Relations and Functions

Types of Relations
Equivalence Relation

• A relation R in a set A is called reflexive if (a, a) ∈ R for every a ∈ A.

• For example: A relation R in set A defined by R = {sin a = sin b; a, b ∈ A} is a reflexive

relation since .

• A relation R in a set A is called symmetric if (a1, a2) ∈ R implies that (a2, a1) ∈ R, for all a1, a2 ∈ A.

• For example: A relation in the set defined by R = {sin a = sin b; a, b ∈ A} is a symmetric

relation. Since for a, b ∈ A, sin a = sin b implies sin b = sin a. So, (a, b) ∈ R ⇒ (b, a) ∈ R.

• A relation R in a set A is called transitive if (a1, a2) ∈ R, and (a2, a3) ∈ R together imply that (a1, a3)
∈ R, for all a1, a2, a3 ∈ A.

• For example: A relation in the set defined by R = {sin a = sin b, a, b ∈ A} is a transitive

relation. Since for a, b, c ∈ A, let (a, b), (b, c) ∈ R.

⇒ sin a = sin b and sin b = sin c

⇒ sin a = sin c

⇒ (a, c) ∈ R

• A relation R in a set A is said to be an equivalence relation if R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.

• For example: Relation R in the set defined by R = {sin a = sin b; a, b ∈ A} is an

equivalence relation.

Equivalence Classes

• Every arbitrary equivalence relation R in a set X divides X into mutually disjoint subsets (Ai) called
partitions or subdivisions of X satisfying the following conditions:
• All elements of Ai are related to0020each other for all i.

• No element of Ai is related to any element of Aj whenever i ≠ j.

• Ai ∪ Aj = X and Ai ∩ Aj = Φ, i ≠ j

These subsets (Ai) are called equivalence classes.

• For an equivalence relation in a set X, the equivalence class containing a ∈ X, denoted by [a], is the
subset of X containing all elements b related to a.

Trivial Relations

• Trivial relations are of two types:

• Empty relation

• Universal relation

• A relation in a set A is called an empty relation if no element of A is related to any element of A,

i.e., R = Φ ⊂ A × A.

• For example: Consider a relation R in set A = {2, 4, 6} defined by R = {(a, b): a + b is odd,
where a, b ∈ A}. The relation R is an empty relation since for any pair (a, b) ∈ A × A, a + b is always
even.

• A relation R in a set A is called a universal relation if each element of A is related to every element
of A, i.e., R = A × A.

• For example: Let A be the set of all students of class XI. Let R be a relation in set A defined by R =
{(a, b): the sum of the ages of a and b is greater than 10 years}. The relation R is a universal relation
because it is obvious that the sum of the ages of two students of class XI is always greater than 10
years.

Solved Examples

Example 1

Check whether the relation R in the set of all vowels defined by R = {(u, u), (u, a), (a, u)} is reflexive,
symmetric or transitive?

Solution:

The relation R is defined in the set {a, e, i, o, u} as R = {(u, u), (u, a), (a, u)}.
The relation R is not reflexive as (a, a), (e, e) (i, i), (o, o) ∉ R.

Now, (u, a) and (a, u) ∈ R

Hence, R is symmetric.

Now, (u, u) (u, a) ∈ R implies (u, a) ∈ R

Also, (u, a), (a, u) ∈ R implies (u, u) ∈ R

Hence, R is transitive.

Thus, the relation R is symmetric and transitive but not reflexive.

Example 2

Show that the relation R defined in the set of real numbers as R = {(a, b) a = b or a = −b for a, b ∈ R}
is an equivalence relation. Also, find its equivalence classes.

Solution:

A relation R in R is defined as R = {(a, b): a = b or a = −b, for a, b ∈ R}

Clearly, (a, a) ∈ R for every a ∈ R, since a = a.

∴ R is reflexive.

Now, let (a, b) ∈ R for a, b ∈ R

⇒ a = b or a = − b

⇒ b = a or b = − a

⇒ (b, a) ∈ R

∴ R is symmetric.

Now, let (a, b), (b, c) ∈ R, for a, b, c ∈ R

∴ a = b or a = − b and b = c or b = − c

Case I

a = b, b = c

⇒a=c
⇒ (a, c) ∈ R

Case II

a = b, b = − c

⇒a=−c

⇒ (a, c) ∈ R

Case III

a = − b, b = c

⇒a=−c

⇒ (a, c) ∈ R

Case IV

a = − b, b = − c

⇒a=c

⇒ (a, c) ∈ R

Thus, (a, b), (b, c) ∈ R ⇒ (a, c) ∈ R

∴ R is transitive.

Hence, R is an equivalence relation.

Equivalence class of 0 = [0] = {0}

Equivalence class of 1 = [1] = {1, − 1}

Equivalence class of 2 = [2] = {2, − 2} and so on. . .

There are an infinite number of equivalence classes.

For every a ∈ R, [a] = {a, − a}.

Types of Functions
• A function f: X → Y is said to be one-one (or injective) if the images of distinct elements
of X under f are distinct. In other words, a function f is one-one if for every x1, x2 ∈ X, f (x1) = f (x2)
implies x1 = x2.

An example of a one-one function from X to Y is shown in the following diagram.

A function f: X → Y is said to be many-one if the image of distinct elements of X under f are not
distinct i.e., a function that is not one-one is called a many-one function.

An example of a many-one function from X to Y is shown in the following diagram.

In this case, two elements f(d) = f(e) = s.

• A function f: X → Y is defined as onto (or surjective) if every element of Y is the image of some
element of x in X under f. In other words, f is onto if and only if, y ∈ Y, there exist x ∈ X such that f (x)
= y.

• f: X → Y is onto if and only if the range of f = Y.

• An example of an onto function from X to Y is shown in the following diagram.

•

• A function from X to Y that is not onto is shown in the following diagram.

• A function f: X → Y is said to be bijective if it is both one-one and onto.

A bijective function from X to Y is shown in the following diagram.

Solved Examples

Example 1

Check whether the function h: R → R defined by h(x) = is an injective function.

Solution:
The given function i.e., h: R → R is defined by

h(x) =

It can be observed that 5, 0 ∈ R (considering domain). Hence, we have

h(5) =

h(0) =

∴ h(5) = h(0).

Hence, the given function i.e., h(x) is not an injective function.

Example 2

Check whether the function f: R → R defined by f(x) = x5 + 4 is a bijective function.

Solution:

We know that a function is bijective if it is both one-one and onto.

Now, let x1, x2 ∈ R such that f (x1) = f (x2). Accordingly,

f (x1) = f (x2)

Therefore, the function f is a one-one function.

It is clear that for every y ∈ R, there exists ∈ R such

that

Therefore, the function f is an onto function.

Hence, the given function f is a bijective function.

Example 3
 Check whether the function f: N → N defined by f(x) = 4x is an onto function.

Solution:

The given function f: N → N is defined by

f(x) = 4x

We can clearly observe that 2 ∈ N (co-domain). However, there does not exist any
element y ∈ N (domain) whose image is 2.

Hence, the given function f is not an onto function.

Composition of Two functions

Let f: A → B and g: B → C be two functions. Accordingly, the composition of f and g is denoted

by gof and is defined as the function gof: A → C given by gof(x) = g(f(x)), for all x∈A.

• For example: If f: N → N is defined by f(x) = x + 1 for all x∈N and g: N → N is defined by g(x) = x2 for
all x∈N, then gof : N → N is given by

gof(x) = g(f(x)) = g(x + 1) = (x + 1)2, where x∈N.

Also, fog(x) = f(g(x)) = f(x2) = x2 + 1 for all x∈N

• If f: A → B and g: B → C are one-one, then gof: A → C is also one-one.

• If f: A → B and g: B → C are onto, then gof: A → C is also onto.

• If the composite function gof is one-one, then the function f is also one-one. However, the
function g may or may not be one-one.

• If the composite function gof is onto, then the function g is also onto. However, the function f may
or may not be onto.

Solved Examples
Example 1

Let f: R → R be given by f(x) = 12x2 − x − 11 and g: R → R be given by g(x) = x2. Find fo(gog).

Solution:

It is given that

f: R → R is defined by f(x) = 12x2 − x − 11

g: R → R is defined by g(x) = x2

Now, (gog) (x) = g(g(x))

= g(x2)

= (x2)2
= x4

(fo(gog))(x) = f((gog)(x))

= f(x4)

= 12(x4)2 − x4 − 11

= 12x8 − x4 − 11

Example 2

Let f: R − →R− be defined by and g: R − →R− be defined

by g(x) = . Show that fog = IA and gof = IB, where IA and IB are identity functions on A and B

respectively and A = R − and B = R − .

Solution:

(fog)(x) = f(g(x))
(gof)(x) = g(f(x))

Thus, (fog)(x) = x for all x ∈ A ⇒ fog = IA and (gof) (x) = x for all x ∈ B ⇒ gof = IB.

Hence proved.

Example 3

Let f: R → R be defined as f(x) = ; g: R → R be defined as g(x) = x + 2 and h: R → R be defined

as h(x) = 4x + 9. Find fo(g + h) and (fog) + (foh).

Solution:

(g + h): R → R is given by:

(g + h)(x) = g(x) + h(x)

= (x + 2) + (4x + 9)
= 5x + 11
 ∴ fo(g + h)(x) = f((g + h)(x))

= f(5x + 11)

Now, (fog)(x) = f(g(x))

= f(x + 2)

(foh)(x) = f(h(x))

= f(4x + 9)

∴(fog + foh) (x) = (fog)(x) + (foh)(x)

Invertible Functions

Key Concepts

• A function f: X → Y is said to be invertible if there exists a function g: Y→ X such

that gof = IX and fog = IY.

• The function g is called the inverse of f and it is denoted by f−1.

• A function f is invertible if and only if f is one-one and onto.

• If f: X → Y and g: Y → Z are invertible functions, then gof is also invertible and (gof)−1 = f−1 og−1

Solved Examples

Example 1
Determine whether the following functions have inverse or not. Find the inverse, if it exists.

(i) f : {10, 12, 15} → {3, 7, 9, 10, 14}is defined as f = {(12, 9), (15, 7), (10, 10)}.

(ii) g : {2, 4, 6, 8} → {1, 3, 5} is defined as g : {(4, 3), (8, 3), (2, 1), (6, 5)}.

(iii) h : {11, 16}→ {7, 14} is defined as h :{(11, 7), (16, 14)}.

Solution:

(i) The given function f is one-one. However, f is not onto since the elements 3, 14 ∈ {3, 7, 9, 10, 14}
are not the image of any element in {10, 12, 15} under f.

Hence, function f is not invertible.

(ii) The given function g is onto. However, g is not one-one since, g(4) = g(8) = 3.

Hence, the function g is not invertible.

(iii) Clearly, the given function h is both one-one and onto. Hence, h is invertible.

The inverse of h is given by h−1 = {(7, 11), (14, 16)}.

Example 2

Determine whether the functions f and g, defined below, are inverses of each other or not.

f : R − {4} → R − {−3} is given as , and

g: R − {−3} → R − {4} is given as

Solution:

We have
Thus, where B = R −{−3} and A = R −{4}.

∴gof = IA and fog = IB.

Thus, functions f and g are the inverses of each other.

Example 3

Let f: R+ → [−3, ∞) be defined as f (x) = 4x2 − 5x − 3 where R+ is the set of all positive real numbers.
Show that f is invertible and find the inverse of f.

Solution:

f: R+ → [−3, ∞) is defined as f (x) = 4x2 − 5x − 3.

Let y be an arbitrary element of [−3, ∞).

Let y = 4x2 − 5x − 3

∴f is onto.

Hence, Range f = [−3, ∞).

Let us define g: [−3, ∞) → R+ as

Now, we have
 Thus, f is invertible and its inverse is given by

Binary Operations

Definition of Binary Operation Properties

• A binary operation * on a set A is a function * from A × A → A. We denote *(a, b) by a * b.

For example, the operation * defined on N as a * b = a2b is a binary operation since * carries
each pair (a, b) to a unique element a2b in N.

Properties of Binary Operation

• A binary operation * on a set A is called commutative, if a * b = b * a, for every a, b ∈ A.

For example, *: R × R → R defined by a * b = 11 (a + b + ab) is commutative since a * b = 11(a

+ b + ab) and b * a = 11(b + a + ba). Therefore, a * b = b * a.

• A binary operation * on a set A is called associative, if (a * b) * c = a * (b * c), for every a, b, c ∈ A.

For example, *: N × N → N defined by a * b = 5 + a + b is associative.

a * (b * c) = 10 + a + b + c = 5 + (5+ a + b) + c = ((a * b) * c

• For a binary operation *: A × A → A, an element e ∈ A, if it exists, is called its identity element,

if a * e = a = e * a, for every a ∈ A.

For example: 1 is the identity for multiplication on R.

• Given a binary operation *: A × A → A with the identity element e in A, an element a ∈ A is said to be
invertible with respect to the operation *, if there exists an element b∈A, such that a * b = e = b * a,
and b is called the inverse of a and is denoted by a −1.

For example: −a is the inverse of a for the addition operation on R, where 0 is the identity
element.

Binary Operation Table

• When the number of elements in set A is small, we can express a binary operation * on A through a
table called operation table.
• For an operation *: A × A → A, if A = {a1, a2… an}, then the operation table will have n rows
and n columns with (i, j)th entry being ai * aj.
• Given any operation with n rows and n columns with each entry being an element of A =
{a1, a2 … an}, we can define a binary operation * on A given by ai * aj = entry in ith row and jth column
of the operation table

Example: We can define a binary operation * on A = {a, b, c} as follows:

* a b c

a a b c

b b a c

c c c c

Here, a * b = b = b * a

a*c=c=c*a

b*c=c=c*b

∴ The operation * is commutative.

 Solved Examples

Example 1:

A binary operation A × A → A, where A = {a, b, c}, is defined as follows:

* a b c

a a a a

b a b c

c a c b

Determine whether the operation * is commutative and associative. Also, find the identity for the
operation *, if it exists.

Solution:

From the table, it can be observed that

a*b=a=b*a

a*c=a=c*a

b*c=c=c*b

The given binary operation * is commutative since for all x, y, ∈ A = {a, b, c}.

x*y=y*x

Now, consider a * (b * c) = a * c = a

(a * b) * c = a * c = a

Thus, a * (b * c) = (a * b) * c

Similarly, we can prove that (x * y) * z = x * (y * z) for all x, y, z ∈ A.

Thus, the given binary operation * is associative.

Also, we can observe that for any element x ∈ A, we have x * a = x = a * x.

Thus, a is the identity element for the given binary operation *.

Example 2:

Determine whether the binary operation on the set R, defined by a * b = , a, b ∈ R, is

commutative or not.

Solution:

We have *: R × R → R defined by , a, b ∈ R.

We know that a binary operation * defined on set A is commutative, if a * b = b * a &mnForE a, b ∈A.

Now, a * b = and b * a =

∴a*b≠b*a

Hence, the given binary operation * is not commutative.

Example 3:

A binary operation * on the set {5, 6, 9} is defined by the following table:

* 5 6 9

5 5 6 9

6 6 9 5

9 9 5 6
Compute (5 * 9) * 6 and 5 * (9 * 6). Are they equal?

Solution:

From the given binary operation table, we have (5 * 9) = 9

∴(5 * 9) * 6 = 9 * 6 = 5

Then, (9 * 6) = 5

∴5 * (9 * 6) = 5 * 5 = 5

Thus, (5 * 9) * 6 = 5 * (9 * 6)