nodes having value greater than X from a given
singly linked list, po bilall : + [WBUT 2008)
Answer:
a) Linear, because traverse all the list of elements sequentially.
9 DPT4-BBT4-oR Ta. pps
¢) :
node *removeNodeAfterx (node *p, int x)
( 2 i
// © holds the address of the previous node »
nede *q, *r, *m, .
NULL)
m= aq;
if (q->next
NULL)
if (q-Sdata > x)
{
x->next ‘= NULL;
_ free(q);
} ' :
break;
).
else if (q->data > x)
\
r->next = m->next;
free(q);
=a
@ = q->next;
return q; 3. a) Ropresent the given polynomial using a link list
3x‘ 43° - Sy 42 read:
6) Write the psoudo code / ¢ code for adding two polynomer Ae algortne
user, no need to take Input). Also comment on the comple! \
Answer:
1) We ean represent the polynomial by a linked list
and a pointer to the next node, So, the diagram will be as
EES TEE oe |
follow:
Running is O(max(xy)(x+y)) where x and y are the number Oo}
Poly1 and Poly? respectively.
t with n nodes.
4, a) Write an algorithm for creating a linked-ist with "Ot that purpose,
b) How it can be made a citcular linked-list? write a fi
Answer: . a
a) /IC functions showing how to create a linked list with 0 nodes with values 1 toy
sequence
#include
#include
7/ & linked list node
struct Node
{
int data;
struct Node *next;
ve
/* Given a reference (pointer to pointer) to the head
of a list and ap int, sppendg. anew node at the end, /)
void append(struct Node** head_ref, int new_data)
{
/* 1, allocate-node */
. struct Node* new_node = (struct Node*). malloc (sizeof (stnt
Node) ); .
struct Node *last = *head_ref;. /* used in step 5*/
7* 2, put in the data */
new_node->data = new_data;
/* 3. This new node is going to be the last node, |
next of :
it as NULL*/ .
new_node->next = NULL; a
where each node contains deg, ad
b) Refer to Question No. 1 of Short Answer Type Ques ete ns in the rng DATA STRUCTURE. 4 ALGORITHM
yea. If the Linked L
head */
if (‘head ret -* NULL)
(
*head_ref = new_node:
return;
)
7* 5, Blse traverse till the last node */
while (last-snext [= NUbL)
last = last->next;
7* 6. Change the next of last node */
‘last->next = new_node;
return;
y
/sthis creates a list*/
int createList ()
{
y* Start with the empty list */
struct Node* head = NULL;
for (i=0; icn; i++)
// Insert data at the end
append(&head, i);
d
b) // Function that convert singly linked list
// into circular linked list.
struct Node* circular(struct Node* head)
{
7/ declare a node variable start and
7/ assign head node into start node.
struct Node* start = head;
// check that while head->next not equal
7/ to NULL then head points to next node.
while (head->next != NULL)
head = head->next;
// if head->next points: to NULL then
// start assign to the head->next node.
head->next = start;
return start;
tin empty, then make the new n
ode ag 5. Howa linked-lists can be used to implement stack?
Answer:
To implement stack using linked list, we need to set the following things befor
implementing actual operations.
ae i Baas 8 'Node' structure with two members data and next, *
5 "Pp ed efine a Node pointer ‘top! and set it to NULL.
"
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