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UNIX Shells

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This page intentionally left blank
 UNIX Shells

by Example

Fourth Edition

Ellie Quigley

PRENTICE
HALL
PTR
Prentice Hall Professional Technical Reference
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
www.phptr.com
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Quigley, Elbe.
UNIX shells by example / Ellie Quigley.—4th ed.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 0-13-147572-X (alk. paper)
1. UNIX (Computer file) 2. UNIX Shells. I. Title.

QA76.76.063 Q54 2004

005.4'32—dc22
2004051960

Acquisitions; Mark L. Taub, Publishing Partner

Editorial Assistant: Noreen Regina
Marketing Manager; Robin O'Brien

© 2005 Pearson Education, Inc.

Publishing as Prentice-Hall Professional Technical Reference
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

Prentice Hall offers excellent discounts on this book when ordered in quantity for bulk purchases
or special sales. For more information, please contact: U.S. Corporate and Government Sales, 1-
800-382-3419, [email protected]. For sales outside of the U.S., please contact:
International Sales, [email protected].

Company and product names mentioned herein are the trademarks or registered trademarks of
their respective owners. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form
or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America

ISBN 0-13-147572-X
123456789 10—CRS—0807060504
1st Printing, September 2004

Pearson Education Ltd.

Pearson Education Australia Pty, Limited
Pearson Education South Asia Pte. Ltd.
Pearson Education Asia Ltd.
Pearson Education Canada, Ltd.
Pearson Educacion de Mexico, S.A. de C.V
Pearson Education—Japan
Pearson Malaysia S.D.N. B.H.D.
~ To My Father ~
This page intentionally left blank
Contents at a Glance

1 Introduction to UNIX/Linux Shells 1

2 Shell Programming QuickStart 33

3 Regular Expressions and Pattern Matching 67

4 The grep Family 81

5 sed, the Streamlined Editor 125

6 The awk Utility 157

7 The Interactive Bourne Shell 279

8 Programming the Bourne Shell 321

9 The Interactive C and TC Shells 403

10 Programming the C and TC Shells 525

11 The Interactive Korn Shell 583

12 Programming the Korn Shell 653

13 The Interactive Bash Shell 753

14 Programming the Bash Shell 865

15 Debugging Shell Scripts 967

16 The System Administrator and the Shell 1023

A Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers 1055

B Comparison of the Shells 1103

Index 1113

vii
This page intentionally left blank
Contents

Preface xxxiii

Acknowledgments xxxv

1 Introduction to UNIX/Linux Shells 1

1.1 What Is UNIX? What Is Linux? A Little History 1

1.1.1 A Little Bit About UNIX 1
1.1.2 Why Linux? 2
The Free Software Foundation 3
1.2 Definition and Function of a Shell 3
1.2.1 The UNIX Shells 4
1.2.2 The Linux Shells 5
What Is POSIX? 6
1.3 History of the Shell 6
1.3.1 Uses of the Shell 8
1.3.2 Responsibilities of the Shell 8
1.4 System Startup and the Login Shell 9
1.4.1 Parsing the Command Line 9
1.4.2 Types of Commands 10
1.5 Processes and the Shell 11
1.5.1 What Processes Are Running? 12
The ps Command 12
The pstree/ptree Command 13
1.5.2 What Are System Calls? 14
1.5.3 Creating Processes 14
The fork System Call 14
The wai t System Call 15
The exec System Call 15
The exit System Call 15
Killing Processes 17

ix
1.6 The Environment and Inheritance 18
1.6.1 Ownership and Permissions 18
1.6.2 The File Creation Mask 19
1.6.3 Changing Permissions and Ownership 20
The chmod Command 20
The chown Command 21
1.6.4 The Working Directory 23
1.6.5 Variables 23
1.6.6 Redirection and Pipes 24
File Descriptors 24
Redirection 25
Pipes 28
1.6.7 The Shell and Signals 30
1.7 Executing Commands from Scripts 32

Shell Programming QuickStart 33

2.1 Taking a Peek at Shell Scripts 33

2.2 Sample Scripts: Comparing the Major Shells 33
Before Getting Started 34
The Purpose 34
2.3 The C and TC Shell Syntax and Constructs 34
2.3.1 The C/TC Shell Script 39
2.4 The Bourne Shell Syntax and Constructs 41
2.4.1 The Bourne Shell Script 47
2.5 The Korn Shell Constructs 49
2.5.1 The Korn Shell Script 56
2.6 The Bash Shell Constructs 58
2.6.1 The Bash Shell Script 64

Regular Expressions and Pattern Matching

3.1 Regular Expressions 67

3.1.1 Definition and Example 67
3.1.2 Regular Expression Metacharacters 69
3.2 Combining Regular Expression Metacharacters 75
3.2.1 More Regular Expression Metacharacters 76

The grep Family 81

4.1 The grep Command 81

4.1.1 The Meaning of grep 81
4.1.2 How grep Works 82
4.1.3 Metacharacters 83
4.1.4 grep and Exit Status 85
4.2 grep Examples with Regular Expressions 86
Contents xi

4.3 grep with Options 91

4.4 grep with Pipes 94
4.4.1 grep Review 94
4.5 egrep (Extended grep) 95
4.5.1 egrep Examples 96
4.5.2 egrep Review 98
4.6 fgrep (Fixed grep or Fast grep) 99
4.7 Linux and GNU grep 100
4.7.1 Basic and Extended Regular Expressions 100
The POSIX Class 103
4.8 GNU Basic grep (grep -C) with Regular Expressions 104
4.9 grep -E or egrep (GNU Extended grep) 105
4.9.1 grep-E and egrep Examples 106
4.9.2 Anomalies with Regular and Extended
Variants of grep 110
4.10 Fixed grep (grep -F and fgrep) 113
4.11 Recursive grep (rgrep, grep -R) 113
4.12 GNU grep with Options 114
4.13 grep with Options (UNIX and GNU) 116
4.13.1 GNU grep Options Examples 118
LAB 1: grep Exercise 124

5 sed, the Streamlined Editor 125

5.1 What Is sed? 125

5.2 Versions of sed 125
5.3 How Does sed Work? 126
5.4 Regular Expressions 126
5.5 Addressing 128
5.6 Commands and Options 128
5.6.1 How to Modify a File with sed 130
5.6.2 GNU sed Options 131
5.7 Error Messages and Exit Status 131
5.8 Metacharacters 132
5.9 sed Examples 133
5.9.1 Printing; The p Command 134
5.9.2 Deleting; The d Command 134
5.9.3 Substitution: The s Command 136
5.9.4 Range of Selected Lines; The Comma 139
5.9.5 Multiple Edits: The e Command 141
5.9.6 Reading from Files: The r Command 141
5.9.7 Writing to Files: The w Command 142
5.9.8 Appending: The a Command 143
5.9.9 Inserting: The i Command 144
5.9.10 Changing: The c Command 145
 Contents

5.9.11 Next: The n Command 145

5.9.12 Transform: The y Command 146
5.9.13 Quit: The q Command 147
5.9.14 Holding and Getting: The h and g Commands 148
5.9.15 Holding and Exchanging: The h and x Commands 151
5 sed Scripting 151
5.10.1 sed Script Examples 152
5.10.2 sed Review 154
L 2: sed Exercise 155

Tl awk Utility 157

6 What's awk? What's nawk? What's gawk? 157

6.1.1 What Does awk Stand For? 157
6.1.2 Which awk? 157
6 awk's Format 158
6.2.1 Input from Files 158
6.2.2 Input from Commands 159
6 How awk Works 160
6 Formatting Output 161
6.4.1 The print Function 161
Escape Sequences 162
6.4.2 The OFMT Variable 163
6.4.3 The printf Function 163
6 awk Commands from Within a File 166
6 Records and Fields 167
6.6.1 Records 167
The Record Separator 167
The $0 Variable 167
Them Variable 168
6.6.2 Fields 168
6.6.3 Field Separators 169
The Input Field Separator 169
Changing the Field Separator at the Command Fine 170
Using More Than One Field Separator 170
The Output Field Separator 170
6 Patterns and Actions 171
6.7.1 Patterns 171
6.7.2 Actions 172
6 Regular Expressions 173
6.8.1 Matching on an Entire Line 175
6.8.2 The match Operator 175
The POSIX Character Class 176
6 awk Commands in a Script File 177
6 Review 178
Contents XIII

6.10.1 Simple Pattern Matching 178

6.10.2 Simple Actions 179
6.10.3 Regular Expressions in Pattern and Action
Combinations 182
6.10.4 Input Field Separators 184
6.10.5 awk Scripting 186
LAB 3: awk Exercise 187
6.11 Comparison Expressions 188
6.11.1 Relational and Equality Operators 188
6.11.2 Conditional Expressions 190
6.11.3 Computation 190
6.11.4 Logical Operators and Compound Patterns 191
6.11.5 Range Patterns 192
6.11.6 A Data Validation Program 192
6.12 Review 194
6.12.1 Equality Testing 194
6.12.2 Relational Operators 195
6.12.3 Logical Operators (&&, 11) 196
6.12.4 Logical NOT Operator (!) 197
6.12.5 Arithmetic Operators 197
6.12.6 Range Operator 200
6.12.7 Conditional Operator 200
6.12.8 Assignment Operators 201
LAB 4: awk Exercise 202
6.13 Variables 203
6.13.1 Numeric and String Constants 203
Initialization and Type Coercion 203
6.13.2 User-Defined Variables 203
Increment and Decrement Operators 204
User-Defined Variables at the Command Line 205
The -v Option (nawk) 205
Field Variables 205
Built-in Variables 206
6.13.3 BEGIN Patterns 208
6.13.4 END Patterns 208
6.14 Redirection and Pipes 209
6.14.1 Output Redirection 209
6.14.2 Input Redirection (getline) 210
The get! ine Function 210
6.15 Pipes 212
6.15.1 Closing Files and Pipes 213
The system Function 213
6.16 Review 214
6.16.1 Increment and Decrement Operators 214
6.16.2 Built-in Variables 215
xiv Contents

6.16.3 BEGIN Patterns 219

6.16.4 END Patterns 220
6.16.5 awk Script with BEGIN and END 221
6.16.6 The printf Function 223
6.16.7 Redirection and Pipes 224
6.16.8 Opening and Closing a Pipe 225
LAB 5: nawk Exercise 226
6.17 Conditional Statements 227
6.17.1 if Statements 227
6.17.2 if/else Statements 228
6.17.3 if/else and else if Statements 229
6.18 Loops 230
6.18.1 while Loop 230
6.18.2 for Loop 231
6.18.3 Loop Control 231
break and continue Statements 231
6.19 Program Control Statements 232
6.19.1 next Statement 232
6.19.2 exit Statement 232
6.20 Arrays 233
6.20.1 Subscripts for Associative Arrays 233
Using Variables As Array Indexes 233
The Special-for Loop 234
Using Strings As Array Subscripts 235
Using Field Values As Array Subscripts 236
Arrays and the split Function 238
The delete Function 238
Multidimensional Arrays (nawk) 238
6.20.2 Processing Command Arguments (nawk) 239
ARGV 239
ARGC 239
6.21 awk Built-in Functions 242
6.21.1 String Functions 242
The sub and gsub Functions 242
The index Function 243
The length Function 243
The substr Function 244
The match Function 244
The split Function 245
The sprintf Function 245
6.22 Built-in Arithmetic Functions 246
6.22.1 Integer Function 246
6.22.2 Random Number Generator 247
The rand Function 247
The srand Function 247
Contents xix

9.6 Job Control 423

9.6.1 The Ampersand and Background Jobs 423
9.6.2 The Suspend Key Sequence and Background Jobs 424
9.6.3 The jobs Command 424
9.6.4 The Foreground and Background Commands 425
9.7 Shell Metacharacters 426
9.8 Filename Substitution 427
9.8.1 The Asterisk 427
9.8.2 The Question Mark 428
9.8.3 The Square Brackets 429
9.8.4 The Curly Braces 429
9.8.5 Escaping Metacharacters 430
9.8.6 Tilde Expansion 430
9.8.7 Filename Completion: The filec Variable 431
9.8.8 Turning Off Metacharacters with noglob 431
9.9 Redirection and Pipes 432
9.9.1 Redirecting Input 433
9.9.2 The here document 433
9.9.3 Redirecting Output 435
9.9.4 Appending Output to an Existing File 436
9.9.5 Redirecting Output and Error 436
9.9.6 Separating Output and Errors 438
9.9.7 The nodobber Variable 439
9.10 Variables 440
9.10.1 Curly Braces 441
9.10.2 Local Variables 441
Setting Local Variables 441
The set Command 442
Read-Only Variables (tcsh) 444
Built-in Local Variables 444
9.10.3 Environment Variables 444
Printing Environment Variables 445
9.10.4 Arrays 447
The shift Command and Arrays 448
Creating an Array from a String 449
9.10.5 Special Variables 450
Pathname Variable Modifiers 451
9.11 Command Substitution 452
9.11.1 Wordlists and Command Substitution 453
9.12 Quoting 455
9.12.1 The Backslash 455
9.12.2 Single Quotes 456
9.12.3 Double Quotes 457
9.12.4 The Quoting Game 458
Quoting with the :q Modifier 458
Contents xv

6.23 User-Defined Functions (nawk) 248

6.24 Review 250
LAB 6: nawk Exercise 255
6.25 Odds and Ends 256
6.25.1 Fixed Fields 256
Empty Fields 257
Numbers with $, Commas, or Other Characters 257
6.25.2 Multiline Records 258
6.25.3 Generating Form Letters 260
6.25.4 Interaction with the Shell 262
LAB 7: nawk Exercise 264
6.26 awk Built-in Functions 264
6.26.1 String Functions 265
The toupper and tolower Functions (gawk only) 268
6.26.2 Time Functions with gawk 269
The systim Function 269
The strftime Function 269
6.26.3 Command-Line Arguments 271
6.26.4 Reading Input (getline) 272
6.26.5 Control Functions 273
6.26.6 User-Defined Functions 274
6.26.7 awk/gawk Command-Line Options 275

The Interactive Bourne Shell 279

7.1 Introduction 279

7.2 The Environment 280
7.2.1 The Initialization Files 280
The/etc/profile Fi/e 280
The .profile File 282
7.2.2 The Prompts 283
The Primary Prompt 283
The Secondary Prompt 284
7.2.3 The Search Path 285
7.2.4 The hash Command 285
7.2.5 The dot Command 286
7.3 The Command Line 287
7.3.1 The Exit Status 287
7.3.2 Multiple Commands at the Command Line 288
Grouping Commands 288
7.3.3 Conditional Execution of Commands 288
7.3.4 Commands in the Background 289
7.4 Shell Metacharacters (Wildcards) 290
7.5 Filename Substitution 290
7.5.1 The Asterisk 291
 Contents

7.5.2 The Question Mark 291

7.5.3 The Square Brackets 292
7.5.4 Escaping Metacharacters 293
7.6 Variables 294
7.6.1 Local Variables 294
Setting Local Variables 294
The Scope of Local Variables 295
Setting Read-Only Variables 296
7.6.2 Environment Variables 296
Setting Environment Variables 297
7.6.3 Listing Set Variables 298
7.6.4 Unsetting Variables 299
7.6.5 Printing the Values of Variables: The echo Command 300
7.6.6 Variable Expansion Modifiers 301
7.6.7 Positional Parameters 303
7.6.8 Other Special Variables 305
7.7 Quoting 306
7.7.1 The Backslash 307
7.7.2 Single Quotes 308
7.7.3 Double Quotes 308
7.8 Command Substitution 309
7.9 An Introduction to Functions 310
7.9.1 Defining Functions 310
7.9.2 Listing and Unsetting Functions 311
7.10 Standard I/O and Redirection 312
7.10.1 The exec Command and Redirection 313
7.11 Pipes 316
7.12 The here document and Input 318
7.12.1 Now What? 320

Programming the Bourne Shell 321

8.1 Introduction 321

8.1.1 The Steps in Creating a Shell Script 321
The First Line 321
Comments 321
Executable Statements and Bourne Shell Constructs 322
Making the Script Executable 322
A Scripting Session 322
8.2 Reading User Input 323
8.3 Arithmetic 325
8.3.1 Integer Arithmetic and the expr Command 325
8.3.2 Floating-Point Arithmetic 327
8.4 Positional Parameters and Command-Line Arguments 327
8.4.1 The set Command and Positional Parameters 329
8.4.2 How $-i and S® Differ 331
Contents xvii

8.5 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 333

8.5.1 Testing Exit Status: The test Command 334
8.5.2 The if Command 335
8.5.3 The exit Command and the ? Variable 337
8.5.4 Checking for Null Values 339
8.5.5 The if/else Command 340
8.5.6 The if/el if/else Command 342
8.5.7 File Testing 344
8.5.8 The null Command 344
8.5.9 The case Command 346
8.5.10 Creating Menus with the here document
and case Command 348
8.6 Looping Commands 349
8.6.1 The for Command 349
8.6.2 The $* and $@ Variables in Wordlists 352
8.6.3 The while Command 354
8.6.4 The until Command 357
8.6.5 Looping Control Commands 358
The shift Command 359
The break Command 361
The continue Command 362
8.6.6 Nested Loops and Loop Control 364
8.6.7 I/O Redirection and Subshells 365
Redirecting the Output of a Loop to a File 365
Piping the Output of a Loop to a UNIX Command 368
8.6.8 Running Loops in the Background 368
8.6.9 The exec Command and Loops 369
8.6.10 IFS and Loops 370
8.7 Functions 372
8.7.1 Unsetting Functions 373
8.7.2 Function Arguments and the Return Value 373
8.7.3 Functions and the dot Command 375
Storing Functions 375
8.8 Trapping Signals 378
8.8.1 Resetting Signals 379
8.8.2 Ignoring Signals 380
8.8.3 Listing Traps 380
8.8.4 Traps in Functions 382
8.8.5 Debugging 383
8.9 The Command Line 384
8.9.1 Processing Command-Line Options with getopts 384
getopts Scripts 386
8.9.2 The eval Command and Parsing the Command Line 391
8.10 Shell Invocation Options 392
8.10.1 The set Command and Options 393
xviii Contents

8.10.2 Shell Built-in Commands 394

LAB 8: Bourne Shell—Getting Started 395
LAB 9: Metacharacters 396
LAB 10: Redirection 396
LAB 11: First Script 397
LAB 12: Command-Line Arguments 397
LAB 13: Getting User Input 398
LAB 14: Conditional Statements 399
LAB 15: Conditionals and File Testing 399
LAB 16: The case Statement 400
LAB 17: Loops 400
LAB 18: Functions 401

9 The Interactive C and TC Shells 403

9.1 Introduction 403

9.1.1 C/TC Shell Startup 403
9.2 The Environment 404
9.2.1 Initialization Files 404
The .cshrc and .tcshrc Files 405
The .login File 406
9.2.2 The Search Path 407
9.2.3 The rehash Command 408
9.2.4 The hashstat Command 408
9.2.5 The source Command 408
9.2.6 The Shell Prompts 409
The Primary Prompt 409
The Secondary Prompt 409
9.3 The C/TC Shell Command Line 410
9.3.1 The Exit Status 410
9.3.2 Command Grouping 411
9.3.3 Conditional Execution of Commands 412
9.3.4 Commands in the Background 412
9.3.5 Command-Line History 413
Setting History 414
Saving History 414
Displaying History 414
Re-executing Commands 416
9.4 Aliases 418
9.4.1 Listing Aliases 418
9.4.2 Creating Aliases 419
9.4.3 Deleting Aliases 419
9.4.4 Alias Loop 420
9.5 Manipulating the Directory Stack 420
9.5.1 The pushd and popd Commands 420
XX Contents

Quoting with the :x Modifier 460

9.13 New Features of the Interactive TC Shell 460
9.13.1 Versions of tcsh 461
9.13.2 The Shell Prompts 461
The Primary Prompt 463
The Secondary Prompt 463
9.14 The TC Shell Command Line 464
9.14.1 The Command Line and Exit Status 464
Exit Status and the pri ntexi tval ue Variable 465
9.14.2 TC Shell Command-Line History 466
The history Variable 467
Saving History and the savehist Variable 468
Displaying History 468
Accessing Commands from the History File 470
9.14.3 The Built-in Command-Line Editors 474
The bindkey Built-in Command 475
The vi Built-in Editor 475
The emacs Built-in Editor 476
Binding Keys 477
9.15 TC Shell Command, Filename, and Variable Completion 482
9.15.1 The autoli st Variable 482
9.15.2 The fignore Variable 484
9.15.3 The complete Shell Variable 484
9.15.4 Programming Completions 485
Types of Completions 485
9.16 TC Shell Spelling Correction 490
9.17 TC Shell Aliases 491
9.17.1 Listing Aliases 491
9.17.2 Creating Aliases 492
9.17.3 Deleting Aliases 493
9.17.4 Alias Loop 494
9.17.5 Special tcsh Aliases 494
9.18 TC Shell Job Control 495
9.18.1 The jobs Command and the listjobs Variable 495
9.18.2 Foreground and Background Commands 497
9.18.3 Scheduling Jobs 497
9.19 Printing the Values of Variables in the TC Shell 499
9.19.1 The echo Command 499
9.19.2 The printf Command 500
9.19.3 Curly Braces and Variables 502
9.19.4 Uppercase and Lowercase Modifiers 502
9.20 TC Shell Built-in Commands 503
9.20.1 Special Built-in T/TC Shell Variables 514
9.20.2 TC Shell Command-Line Switches 520
Lab 19: The TC Shell—Getting Started 522
Contents xxi

Lab 20: History 522

Lab 21: Shell Metacharacters 523
Lab 23: Variables and Arrays 524
Lab 22: Redirection 524

10 Programming the C and TC Shells 525

10.1 Introduction 525

10.1.1 The Steps in Creating a Shell Script 525
The First Line 525
Comments 526
Making the Script Executable 526
An Example Scripting Session 526
10.2 Reading User Input 527
10.2.1 The $< Variable 527
10.2.2 Creating a Wordlist from the Input String 528
10.3 Arithmetic 529
10.3.1 Arithmetic Operators 529
10.3.2 Floating-Point Arithmetic 530
10.4 Debugging Scripts 531
10.5 Command-Line Arguments 534
10.5.1 Positional Parameters and argv 534
10.6 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 535
10.6.1 Testing Expressions 536
10.6.2 Precedence and Associativity 537
10.6.3 The if Statement 538
10.6.4 Testing and Unset or Null Variables 539
10.6.5 The if/else Statement 540
10.6.6 Logical Expressions 540
10.6.7 The if Statement and a Single Command 542
10.6.8 The if/else if Statement 542
10.6.9 Exit Status and the Status Variable 543
10.6.10 Exiting from a Shell Script 544
10.6.11 Using an Alias to Create an Error Message 544
10.6.12 Using the Status Variable in a Script 545
10.6.13 Evaluating Commands Within Conditionals 546
10.6.14 The goto 547
10.6.15 File Testing with the C Shell 548
10.6.16 The test Command and File Testing 549
10.6.17 Nesting Conditionals 550
10.6.18 File Testing with the TC Shell 551
10.6.19 The filetest Built-in (tcsh) 554
10.6.20 Additional TC Shell File-Testing Operators 554
10.6.21 The switch Command 557
Nesting Switches 558
xxii Contents

10.6.22 The here document and Menus 560

10.7 Looping Commands 561
10.7.1 The foreach Loop 561
10.7.2 The while Loop 564
10.7.3 The repeat Command 565
10.7.4 Looping Control Commands 566
The shift Command 566
The break Command 566
Nested Loops and the repeat Command 568
The conti nue Command 569
10.8 Interrupt Handling 570
10.9 setuid Scripts 571
10.10 Storing Scripts 572
10.11 Built-in Commands 572
Lab 24: C/TC Shells—Getting Started 577
Lab 25: Shell Metacharacters 577
Lab 26: Redirection 578
Lab 27: First Script 578
Lab 28: Getting User Input 579
Lab 29: Command-Line Arguments 580
Lab 30: Conditionals and File Testing 580
Lab 31: The switch Statement 581
Lab 32: Loops 581

11 The Interactive Korn Shell 583

11.1 Introduction 583

11.1.1 Startup 583
11.2 The Environment 584
11.2.1 The Initialization Files 584
The /etc/profi 1 e File 584
The .profile File 585
The ENV File 587
The set -o Options 588
11.2.2 The Prompts 589
The Primary Prompt 589
The Secondary Prompt 590
11.2.3 The Search Path 591
11.2.4 The dot Command 591
11.3 The Command Line 592
11.3.1 The Order of Processing Commands 592
11.3.2 The Exit Status 593
11.3.3 Multiple Commands and Command Grouping 594
11.3.4 Conditional Execution of Commands 594
11.3.5 Commands in the Background 595
Contents xxm

11.3.6 Command-Line History 595

The history Command/Redisplay Commands 597
Re-executing Commands with the r Command 598
11.3.7 Command-Line Editing 599
The vi Built-in Editor 599
The einacs Built-in Editor 600
FCEDIT and Editing Commands 601
11.4 Commenting and Filename Expansion 602
11.5 Aliases 604
11.5.1 Listing Aliases 604
11.5.2 Creating Aliases 605
11.5.3 Deleting Aliases 605
11.5.4 Tracked Aliases 606
11.6 Job Control 606
11.7 Metacharacters 607
11.8 Filename Substitution (Wildcards) 610
11.8.1 The Asterisk 610
11.8.2 The Question Mark 611
11.8.3 The Square Brackets 612
11.8.4 Escaping Metacharacters 613
11.8.5 Tilde and Hyphen Expansion 613
11.8.6 New ksh Metacharacters 614
11.8.7 The nogl ob Variable 615
11.9 Variables 616
11.9.1 Local Variables 616
Setting and Referencing Local Variables 616
The Scope of Local Variables 617
Setting Read-Only Variables 618
11.9.2 Environment Variables 618
Setting Environment Variables 619
Special Environment Variables 620
11.9.3 Listing Set Variables 621
11.9.4 Unsetting Variables 624
11.9.5 Printing the Values of Variables 624
11.9.6 Escape Sequences 626
11.9.7 Variable Expressions and Expansion Modifiers 627
11.9.8 Variable Expansion of Substrings 630
11.9.9 Variable Attributes; The typeset Command 631
11.9.10 Positional Parameters 633
11.9.11 Other Special Variables 635
11.10 Quoting 636
11.10.1 The Backslash 636
11.10.2 Single Quotes 636
11.10.3 Double Quotes 637
11.11 Command Substitution 638
xxiv Contents

11.12 Functions 639

11.12.1 Defining Functions 640
11.12.2 Functions and Aliases 641
11.12.3 Listing Functions 642
11.12.4 Unsetting Functions 643
11.13 Standard I/O and Redirection 643
11.13.1 The exec Command and Redirection 645
11.13.2 Redirection and the Child Shell 646
11.14 Pipes 646
11.14.1 The here document and Redirecting Input 648
11.15 Timing Commands 650
11.15.1 The time Command 650
11.15.2 The TMOUT Variable 651

12 Programming the Korn Shell 653

12.1 Introduction 653

12.1.1 The Steps in Creating a Shell Script 653
The First Line 653
Comments 653
Executable Statements and Korn Shell Constructs 654
Naming and Storing Scripts 654
Making a Script Executable 654
Using a Script As an Argument to ksh 655
A Scripting Session 655
12.2 Reading User Input 656
12.2.1 read and File Descriptors 658
12.2.2 Reading Through Files 659
12.3 Arithmetic 660
12.3.1 The Integer Type 660
12.3.2 Using Different Bases 661
12.3.3 Listing Integers 662
12.3.4 Arithmetic Operators and the let Command 662
12.4 Positional Parameters and Command-Line Arguments 665
12.4.1 The set Command and Positional Parameters 665
12.5 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 668
12.5.1 Testing Exit Status and the $? Variable 668
12.5.2 The Old test Command 670
12.5.3 The New test Command 671
12.5.4 File Testing with Binary Operators 673
12.5.5 Expression Testing with Logical Operators 673
12.5.6 File Testing with Flags 673
12.5.7 The if Command 675
12.5.8 Using the Old-Style Bourne test 676
12.5.9 Using the New-Style Korn test 677
12.5.10 Using the Old-Style Bourne test with Numbers 678
Contents XXV

12.5.11 The let Command and Testing Numbers 678

12.5.12 The if/else Command 679
12.5.13 The if/elif/else Command 679
12.5.14 The exit Command 681
12.5.15 The null Command 683
12.5.16 The case Command 684
The case Command and the here document 685
12.6 Looping Commands 686
12.6.1 The for Command 686
12.6.2 The $-i and $@ Variables in Wordlists 689
12.6.3 The while Command 689
12.6.4 The until Command 692
12.6.5 The select Command and Menus 693
12.6.6 Looping Control Commands 697
The shift Command 697
The break Command 699
The continue Command 700
12.6.7 Nested Loops and Loop Control 701
12.6.8 I/O Redirection and Loops 702
Redirecting the Output of a Loop to a File 702
Piping the Output of a Loop to a UNIX Command 703
12.6.9 Running Loops in the Background 704
12.6.10 The exec Command and Loops 705
12.6.11 The IPS and Loops 706
12.7 Arrays 707
12.7.1 Creating Arrays with the set Command 709
12.8 Functions 709
12.8.1 Defining Functions 710
12.8.2 Listing and Unsetting Functions 710
12.8.3 Local Variables and the Return Value 711
12.8.4 Exported Functions 712
12.8.5 Function Options and the typeset Command 714
Autoloaded Functions 714
12.9 Trapping Signals 716
12.9.1 Pseudo or Fake Signals 717
12.9.2 Resetting Signals 718
12.9.3 Ignoring Signals 718
12.9.4 Listing Traps 718
12.9.5 Traps and Functions 721
12.10 Coprocesses 722
12.11 Debugging 725
12.12 The Command Line 728
12.12.1 Processing Command-Line Options with getopts 728
Sample getopts Scripts 730
12.13 Security 735
xxvi Contents

12.13.1 Privileged Scripts 735

12.13.2 Restricted Shells 735
12.14 Built-in Commands 735
12.15 Korn Shell Invocation Arguments 740
Lab 33: Korn Shell—Getting Started 741
Lab 34: History 742
Lab 35: Aliases and Functions 743
Lab 36: Shell Metacharacters 744
Lab 37: Tilde Expansion, Quotes, and Command Substitution 744
Lab 38: Redirection 745
Lab 39: Job Control 746
Lab 40: Writing the info Shell Script 746
Lab 41: Variable Expansion of Substrings 747
Lab 42: The lookup Script 747
Lab 43: Using typeset 748
Lab 44: The if/else Construct and the let Command 748
Lab 45: The case Statement 749
Lab 46: The select Loop 749
Lab 47: Autoloading Functions 751

13 The Interactive Bash Shell 753

13.1 Introduction 753

13.1.1 Versions of bash 753
13.1.2 Startup 754
Changing the Shell at the Command Line 755
13.2 The Environment 756
13.2.1 The Initialization Files 756
The /etc/profi 1 e File 756
The ~/'bash_profile File 758
The BASH_ENV (ENV) Variable 759
The .bashre File 759
The /etc/bashrc File 761
The ~/.profile File 762
The -/■ bash-logout File 763
Options to Prevent Startup Files from Being Executed 7 63
The .inputrc File 763
13.2.2 Setting bash Options with the Built-in set
and shopt Commands 763
The set -o Options 763
The shopt Built-in (Version 2.x+) 766
13.2.3 The Prompts 768
The Primary Prompt 768
Setting the Prompt with Special Escape Sequences 769
The Secondary Prompt 770
Contents xxvii

13.2.4 The Search Path 771

13.2.5 The hash Command 772
13.2.6 The source or dot Command 773
13.3 The Command Line 774
13.3.1 The Order of Processing Commands 774
13.3.2 Built-in Commands and the help Command 775
13.3.3 Changing the Order of Command-Line Processing 776
13.3.4 The Exit Status 777
13.3.5 Multiple Commands at the Command Line 779
13.3.6 Command Grouping 779
13.3.7 Conditional Execution of Commands 779
13.3.8 Commands in the Background 780
13.4 Job Control 781
13.4.1 Job Control Commands and Options 781
New jobs Options 783
The di sown Built-in 783
13.5 Command-Line Shortcuts 783
13.5.1 Command and Filename Completion 783
13.5.2 History 785
13.5.3 Accessing Commands from the History File 786
The Arrow Keys 786
The hi story Built-in Command 786
The fc Command 787
Re-executing History Commands (Bang! Bang!) 790
13.5.4 Command-Line Editing 793
The vi Built-in Editor 794
The emacs Built-in Editor 795
FCEDIT and Editing Commands 796
13.6 Aliases 798
13.6.1 Listing Aliases 798
13.6.2 Creating Aliases 798
13.6.3 Deleting Aliases 799
13.7 Manipulating the Directory Stack 799
13.7.1 The dirs Built-in Command 799
13.7.2 The pushd and popd Commands 800
13.8 Metacharacters (Wildcards) 801
13.9 Filename Substitution (Globbing) 802
13.9.1 The Asterisk 802
13.9.2 The Question Mark 803
13.9.3 The Square Brackets 804
13.9.4 Brace Expansion 805
13.9.5 Escaping Metacharacters 806
13.9.6 Tilde and Hyphen Expansion 806
13.9.7 Controlling Wildcards (Globbing) 807
13.9.8 Extended Filename Globbing (bash 2.x) 808
xxviii Contents

13.10 Variables 810

13.10.1 Types of Variables 810
13.10.2 Naming Conventions 810
13.10.3 The declare Built-in 810
13.10.4 Local Variables and Scope 811
Setting Local Variables 811
Setting Read-Only Variables 813
13.10.5 Environment Variables 814
Setting Environment Variables 818
13.10.6 Unsetting Variables 820
13.10.7 Printing the Values of Variables 820
The echo Command 820
The printf Command 821
13.10.8 Variable Expansion Modifiers (Parameter
Expansion) 823
13.10.9 Variable Expansion of Substrings 827
13.10.10 Positional Parameters 828
13.10.11 Other Special Variables 830
13.11 Quoting 831
13.11.1 The Backslash 832
13.11.2 Single Quotes 833
13.11.3 Double Quotes 834
13.12 Command Substitution 835
13.13 Arithmetic Expansion 837
13.14 Order of Expansion 838
13.15 Arrays 838
13.16 Functions 841
13.16.1 Defining Functions 841
13.16.2 Listing and Unsetting Functions 844
13.17 Standard I/O and Redirection 844
13.17.1 The exec Command and Redirection 846
13.18 Pipes 849
13.18.1 The here document and Redirecting Input 851
13.19 Shell Invocation Options 852
13.19.1 The set Command and Options 853
13.19.2 The shopt Command and Options 855
13.20 Shell Built-in Commands 857
Lab 48: bash Shell—Getting Started 860
Lab 49: Job Control 860
Lab 50: Command Completion, History, and Aliases 861
Lab 51: Shell Metacharacters 861
Lab 52: Redirection 862
Lab 53: Variables 862
Contents xxix

14 Programming the Bash Shell 865

14.1 Introduction 865

14.1.1 The Steps in Creating a Shell Script 865
The First Line 865
Comments 866
Executable Statements and bash Shell Constructs 866
Making the Script Executable 866
A Scripting Session 866
14.2 Reading User Input 867
14.2.1 Variables (Review) 867
14.2.2 The read Command 868
14.3 Arithmetic 871
14.3.1 Integers (declare and let Commands) 871
The declare Command 871
Listing Integers 872
Representing and Using Different Bases 872
The let Command 873
14.3.2 Floating-Point Arithmetic 874
14.4 Positional Parameters and Command-Line Arguments 874
14.4.1 Positional Parameters 874
14.4.2 The set Command and Positional Parameters 876
How S* and $@ Differ 878
14.5 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 879
14.5.1 Exit Status 879
14.5.2 The Built-in test and let Commands 880
The test Command with Single Brackets 880
The test Command with Double Brackets 880
The let Command and Arithmetic with
Double Parentheses 884
14.5.3 The if Command 886
The exit Command and the ? Variable 889
Checking for Null Values 891
Nested if Commands 891
14.5.4 The if/else Command 891
14.5.5 The if/el if/else Command 893
14.5.6 File Testing 896
14.5.7 The null Command 898
14.5.8 The case Command 900
Creating Menus with the here document and
case Command 901
14.6 Looping Commands 903
14.6.1 The for Command 903
14.6.2 The $* and S@ Variables in Wordlists 906
14.6.3 The while Command 907
XXX Contents

14.6.4 The until Command 910

14.6.5 The select Command and Menus 912
14.6.6 Looping Control Commands 917
The shi ft Command 917
The break Command 919
The continue Command 920
Nested Loops and Loop Control 921
14.6.7 I/O Redirection and Subshells 923
Redirecting the Output of a Loop to a File 923
Piping the Output of a Loop to a UNIX/Linux
Command 925
14.6.8 Running Loops in the Background 925
14.6.9 The IPS and Loops 926
14.7 Functions 927
14.7.1 Unsetting Functions 928
14.7.2 Exporting Functions 928
14.7.3 Function Arguments and the Return Value 929
Arguments 929
The Built-in local Function 929
The Built-in return Function 929
14.7.4 Functions and the source (or dot) Command 932
Storing Functions 932
14.8 Trapping Signals 935
14.8.1 Resetting Signals 937
14.8.2 Ignoring Signals 938
14.8.3 Listing Traps 938
14.8.4 Traps and Functions 940
14.9 Debugging 941
14.10 The Command Line 943
14.10.1 Processing Command-Line Options with getopts 943
Sample getopts Scripts 944
Special getopts Variables 947
14.10.2 The eval Command and Parsing the Command
Line 949
14.11 bash Options 951
14.11.1 Shell Invocation Options 951
14.11.2 The set Command and Options 953
14.11.3 The shopt Command and Options 955
14.12 Shell Built-in Commands 957
Lab 54: bash Shell—First Script 959
Lab 55: Command-Line Arguments 960
Lab 56: Getting User Input 960
Lab 57: Conditional Statements 961
Lab 58: Conditionals and File Testing 962
Lab 59: The case Statement 962
Contents xxxi

Lab 60: Loops 964

Lab 61: Functions 965

15 Debugging Shell Scripts 967

15.1 Introduction 967

15.2 Style Issues 967
15.3 Types of Errors 968
15.3.1 Runtime Errors 969
15.3.2 Naming Conventions 969
15.3.3 Insufficient Permissions 970
15.3.4 Path Problems 970
15.3.5 The Shbang Line 972
15.3.6 Sneaky Aliases 973
15.4 Probable Causes for Syntax Errors 975
15.4.1 Undefined and Misspelled Variables 975
15.4.2 Incomplete Programming Statements 976
Missing Keywords 976
Indentation 976
if/endif Errors 977
case and switch Errors 978
Looping Errors 979
Operator Errors 981
Misusing an Operator 982
Quoting Errors 983
Quoting Metacharacters 983
What You Should Know About Quotes 985
Problems with the here document 989
File-Testing Errors 990
15.4.3 Common Error Messages from the Big 5 Shells 991
Common C/TC Shell Error Messages 992
Common Bourne Shell Error Messages 994
Common Korn Shell Error Messages 996
Common Bash Error Messages 999
15.4.4 Logic Errors and Robustness 1001
Logical Operator Errors 1001
Relational Operator Errors 1002
Branching Errors 1003
Exit Status with an if Conditional 1004
Lacking Robustness 1005
15.5 Tracing with Shell Options and the set Command 1009
15.5.1 Debugging Bourne Shell Scripts 1009
Bourne Shell Debugging Options 1009
15.5.2 Debugging C/TC Shell Scripts 1011
15.5.3 Debugging Korn Shell Scripts 1014
xxxii Contents

15.5.4 Debugging Bash Scripts 1016

Bash Invocation Options 1017
The set Command and Options 1018
The shopt Command and Options 1020
15.6 Summary 1021

16 The System Administrator and the Shell 1023

16.1 Introduction 1023

16.2 The Superuser 1023
16.3 Becoming a Superuser with the su Command 1024
16.3.1 Running Scripts As Root 1027
Running a Script in the Current Directory 1027
16.3.2 Scripts That Run As Root (setuid Programs) 1029
16.4 Boot Scripts 1030
16.4.1 A Little Terminology 1031
The Kernel and init 1031
What Is a Run Level ? 1031
Single-User Mode 1033
Boot Scripts 1034
What Is a Daemon ? 1035
16.4.2 An Example Boot Script—The cron Utility 1035
Creating a cron Instruction File (crontab File) 1035
The cron Boot Script 1037
16.4.3 Writing a Portable Script 1041
16.4.4 User-Specific Initialization Files 1044
Possible Files for /etc/skel 1045
16.4.5 System-Wide Initialization Files 1046
/etc/profile 1047
/etc/bashrc 1049
/etc/csh. login 1050
/etc/csh.cshrc 1051
16.5 Summary 1053

A Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities

for Shell Programmers 1055

B Comparison of the Shells 1103

B.l The Shells Compared 1103

B.2 tcsh versus csh 1104
B.3 bash versus sh 1104

Index 1113
Preface

Playing the "shell" game is a lot of fun. This book was written to make your learning
experience both fun and profitable. Since the first edition was published, many of you
who have been helped by my book have contacted me, telling me that the book made
you realize that shell programming doesn't need to be difficult at all! Learning by exam-
ple makes it easy and fun. In fact, because of such positive feedback, I have been asked
by Prentice Hall to produce this fourth edition of UNIX® Shells by Example for UNIX and
Linux users, programmers, and administrators. Along with updated material through-
out, it includes three completely new chapters, with full coverage of the GNU tools for
those of you who use Linux. With the meteoric rise of Linux popularity, it seemed like
a good time to combine the best of Linux Shells by Example with UNIX® Shells by Exam-
ple and produce a single volume that touches on all the various aspects of the
UNIX/Linux shell world.
The new chapters include Chapter 2, "Shell Programming QuickStart," an introduc-
tory jump-start for programmers who want a quick survey of the shell programming
constructs and how they differ; Chapter 15, "Debugging Shell Scripts," which gives you
an example of an error message, what caused it, and how to fix it; and Chapter 16, "The
System Administrator and the Shell," which demonstrates how the shell is used by sys-
tem administrators, from system boot-up to shutdown.
Writing UNIX® Shells by Example was the culmination of 21 years of teaching and
developing classes for the various shells and UNIX/Linux utilities most heavily used by
shell programmers. The course notes I developed have been used by the University of
California, Santa Cruz; the University of California, Davis; Sun Microsystems; Apple
Computer; Xilinx; National Semiconductor; LSI Logic; De Anza College; and numerous
vendors throughout the world. Depending upon the requirements of my client, I nor-
mally teach one shell at a time rather than all of them at once. To accommodate the
needs of so many clients, I developed separate materials for each of the respective
UNIX/Linux shells and tools.

xxxiii
xxxiv Preface

Whether I am teaching "Grep, Sed, and Awk," "Bourne Shell for the System Admin-
istrator," "The Interactive Korn Shell," or "Bash Programming," one student always
asks, "What book can I get that covers all the shells and the important utilities such as
grep, sed, and awk? How does awk differ from gawk? Will this work if I'm using Linux
or is this just for Solaris? Should I get the awk book, or should I get a book on grep and
sed? Is there one book that really covers it all? 1 don't want to buy three or four books in
order to become a shell programmer."
In response, I could recommend a number of excellent books covering these topics
separately, and some UNIX and Linux books that attempt to do it all, but the students
want one book with everything, and not just a quick survey They want the tools, regular
expressions, all the major shells, quoting rules, a comparison of the shells, exercises, and
so forth, all in one book. This is that book.
As 1 wrote it, I thought about how I teach the classes and organized the chapters in
the same format. In the shell programming classes, the first topic is always an intro-
duction to what the shell is and how it works. Then we talk about the utilities such as
grep, sed, and awk—the most important tools in the shell programmer's toolbox. When
learning about the shell, it is presented first as an interactive program where every-
thing can be accomplished at the command line, and then as a programming language
where the programming constructs are described and demonstrated in shell scripts.
(Since the C and TC shells are almost identical as programming languages, there are
separate chapters describing interactive use, but only one chapter discussing program-
ming constructs.)
It's one thing to write a script, but yet another to debug it. I have been working with
the shells for so long, that I can recognize bugs in a program almost before they happen!
But these bugs are hard to find until you get used to the error messages and what they
mean. I added a chapter on debugging to help you understand what the often cryptic
error messages mean and how to fix them. Since the diagnostics for the shells may differ,
each shell is presented with the most common error messages and what caused them.
Many students take a shell course as a step toward learning system administration.
Susan Barr, a teaching colleague of mine who teaches system administration and shell
programming, offered to share her extensive knowledge and write a chapter to describe
how the system administrator uses the shell (Chapter 16, "The System Administrator
and the Shell").
Having always found that simple examples are easier for quick comprehension, each
concept is captured in a small example followed by the output and an explanation of
each line of the program. This method has proven to be very popular with those who
learned Perl programming from my first book, Perl by Example, or JavaScript from Java-
Script™ by Example, and with those who learned to write shell programs from UNIX®
Shells by Example.
Another aid to comprehension is that the five shells are discussed in parallel. If, for
example, you're working in one shell but want to see how redirection is performed in
another shell, you will find a parallel discussion of that topic presented in each of the
other shell chapters.
It can be a nuisance to shuffle among several books or the man pages when all you
want is enough information about a particular command to jog your memory on how a
Acknowledgments XXXV

particular command works. To save you time, Appendix A contains a list of useful UNIX
and Linux commands, their syntax, and definitions. Examples and explanations are pro-
vided for the more robust and often-used commands.
The comparison table in Appendix B will help you keep the different shells straight,
especially when you port scripts from one shell to another, and serves as a quick syntax
check when all you need is a reminder of how the construct works.
I think you'll find this book a valuable tutorial and reference. The objective is to
explain through example and keep things simple so that you have fun learning and save
time. Since the book replicates what I say in my classes, I am confident that you will be
a productive shell programmer in a short amount of time. Everything you need is right
here at your fingertips. Playing the shell game is fun . . . You'll see!

Ellie Quigley ([email protected])

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

A special acknowledgment goes to Susan Barr, my friend and colleague, for contributing
her expertise on system administration and providing a new chapter for this edition.
Susan spent hours testing examples for the many flavors of UNIX and Linux, and also
took extra time to correct typos and any errors she found in the third edition. Since she
has used UNIX® Shells by Example in the classes she teaches, Susan was able to provide
invaluable advice for this new edition. Thank you Susan!
I would also like to thank and acknowledge the following people, without whose help
this book would not have been published: Mark Taub, my acquisitions editor; Vanessa
Moore, my production editor, the best of the best in her field, whose creativity, energy,
and style make the book a nice book; Jim A. Lola (author and Principal Systems and
Storage Consultant, Life Sciences Consulting Partners), Mark Halegua, and Lawrence
Hargett for reviewing, critiqing, and editing the new material. Finally, I would like to
thank all my students for their continued support and feedback. They learned with me
how to play the shell game. Without them, this book never would have happened.
This page intentionally left blank
Introduction to

UNIX/Linux Shells

1.1 What Is UNIX? What Is Linux? A Little History

When learning about the shells, you will find they are often associated with different
versions of the UNIX/Linux operating systems. For example, the Bourne and Korn shells
are associated with AT&T UNIX, the C shell with Berkeley UNIX, and the Bash shell
with Linux. Before delving into the particulars of the shells, this section is provided to
give you a little background information about the operating systems on which they
reside.

1.1.1 A Little Bit About UNIX

UNIX is a multiuser, multitasking oper-

ating system initiated by Ken Thomp- ' LIVE FREE OR DIE'
son in 1969 at AT&T Bell Labs. UNIX
was designed to allow a large number of
programmers to access the computer at
the same time, sharing its resources. It
was to be simple and powerful, versatile UNIX

and portable. It could run on computer

c—: €=
systems ranging from microcomputers
to super minicomputers and main-
frames.
At the heart of UNIX is the kernel, a program loaded when the system boots. The ker-
nel talks to the hardware and devices, schedules tasks, and manages memory and stor-
age. Due to the spartan nature of UNIX, a large number of small simple tools and utilities
were developed, and because these tools (commands) could be easily combined to per-
form a variety of larger tasks, UNIX quickly gained popularity. One of the most impor-
tant utilities developed was the shell, a program that allows the user to communicate
with the operating system. This book explores the features of the most prominent shells
available today.

1
2 Chapter 1 • Introduction to UNIX/Linux Shells

At first UNIX was adopted, at nominal cost, by scientific research institutions and
universities and later spread to computer companies, government bodies, and manufac-
turing industries. In 1973, the U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
(DARPA) initiated a research program to develop a way to link computers together
transparently across multiple networks using UNIX. This project, and the system of net-
works that emerged from the research, resulted in the birth of the Internet!
By the late 1970s many of the students who had pioneered and experimented with
UNIX in college were now working in industry and demanded a switch to UNIX, claim-
ing that it was the most suitable operating system for a sophisticated programming envi-
ronment. Soon a large number of vendors, large and small, started marketing their own
versions of UNIX, optimizing it for their individual computer architectures. The two
most prominent versions of UNIX were System V from AT&T and BSD UNIX, which was
derived from AT&T's version and developed at the University of California, Berkeley, in
the early 1980s.
(To see a chart of the many different versions of UNIX, over 80 flavors, see
www.ugu.com/sui/ugu/show7ugu.flavors.) With so many versions of UNIX, applications and
tools running on one system often could not run on another without considerable time
and energy spent in making them compatible. This lack of uniformity fueled the rhetoric
of competing vendors to abandon UNIX and stay with the older, non-UNIX proprietary
systems, such as VMS, that had proven to be more consistent and reliable.
It was time to standardize UNIX. A group of vendors got together and started the con-
cept of "open systems," whereby those participating would agree to conform to certain
standards and specifications. UNIX was chosen as the basis for the new concept. A com-
pany called X/Open was formed to define the open systems platform, and many organi-
zations began using X/Open as a basis for system design. X/Open is now a part of The
Open Group and continues to develop a Single UNIX Specification.
In early 1993, AT&T sold its UNIX System Laboratories to Novell. In 1995 Novell
transferred the rights to the UNIX trademark and the specification (which subsequently
became the Single UNIX Specification) to The Open Group (at the time X/Open), and sold
SCO the UNIX system source code. Today UNIX-based systems are sold by a number of
companies. The systems include Solaris from Sun Microsystems, HP-UX and Tru64 UNIX
from Hewlett-Packard, and AIX from IBM. In addition there are many freely available
UNIX and UNIX-compatible implementations, such as Linux, FreeBSD, and NetBSD.

1.1.2 Why Linux?

In 1991, Linus Torvalds, a Finnish

college student, developed a UNIX-
compatible operating system kernel Lmux Online
at the University of Helsinki, Fin-
land. It was designed to be UNIX on mtp //www org
r <>
a PC. Although Linux mimics UNIX
System V and BSD UNIX, it is not
derived from licensed source code.
Rather, it was developed independently by a group of developers from all over the world
who were informally allied through the Internet.
Definition and Function of a Shell 3

For many, Linux offers an alternative to proprietary UNIX and Windows operating
systems, and a large Linux culture has evolved sponsoring consortiums, conventions,
expos, newsgroups, and publications in a new revolution to rival Windows' dominance
in the PC world. With the help of many system programmers and developers, Linux has
grown into today's full-fledged UNIX-compatible operating system, with upward of 20
million users. The current full-featured version is 2.6 (released December 2003) and
development continues. Linux is distributed by a number of commercial and noncom-
mercial organizations that provide enhancement to the kernel of the operating system,
some examples being Red Hat, Slackware, Mandrake, Turbo, and SuSE Linux.
You may have noticed a penguin associated with Linux. The penguin is the official
Linux mascot, called Tux, selected by Linus Torvalds to represent the image he associ-
ates with the operating system.

The Free Software Foundation. In 1992, the Free Software Foundation added its
GNU (GNU is a recursive acronym "GNU's Not UNIX" ) software to the Linux kernel to
make a complete operating system, and licensed the Linux source code under its Gen-
eral Public License, making it freely available to everyone. Hundreds of GNU utilities
were provided by the Free Software Foundation, including improvements to the stan-
dard UNIX Bourne shell.
The GNU tools, such as grep, sed, and gawk, are similar to their UNIX namesakes, but
have also been improved and designed for POSIX1 compliancy. When you install Linux,
you will have access to the GNU shells and tools, not the standard UNIX shells and tools.
And if you are using a traditional UNIX system, such as Sun's Solaris 5.9, you will also
have access to many of these tools, including the GNU shells.

2 Definition and Function of a Shell

The shell is a special program used as an interface between the user and the heart of the
UNIX/Linux operating system, a program called the kernel, as shown in Figure 1.1. The
kernel is loaded into memory at boot-up time and manages the system until shutdown.
It creates and controls processes, and manages memory, file systems, communications,
and so forth. All other programs, including shell programs, reside on the disk. The ker-
nel loads those programs into memory, executes them, and cleans up the system when
they terminate. The shell is a utility program that starts up when you log on. It allows
users to interact with the kernel by interpreting commands that are typed either at the
command line or in a script file.
When you log on, an interactive shell starts up and prompts you for input. After you
type a command, it is the responsibility of the shell to (a) parse the command line; (b)
handle wildcards, redirection, pipes, and job control; and (c) search for the command,

1. The requirements for shell functionality are defined by the POSIX (Portable Operating System Interface)
standard, POSIX 1003.2.
4 Chapter 1 • Introduction to UNIX/Linux Shells

and if found, execute that command. When you first learn UNIX/Linux, you spend most
of your time executing commands from the prompt. You use the shell interactively.
If you type the same set of commands on a regular basis, you may want to automate
those tasks. This can be done by putting the commands in a file, called a script file, and
then executing the file. A shell script works much like a batch file: A list of UNIX/Linux
commands is typed into a file, and then the file is executed. More sophisticated scripts
contain programming constructs for making decisions, looping, file testing, and so
forth. Writing scripts not only requires learning programming constructs and tech-
niques, but also assumes that you have a good understanding of UNIX/Linux utilities
and how they work. There are some utilities, such as grep, sed, and awk, that are extremely
powerful tools used in scripts for the manipulation of command output and files. After
you have become familiar with these tools and the programming constructs for your
particular shell, you will be ready to start writing useful scripts. When executing com-
mands from within a script, you are using the shell as a programming language.

shell

Figure 1.1 The kernel, the shell, and you.

1.2.1 The UNIX Shells

The three prominent and supported shells on most UNIX systems are the Bourne shell
(AT&T shell), the C shell (Berkeley shell), and the Korn shell (a superset of the Bourne
shell). All three of these behave pretty much the same way when running interactively,
but have some differences in syntax and efficiency when used as scripting languages.
The Bourne shell (sh) is the standard UNIX shell, and is used to administer the system.
Most of the system adBministration scripts, such as the re start and stop scripts and shut-
down are Bourne shell scripts; this is the shell commonly used by the administrator when
running as root. This shell was written at AT&T and is known for being concise, compact,
and fast. The default Bourne shell prompt is the dollar sign ($).
The C shell (csh) was developed at Berkeley and added a number of features, such as
command-line history, aliasing, built-in arithmetic, filename completion, and job control.
1.2 Definition and Function of a Shell 5

The C shell has been favored over the Bourne shell by users running the shell interac-
tively, but administrators prefer the Bourne shell for scripting, because Bourne shell
scripts are simpler and faster than the same scripts written in C shell. The default C shell
prompt is the percent sign (%).
The Korn shell is a superset of the Bourne shell written by David Korn at AT&T. A
number of features were added to this shell above and beyond the enhancements of the
C shell. Korn shell features include an editable history, aliases, functions, regular
expression wildcards, built-in arithmetic, job control, coprocessing, and special debug-
ging features. The Bourne shell is almost completely upward-compatible with the Korn
shell, so older Bourne shell programs will run fine in this shell. Novell extended the
new version of the Korn shell (ksh93) to enable X Windows programming for their
desktop, dtksh. Dtksh is a standard part of CDE, the Common Desktop Environment sup-
ported by most major UNIX system hardware vendors. The public domain version of
the Korn shell (packages.debian.org/stable/shells/pdksh), called pdksh, is also available for
multiple platforms, including Linux. Korn shell for Windows is found at
www.wipro.com/uwin. The default Korn shell prompt is the dollar sign ($).

1.2.2 The Linux Shells

When you install Linux, you will have access to the GNU shells and tools, not the stan-
dard UNIX shells and tools. The GNU Bourne Again shell—Bash, the Linux default
shell—is an enhanced Bourne shell, not only at the programming level, but also when
used interactively, allowing the user to tailor his working environment and create short-
cuts to improve efficiency. This shell is one of the most popular shells used by UNIX and
Linux users today, and can be downloaded from www.gnu.org/software/bash/bash.html. The
default Bash prompt is the dollar sign ($).
Another prominent shell used by Linux users is the TC shell, a compatible offshoot
of the UNIX C shell, but with many additional features.2 See www.tcsh.org/MostRecent-
Release. The default C shell prompt is the greater-than sign (>).
The Z shell is yet another Linux shell that incorporates a number of features from
the Bourne Again shell, the TC shell, and the Korn shell. See sourceforge.net/
projects/zsh/.
The Public Domain Korn shell (pdksh), a Korn shell clone, is also available, and for a
fee, an AT&T Korn shell license can be obtained. The default Public Domain Korn shell
prompt is a dollar sign ($).
To see what shells are available under your version of Linux, look in the file
/etc/shell, as shown in Example 1.1.

2. Although often called the "Linux" shells, bash (Bourne Again shell) and tcsh (TC shell) are freely available
and can be compiled on any UNIX system; in fact, the shells are now bundled with Solaris 8+, Sun's UNIX
operating system.
6 Chapter 1 • Introduction to UNIX/Linux Shells

EXAMPLE l.l

$ cat /etc/shell
/bin/bash
/bin/sh
/bin/ash
/bin/bsh
/bin/tcsh
/bin/csh
/bin/ksh
/bin/zsh

EXPLANATION

The /etc/shell (Linux) file contains a list of all shell programs available on your ver-
sion of Linux. The most popular versions are bash (Bourne Again shell), tcsh (TC
shell), and ksh (Korn shell).

What Is POSIX? In order to provide software standards for different operating sys-
tems and their programs, the POSIX standard (also referred to as the Open Systems Stan-
dards) evolved, consisting of participants from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineering (IEEE) and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Their
goal was to supply standards that would promote application portability across different
platforms, to provide a UNIX-like computing environment; thus, new software written
on one machine would compile and run on another machine with different hardware.
For example, a program written for a BSD UNIX machine would also run on Solaris,
Linux, and HP-UX machines. In 1988 the first standard was adopted, called POSIX
1003.1. Its purpose was to provide a C language standard. In 1992, the POSIX group
established standards for the shell and utilities to define the terms for developing porta-
ble shell scripts, called the IEEE 1003.2 POSIX shell standard and general utility pro-
grams. Although there is no strict enforcement of these standards, most UNIX vendors
try to comply with the POSIX standard. The term "POSIX compliancy," when discussing
shells and their general UNIX utilities, is an attempt to comply with the standards pre-
sented by the POSIX committee, when writing new utilities or adding enhancements to
the existing ones. For example, the Bourne Again shell is a shell that is almost 100%
compliant and gawk is a user utility that can operate in strict POSIX mode.

1.3 History of the Shell

The first significant, standard UNIX shell was introduced in V7 (seventh edition of
AT&T) UNIX in late 1979, and was named after its creator, Stephen Bourne. The Bourne
shell as a programming language is based on a language called Algol, and was primarily
used to automate system administration tasks. Although popular for its simplicity and
speed, it lacks many of the features for interactive use, such as history, aliasing, and job
control.
1.3 History of the Shell 7

The C shell, developed at the University of California, Berkeley, in the late 1970s, was
released as part of BSD UNIX. The shell, written primarily by Bill Joy, offered a number
of additional features not provided in the standard Bourne shell. The C shell is based on
the C programming language, and when used as a programming language, it shares a
similar syntax. It also offers enhancements for interactive use, such as command-line
history, aliases, and job control. Because the shell was designed on a large machine and
a number of additional features were added, the C shell has a tendency to be slow on
small machines and sluggish even on large machines when compared with the Bourne
shell.
With both the Bourne shell and the C shell available, the UNIX user now had a
choice, and conflicts arose over which was the better shell. To provide the best of both
worlds, David Korn, from AT&T, invented the Korn shell in the mid-1980s. It was
released in 1986 and officially became part of the SVR4 distribution of UNIX in 1988.
The Korn shell, really a superset of the Bourne shell, runs not only on UNIX/Linux sys-
tems, but also on OS/2, VMS, and DOS. It provides upward compatibility with the
Bourne shell, adds many of the popular features of the C shell, and is fast and efficient.
The Korn shell has gone through a number of revisions. The most widely used version
of the Korn shell is the 1988 version, although the 1993 version has gained popularity.
Linux users may find they are running the free version of the Korn shell, called the Pub-
lic Domain Korn shell, or simply pdksh, a clone of David Korn's 1988 shell. It is free and
portable and currently work is underway to make it fully compatible with its namesake,
Korn shell, and to make it POSIX compliant. Also available is the Z shell (zsh), another
Korn shell clone with TC shell features, written by Paul Falsted, and freely available at
a number of Web sites.
With the advent of Linux, the Bourne Again shell (bash) gained popularity as a super
Bourne shell. The Bourne Again shell was developed in 1988 by Brian Fox of the Free
Software Foundation under the GNU copyright license and is the default shell for the
Linux operating system. It was intended to conform to the IEEE POSIX P1003.2/ISO
9945.2 Shell and Tools standard. The Bourne Again shell also offers a number of new
features (both at the interactive and programming level) missing in the original Bourne
shell (yet Bourne shell scripts will still run unmodified). It also incorporates the most
useful features of both the C shell and Korn shell. It's big. The improvements over
Bourne shell are command-line history and editing, directory stacks, job control, func-
tions, aliases, arrays, integer arithmetic (in any base from 2 to 64), and Korn shell fea-
tures such as extended metacharacters, select loops for creating menus, the let
command, and more.
What is the TC shell? The TC shell is an expanded, completely compatible version of
the C shell. Some of the new features are command-line editing (emacs and vi), scrolling
the history list, advanced filename, variable, and command completion, spelling correc-
tion, job scheduling, automatic locking and logout, time stamps in the history list, and
more. It's also big. People often ask, "What does the 'T' in TC shell stand for?" A little
history is involved. Back in 1976, DEC announced and shipped a new virtual memory
operating system called TOPS-20, based on TENEX, an operating system used by
researchers at that time all around the country. One of the most favored features among
TOPS-20 users, and one most identified with TOPS-20 itself, was "escape recognition,"
also called command completion. With this, the user can often get the system to, in
8 Chapter 1 • Introduction to UNIX/Linux Shells

effect, type most of a command or symbolic name by pressing the Esc key The creator
of the TC shell was impressed by this and several other features of TENEX/TOPS-20,
and created a version of csh that mimicked them called the TENEX C shell, or simply TC
shell, tc-shell, or tcsh. Hence, the "T" in TC shell. See info.astrian.net/doc/tcsh/copyright
for more information on tcsh.

1.3.1 Uses of the Shell

When running interactively, one of the major functions of a shell is to interpret com-
mands entered at the command-line prompt. The shell parses the command line, break-
ing it into words (called tokens) separated by whitespace, which consists of tabs, spaces,
or a newline. If the words contain special metacharacters, the shell evaluates them. The
shell handles file I/O and background processing. After the command line has been pro-
cessed, the shell searches for the command and starts its execution.
Another important function of the shell is to customize the user's environment, nor-
mally done in shell initialization files. These files contain definitions for setting terminal
keys and window characteristics; setting variables that define the search path, permis-
sions, prompts, and the terminal type; and setting variables that are required for specific
applications such as window managers, text-processing programs, and libraries for pro-
gramming languages. The Korn/Bash shells and C/TC shells also provide further cus-
tomization with the addition of history, aliases, and built-in variables set to protect the
user from clobbering files, or inadvertently logging out, or to notify the user when a job
has completed.
The shell can also be used as an interpreted programming language. Shell programs,
also called scripts, consist of commands listed in a file. The programs are created in an
editor (although online scripting is permitted). They consist of UNIX/Linux commands
interspersed with fundamental programming constructs such as variable assignment,
conditional tests, and loops. You do not have to compile shell scripts. The shell inter-
prets each line of the script as if it had been entered from the keyboard. Because the shell
is responsible for interpreting commands, it is necessary for the user to have an under-
standing of what those commands are. See Appendix A for a list of useful UNIX and
Linux commands.

1.3.2 Responsibilities of the Shell

The shell is ultimately responsible for making sure that any commands typed at the
prompt get executed properly. Included in those responsibilities are:

1. Reading input and parsing the command line

2. Evaluating special characters, such as wildcards and the history character
3. Setting up pipes, redirection, and background processing
4. Handling signals
5. Setting up programs for execution

Each of these topics is discussed in detail as it pertains to a particular shell.

System Startup and the Login Shell 9

4 System Startup and the Login Shell

When you start up your system, the first process called is init. Each process has a pro-
cess identification number associated with it, called the PID. Because init is the first pro-
cess, its PID is 1. The init process initializes the system and then starts other processes
to open terminal lines and set up the standard input (stdin), standard output (stdout),
and standard error (stderr), which are all associated with the terminal. The standard
input normally comes from the keyboard; the standard output and standard error go to
the screen. At this point, a login prompt would appear on your terminal.
After you type your login name, you will be prompted for a password. The /bin/login
program then verifies your identity by checking the first field in the passwd file. If your
username is there, the next step is to run the password you typed through an encryption
program to determine if it is indeed the correct password. Once your password is veri-
fied, the login program sets up an initial environment consisting of variables that define
the working environment that will be passed on to the shell. The HOME, SHELL, USER, and
LOCNAME variables are assigned values extracted from information in the passwd file. The
HOME variable is assigned your home directory, and the SHELL variable is assigned the name
of the login shell, which is the last entry in the passwd file. The USER and/or LOCNAME vari-
ables are assigned your login name. A search path variable is set so that commonly used
utilities may be found in specified directories. When login has finished, it will execute
the program found in the last entry of the passwd file. Normally, this program is a shell.
If the last entry in the passwd file is /bin/csh, the C shell program is executed. If the last
entry in the passwd file is /bin/bash or is null, the Bash shell starts up. If the last entry is
/bin/ksh or /bin/pdksh, the Korn shell is executed. This shell is called the login shell
After the shell starts up, it checks for any systemwide initialization files set up by the
system administrator and then checks your home directory to see if there are any shell-
specific initialization files there. If any of these files exist, they are executed. The initial-
ization files are used to further customize the user environment. At this point you may
start up a windowing environment such as CDE, OpenWindows, or Gnome. A virtual
desktop will appear and depending on the configuration, a console and some pseudo
terminals displaying a shell prompt. The shell is now waiting for your input.

1.4.1 Parsing the Command Line

When you type a command at the prompt, the shell reads a line of input and parses the
command line, breaking the line into words, called tokens. Tokens are separated by
spaces and tabs and the command line is terminated by a newline.3 The shell then
checks to see whether the first word is a built-in command or an executable program
located somewhere on the disk. If it is built-in, the shell will execute the command
internally. Otherwise, the shell will search the directories listed in the path variable to
find out where the program resides. If the command is found, the shell will fork a new
process and then execute the program. The shell will sleep (or wait) until the program

3. The process of breaking the line up into tokens is called lexical analysis.
 Chapter 1 • Introduction to UNIX/Linux Shells

finishes execution and then, if necessary, will report the status of the exiting program. A
prompt will appear and the whole process will start again. The order of processing the
command line is as follows;

1. History substitution is performed (if applicable).

2. Command line is broken up into tokens, or words.
3. History is updated (if applicable).
4. Quotes are processed.
5. Alias substitution and functions are defined (if applicable).
6. Redirection, background, and pipes are set up.
7. Variable substitution ($user, Sname, etc.) is performed.
8. Command substitution (echo "Today is 'date'") is performed.
9. Filename substitution, called globbing (cat abc.??, rm *.c, etc.) is performed.
10. Command is executed.

1.4.2 Types of Commands

When a command is executed, it is an alias, a function, a built-in command, or an exe-

cutable program residing on disk. Aliases are abbreviations (nicknames) for existing
commands and apply to the C, TC, Bash, and Korn shells. Functions apply to the Bourne
(introduced with AT&T System V, Release 2.0), Bash, and Korn shells. They are groups
of commands organized as separate routines. Aliases and functions are defined within
the shell's memory. Built-in commands are internal routines in the shell, and executable
programs reside on disk. The shell uses the path variable to locate the executable pro-
grams on disk and forks a child process before the command can be executed. This takes
time. When the shell is ready to execute the command, it evaluates command types in
the following order4:

1. Aliases
2. Keywords
3. Functions
4. Built-in commands
5. Executable programs

If, for example, the command is xyz the shell will check to see if xyz is an alias. If not,
is it a built-in command or a function? If neither of those, it must be an executable pro-
gram residing on the disk. In order to execute the command, the shell must then search
the path to find out where the command is located in the directory structure in order to
execute it. This process is illustrated in Figure 1.2.

4. Numbers 3 and 4 are reversed for Bourne and Korn(88) shells. Number 3 does not apply for C and TC
shells.
1.5 Processes and the Shell 11

display prompt
->-read next command

I
shell searches
for a command

Is it a
built-in command? yes ->• execute the command

I
No

fork a child
process parent shell
I waits

Is it a
compiled executable yes
program?
Kernel loads new program
into memory and overlays
(execs) it in child process
No

new process
runs and terminates
Is it the I
end of a script yes >■ exit
program?

parent wakes up

No

Figure 1.2 The shell and command execution,

1.5 Processes and the Shell

A process is a program in execution and can be identified by its unique PID number. The
kernel controls and manages processes. A process consists of the executable program,
its data and stack, program and stack pointer, registers, and all the information needed
for the program to run. The shell is a special program that starts when you have com-
pleted the login process. Once started, the shell is a process. The shell belongs to a pro-
cess group identified by the group's PID. Only one process group has control of the
12 Chapter 1 • Introduction to UNIX/Linux Shells

terminal at a time and is said to be running in the foreground. When you log on, your
shell is in control of the terminal and waits for you to type a command at the prompt.
When you log on, your system may go directly into a graphical user interface (GUI)
or start up in a terminal with a shell prompt. If you are using Linux, the shell normally
starts up another process to launch the X Window System. After X Windows starts, a
window manager process (twin, fvwtn, etc.) is executed, providing a virtual desktop.5 Then,
from a pop-up menu, you can start up a number of other processes, such as xterm (gets
a terminal), xman (provides manual pages), or emacs (starts a text editor). If you are using
UNIX, the GUI may be GDE, KDE, or OpenWindows. Once started, you will have a vir-
tual desktop consisting of a number of smaller windows, including a console and a num-
ber of terminals, each displaying a shell prompt.
Multiple processes are running and monitored by the Linux/UNIX kernel, allocating
each of the processes a little slice of the CPU in a way that is unnoticeable to the user.

1.5.1 What Processes Are Running?

The ps Comrnand. The ps command with its many options displays a list of the pro-
cesses currently running in a number of formats. Example 1.2 shows all processes that
are running by users on a Linux system. (See Appendix A for ps and its options.)

EXAMPLE 1.2

$ ps aux (BSD/Linux ps) (use ps -ef or SVR4)

USER PID %CPU %MEM SIZE RSS TTY STAT START TIME COMMAND
ellie 456 0.0 1.3 1268 840 S 13:23 0:00 -bash
ellie 476 0.0 1.0 1200 648 S 13:23 0:00 sh /usr/XllR6/bin/sta
ellie 478 0.0 1.0 2028 676 S 13:23 0:00 xinit /home/ellie/.xi
ellie 480 0.0 1.6 1852 1068 S 13:23 0:00 fvwm2
ellie 483 0.0 1.3 1660 856 S 13:23 0:00 /us r/XllR6/li b/Xll/fv
ellie 484 0.0 1.3 1696 868 S 13:23 0:00 /usr/XllR6/li b/Xll/fv
ellie 487 0.0 2.0 2348 1304 S 13:23 0:00 xclock -bg #c0c0c0 -p
ellie 488 0.0 1.1 1620 724 S 13:23 0:00 /usr/XllR6/lib/Xll/fv
ellie 489 0.0 2.0 2364 1344 S 13:23 0:00 xload -nolabel -bg gr
ellie 495 0.0 1.3 1272 848 p0 S 13:24 0:00 -bash
ellie 797 0.0 0.7 852 484 p0 R 14:03 0:00 ps au
root 457 0.0 0.4 724 296 S 13:23 0:00 /sbin/mingetty tty2
root 458 0.0 0.4 724 296 S 13:23 0:00 /sbin/mingetty tty3
root 459 0.0 0.4 724 296 S 13:23 0:00 /sbin/mingetty tty4
root 460 0.0 0.4 724 296 S 13:23 0:00 /sbin/mingetty tty5
root 461 0.0 0.4 724 296 S 13:23 0:00 /sbin/mingetty tty6
root 479 0.0 4.5 12092 2896 S 13:23 0:01 X :0
root 494 0.0 2.5 2768 1632 S 13:24 0:00 nxterm -Is -sb -fn

5. A number of desktop environments come with Linux, including Gnome, KDE, X, and so on.
1.5 Processes and the Shell 13

The pstree/ptree Command. Another way to see what processes are running and
what processes are child processes is to use the pstree (Linux) or ptree (Solaris) com-
mand. The pstree command displays all processes as a tree with its root being the first
process that runs, called init. If a user name is specified, then that user's processes are
at the root of the tree. If a process spawns more than one process of the same name,
pstree visually merges the identical branches by putting them in square brackets and pre-
fixing them with the number of times the processes are repeated. To illustrate, in Exam-
ple 1.3 the httpd server process has started up 10 child processes. (See Appendix A for a
list of pstree options.)

EXAMPLE 1.3

pstree
init—4vdgetty]
init-+-atd
|-bash—startx—xinit-+-X
i '-fvwmZ--+-FvwniButtons
1 l-FvwmPager

1 '-FvwmTaskBar
i-cardmgr
|-crond
|-gpm
I-httpd—10* [httpd]
I-ifup-ppp—pppd—chat
i-inetd
|-kerneld
|-kflushd
|-klogd
|-kswapd
1-1 pd
|-2*[md_thread]
|-5*[mingetty]
|-nmbd
| -nxterm—bash—tcsh—pstree
i-portmap
l-sendmail
|-smbd
|-syslogd
I-update
i-xclock
"-xload
 Chapter 1 • Introduction to UNIX/Linux Shells

1.5.2 What Are System Calls?

The shell can spawn other processes. In fact, when you enter a command at the prompt
or from a shell script, the shell has the responsibility of finding the command either in
its internal code (built-in) or on the disk and then arranging for the command to be exe-
cuted. This is done with calls to the kernel, called system calls. A system call is a request
for kernel services and is the only way a process can access the system's hardware. There
are a number of system calls that allow processes to be created, executed, and termi-
nated. (The shell provides other services from the kernel when it performs redirection
and piping, command substitution, and the execution of user commands.)
The system calls used by the shell to cause new processes to run are discussed in the
following sections. See Figure 1.4 on page 17.

1.5.3 Creating Processes

The fork System Call. A process is created in UNIX with the fork system call. The
fork system call creates a duplicate of the calling process. The new process is called the
child and the process that created it is called the parent. The child process starts running
right after the call to fork, and both processes initially share the CPU. The child process
has a copy of the parent's environment, open files, real and user identifications, umask,
current working directory, and signals.
When you type a command, the shell parses the command line and determines
whether the first word is a built-in command or an executable command that resides out
on the disk. If the command is built-in, the shell handles it, but if on the disk, the shell
invokes the fork system call to make a copy of itself (Figure 1.3). Its child will search the
path to find the command, as well as set up the file descriptors for redirection, pipes,
command substitution, and background processing. While the child shell works, the
parent normally sleeps. (See "The wait System Call" below.)

435 436

Parent Process Child Process

ENV fork ENV

0 stdin terminal 0 stdin terminal

1 stdout terminal 1 stdout terminal

2 stderr terminal 2 stderr terminal

Figure 1.3 The fork system coll.

1.5 Processes and the Shell 15

Th© wait System Call. The parent shell is programmed to go to sleep (wait) while
the child takes care of details such as handling redirection, pipes, and background pro-
cessing. The wait system call causes the parent process to suspend until one of its chil-
dren terminates. If wait is successful, it returns the PID of the child that died and the
child's exit status. If the parent does not wait and the child exits, the child is put in a
zombie state (suspended animation) and will stay in that state until either the parent
calls wait or the parent dies.6 If the parent dies before the child, the init process adopts
any orphaned zombie process. The wait system call, then, is not just used to put a parent
to sleep, but also to ensure that the process terminates properly.

The exec System Call. After you enter a command at the terminal, the shell nor-
mally forks off a new shell process: the child process. As mentioned earlier, the child
shell is responsible for causing the command you typed to be executed. It does this by
calling the exec system call. Remember, the user command is really just an executable
program. The shell searches the path for the new program. If it is found, the shell calls
the exec system call with the name of the command as its argument. The kernel loads
this new program into memory in place of the shell that called it. The child shell, then,
is overlaid with the new program. The new program becomes the child process and
starts executing. Although the new process has its own local variables, all environment
variables, open files, signals, and the current working directory are passed to the new
process. This process exits when it has finished, and the parent shell wakes up.

The exit System Call. A new program can terminate at any time by executing the
exit call. When a child process terminates, it sends a signal (sigchild) and waits for the
parent to accept its exit status. The exit status is a number between 0 and 255. An exit
status of zero indicates that the program executed successfully, and a nonzero exit status
means that the program failed in some way.
For example, if the command 1 s had been typed at the command line, the parent shell
would fork a child process and go to sleep. The child shell would then exec (overlay) the
Is program in its place. The Is program would run in place of the child, inheriting all
the environment variables, open files, user information, and state information. When
the new process finished execution, it would exit and the parent shell would wake up.
A prompt would appear on the screen, and the shell would wait for another command.
If you are interested in knowing how a command exited, each shell has a special built-
in variable that contains the exit status of the last command that terminated. (All of this
will be explained in detail in the individual shell chapters.) See Example 1.4 for an
example of exit status.

6. To remove zombie processes, the system must be rebooted.

16 Chapter 1 • Introduction to UNIX/Linux Shells

EXAMPLE 1.4

(C/TC Shell)
1 % cp filex filey
% echo $status
0
2 % cp xyz
Usage: cp [-ip] fl f2; or: cp [-ipr] fl ... fn d2
% echo Sstatus
1

(Bourne, Bash, Korn Shells)

3 $ cp filex filey
$ echo $?
0
$ cp xyz
Usage: cp [-ip] fl f2; or: cp [-ipr] fl ... fn d2
$ echo $?
1

EXPLANATION

1 The cp (copy) command is entered at the C shell command-line prompt. After the
command has made a copy of filex called filey, the program exits and the prompt
appears. The csh status variable contains the exit status of the last command that
was executed. If the status is zero, the cp program exited with success. If the exit
status is nonzero, the cp program failed in some way.

2 When entering the cp command, the user failed to provide two filenames: the
source and destination files. The cp program sent an error message to the screen
and exited with a status of 1. That number is stored in the csh status variable. Any
number other than zero indicates that the program failed.

3 The Bourne, Bash, and Korn shells process the cp command as the C shell did in
the first two examples. The only difference is that the Bourne and Korn shells
store the exit status in the ? variable, rather than the status variable.
1.5 Processes and the Shell 17

Parent Shell Child Shell New Program - grep

PID 124| PID 1251 PID 125|

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

I ENV I |ENV| exec | ENV |

(overlay
0 stdin fork 0 stdin 0 stdin
new
wait 1 stdout 1 stdout 1 stdout
program
2 stderr 2 stderr on child) 2 stderr

Parent Shell grep

125|

Shell ENV ENV

wakes up!
0 stdin 0 stdin
1 stdout 1 stdout
2 stderr 2 stderr

grep exits

Figure 1.4 The fork, exec wait and exit system calls, See following Explanation,

EXPLANATION

l The parent shell creates a copy of itself with the fork system call. The copy is called
the child shell.

2 The child shell has a new PID and is a copy of its parent. It will share the CPU
with the parent.

3 The kernel loads the grep program into memory and executes (exec) it in place of
the child shell. The grep program inherits the open files and environment from the
child.

4 The grep program exits, the kernel cleans up, and the parent is awakened.

Killing Processes. A process can be terminated by using keystroke-generated signals

like Ctrl-C or CtrlA, or by using the kill command. This command may be used for kill-
ing background jobs or, if your terminal is in a frozen, unresponsive state, to kill the pro-
cess that is causing the problem. The kill command is a built-in shell command that
terminates a process by its PID or, if using job control, by the number of the job. To find
the PID number, the ps command is used. See Example 1.5.
18 Chapter 1 • Introduction to UNIX/Linux Shells

EXAMPLE 1.5

l $ sleep 60&
2 $ ps
PID TTY TIME CMD
27628 pts/7 0:00 sleep
27619 pts/7 0:00 bash
27629 pts/7 0:00 ps
3 $ kill 27628
4 $ ps
PID TTY TIME CMD
27631 pts/7 0:00 ps
27619 pts/7 0:00 bash
[1]+ Terminated sleep 60

EXPLANATION

1 The sleep command does nothing, just pauses for 60 seconds, and is running in
the background due to the ampersand at the end of the command

2 The ps command displays the currently running processes for this user.

3 The kill command is a built-in shell command. It takes, as an argument, the PID
of the process it will kill. The PID for the sleep command is entered.

4 The ps command demonstrates that the sleep command has been terminated.

1.6 The Environment and Inheritance

When you log on, the shell starts up and inherits a number of variables, I/O streams, and
process characteristics from the /bin/login program that started it. In turn, if another
shell is spawned (forked) from the login or parent shell, that child shell (subshell) will
inherit certain characteristics from its parent. A subshell may be started for a number of
reasons; for handling background processing, for handling groups of commands, or for
executing scripts. The child shell inherits the environment of its parent. The environ-
ment consists of process permissions (who owns the process), the working directory, the
file creation mask, special variables, open files, and signals.

1.6.1 Ownership and Permissions

When you log on, the shell is given an identity. It has a real user identification (UID),
one or more real group identifications (GID), and an effective user identification and
effective group identification (EU1D and EGID). The EUID and EGID are initially the
same as the real UID and GID. These ID numbers are found in the etc/passwd file and are
used by the system to identify users and groups. The EUID and EGID determine what
permissions a process has access to when reading, writing, or executing files. If the EUID
of a process and the real UID of the owner of the file are the same, the process has the
1.6 The Environment and Inheritance 19

owner's access permissions for the file. If the EGID and real GID of a process are the
same, the process has the owner's group privileges.
The real UID is the third entry in the /etc/passwd file. Its value is a positive integer that
is associated with your login name. When you log on, the login shell is assigned the real
UID and all processes spawned from the login shell inherit its permissions. Any process
running with a UID of zero belongs to root (the superuser) and has root privileges. The
real group identification, the GID, associates a group with your login name. It is found
in the fourth field of the /etc/passwd file.
You can use the id command to see these values, as shown in Example 1.6.

EXAMPLE 1.6

1 $ id
uid=502(e 11 ie) gid=502(eHie)

The EUID and EGID can be changed to numbers assigned to a different owner. By
changing the EUID (or EGID) to another owner, you can become the owner of a process
that belongs to someone else. Programs that change the EUID or EGID to another owner
are called setuid or setgid programs. The passwd program is an example of a setuid pro-
gram that gives the user root privileges. This enables an ordinary user to change his
password, and update the passwd file (accessible only to root) without calling for a system
administrator. The user temporarily becomes the superuser, root, as long as the passwd
program is running because his effective user ID is temporarily is set to root. Setuid pro-
grams are often sources for security holes. The shell allows you to create setuid scripts,
and the shell itself may be a setui d program. (See Chapter 16, "The System Administrator
and the Shell."

1.6.2 The File Creation Mask

When a file is created it is given a set of default permissions. These permissions are
determined by the program creating the file. Child processes inherit a default mask from
their parents. The user can change the mask for the shell by issuing the umask command
at the prompt or by setting it in the shell's initialization files. The umask command is used
to remove permissions from the existing mask.
Initially, the umask is 000, giving a directory 777 (rwxrwxrwx) permissions and a file 666
(rw-rw-rw-) permissions as the default. On most systems, the umask is assigned a value of
022 by the /bin/login program or the /etc/profile initialization file.
The umask value is subtracted from the default settings for both the directory and file
permissions as follows:

777 (Directory) 666 (File)

-022 (umask value) -022 (umask value)

755 644
Result: drwxr-xr-x -rw-r—r
 Chapter 1 • Introduction to UNIX/Linux Shells

After the umask is set, all directories and files created by this process are assigned the
new default permissions. In this example, directories will be given read, write, and exe-
cute for the owner; read and execute for the group; and read and execute for the rest of
the world (others). Any files created will be assigned read and write for the owner, and
read for the group and others. To change permissions on individual directories and per-
missions, the chmod command is used.

1.6.3 Changing Permissions and Ownership

The chmod Command. The chmod command changes permissions on files and direc-
tories. Every UNIX/Linux file has a set of permissions associated with it to control who
can read, write, or execute the file. There is one owner for every UNIX/Linux file and
only the owner or the superuser can change the permissions on a file or directory. A
group may have a number of members, and the owner of the file may change the group
permissions on a file so that the group can enjoy special privileges. To see what permis-
sions a file has, type at the shell prompt:

Is -1 filename

A total of nine bits constitutes the permissions on a file. The first set of three bits con-
trols the permissions of the owner of the file, the second set controls the permissions of
the group, and the last set controls the permissions for everyone else. The permissions
are stored in the mode field of the file's inode. The user must own the files to change
permissions on them.7
Table 1.1 illustrates the eight possible combinations of numbers used for changing
permissions.

Table 1.1 Permission Modes

Decimal Binary Permissions

0 000 none

1 001 --X

2 010 -w-

3 on -wx

4 100 r—

5 101 r-x

6 110 rw-

7 111 rwx

The symbolic notation for chmod is as follows:

r = read; w = write; x = execute; u = user; g = group; o = others; a = all.

7. The caller's EUID must match the owner's U1D of the file, or the owner must be superuser.
1.6 The Environment and Inheritance 21

EXAMPLE 1.7

1 $ chmod 755 file

$ Is -1 file
-rwxr-xr-x 1 ellie 0 Mar 7 12:52 file
2 $ chmod g+w file
$ Is -1 file
-rwxrwxr-x 1 el lie 0 Mar 7 12:54 file
3 $ chmod go-rx file
$ Is -1 file
-rwx-w— 1 el lie 0 Mar 7 12:56 file
4 $ chmod a=r file
$ Is -1 file
-r—r—r— 1 el lie 0 Mar 7 12:59 file

EXPLANATION

1 The first argument is the octal value 755. It turns on rwx for the user, r and x for the
group, and others for file.

2 In the symbolic form of chmod, write permission is added to the group.

3 In the symbolic form of chmod, read and execute permissions are subtracted from
the group and others.

4 In the symbolic form of chmod, all are given only read permission. The = sign causes
all permissions to be reset to the new value.

Th© chown Command. The chown command changes the owner and group on files
and directories. If using Linux, only the superuser, root, can change ownership. If using
UNIX, the owner of the file or the superuser can change the ownership. To see the usage
and options for chown, check the man pages (UNIX) or use the chown command with the
--help (Linux) option as shown in Example 1.8. Example 1.9 demonstrates how to use
chown.

EXAMPLE 1.8

(The Command Line)

# chown —help
Usage: chown [OPTION]... OWNER[.[GROUP]] FILE...
or: chown [OPTION]... .[GROUP] FILE...
Change the owner and/or group of each FILE to OWNER and/or GROUP.

-c, —changes be verbose whenever change occurs

-h, -no-dereference affect symbolic links instead of any referenced file
(available only on systems with 1chown system call)
22 Chapter 1 • Introduction to UNIX/Linux Shells

EXAMPLE 1.8 (continued)

-f, —silent, —quiet suppress most error messages

-R, —recursive operate on files and directories recursively
-v, —verbose explain what is being done
—help display this help and exit
—version output version information and exit

Owner is unchanged if missing. Croup is unchanged if missing, but changed to login group
if implied by a period. A colon may replace the period.

Report bugs to fileutils-bugsOgnu.ai.mit.edu

EXAMPLE 1.9

(The Command Line)

1 $ Is -1 filetest
-rw-rw-r— 1 ellie ellie 0 Jan 10 12:19 filetest
2 $ chown root filetest
chown: filetest: Operation not permitted
3 $ su root
Password:
4 # Is -1 filetest
-rw-rw-r— 1 ellie ellie 0 Jan 10 12:19 filetest
5 # chown root filetest
6 # Is -1 filetest
-rw-rw-r-- 1 root ellie 0 Jan 10 12:19 filetest
7 # chown root:root filetest
8 # Is -1 filetest
-rw-rw-r-- 1 root root 0 Jan 10 12:19 filetest

EXPLANATION

1 The user and group ownership of fi 1 etest is el 1 i e.

2 The chown command will only work if you are the superuser, i.e., user root.

3 The user changes identity to root with the su command.

4 The listing shows that user and group are ellie for filetest.

5 Only the superuser can change the ownership of files and directories. Ownership
of fil etest is changed to root with the chown command. Group ownership is still
ellie.

6 Output of Is shows that root now owns fil etest.

7 The colon (or a dot) is used to indicate that owner root will now change the
group ownership to root. The group name is listed after the colon. There can be
no spaces.

8 The user and group ownership for fil etest now belongs to root.
1.6 The Environment and Inheritance 23

1.6.4 The Working Directory

When you log on, you are given a working directory within the file system, called the
home directory. The working directory is inherited by processes spawned from this shell.
Any child process of this shell can change its own working directory, but the change will
have no effect on the parent shell.
The cd command, used to change the working directory, is a shell built-in command.
Each shell has its own copy of cd. A built-in command is executed directly by the shell
as part of the shell's code; the shell does not perform the fork and exec system calls when
executing built-in commands. If another shell (script) is forked from the parent shell,
and the cd command is issued in the child shell, the directory will be changed in the
child shell. When the child exits, the parent shell will be in the same directory it was in
before the child started.

EXAMPLE l. 10

1 > cd /
2 > pwd
/
3 > bash
4 $ cd /home
5 $ pwd
/home
6 $ exit
7 > pwd
/
>

EXPLANATION

1 The > prompt is a TC shell prompt. The cd command changes the directory to /.
The cd command is built into the shell's internal code.

2 The pwd command displays the present working directory, /.

3 The bash shell is started.

4 The cd command changes the directory to /home. The dollar sign ($) is the Bash
prompt.

5 The pwd command displays the present working directory, /home.

6 The Bash shell is exited, returning to the TC shell.

7 In the TC shell, the present working directory is still /. Each shell has its own copy
of cd.

1.6.5 Variables

The shell can define two types of variables: local and environment. The variables contain
information used for customizing the shell, and information required by other processes
so that they will function properly. Local variables are private to the shell in which they
24 Chapter 1 • Introduction to UNIX/Linux Shells

are created and not passed on to any processes spawned from that shell. The built-in set
command will display local variables for C shell and TC shell, and both local and envi-
ronment variables for Bourne, Bash, and Korn shells. Environment variables, on the
other hand, are passed from parent to child process, from child to grandchild, and so on.
Some of the environment variables are inherited by the login shell from the /bin/login
program. Others are created in the user initialization files, in scripts, or at the command
line. If an environment variable is set in the child shell, it is not passed back to the par-
ent. The shell env command will display the environment variables. Example 1.11 lists
environment variables for a user running Solaris 5.9 with the Bash shell.

EXAMPLE I.II

$ env
PM=/home/e Hie
TZ=US/Pacific
PAGER=less
HOSTNAME=artemis
LD_L IBRAR Y_ PA TH=/1 ib:/usr/l ib:/usr/loca 7/7 ib:/usr/dt/l ib:/usr/openwin/l ib
MAN PA TH=/usr/loca I/man :/usr/man :/usr/openwi n/man:/opt/httpd/man
USER=e Hie
MACHTYPE=sparc-sun-so 1 ah 52.9
TCL_L I BRA R Y=/us r/loca 1/1 ib/tcl8.0
EDIT0R=vi
LOGNAME=ellie
SHLVL=1
SHELL=/bin/bash
HOSTTYPE=sparc
0STYPE=solaris2.9
HOME=/home/ellie
TERM=xterm
TK_LIBRARY=/us r/loca 1/1 ib/tk8.0
PA TH=/bin :/usr/b in:/us r/loca 1/b in:/us r/loca 1/e tc:/usr/ccs/b in :/usr/etc:/usr/ucb :/usr/
loca 1/X11:/us r/openwi n/b 1 n :/e tc:.
SSH_ TTY=/dev/pts/10
_=/bir/env

1.6.6 Redirection and Pipes

File Descriptors. All I/O, including files, pipes, and sockets, is handled by the kernel
via a mechanism called the/he descriptor. A file descriptor is a small unsigned integer,
an index into a file-descriptor table maintained by the kernel and used by the kernel to
reference open files and I/O streams. Each process inherits its own file-descriptor table
from its parent. The first three file descriptors, 0, 1, and 2, are assigned to your terminal.
File descriptor 0 is standard input (stdin), 1 is standard output (stdout), and 2 is standard
error (stderr). When you open a file, the next available descriptor is 3, and it will be
1.6 The Environment and Inheritance 25

assigned to the new file. If all the available file descriptors are in use,8 a new file cannot
be opened.

Redirection. When a file descriptor is assigned to something other than a terminal,

it is called I/O redirection. The shell performs redirection of output to a file by closing the
standard output file descriptor, 1 (the terminal), and then assigning that descriptor to
the file (see Figure 1.5). When redirecting standard input, the shell closes file descriptor
0 (the terminal) and assigns that descriptor to a file (see Figure 1.6). The Bourne, Bash,
and Korn shells handle errors by assigning a file to file descriptor 2 (see Figure 1.7). The
C and TC shells, on the other hand, go through a more complicated process to do the
same thing (see Figure 1.8).

EXAMPLE 1.12

l $ who > file

2 $ cat filel file2 » fileB
3 $ mail torn < file
4 $ find / -name file -print 2> errors
5 % ( find / -name file -print > /dev/tty) >& errors

EXPLANATION

1 The output of the who command is redirected from the terminal to file. (All shells
redirect output in this way.)

2 The output from the cat command (concatenate filel and file2) is appended to
fileB. (All shells redirect and append output in this way.)

3 The input of file is redirected to the mail program; that is, user torn will be sent the
contents of file. (All shells redirect input in this way.)

4 Any errors from the find command are redirected to errors. Output goes to the ter-
minal. (The Bourne, Bash, and Korn shells redirect errors this way.)

5 Any errors from the find command are redirected to errors. Output is sent to the
terminal. (The C and TC shells redirect errors this way. % is the C shell prompt.)

8. See the built-in commands limit and ulimit.

 Chapter 1 • Introduction to UNIX/Linux Shells

grep Tom datafile > temp

Parent Shell Child Shell

RID 125 %%
PID 1241 %\
%\
%%
%%
fork %%
%*
%%
stdin 0 keyboard \%
stdout 1 temp %%
%
stderr 2 screen
stdin 0 keyboard grep
%
%
stdout 1 screen %
% PID 1251
%
%
stderr 2 screen %
%
%%
%
wait %
\exec
%
%
%
%
%
stdin 0 keyboard

stdout, 1 temp
%
stderr \ 2 screen

Figure 1.5 Redirection of standard output.

mail torn < memo

Parent Shell Child Shell

2311 233

fork
0 memo
i screen
2 screen
stdin 0 keyboard mail
%
stdout 1 screen %
% 2331
stderr 2 screen %
%
%
wait %
\exec
%
%
%
%
stdin 0 memo

stdout. 1 screen

stderr \ 2 screen

Figure 1.6 Redirection of standard input,

1.6 The Environment and Inheritance 27

find . -name filex 2> errors

Parent Shell Child Shell

2351 V
2331 \
s
\
\
\
fork \
\
\
0 keyboard \
i screen \
\
stdin 0 keyboard 2 errors find \
stdout 1 screen \ 235|
\
stderr 2 screen \
\
x
wait exec
\
\
\
stdin 0 keyboard
stdout 1 screen

stderrN 2 errors

Figure 1.7 Redirection of standard error (Bourne, Bash, and Korn shells).

(find . -name filex > /dev/tty) >&errors

Parent Shell Child Shell Grandchild Shell

2361 237
2351

fork fork
0 keyboard
1 screen
2 errors
stdin 0 keyboard stdin 0 keyboard find

stdout 1 screen stdout 1 errors 237

stderr 2 screen stderr 2 errors

wait wait
»%exec
%
%
%%
%%
stdin 0 keyboard

stdout 1 screen
%
stderr 2 errors

Figure 1.8 Redirection of standard error (C and TC shells).

 Chapter 1 • Introduction to UNIX/Linux Shells

Pipes. A pipe is the oldest form of UNIX interprocess communication. A pipe allows
processes to communicate with each other. It is a mechanism whereby the output of one
command is sent as input to another command, with the limitation that data can only
flow in one direction, normally between a parent and a child. The shell implements
pipes by closing and opening file descriptors; however, instead of assigning the descrip-
tors to a file, it assigns them to a pipe descriptor created with the pipe system call. After
the parent creates the pipe file descriptors, it forks a child process for each command in
the pipeline. By having each process manipulate the pipe descriptors, one will write to
the pipe and the other will read from it.
To simplify things, a pipe is merely a kernel buffer from which both processes can
share data, thus eliminating the need for intermediate temporary files. The output of one
command is sent to the buffer, and when the buffer is full or the command has termi-
nated, the command on the right-hand side of the pipe reads from the buffer. The kernel
synchronizes the activities so that one process waits while the other reads from or writes
to the buffer.
The syntax of the pipe command is

who I wc

In order to accomplish the same thing without a pipe, it would take three steps:

who > tempfile

wc tempfile
rm tempfile

With the pipe, the shell sends the output of the who command as input to the wc com-
mand; that is, the command on the left-hand side of the pipe writes to the pipe and the
command on the right-hand side of the pipe reads from it (see Figure 1.9). You can tell
if a command is a writer if it normally sends output to the screen when run at the com-
mand line. The Is, ps, and date commands are examples of writers. A reader is a com-
mand that waits for input from a file or from the keyboard or from a pipe. The sort, wc,
and cat commands are examples of readers.

123| 1231 terminal screen

I$who|wc~l
who wc -1

0 stdin 0 stdin

1 stdout 1 stdout
fi
2 stderr 2 stderr

Figure 1.9 The pipe,

The Environment and Inheritance

Figures 1.10 through 1.14 illustrate the steps for implementing the pipe.

435

Parent Process Parent Process

ENV ENV

0 stdin terminal 0 stdin terminal

1 stdout terminal 1 stdout terminal

2 stderr terminal 2 stderr terminal

3 pipereader pipe
4 pipewriter pipe

Figure 1.10 The parent calls the pi pe system call for setting up a pipeline,

436 for w/io 437 for wc

Parent Process Child Process Child Process

ENV fork I ENV | fork ENV

0 stdin terminal 0 stdin terminal 0 stdin terminal

1 stdout terminal 1 stdout terminal 1 stdout terminal

2 stderr terminal 2 stderr terminal 2 stderr terminal

3 pipereader pipe 3 pipereader pipe 3 pipereader pipe

4 pipewriter pipe 4 pipewriter pipe 4 pipewriter pipe

Figure 1.11 The parent forks two child processes, one for each command in the
pipeline.

Child for who

436

First First
Child Process Child Process

ENV ENV

0 stdin terminal 0 stdin terminal After

dup
1 CLOSED 1 pipewriter pipe

2 stderr terminal 2 stderr terminal

3 pipereader pipe 3 CLOSED

4 pipewriter pipe 4 CLOSED

Figure 1.12 The first child is prepared to write to the pipe,

 Chapter 1 • Introduction to UNIX/Linux Shells

Child for wc

437 437

Second Second
Child Process Child Process

IENV I ENV |

0 CLOSED 0 pipereader p/pe After

dup
1 stdout terminal 1 stdout terminal

2 stderr terminal 2 stderr terminal

3 pipereader pipe 3 CLOSED

4 pipewriter pipe 4 CLOSED

Figure 1.13 The second child is prepared to read input from the pipe,

436 who 437 wc

Child Process Child Process

ENV ENV

Writer 0 stdin terminal 0 pipereader p/pe Reader

1 pipewriter p/pe 1 stdout terminal

2 stderr terminal 2 stderr terminal

3 CLOSED 3 CLOSED
4 CLOSED 4 CLOSED

Figure 1.14 The output of who is sent to the input of wc.

1.6.7 The Shell and Signals

A signal sends a message to a process and normally causes the process to terminate, usu-
ally due to some unexpected event such as a hangup, bus error, or power failure, or by
a program error such as illegal division by zero or an invalid memory reference. Signals
can also be sent to a process by pressing certain key sequences. For example, you can
send or deliver signals to a process by pressing the Break, Delete, Quit, or Stop keys, and
all processes sharing the terminal are affected by the signal sent. You can kill a process
with the kill command. By default, most signals terminate the program. Each process
can take an action in response to a given signal:

1. The signal can be ignored.

2. The process can be stopped.
3. The process can be continued.
4. The signal can be caught by a function defined in the program.
1.6 The Environment and Inheritance 31

The Bourne, Bash, and Korn shells allow you to handle signals coming into your pro-
gram, (see "Trapping Signals" on page 378 for programming in the Bourne shell; "Trap-
ping Signals" on page 716 for programming in the Korn shell; and "Trapping Signals"
on page 935 for programing in the Bash shell) either by ignoring the signal, by specify-
ing some action to be taken when a specified signal arrives, or by resetting the signal
A
back to its default action. The C and TC shells are limited to handling C (Ctrl-C), the
interrupt character.
Table 1.2 lists the standard signals that a process can use.

Table 1.2 Standard Signals0

Number Name Description Action

0 EXIT Shell exits Termination

1 SICHUP Terminal has disconnected Termination

2 SIGINT User presses Ctrl-C Termination

3 SIGQUIT User presses CtrlA Termination

4 SIGILL Illegal hardware instruction Program error

5 SICTRAP Produced by debugger Program error

8 SIGFPE Arithmetic error; e.g., division by zero Program error

9 SIGKILL Cannot be caught or ignored Termination

10 SIGUSR1 Application-defined signal for user

11 SIGSECV Invalid memory references Program error

12 SICUSR2 Application-defined signal for user

13 SIGPIPE Broken pipe connection Operator error

14 SICALRM Timeout Alarm sent

15 SIGTERM Termination of a program Termination

17 SIGCHLD Child process has stopped or died Ignored

18 SIGCONT Starts a stopped job; can't be handled or ignored Continue if stopped

19 SIGSTOP Stops a job; can't be handled or ignored Stops the process

20 SIGSTP Interactive stop; user presses Ctrl-Z Stops the process

21 SIGII1N Background job is trying to read from the Stops the process
controlling terminal

22 SIGTTOU Background job is trying to write to the Stops the process

controlling terminal

a. See your specific system manual. For a complete list of UNIX signals and their meanings, also go to www.cyber-
magi ci an.co. uk/technet/uni xsi gnal s. htm. For Linux signals, go to www. comptechdoc. org/os/1 i nux/programmi ng/1 i nux_pgsi gnal s. html.
32 Chapter 1 • Introduction to UNIX/Linux Shells

1.7 Executing Commands from Scripts

When the shell is used as a programming language, commands and shell control con-
structs are typed in an editor and saved to a file, called a script. The lines from the file
are read and executed one at a time by the shell. These programs are interpreted, not
compiled. Compiled programs are converted into machine language before they are exe-
cuted. Therefore, shell programs are usually slower than binary executables, but they are
easier to write and are used mainly for automating simple tasks. Shell programs can also
be written interactively at the command line, and for very simple tasks, this is the quick-
est way. However, for more complex scripting, it is easier to write scripts in an editor
(unless you are a really great typist). The following script can be executed by any shell
to output the same results. Figure 1.15 and its following explanation illustrate the cre-
ation of a script called doit and how it fits in with already existing UNIX programs/util-
ities/commands.

VI doit
cronod ♦x doat
doit

shell

who
echo pwd
wc Is cat
at date
Ipr #!/bin/csh
rsh more
csh echo hello
—x awk mv
be ( Is
rm \ kernel/2doit who
vi
w cat
pg find date
cc
cp dd
grep pwd
sh ksh
sed
lp

Figure 1.15 Creating a generic shell script,

EXPLANATION

1 Go into your favorite editor and type in a set of UNIX/Linux commands, one per
line. Indicate what shell you want by placing the pathname of the shell after the
#! on the first line. This program is being executed by the C shell and it is named
doit.

2 Save your file and turn on the execute permissions so that you can run it.

3 Execute your program just as you would any other UNIX/Linux command.
chapter

Shell Programming

QuickStart

2.1 Taking a Peek at Shell Scripts

If you read, write, or maintain programs, the following samples will give you a quick
overview of the construction and style of a shell script and introduce you to some of the
constructs and syntax found in these programs. Note: If you are not familiar with pro-
gramming, skip this chapter and go to Chapter 3. When you have finished learning how
to write scripts, you may want to return to this chapter for a quick reference to refresh
your memory
The C shell and TC shell emulate the C language syntax whereas the Bourne shell is
based on an older programming language called Algol.
The Bash and Korn shells tend to be a combination of both the Bourne and C shells,
although these shells originated from the Bourne shell.
To illustrate the differences in the shells, four sample programs are provided, one for
each shell (the C and TC shells are presented together here). Above each program, a list
of basic constructs are described for the shell being examined.

2.2 Sample Scripts: Comparing the Major Shells

At the end of each section pertaining to a specific shell, you will find a small program to
illustrate how to write a complete script. At first glance, the programs for each shell look
very similar. They are. And they all do the same thing. The main difference is the syntax.
After you have worked with these shells for some time, you will quickly adapt to the dif-
ferences and start formulating your own opinions about which shell is your favorite. A
detailed comparison of differences among the C/TC, Bourne, Bash, and Korn shells is
found in Appendix B.

33
34 Chapter 2 • Shell Programming QuickStart

Before Getting Started. You must have a good handle on UNIX/Linux commands.
If you do not know the basic commands, you cannot do much with shell programming.
The next three chapters will teach you how to use some of the major UNIX/Linux com-
mands, and Appendix A in the back of the book, gives you a list of the most common
commands (also called utilities).

The Purpose. The sample scripts provided at the end of each section send a mail mes-
sage to a list of users, inviting each of them to a party. The place and time of the party
are set in variables. The list of guests is selected from a file called guests. The existence
of the guest file is checked and if it does not exist, the program will exit. A list of foods
is stored in a word list (array). A loop is used to iterate through the list of guests. Each
user will receive an e-mail invitation telling him or her the time and place of the party
and asking him or her to bring an item from the food list. A conditional is used to check
for a user named root, and if he is on the guest list, he will be excluded; that is, he will
not be sent an e-mail invitation. The loop will continue until the guest list is empty. Each
time through the loop, a food item is removed from the list, so that each guest will be
asked to bring a different food. If, however, there are more users than foods, the list is
reset. This is handled with a standard loop control statement.

2.3 The C and TC Shell Syntax and Constructs

The basic C and TC shell syntax and constructs are listed in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 C and TC Shell Syntax and Constructs

The shbang line The "shbang" line is the very first line of the script and lets the kernel know what
shell will be interpreting the lines in the script. The shbang line consists of a hash
mark #, an exclamation point ! (called a bang), followed by the full pathname of the
shell, and any shell options. Any other lines beginning with a # are used as
comments.

Example

#!/bin/csh or #!/bin/tcsh

Comments Comments are descriptive material preceded by a # sign; they are not executable
statements. They are in effect until the end of a line and can be started anywhere on
the line.

Example

# This is a comment
2.3 The C and TC Shell Syntax and Constructs 35

Table 2.1 C and TC Shell Syntax and Constructs (continued)

Wildcards There are some characters that are evaluated by the shell in a special way. They are
called shell metacharacters or "wildcards." These characters are neither numbers
nor letters. For example, the *, ?, and [ ] are used for filename expansion. The ! is
the history character, the <,>,»,<&, and | symbols are used for standard I/O
redirection and pipes. To prevent these characters from being interpreted by the
shell they must be quoted with a backslash or quote marks.

Example

rm *; Is ??; cat file[l-3]; !!

echo "How are you?"
echo Oh boy\!

Displaying output To print output to the screen, the echo command is used. Wildcards must be escaped
with either a backslash or matching quotes.

Example

echo "Hello to you\!"

Local variables Local variables are in scope for the current shell. When a script ends or the shell
exits, they are no longer available; i.e., they go out of scope. Local variables are set
and assigned values.

Example

set variablejiame = value

set name = "Tom Jones"

Global variables Global variables are called environment variables. They are set for the currently
running shell and are available to any process spawned from that shell. They go out
of scope when the script ends or the shell where they are defined exits.

Example

setenv VARIABLE.NAME value

setenv PRINTER Shakespeare

Extracting values To extract the value from variables, a dollar sign is used,
from variables
Example

echo $variable_name
echo Sname
echo SPRINTER

Reading user input The special variable $< reads a line of input from the user and assigns it to a variable.

Example

echo "What is your name?"

set name = $<
36 Chapter 2 • Shell Programming QuickStart

Table 2.1 C and TC Shell Syntax and Constructs (continued)

Arguments Arguments can be passed to a script from the command line. Two methods can be
used to receive their values from within the script: positional parameters and the
argv array.

Example

% scriptname argl arg2 arg3 ...

Using positional parameters:

echo $1 $2 $3 argl is assigned to $1, arg2 to $2, etc.
echo S^- all the arguments

Using the argv array:

echo Sargv[ll $argv[2] $argv[3]
echo $argv[i] all the arguments
echo $#argv the number of arguments

Arrays An array is a list of words separated by whitespace. The list is enclosed in a set of
parentheses.

The built-in shift command shifts off the left-hand word in the list.

Unlike C, the individual words are accessed by index values, which start at 1 rather
than 0.

Example

set wordjist = ( wordl word2 word3 )

set names = ( Tom Dick Harry Fred )

shift names removes Tom from the list

echo $word_list[l] displays first element of the list

echo $wordJist[2] displays second element of the list
echo SwordJist or SwordJistH displays all elements of the list
echo $names[l]
echo Snames[21
echo $names[3]
echo Snames or echo SnamesH

Command To assign the output of a UNIX/Linux command to a variable, or use the output of
substitution a command in a string, the command is enclosed in backquotes.

Example

set variablejiameA command"

echo Svariable.name

set now = "date1 The command in backquotes is executed and its output
echo Snow is assigned to the variable now
echo "Today is 'date'" The output of the date command is inserted in the string
2.3 The C and TC Shell Syntax and Constructs 37

Table 2.1 C and TC Shell Syntax and Constructs (continued)

Arithmetic Variables that will hold the results of an arithmetic computation must be preceded
by an @ symbol and a space. Only integer arithmetic is provided by this shell.

Example

@ n = 5 + 5
echo $n

Operators The C and TC shells support operators for testing strings and numbers similar to
those found in the C language.

Example

Equality:

Relational:
> greater than
>= greater than or equal to
< less than
<= less than or equal to

Logical:
&& and
11 or
! not

Conditional The if construct is followed by an expression enclosed in parentheses. The

statements operators are similar to C operators. The then keyword is placed after the closing
parentheses. An if must end with an endif. An alternative to if/else if is the switch
statement.

Example

The if construct is: The if/else/else if construct is;

if ( expression ) then if ( expression ) then
block of statements block of statements
endif else if ( expression ) then
block of statements
The if/else construct is else if ( expression ) then
if ( expression ) then block of statements
block of statements else
else block of statements
block of statements endif
endif
38 Chapter 2 • Shell Programming QuickStart

Table 2.1 C and TC Shell Syntax and Constructs (continued)

Conditional The switch construct is: switch ( "Scolor" )

statements switch variablejiame case blue:
(continued) case constantl: echo Scolor is blue
statements breaksw
case constant2: case green:
statements echo Scolor is green
case constants: breaksw
statements case red:
default: case orange:
statements echo Scolor is red or orange
endsw breaksw
default:
echo "Not a valid color"
endsw

Loops There are two types of loops; the while and foreach loop.

The while loop is followed by an expression enclosed in parentheses, a block of

statements, and terminated with the end keyword. As long as the expression is true,
the looping continues.

The foreach loop is followed by a variable name and a list of words enclosed in
parentheses, a block of statements, and terminates with the end keyword. The foreach
loop iterates through a list of words, processing a word and then shifting it off, then
moving to the next word. When all words have been shifted from the list, it ends.

The loop control commands are break and continue.

Example

while ( expression )
block of statements
end

foreach variable ( word list )

block of statements
end

foreach color (red green blue)

echo Scolor
end

File testing The C shell has a built-in set of options for testing attributes of files, such as whether
it is a directory, a plain file (not a directory), a readable file, and so forth. For other
types of file tests, the UNIX test command is used. See Example 2.1 for a
demonstration.
2.3 The C and TC Shell Syntax and Constructs 39

Table 2.1 C and TC Shell Syntax and Constructs (continued)

File testing Example

(continued)
-r Current user can read the file
-w Current user can write to the file
-x Current user can execute the file
-e File exists
-o Current user owns the file
-z File is zero length
-d File is a directory
-f File is a plain file

EXAMPLE 2.1

#!/bin/csh -f
1 if ( -e file ) then
echo file exists
endif

2 if ( -d file ) then
echo file is a directory
endif

3 if ( ! -z file ) then
echo file is not of zero length
endif

4 if ( -r file && -w file ) then

echo file is readable and writable
endif

2.3.1 The C/TC Shell Script

The program in Example 2.2 is an example of a C shell/TC shell script. The program
contains many of the constructs discussed in Table 2.1.

EXAMPLE 2.2

1 #!/bin/csh -f
2 # The Party Program—Invitations to friends from the "guest" file
3 set guestfile = ~/shell/guests
4 if ( I -e "Sguestfile" ) then
echo "$guestfile:t non-existent"
exit 1
5 endif
6 setenv PLACE "Sarotini's"
40 Chapter 2 • Shell Programming QuickStart

EXAMPLE 2.2 (continued)

7 © Time = "date +%H, +1

8 set food = ( cheese crackers shrimp drinks "hot dogs" sandwiches )
9 foreach person ( ^cat Sguestfile' )
10 if ( Sperson =~ root ) continue
11 mail -v -s "Party" Sperson « FINIS # Start of here document
Hi Sperson! Please join me at SPLACE for a party!
Meet me at STime o'clock.
I'll bring the ice cream. Would you please bring $food[l] and
anything else you would like to eat? Let me know if you can
make it. Hope to see you soon.
Your pal,
el lie©"hostname' # or 'uname-n'
12 FINIS
13 shift food
14 if ( $#food == 0 ) then
set food = ( cheese crackers shrimp drinks "hot dogs"
sandwiches )
endif
15 end

echo "Bye..."

EXPLANATION

l This line lets the kernel know that you are running a C shell script. The -f option
is a fast startup. It says, "Do not execute the .cshrc file," an initialization file that
is automatically executed every time a new csh program is started.

2 This is a comment. It is ignored by the shell, but important for anyone trying to
understand what the script is doing.

3 The variable guestfile is set to the full pathname of a file called guests.

4 This line reads: If the file guests does not exist, then print to the screen "guests non-
exi stent" and exit from the script with an exit status of 1 to indicate that some-
thing went wrong in the program.

5 This marks the end of the statements based on the if condition.

6 Variables are assigned the values for the place and time. The PLACE variable is an
environment variable.

7 The Time variable is a local variable. The @ symbol tells the C shell to perform its
built-in arithmetic; that is, add 1 to the Time variable after extracting the hour from
the date command. The Time variable is spelled with an uppercase T to prevent the
C shell from confusing it with one of its reserved words, time.

8 The food array is created. It consists of a list of words separated by whitespace.

Each word is an element of the food array.
2.4 The Bourne Shell Syntax and Constructs 41

EXPLANATION (continued)

9 The foreach loop consists of a list, created by using command substitution, cat
Sguestfile". The output of the cat command will create a list of guests from a file.
For each person on the guest list, except the user root, a mail message will be cre-
ated inviting the person to a party at a given place and time, and asking him or
her to bring one of the foods on the list.

10 The condition tests to see if the value of the variable, person, matches the word
root. If it does, the continue statement causes control to go immediately back to the
top of the loop (rather than executing any further statements). The next word on
the list will be then be processed by the foreach.

11 The mail message is created in what is called a here document. All text from the user-
defined word FINIS to the final FINIS will be sent to the mail program. The foreach
loop shifts through the list of names, performing all of the instructions from the
foreach to the keyword end.

12 FINIS is a user-defined terminator that ends the here document, which consists of the
body of an e-mail message.

13 After a message has been sent, the food list is shifted to the left with the shi ft com-
mand, so that the next person on the guest list will get the next food item on the
list.

14 If the food list is empty, it will be reset to ensure that any additional guests will be
instructed to bring a food item.

15 This marks the end of the looping statements.

2.4 The Bourne Shell Syntax and Constructs

The basic Bourne shell syntax and constructs are listed in Table 2.2.

Table 2.2 Bourne Shell Syntax and Constructs

The shbang line The "shbang" line is the very first line of the script and lets the kernel know what
shell will be interpreting the lines in the script. The shbang line consists of a #!
followed by the full pathname to the shell, and can be followed by options to control
the behavior of the shell.

Example

#!/bin/sh

Comments Comments are descriptive material preceded by a # sign. They are in effect until the
end of a line and can be started anywhere on the line.

Example

# this text is not

# interpreted by the shell
42 Chapter 2 • Shell Programming QuickStart

Table 2.2 Bourne Shell Syntax and Constructs (continued)

Wildcards There are some characters that are evaluated by the shell in a special way. They are
called shell metacharacters or "wildcards." These characters are neither numbers
nor letters. For example, the *, ?, and [ ] are used for filename expansion. The c, >,
2>,», and | symbols are used for standard I/O redirection and pipes. To prevent these
characters from being interpreted by the shell they must be quoted.

Example

Filename expansion:
rm *; Is ??; cat file[l-3];

Quotes protect metacharacter:

echo "How are you?"

Displaying output To print output to the screen, the echo command is used. Wildcards must be escaped
with either a backslash or matching quotes.

Example

echo "What is your name?"

Local variables Local variables are in scope for the current shell. When a script ends, they are no
longer available; i.e., they go out of scope. Local variables are set and assigned values.

Example

variable_name=value
name="]ohn Doe"
x=5

Global variables Global variables are called environment variables. They are set for the currently
running shell and any process spawned from that shell. They go out of scope when
the script ends.

Example

VARIABLE_NAME=value
export VARIABLEJAME

PATH=/bin:/usr/bin:.
export PATH

Extracting values To extract the value from variables, a dollar sign is used.
from variables
Example

echo $variable_name
echo $name
echo $PATH
2.4 The Bourne Shell Syntax and Constructs 43

Table 2.2 Bourne Shell Syntax and Constructs (continued)

Reading user input The read command takes a line of input from the user and assigns it to a variable(s)
on the right-hand side. The read command can accept muliple variable names. Each
variable will be assigned a word.

Example

echo "What is your name?"

read name
read namel name? ...

Arguments Arguments can be passed to a script from the command line. Positional parameters
(positional are used to receive their values from within the script.
parameters)
Example

At the command line:

$ scriptname argl arg2 argB ...

In a script:
echo $1 $2 $3 Positional parameters
echo S* All the positional paramters
echo $# The number of positional parameters

Arrays The Bourne shell does support an array, but a word list can be created by using
(positional positional parameters. A list of words follows the built-in set command, and the
parameters) words are accessed by position. Up to nine positions are allowed.

The built-in shift command shifts off the first word on the left-hand side of the list.

The individual words are accessed by position values starting at 1.

Example

set wordl word2 wordB

echo $1 $2 $3 Displays wordl, word2, and wordB

set apples peaches plums

shift Shifts off apples
echo $1 Displays first element of the list
echo $2 Displays second element of the list
echo $* Displays all elements of the list

Command To assign the output of a UNIX/Linux command to a variable, or use the output of
substitution a command in a string, backquotes are used.

Example

vari able_name='command'
echo $variable_name

nowUdate'
echo $now
echo "Today is "date""
44 Chapter 2 • Shell Programming QuickStart

Table 2.2 Bourne Shell Syntax and Constructs (continued)

Arithmetic The Bourne shell does not support arithmetic. UNIX/Linux commands must be used
to perform calculations.

Example

rWexpr 5 + 5"
echo $n

Operators The Bourne shell uses the built-in test command operators to test numbers and
strings.

Example

Equality:
string
!= string
-eq number
-ne number

Logical;
-a and
-o or
! not

Relational;
-gt greater than
-ge greater than, equal to
-It less than
-le less than, equal to

Conditional The if construct is followed by a command. If an expression is to be tested, it is

statements enclosed in square brackets. The then keyword is placed after the closing
parenthesis. An if must end with a fi.

Example

The if construct is: The if/else construct is:

if command if [ expression ]
then then
block of statements block of statements
fi else
block of statements
if [ expression ] fi
then
block of statements
fi
2.4 The Bourne Shell Syntax and Constructs 45

Table 2.2 Bourne Shell Syntax and Constructs (continued)

Conditional The if/else/else if construct is: The case command construct is:
statements i f command case variable_name in
(continued) then patternl)
block of statements statements
el if command J>
then patternZ)
block of statements statements
el if command J>
then patterns)
block of statements 11
else *) default value
block of statements 1t
fi esac

if [ expression ] case "Scolor" in

then blue)
block of statements echo Scolor is blue
elif [ expression ] »»
then green)
block of statements echo Scolor is green
elif [ expression ] »»
then red|orange)
block of statements echo Scolor is red or orange
else »»
block of statements *) echo "Not a color" # default
fi esac

Loops There are three types of loops: while, until and for.

The whi 1 e loop is followed by a command or an expression enclosed in square brackets,

a do keyword, a block of statements, and terminated with the done keyword. As long as
the expression is true, the body of statements between do and done will be executed.

The until loop is just like the while loop, except the body of the loop will be executed
as long as the expression is false.

The for loop used to iterate through a list of words, processing a word and then
shifting it off, to process the next word. When all words have been shifted from the
list, it ends. The for loop is followed by a variable name, the in keyword, and a list
of words then a block of statements, and terminates with the done keyword.
The loop control commands are break and continue.

Example

while command
do
block of statements
done

while [ expression ]
do
block of statements
done
46 Chapter 2 • Shell Programming QuickStart

Table 2.2 Bourne Shell Syntax and Constructs (continued)

Loops (continued) until command for variable in wordl word2 wordB ...
do do
block of statements block of statements
done done

until [ expression ]
do
block of statements
done

File testing The Bourne shell uses the test command to evaluate conditional expressions and has
a built-in set of options for testing attributes of files, such as whether it is a directory,
a plain file (not a directory), a readable file, and so forth. See Example 2.3.

Example

-d File is a directory
-f File exists and is not a directory
-r Current user can read the file
-s File is of nonzero size
-w Current user can write to the file
-X Current user can execute the file

EXAMPLE 2.3

#!/bin/sh
1 if [ -f file ]
then
echo file exists
fi

2 if [ -d file ]
then
echo file is a directory
fi

3 if [ -s file ]
then
echo file is not of zero length
fi

4 if [ -r file -a -w file ]
then
echo file is readable and writable
fi
2.4 The Bourne Shell Syntax and Constructs 47

Table 2.2 Bourne Shell Syntax and Constructs (continued)

Functions Functions allow you to define a section of shell code and give it a name. The Bourne
shell introduced the concept of functions. The C and TC shells do not have
functions.

Example

function_name() {
block of code
}

listerQ {
echo Your present working directory is "pwd"
echo Your files are:
Is
}

2.4.1 The Bourne Shell Script

| EXAMPLE 2 4 |

1 #!/bin/sh
2 # The Party Program—Invitations to friends from the "guest" file
3 guestf i 1 e=/honie/jody/el 1 i e/shel 1 /guests
4 if [ I -f "Sguestfile" ]
5 then
n<
6 echo basename Sguestfile" non-existent"
7 exi t 1
8 fi
9 PLACE="Sarotini's"; export PLACE
10 Time=,date +%H"
Time=,expr STime + 1'
11 set cheese crackers shrimp drinks "hot dogs" sandwiches
12 for person in "cat Sguestfile"
do
13 if [ Sperson =~ root ]
then
14 continue
15 else
16 # mail -v -s "Party" Sperson «- FINIS
48 Chapter 2 • Shell Programming QuickStart

EXAMPLE 2.4 (continued)

17 cat «-FINIS
Hi ${person}! Please join me at SPLACE for a party!
Meet me at $Time o'clock.
I'll bring the ice cream. Would you please bring $1 and
anything else you would like to eat? Let me know if you
can make it. Hope to see you soon.
Your pal,
ellie@'hostname"
FINIS
18 shift
19 if [ $# -eq 0 ]
then
20 set cheese crackers shrimp drinks "hot dogs" sandwiches
fi
fi
21 done
echo "Bye..."

EXPLANATION

1 This line lets the kernel know that you are running a Bourne shell script.

2 This is a comment. It is ignored by the shell, but important for anyone trying to
understand what the script is doing.

3 The variable guestfile is set to the full pathname of a file called guests.

4 This line reads: If the file guests does not exist, then print to the screen "guests non-
existent" and exit from the script.

5 The then is usually on a line by itself, or on the same line as the if statement if it
is preceded by a semicolon.

6 The UNIX basename command removes all but the filename in a search path. Be-
cause the command is enclosed in backquotes, command substitution will be per-
formed and the output displayed by the echo command.

7 If the file does not exist, the program will exit. An exit with a value of 1 indicates
that there was a failure in the program.

8 The fi keyword marks the end of the block of if statements.

9 Variables are assigned the values for the place and time. PLACE is an environment
variable, because after it is set, it is exported.

10 The value in the Time variable is the result of command substitution; i.e., the out-
put of the date +%H command (the current hour) will be assigned to Time.

11 The list of foods to bring is assigned to special variables (positional parameters)

with the set command.

12 The for loop is entered. It loops through until each person listed in the guest file
has been processed.
2.5 The Korn Shell Constructs 49

EXPLANATION (continued)

13 If the variable person matches the name of the user root, loop control will go to the
top of the for loop and process the next person on the list. The user root will not
get an invitation.

14 The conti nue statement causes loop control to start at line 12, rather than continu-
ing to line 16.

15 The block of statements under else are executed if line 13 is not true.

16 The mail message is sent when this line is uncommented. It is a good idea to
comment this line until the program has been thoroughly debugged, otherwise
the e-mail will be sent to the same people every time the script is tested.

17 The next statement, using the cat command with the here document, allows the
script to be tested by sending output to the screen that would normally be sent
through the mail when line 7 is uncommented.

18 After a message has been sent, the food list is shifted so that the next person will
get the next food on the list. If there are more people than foods, the food list will
be reset, ensuring that each person is assigned a food.

19 The value of $# is the number of postional parameters left. If that number is 0, the
food list is empty.

20 The food list is reset.

21 The done keyword marks the end of the block of statements in the body of the for
loop.

2.5 The Korn Shell Constructs

The Korn and Bash shells are very similar. The following constructs will work for both
shells. To see all the subtle variations, see the individual chapters for these shells.

Table 2.3 Korn Shell Syntax and Constructs

The shbang line The "shbang" line is the very first line of the script and lets the kernel know what
shell will be interpreting the lines in the script. The shbang line consists of a #!
followed by the full pathname to the shell, and can be followed by options to control
the behavior of the shell.

Example

#!/bin/ksh

Comments Comments are descriptive material preceded by a # sign. They are in effect until the
end of a line and can be started anywhere on the line.

Example

# This program will test some files

50 Chapter 2 • Shell Programming QuickStart

Table 2.3 Korn Shell Syntax and Constructs (continued)

Wildcards There are some characters that are evaluated by the shell in a special way. They are
called shell metacharacters or "wildcards." These characters are neither numbers
nor letters. For example, the *, ?, and [ ] are used for filename expansion. The c, >,
2>, », and | symbols are used for standard I/O redirection and pipes. To prevent
these characters from being interpreted by the shell they must be quoted.

Example

rm *; Is ??; cat file[l-3];

echo "How are you?"

Displaying output To print output to the screen, the echo command can be used. Wildcards must be
escaped with either a backslash or matching quotes. Korn shell also provides a built-
in pri nt function to replace the echo command.

Example

echo "Who are you?"

print "How are you?"

Local variables Local variables are in scope for the current shell. When a script ends or the shell exits,
they are no longer available; i.e., they go out of scope. The typeset built-in command
can also be used to declare variables. Local variables are set and assigned values.

Example

variable_name=value
typeset variable_nanie=value
name='John Doe"
x=5

Global variables Global variables are called environment variables. They are set for the currently
running shell and any process spawned from that shell. They go out of scope when
the script ends or the shell where they were defined exits.

Example

export VARIABLEJIAME =value

export PATH=/bin:/usr/bin:.

Extracting values To extract the value from variables, a dollar sign is used,
from variables
Example

echo Svariablejiame
echo Sname
echo $PATH

Reading user input The user will be asked to enter input. The read command is used to accept a line of
input. Multiple arguments to read will cause a line to be broken into words, and each
word will be assigned to the named variable. The Korn shell allows the prompt and
read command to be combined.
2.5 The Korn Shell Constructs 51

Table 2.3 Korn Shell Syntax and Constructs (continued)

Reading user input Example

(continued)
read name?"What is your name?" The prompt is in quotes. After it is displayed, the
read command waits for user input
print -n "What is your name?"
read name
read namel name? ...

Arguments Arguments can be passed to a script from the command line. Positional parameters
are used to receive their values from within the script.

Example

At the command line:

$ scriptname argl arg2 argB ...

In a script;
echo $1 $2 $3 Positional parameters, $1 is assigned argl, $2 is assigned arg2, ...
echo $* All the positional paramters
echo $# The number of positional parameters

Arrays The Bourne shell utilizes positional parameters to create a word list. In addition to
positional parameters, the Korn shell also supports an array syntax whereby the
elements are accessed with a subscript, starting at 0. Korn shell arrays are created
with the set -A command.

Example

set apples pears peaches Positional parameters

print $1 $2 $3 $1 is apples, $2 is pears, $3 is peaches
set -A array.name wordl word? word3 ... Array
set -A fruit apples pears plums
print ${fruit[0]} Prints apples
${fruit[l]} = oranges Assign a new value

Arithmetic The Korn shell supports integer arithmetic.The typeset -i command will declare an
integer type variable. Integer arithmetic can be performed on variables declared this
way. Otherwise, the (( )) syntax (let command) is used for arithmetic operations.

Example

typeset -i variablejiame Declare integer

typeset -i num num is declared as an integer

num=5+4
print Snum Prints 9

(( n=5 + 5 )) The let command

print $n Prints 10
52 Chapter 2 • Shell Programming QuickStart

Table 2.3 Korn Shell Syntax and Constructs (continued)

Command Like the C/TC shells and the Bourne shell, the output of a UNIX/Linux command
substitution can be assigned to a variable, or used as the output of a command in a string, by
enclosing the command in backquotes. The Korn shell also provides a new syntax.
Instead of placing the command between backquotes, it is enclosed in a set of
parentheses, preceded by a dollar sign.

Example

vari able_name=1 command'

variable_name=S( command )
echo $variable_name

echo "Today is date"'

echo "Today is $(date)"

Operators The Korn shell uses the built-in test command operators to test numbers and
strings, similar to C language operators.

Example

Equality: Relational;
string, equal to > greater than
!= string, not equal to >= greater than, equal to
number, equal to < less than
!= number, not equal to <= less than, equal to

Logical:
&& and
II or
! not

Conditional The i f construct is followed by an expression enclosed in parentheses. The operators

statements are similar to C operators. The then keyword is placed after the closing parenthesis.
An if must end with a fi. The new test command [ [ ] ] is now used to allow pattern
matching in conditional expressions. The old test command [ ] is still available for
backward compatibility with the Bourne shell. The case command is an alternative
to if/else.

Example

The if construct is: — — ______

if command if (( numeric expression ))
then then
block of statements block of statements
fi fi

if [[ string expression ]]
then
block of statements
fi
2.5 The Korn Shell Constructs 53

Table 2.3 Korn Shell Syntax and Constructs (continued)

Conditional The if/else construct is: The if/else/else if construct is:

statements if command if command
(continued) then then
block of statements block of statements
else el if command
block of statements then
fi block of statements
el if command
if [[ expression ]] then
then block of statements
block of statements else
else block of statements
block of statements fi
fi
if [[ string expression ]]
if (( numeric expression )) then
then block of statements
block of statements el if [[ string expression ]]
else then
block of statements block of statements
fi el if [[ string expression ]]
then
block of statements
The case construct is: else
case variablejiame in block of statements
patternl) fi
statements
if (( numeric expression ))
pattern?) then
statements block of statements
el if (( numeric expression ))
patternB) then
block of statements
esac el if (( numeric expression ))
then
case "Scolor" in block of statements
blue) else
echo Scolor is blue block of statements
fi
green)
echo Scolor is green

red|orange)
echo Scolor is red or orange

esac
54 Chapter 2 • Shell Programming QuickStart

Table 2.3 Korn Shell Syntax and Constructs (continued)

Loops There are four types of loops: while, until, for, and select.

The while loop is followed by an expression enclosed in square brackets, a do

keyword, a block of statements, and terminated with the done keyword. As long as
the expression is true, the body of statements between do and done will be executed.

The until loop is just like the while loop, except the body of the loop will be executed
as long as the expression is false.

The for loop is used to iterate through a list of words, processing a word and then
shifting it off, to process the next word. When all words have been shifted from the
list, it ends.

The select loop is used to provide a prompt (PS3 variable) and a menu of numbered
items from which the user inputs a selection The input will be stored in the special
built-in REPLY variable. The select loop is normally used with the case command.

The loop control commands are break and continue. The break command allows
control to exit the loop before reaching the end of it; the continue command allows
control to return to the looping expression before reaching the end.

Example

while command for variable in wordjist

do do
block of statements block of statements
done done

while [[ string expression ]1 for name in Tom Dick Harry

do do
block of statements print "Hi $name"
done done

while (( numeric expression ))

do select variable in wordjist
block of statements do
done block of statements
done

until command PSB="Select an item from the menu"

do for item in blue red green
block of statements echo $item
done done

until [[ string expression ]]

Shows menu:
do
1) blue
block of statements
2) red
done
3) green
until (( numeric expression ))
do
block of statements
done
2.5 The Korn Shell Constructs 55

Table 2.3 Korn Shell Syntax and Constructs (continued)

File testing The Korn shell uses the test command to evaluate conditional expressions and has
a built-in set of options for testing attributes of files, such as whether it is a directory,
a plain file (not a directory), a readable file, and so forth. See Example 2.5.

Example

-d File is a directory
-a File exists and is not a directory
-r Current user can read the file
-s File is of nonzero size
-w Current user can write to the file
-x Current user can execute the file

EXAMPLE 2.5

#!/bin/sh
1 if [ -a file ]
then
echo file exists
fi

2 if [ -d file ]
then
echo file is a directory
fi

3 if [ -s file ]
then
echo file is not of zero length
fi

4 if [ -r file -a -w file ]
then
echo file is readable and writable
fi

Functions Functions allow you to define a section of shell code and give it a name. There are
two formats: one from the Bourne shell, and the Korn shell version that uses the
function keyword.

Example

functionjiame() {
block of code

function functionjiame {
block of code
}
56 Chapter 2 • Shell Programming QuickStart

Table 2.3 Korn Shell Syntax and Constructs (continued)

Functions function lister {

ec 1
(continued) ' o Your present working directory is ^pwd"
echo Your files are:
Is
}

2.5.1 The Korn Shell Script

EXAMPLE 2.6

1 #!/bin/ksh
2 / The Party Program—Invitations to friends from the "guest" file
3 guestfi1e=~/shel1/guests
4 if [[ ! -a "Sguestfile" ]]
then
print "${guestfile##-v/} non-existent"
exit 1
fi
5 export PLACE=,,Sarotini's"
6 (( Tiiiie=$(date +%H) + 1 ))
7 set -A foods cheese crackers shrimp drinks "hot dogs" sandwiches
8 typeset -i n=0
9 for person in $(< Sguestfile)
do
10 if [[ Sperson = root ]]
then
continue
else
# Start of here document
11 mail -v -s "Party" Sperson «- FINIS
Hi S{person}! Please join me at SPLACE for a party!
Meet me at STime o'clock.
I'll bring the ice cream. Would you please bring
${foods[$n]} and anything else you would like to eat? Let
me know if you can make it.
Hope to see you soon.
Your pal,
el lie®1hostname1
FINIS
12 n=n+l
2.5 The Korn Shell Constructs 57

EXAMPLE 2.6 (continued)

13 if (( ${#foodsH} == $n ))
then
14 set -A foods cheese crackers shrimp drinks "hot dogs"
sandwiches
fi
fi
15 done
print "Bye..."

EXPLANATION

1 This line lets the kernel know that you are running a Korn shell script.

2 This is a comment. It is ignored by the shell, but important for anyone trying to
understand what the script is doing.

3 The variable guestfile is set to the full pathname of a file called guests.

4 This line reads: If the file guests does not exist, then print to the screen "guests non-
exi stent" and exit from the script.

5 An environment variable is assigned a value and exported (made available to sub-

shells).

6 The output of the UNIX/Linux command, the hour of the day, is assigned to the
variable called Time. Variables are assigned the values for the place and time.

7 The list of foods to bring is assigned to an array called foods with the set -A com-
mand. Each item on the list can be accessed with an index starting at 0.

8 The typeset -i command is used to create an integer value.

9 For each person on the guest list a mail message will be created inviting the per-
son to a party at a given place and time, and assigning a food from the list to bring.

10 The condition tests for the user root. If the user is root, control will go back to the
top of the loop and assign the next user in the guest list to the variable, person.

11 The mail message is sent. The message body is contained in a here document.

12 The variable n is incremented by 1.

13 If the number of elements in the array is equal to the value of the variable, then
the end of the array has been reached.

14 This marks the end of the looping statements.

58 Chapter 2 • Shell Programming QuickStart

2.6 The Bash Shell Constructs

The Korn and Bash shells are very similar, but there are some differences. The Bash con-
structs are listed in Table 2.4.

Table 2.4 Bash Shell Syntax and Constructs

The shbang line The "shbang" line is the very first line of the script and lets the kernel know what
shell will be interpreting the lines in the script. The shbang line consists of a #!
followed by the full pathname to the shell, and can be followed by options to control
the behavior of the shell.

Example

#!/bin/bash

Comments Comments are descriptive material preceded by a # sign. They are in effect until the
end of a line and can be started anywhere on the line.

Example

# This is a comment

Wildcards There are some characters that are evaluated by the shell in a special way. They are
called shell metacharacters or "wildcards." These characters are neither numbers or
letters. For example, the *, ?, and [ ] are used for filename expansion. The <, >, 2>,
», and | symbols are used for standard I/O redirection and pipes. To prevent these
characters from being interpreted by the shell they must be quoted.

Example

rm *; Is ??; cat file[l-3];

echo "How are you?"

Displaying output To print output to the screen, the echo command is used. Wildcards must be escaped
with either a backslash or matching quotes.

Example

echo "How are you?"

Local variables Local variables are in scope for the current shell. When a script ends, they are no
longer available; i.e., they go out of scope. Local variables can also be defined with
the built-in declare function. Local variables are set and assigned values.

Example

variable_name=value
declare variable_name=value

name="]ohn Doe"
x=5
2.6 The Bash Shell Constructs 59

Table 2.4 Bash Shell Syntax and Constructs (continued)

Global variables Global variables are called environment variables and are created with the export
built-in command. They are set for the currently running shell and any process
spawned from that shell. They go out of scope when the script ends.

The built-in declare function with the -x option also sets an environment variable
and marks it for export.

Example

export VARIABLE_NAME=value
declare -x VARIABLE_NAME=value
export PATH=/bin:/usr/bin:.

Extracting values To extract the value from variables, a dollar sign is used,
from variables
Example

echo $variable_name
echo Sname
echo $PATH

Reading user input The user will be asked to enter input. The read command is used to accept a line of
input. Multiple arguments to read will cause a line to be broken into words, and each
word will be assigned to the named variable.

Example

echo "What is your name?"

read name
read namel name? ...

Arguments Arguments can be passed to a script from the command line. Positional parameters
are used to receive their values from within the script.

Example

At the command line:

$ scriptname argl arg2 argB ...

In a script:
echo $1 $2 $3 Positional parameters
echo $* All the positional paramters
echo $# The number of positional parameters

Arrays The Bourne shell utilizes positional parameters to create a word list. In addition to
positional parameters, the Bash shell supports an array syntax whereby the elements
are accessed with a subscript, starting at 0. Bash shell arrays are created with the
declare -a command.
60 Chapter 2 • Shell Programming QuickStart

Table 2.4 Bash Shell Syntax and Constructs (continued)

Arrays (continued) EXAMPLE

set apples pears peaches (positional parameters)

echo $1 $2 $3

declare -a array_name=(wordl word2 wordB ...)

declare -a fruit=( apples pears plums )
echo ${fruit[0]}

Command Like the C/TC shells and the Bourne shell, the output of a UNIX/Linux command
substitution can be assigned to a variable, or used as the output of a command in a string, by
enclosing the command in backquotes. The Bash shell also provides a new syntax.
Instead of placing the command between backquotes, it is enclosed in a set of
parentheses, preceded by a dollar sign.

Example

vari able_name='command1
variable_name=$( command )
echo $variable_name

echo "Today is "date'"

echo "Today is $(date)"

Arithmetic The Bash shells support integer arithmetic. The declare -i command will declare an
integer type variable.The Korn shell's typeset command can also be use for backward
compatibility. Integer arithmetic can be performed on variables declared this way.
Otherwise the (( )) (let command ) syntax is used for arithmetic operations.

Example

declare -i variable_name used for bash

typeset -i variable_name can be used to be compatible with ksh

(( n=5 + 5 ))
echo $n

Operators The Bash shell uses the built-in test command operators to test numbers and strings,
similar to C language operators.

Example

Equality: Logical:
equal to && and
!= not equal to II or
! not
Relational;
> greater than
>= greater than, equal to
< less than
<= less than, equal to
2.6 The Bash Shell Constructs 61

Table 2.4 Bash Shell Syntax and Constructs (continued)

Conditional The i f construct is followed by an expression enclosed in parentheses. The operators

statements are similar to C operators. The then keyword is placed after the closing paren. An if
must end with an endif. The new [[ ]] test command is now used to allow pattern
matching in conditional expressions. The old [ ] test command is still available for
backward compatibility with the Bourne shell. The case command is an alternative
to if/else.

Example

The if construct is: The if/else/else if construct is:

if command if command
then then
block of statements block of statements
fi el if command
then
if [[ expression ]] block of statements
then else if command
block of statements then
fi block of statements
else
if (( numeric expression )) block of statements
then fi
block of statements
else if [[ expression ]]
block of statements then
fi block of statements
el if [[ expression ]]
then
The if/else construct is: block of statements
if command else if [[ expression ]]
then then
block of statements block of statements
else else
block of statements block of statements
fi fi

if [[ expression ]] if (( numeric expression ))

then then
block of statements block of statements
else el if (( numeric expression ))
block of statements then
fi block of statements
else if ((numeric expression))
if (( numeric expression )) then
then block of statements
block of statements else
else block of statements
block of statements fi
fi
62 Chapter 2 • Shell Programming QuickStart

Table 2.4 Bash Shell Syntax and Constructs (continued)

Conditional The case construct is:

statements case variablejiame in
(continued) patternl)
statements
»>
patternZ)
statements
»>
patterns)
1»
esac

case "Scolor" in
blue)
echo Scolor is blue
»>
green)
echo Scolor is green
»>
red|orange)
echo Scolor is red or orange
»>
*) echo "Not a matach"
»»
esac

Loops There are four types of loops; while, until, for, and select.

The while loop is followed by an expression enclosed in square brackets, a do

keyword, a block of statements, and terminated with the done keyword. As long as
the expression is true, the body of statements between do and done will be executed.
The compound test operator [[ ]] is new with Bash, and the old-style test operator
[ ] can still be used to evaluate conditional expressions for backward compatibility
with the Bourne shell.

The until loop is just like the while loop, except the body of the loop will be executed
as long as the expression is false.

The for loop is used to iterate through a list of words, processing a word and then
shifting it off, to process the next word. When all words have been shifted from the
list, it ends. The for loop is followed by a variable name, the in keyword, a list of
words, then a block of statements, and terminates with the done keyword.

The select loop is used to provide a prompt and a menu of numbered items from
which the user inputs a selection. The input will be stored in the special built-in
REPLY variable. The select loop is normally used with the case command.

The loop control commands are break and continue. The break command allows
control to exit the loop before reaching the end of it, and the continue command
allows control to return to the looping expression before reaching the end.
2.6 The Bash Shell Constructs 63

Table 2.4 Bash Shell Syntax and Constructs (continued)

Loops (continued) EXAMPLE

while command until command

do do
block of statements block of statements
done done

while [[ string expression ]1 until [[ string expression ]1

do do
block of statements block of statements
done done

while (( numeric expression )) until (( numeric expression ))

do do
block of statements block of statements
done done

for variable in wordjist select variable in wordjist

do do
block of statements block of statements
done done

for color in red green blue PSB="Select an item from the menu"
do do item in blue red green Shows menu:
echo Scolor echo $itern I) blue
done done 2) red
3) green

Functions Functions allow you to define a section of shell code and give it a name. There are
two formats, one from the Bourne shell, and the Bash version that uses the function
keyword.

Example

functionjiameQ {
block of code
}

function function_name {
block of code
}

function lister {
echo Your present working directory is "pwd"
echo Your files are:
Is
}
64 Chapter 2 • Shell Programming QuickStart

2.6.1 The Bash Shell Script

EXAMPLE 2.7

#!/bin/bash
# GNU bash versions 2.x
# The Party Program—Invitations to friends from the "guest" file
guestfile=~/shell/guests
if [[ ! -e "Sguestfile" ]]
then
printf "${guestfile##v;/} non-existent"
exit 1
fi
export PLACE="Sarotini's"
(( Time=$(date +%H) + 1 ))
declare -a foods=(cheese crackers shrimp drinks ""hot dogs"' sandwiches)
declare -i n=0
10 for person in $(cat Sguestfile)
do
11 if [[ Sperson == root 11
then
continue
else
# Start of here document
12 mail -v -s "Party" Sperson «- FINIS
Hi Sperson! Please join me at SPLACE for a party!
Meet me at Slime o'clock.
I'll bring the ice cream. Would you please bring
${foods[Sn] and anything else you would like to eat?
Let me know if you can make it.
Hope to see you soon.
Your pal,
ellie@$(hostname)
FINIS
13 n=n+l
14 if (( ${#foods[*]} == $n ))
then
15 declare -a foods=(cheese crackers shrimp drinks ""hot dogs"
sandwiches)
16 n=0
fi
fi
17 done
printf "Bye...
2.6 The Bash Shell Constructs 65

EXPLANATION

l This line lets the kernel know that you are running a Bash shell script.

2 This is a comment. It is ignored by the shell, but important for anyone trying to
understand what the script is doing.

3 The variable guestfile is set to the full pathname of a file called guests.

4 This line reads: If the file guests does not exist, then print to the screen "guests non-
exi stent" and exit from the script.

5 The built-in printf function dipslays only the filename (pattern matching) and the
string "non-existent".

6 An environment (global) variable is assigned and exported.

7 A numeric expression uses the output of the UNIX/Linux date command to get the
current hour. The hour is assigned to the variable, Time.

8 A Bash array, foods, is defined (declare -a) with a list of elements.

9 An integer, n, is defined with an initial value of zero.

10 For each person on the guest list, except the user root, a mail message will be cre-
ated inviting the person to a party at a given place and time, and assigning a food
from the list to bring.

11 If the value in Sperson is root, control goes back to the top of the for loop and starts
at the next person on the list.

12 The mail message is sent. The message body is contained in a here document.

13 The integer, n, is incremented by 1.

14 If the number of foods is equal to the value of the last number in the array index,
the list is empty.

15 The array called foods is reassigned values. After a message has been sent, the food
list is shifted so that the next person will get the next food on the list. If there are
more people than foods, the food list will be reset, ensuring that each person is
assigned a food.

16 The variable n, which will serve as the array index, is reset back to zero.

17 This marks the end of the looping statements.

This page intentionally left blank
chapter

Regular Expressions

and Pattern Matching

There are hundreds of UNIX/Linux utilities available, and many of them are everyday
commands such as Is, pwd, who, and vi. Just as there are essential tools that a carpenter
uses, there are also essential tools the shell programmer needs to write meaningful and
efficient scripts. The three major utilities that will be discussed in detail here are grep,
sed, and awk. These programs are the most important UNIX/Linux tools available for
manipulating text, output from a pipe, or standard input. In fact, sed and awk are often
used as scripting languages by themselves. Before you fully appreciate the power of grep,
sed, and awk, you must have a good foundation on the use of regular expressions and reg-
ular expression metacharacters. A complete list of useful UNIX/Linux utilities is found
in Appendix A of this book.

3.1 Regular Expressions

3.1.1 Definition and Example

For users already familiar with the concept of regular expression metacharacters, this
section may be bypassed. However, this preliminary material is crucial to understanding
the variety of ways in which grep, sed, and awk are used to display and manipulate data.
What is a regular expression? A regular expression1 is just a pattern of characters
used to match the same characters in a search. In most programs, a regular expression
is enclosed in forward slashes; for example, /love/ is a regular expression delimited by
forward slashes, and the pattern love will be matched any time the same pattern is found
in the line being searched. What makes regular expressions interesting is that they can
be controlled by special metacharacters. If you are new to the idea of regular expres-
sions, let us look at an example that will help you understand what this whole concept

1. If you receive an error message that contains the string RE, there is a problem with the regular expression
you are using in the program.

67
 Chapter 3 • Regular Expressions and Pattern Matching

is about. Suppose that you are working in the vi editor on an e-mail message to your
friend. It looks like this:

% vi letter

Hi torn,
I think I failed my anatomy test yesterday. I had a terrible
stomachache. I ate too many fried green tomatoes.
Anyway, Tom, I need your help. I'd like to make the test up
tomorrow, but don't know where to begin studying. Do you
think you could help me? After work, about 7 PM, come to
my place and I'll treat you to pizza in return for your help. Thanks.
Your pal,
guy@phantom

Now, suppose you find out that Tom never took the test either, but David did. You
also notice that in the greeting, you spelled Tom with a lowercase t. So you decide to
make a global substitution to replace all occurrences of torn with David, as follows:

% vi letter

Hi David,
I think I failed my anaDavidy test yesterday. I had a terrible
sDavidachache. I think I ate too many fried green Davidatoes.
Anyway, Tom, I need your help. I'd like to make the test up
Davidorrow, but don't know where to begin studying. Do you
think you could help me? After work, about 7 PM, come to
my place and I'll treat you to pizza in return for your help. Thanks.
Your pal,
guy@phanDavid
'N/
r>j
roj
—> :l,$s/tom/David/g

The regular expression in the search string is torn. The replacement string is David. The
vi command reads "for lines 1 to the end of the file ($), substitute torn everywhere it is
found on each line and replace it with David." Hardly what you want! And one of the
occurrences of Tom was untouched because you only asked for torn, not Tom, to be replaced
with David. So what to do? Enter the regular expression metacharacters.
3.1 Regular Expressions 69

3.1.2 Regular Expression Metacharacters

Metacharacters are characters that represent something other than themselves. The two
types of metacharacters that you will learn about in this book are shell metacharacters
and regular expression metacharacters. They serve different purposes. Shell metachar-
acters are evaluated by the UNIX/Linux shell. For example, when you use the command:
rm *, the asterisk is a shell metacharacter, called a wildcard, and is evaluated by the shell
to mean "Match on all filenames in the current working directory." The shell metachar-
acters are described for the shells in their respective chapters.
Regular expression metacharacters are evaluated by the programs that perform pat-
tern matching, such as vi, grep, sed, and awk.2 They are special characters that allow you
to delimit a pattern in some way so that you can control what substitutions will take
place. There are metacharacters to anchor a word to the beginning or end of a line. There
are metacharacters that allow you to specify any characters, or some number of charac-
ters, to find both upper- and lowercase characters, digits only, and so forth. For example,
to change the name torn or Tom to David, the following vi command would have done the
job:

:1,$s/\<[Tt]om\>/David/g

This command reads, "From the first line to the last line of the file (1,$), substitute
(s) the word Tom or torn with David," and the g flag says to do this globally (i.e., make the
substitution if it occurs more than once on the same line). The regular expression meta-
characters are \< and \> for beginning and end of a word, and the pair of brackets, [Tt],
match for one of the characters enclosed within them (in this case, for either T or t).
There are five basic metacharacters that all UNIX/Linux pattern-matching utilities rec-
ognize. Table 3.1 presents regular expression metacharacters that can be used in all ver-
sions of vi, ex, grep, egrep, sed, and awk. Additional metacharacters are described for each
of the utilities where applicable.

Table 3.1 Regular Expression Metacharacters

Metacharacter Function Example What It Matches

A Beginning-of-line anchor /Alove/ Matches all lines beginning with love

$ End-of-line anchor /love$/ Matches all lines ending with love

Matches one character /I ■ -e/ Matches lines containing an 1,

followed by two characters, followed
by an e

Matches zero or more of / *love/ Matches lines with zero or more

the preceding characters spaces, followed by the pattern love

2. The Korn and Bash shells now support pattern-matching metacharacters similar to the regular expression
metacharacters described for grep, sed, and awk.
70 Chapter 3 • Regular Expressions and Pattern Matching

Table 3.1 Regular Expression Metacharacters (continued)

Metacharacter Function Example What It Matches

[ ] Matches one in the set /[Ll]ove/ Matches lines containing love or Love

[x-y] Matches one character /[A-Z]ove/ Matches letters from A through Z

within a range in the set followed by ove

[A ] Matches one character /[AA-Z]/ Matches any character not in the

not in the set range between A and Z

\ Used to escape a /love\./ Matches lines containing love,

metacharacter followed by a literal period;
Normally the period matches one of
any character

Additional Metacharacters Supported by Many UNIX/Linux

Programs That Use RE Metacharacters

\< Beginning-of-word /\<love/ Matches lines containing a word that

anchor begins with love (supported by vi and
grep)

\> End-of-word anchor /love\>/ Matches lines containing a word that

ends with love (supported by vi and
grep)

\(.A) Tags match characters to /\(love\)able \ler/ May use up to nine tags, starting with
be used later the first lag at the leftmost part of the
pattern. For example, the pattern
love is saved as tag 1, to be referenced
later as \1. In this example, the search
pattern consists of lovable followed
by lover (supported by sed, vi, and
grep)

x\{ni\} Repetition of character x, o\{5,10\} Matches if line contains between 5

or m times, and 10 consecutive occurrences of
x\{mA} or at least m times, the letter o (supported by vi and grep)
x\{ni,n\} at least m and not more
than n times3

a. Not dependable on all versions of UNIX/Linux or all pattern-matching utilities; usually works with vi and grep.

Assuming that you know how the vi editor works, each metacharacter is described in
terms of the vi search string. In the following examples, characters are highlighted to
demonstrate what vi will find in its search.
3.1 Regular Expressions 71

EXAMPLE 3.1

(A simple regular expression search)

% vi picnic

I had a lovely time on our little picnic.

Lovers were all around us. It is springtime. Oh
love, how much I adore you. Do you know
the extent of my love? Oh, by the way, I think
I lost my gloves somewhere out in that field of
clover. Did you see them? I can only hope love
is forever. I live for you. It's hard to get back in the
groove.
rss

rv
/love/

EXPLANATION

The regular expression is love. The pattern love is found by itself and as part of other
words, such as lovely, gloves, and clover.

EXAMPLE 3.2

(The beginning-of-line anchor (a))

% vi picnic

I had a lovely time on our little picnic.

Lovers were all around us. It is springtime. Oh
love, how much I adore you. Do you know
the extent of my love? Oh, by the way, I think
I lost my gloves somewhere out in that field of
clover. Did you see them? I can only hope love
is forever. I live for you. It's hard to get back in the
groove.

oj
/Alove/

EXPLANATION

The caret (A) is called the beginning-of-line anchor. Vi will find only those lines where
the regular expression love is matched at the beginning of the line, i.e., love is the first
set of characters on the line; it cannot be preceded by even one space.
72 Chapter 3 • Regular Expressions and Pattern Matching

EXAMPLE 3.3

(The end-of-line anchor ($))

% vi picnic

I had a lovely time on our little picnic.

Lovers were all around us. It is springtime. Oh
love, how much I adore you. Do you know
the extent of my love? Oh, by the way, I think
I lost my gloves somewhere out in that field of
clover. Did you see them? I can only hope love
is forever. I live for you. It's hard to get back in the
groove.

/loveS/

EXPLANATION

The dollar sign ($) is called the end-of-line anchor. Vi will find only those lines where
the regular expression love is matched at the end of the line, i.e., love is the last set of
characters on the line and is directly followed by a newline.

EXAMPLE 3.4

(Any Single Character (.))

% vi picnic

I had a lovely time on our little picnic.

Lovers were all around us. It is springtime. Oh
love, how much I adore you. Do you know
the extent of my love? Oh, by the way, I think
I lost my gloves somewhere out in that field of
clover. Did you see them? I can only hope love
is forever. I live for you. It's hard to get back in the
groove.
fsi
rsj

/l.ve/

EXPLANATION

The dot (.) matches any one character, except the newline. Vi will find those lines
where the regular expression consists of an 1, followed by any single character, fol-
lowed by a v and an e. It finds combinations of love and live.
3.1 Regular Expressions 73

EXAMPLE 3.5

(Zero or more of the preceding character (*))

% vi picnic

I had a lovely time on our little picnic.

Lovers were all around us. It is springtime. Oh
love, how much I adore you. Do you know
the extent of my love? Oh, by the way, I think
I lost my gloves somewhere out in that field of
clover. Did you see them? I can only hope love
is forever. I live for you. It's hard to get back in the
groove.
rsj
fSJ
rsj
/o^vve/

EXPLANATION

The asterisk (*) matches zero or more of the preceding character3 It is as though the
asterisk were glued to the character directly before it and controls only that character.
In this case, the asterisk is glued to the letter o. It matches for only the letter o and as
many consecutive occurrences of the letter o as there are in the pattern, even no oc-
currences of o at all. Vi searches for zero or more occurrences of the letter o followed
by a v and an e, finding love, loooove, Ive, and so forth.

a. Do not confuse this metacharacter with the shell wildcard (*). They are totally different. The shell asterisk matches for
zero or more of any character, whereas the regular expression asterisk matches for zero or more of the preceding character.

EXAMPLE 3.6

(A set of characters ([]))

% vi picnic

I had a lovely time on our little picnic.

Lovers were all around us. It is springtime. Oh
love, how much I adore you. Do you know
the extent of my love? Oh, by the way, I think
I lost my gloves somewhere out in that field of
clover. Did you see them? I can only hope love
is forever. I live for you. It's hard to get back in the
groove.
/S/
rsj

/[LI love/
74 Chapter 3 • Regular Expressions and Pattern Matching

EXPLANATION

The square brackets match for one of a set of characters. Vi will search for the regular
expression containing either an uppercase or lowercase 1 followed by an o, v, and e.

EXAMPLE 3.7

(A range of characters ( [ - ] ))
% vi picnic

I had a lovely time on our little picnic.

Lovers were all around us. It is springtime. Oh
love, how much I adore you. Do you know
the extent of my love? Oh, by the way, I think
I lost my gloves somewhere out in that field of
clover. Did you see them? I can only hope love
is forever. I live for you. It's hard to get back in the
groove.

/ove[a-z]/

EXPLANATION

The dash between characters enclosed in square brackets matches one character in a
range of characters. Vi will search for the regular expression containing an o, v, and e,
followed by any character in the ASCII range between a and z. Since this is an ASCII
range, the range cannot be represented as [z-a].

EXAMPLE 3.8

(Not one of the characters in the set ([a]))

% vi picnic

I had a lovely time on our little picnic.

Lovers were all around us. It is springtime. Oh
love, how much I adore you. Do you know
the extent of my love? Oh, by the way, I think
I lost my gloves somewhere out in that field of
clover. Did you see them? I can only hope love
is forever. I live for you. It's hard to get back in the
groove.
rsj
'VI
iv
/ove[Aa-zA-Z0-9]/
3.2 Combining Regular Expression Metacharacters 75

EXPLANATION

The caret inside square brackets is a negation metacharacter. Vi will search for the reg-
ular expression containing an o, v, and e, followed by any character not in the ASCII
range between a and z, not in the range between A and Z, and not a digit between 0 and
9. For example, it will find ove followed by a comma, a space, a period, and so on, be-
cause those characters are not in the set.

3.2 Combining Regular Expression Metacharacters

Now that basic regular expression metacharacters have been explained, they can be com-
bined into more complex expressions. Each of the regular expression examples enclosed
in forward slashes is the search string and is matched against each line in the text file.

EXAMPLE 3.9

Note: The line numbers are NOT part of the text file. The vertical bars mark the left and
right margins.

1 Christian Scott lives here and will put on a Christmas party.

2 There are around 30 to 35 people invited.
3 They are:
4 Tom
5 Dan
6 Rhonda Savage
7 Nicky and Kimberly.
8 Steve, Suzanne, Ginger and Larry.

EXPLANATION

a /A[A-Z]. .$/ Will find all lines beginning with a capital letter, followed by two
of any character, followed by a newline. Will find Dan on line 5.

b /A[A-Z] [a-z ]*3[0-5]/ Will find all lines beginning with an uppercase letter, fol-
lowed by zero or more lowercase letters or spaces, followed by the number 3 and
another number between 0 and 5. Will find line 2.

c /[a-z] A •/ Will find lines containing zero or more lowercase letters, followed
by a literal period. Will find lines 1, 2, 7, and 8.

d /A *[A-Z] [a-z] [a-z] $/ Will find a line that begins with zero or more spaces (tabs
do not count as spaces), followed by an uppercase letter, two lowercase letters,
and a newline. Will find Tom on line 4 and Dan on line 5.

e /A[A-Za-z]*[Ai ] [A-Za-z]*$/ Will find a line that begins with zero or more upper-
case and/or lowercase letters, followed by a noncomma, followed by zero or more
upper- or lowercase letters and a newline. Will find line 5.
76 Chapter 3 • Regular Expressions and Pattern Matching

3.2.1 More Regular Expression Metacharacters

The following metacharacters are not necessarily portable across all utilities using regu-
lar expressions, but can be used in the vi editor and some versions of sed and grep. There
is an extended set of metacharacters available with eg rep and awk, which will be discussed
in later sections.

EXAMPLE 3.10

(Beginning-of-word (\<) and end-of-word (\>) anchors)

% vi textfile

Unusual occurrences happened at the fair.

—> Patty won fourth place in the 50 yard dash square and fair.
Occurrences like this are rare.
The winning ticket is 55222.
The ticket I got is 54333 and Dee got 55544.
Guy fell down while running around the south bend in his last event.

rss
rsj
/\<fourth\>/

EXPLANATION

Will find the word fourth on each line. The \< is the beginning-of-word anchor and the
\ > is the end-of-word anchor. A word can be separated by spaces, end in punctuation,
start at the beginning of a line, end at the end of a line, and so forth.

EXAMPLE 3.11

% vi textfile

Unusual occurrences happened at the fair.

—> Patty won fourth place in the 50 yard dash square and fair.
Occurrences like this are rare.
The winning ticket is 55222.
The ticket I got is 54333 and Dee got 55544.
—> Guy fell down while running around the south bend in his last event.
<•*
r*j
rsj
/\<f.*th\>/

EXPLANATION

Will find any word (or group of words) beginning with an f, followed by zero or more
of any character (.*), and a string ending with th.
3.2 Combining Regular Expression Metacharacters 77

EXAMPLE 3.12

(Remembered patterns \( and \))

% vi textfile (Before substitution)

Unusual occurences happened at the fair.

Patty won fourth place in the 50 yard dash square and fair.
Occurences like this are rare.
The winning ticket is 55222.
The ticket I got is 54333 and Dee got 55544.
Guy fell down while running around the south bend in his last event.
rsj
rv
r*j
1 :l,$s/\([0o]ccur\)ence/\lrence/

% vi textfile (After substitution)

—> Unusual occurrences happened at the fair.

Patty won fourth place in the 50 yard dash square and fair.
—> Occurrences like this are rare.
The winning ticket is 55222.
The ticket I got is 54333 and Dee got 55544.
Guy fell down while running around the south bend in his last event.
rs/

rv

EXPLANATION

1 The editor searches for the entire string occurence (intentionally misspelled) or
Occurrence and if found, the pattern portion enclosed in parentheses is tagged
(i.e., either occur or Occur is tagged). Because this is the first pattern tagged, it is
called tag 1. The pattern is stored in a memory register called register 1. On the
replacement side, the contents of the register are replaced for \1 and the rest of
the word, rence, is appended to it. We started with occurence and ended up with
occurrence. See Figure 3.1.
78 Chapter 3 • Regular Expressions and Pattern Matching

Tag 1

1/$/\([Oo]ccur\)ence/\lrence/g

Register 1
get what is in
register 1 and
Occur
put it here

Next time, if the pattern occurence is

found, register will look like this:

Register 1

occur

Figure 3.1 Remembered patterns and tags.

EXAMPLE 3.13

% vi textfile (Before substitution)

Unusual occurrences happened at the fair.

Patty won fourth place in the 50 yard dash square and fair.
Occurrences like this are rare.
The winning ticket is 55222.
The ticket I got is 54333 and Dee got 55544.
Guy fell down while running around the south bend in his last event,

1 :s/\(square\) and \(fair\)/\2 and \1/

% vi textfile (After substitution)

Unusual occurrences happened at the fair.

—> Patty won fourth place in the 50 yard dash fair and square.
Occurrences like this are rare.
The winning ticket is 55222.
The ticket I got is 54333 and Dee got 55544.
Guy fell down while running around the south bend in his last event.
3.2 Combining Regular Expression Metacharacters 79

EXPLANATION

1 The editor searches for the regular expression square and fai r, and tags square as 1
and fai r as 2. On the replacement side, the contents of register 2 are substituted
for \2 and the contents of register 1 are substituted for \1. See Figure 3.2.

Tag 1 Tag 2

s/\{fair\) and \(square\)/\2 and \1/

Register 1 Register 2

fair square

Figure 3.2 Using more than one tag,

EXAMPLE 3.14

(Repetition of patterns ( \{n\} ))

% vi textfile

Unusual occurrences happened at the fair.

Patty won fourth place in the 50 yard dash square and fair.
Occurrences like this are rare.
—> The winning ticket is 55222.
The ticket I got is 54333 and Dee got 55544.
Guy fell down while running around the south bend in his last
event.
r*j
r*j
rsj
rsj
1 /5\{2\}2\{3\}\./

EXPLANATION

1 Searches for lines containing two occurrences of the number 5, followed by three
occurrences of the number 2, followed by a literal period.
This page intentionally left blank
chapter

BE

The grep Family & \<\»

★ <) i] ★

The grep family consists of the commands grep, egrep, and fgrep. The grep command glo-
bally searches for regular expressions in files and prints all lines that contain the expres-
sion. The egrep and fgrep commands are simply variants of grep. The egrep command is
an extended grep, supporting more regular expression metacharacters. The fgrep com-
mand, called/ixed grep, and sometimes/ast grep, treats all characters as literals; that is,
regular expression metacharacters aren't special—they match themselves. The Free Soft-
ware Foundation provides a free version of grep, called GNU grep. These versions of grep
are the ones used on Linux systems, and can be found in /usr/xpg4/bin on Sun's Solaris
OS. The GNU version of grep has extended the basic regular expression metacharacter
set, added POSIX compliancy, and included a number of new command-line options.
They also provide a recursive grep called rgrep for descending entire directory trees.

4.1 The grep Command

4.1.1 The Meaning of grep

The name grep can be traced back to the ex editor. If you invoked that editor and wanted
to search for a string, you would type at the ex prompt:

: /pattern/p

The first line containing the string pattern would be printed as "p" by the print com-
mand. If you wanted all the lines that contained pattern to be printed, you would type:

: g/pattern/p

81
82 Chapter 4 • The grep Family

When g precedes pattern, it means "all lines in the file," or "perform a global substi-
tution."
Because the search pattern is called a regular expression, we can substitute RE for pattern
and the command reads

: g/RE/p

And there you have it; the meaning of grep and the origin of its name. It means "glo-
bally search for the regular expression (RE) and print out the line." The nice part of using
grep is that you do not have to invoke an editor to perform a search, and you do not need
to enclose the regular expression in forward slashes. It is much faster than using ex or vi.

4.1.2 How grep Works

The grep command searches for a pattern of characters in a file or multiple files. If the
pattern contains whitespace, it must be quoted. The pattern is either a quoted string or
a single word,1 and all other words following it are treated as filenames. Grep sends its
output to the screen and does not change or affect the input file in any way.

FORMAT

grep word filename filename

EXAMPLE 4.1

grep Tom /etc/passwd

EXPLANATION

Grep will search for the pattern Tom in a file called /etc/passwd. If successful, the line from
the file will appear on the screen; if the pattern is not found, there will be no output
at all; and if the file is not a legitimate file, an error will be sent to the screen. If the
pattern is found, grep returns an exit status of 0, indicating success; if the pattern is not
found, the exit status returned is 1; and if the file is not found, the exit status is 2.
The grep program can get its input from a standard input or a pipe, as well as from
files. If you forget to name a file, grep will assume it is getting input from standard in-
put, the keyboard, and will stop until you type something. If coming from a pipe, the
output of a command will be piped as input to the grep command, and if a desired pat-
tern is matched, grep will print the output to the screen.

1. A word is also called a token.

4.1 The grep Command 83

EXAMPLE 4.2

ps -ef 1 grep root

EXPLANATION

The output of the ps command (ps -ef displays all processes running on this system)
is sent to grep and all lines containing root are printed.

4.1.3 Metacharacters

A metacharacter is a character that represents something other than itself. A and $ are
examples of metacharacters.
The grep command supports a number of regular expression metacharacters (see
Table 4.1) to help further define the search pattern. It also provides a number of options
(see Table 4.2) to modify the way it does its search or displays lines. For example, you
can provide options to turn off case sensitivity, display line numbers, display errors only,
and so on.

EXAMPLE 4.3

grep -n 'Ajack:' /etc/passwd

EXPLANATION

Grep searches the /etc/passwd file for jack; if jack is at the beginning of a line, grep prints
out the number of the line on which jack was found and where in the line jack was
found.

Table 4.1 grep's Regular Expression Metacharacters

Metacharacter Function Example What It Matches

Beginning-of-line 'Alove' Matches all lines beginning with love.

anchor

End-of-line anchor •loveJ' Matches all lines ending with love.

Matches one character 'T.e1 Matches lines containing an 1, followed

by two characters, followed by an e.

1 Alove'
Matches zero or more Matches lines with zero or more spaces,
characters preceding the followed by the pattern love.
asterisk

[ 1 Matches one character in '[Ll]ove' Matches lines containing love or Love.

the set
84 Chapter 4 • The grep Family

Table 4.1 grep's Regular Expression Metacharacters (continued)

Metacharacter Function Example What It Matches

[A] Matches one character '[AA-Klove' Matches lines not containing a character
not in the set in the range A through K, followed by ove.

\< Beginning-of-word Vlove' Matches lines containing a word that

anchor begins with love.

\> End-of-word anchor 'loveV Matches lines containing a word that

ends with love.

\(..\) Tags matched characters 'VloveOing' Tags marked portion in a register to be

remembered later as number 1. To
reference later, use \1 to repeat the
pattern. May use up to nine tags, starting
with the first tag at the leftmost part of
the pattern. For example, the pattern
love is saved in register 1 to be referenced
later as \1.

Repetition of character x:
x\{m\} m times, wsvr Matches if line has 5 occurences of o,
x\{iti,\} at least m times, or 'oMSA}' at least 5 occurences of o,
x\{m,n\}a between m and n times 'oXfS.W or between 5 and 10 occurrences of o.

a. The \{ \} metacharacters are not supported on all versions of UNIX or all pattern-matching utilities; they usually
work with vi and grep.

Table 4.2 grep's Options

Option What It Does

-b Precedes each line by the block number on which it was found. This is sometimes useful in
locating disk block numbers by context.

-c Displays a count of matching lines rather than displaying the lines that match.

-h Does not display filenames.

-i Ignores the case of letters in comparisons (i.e., upper- and lowercase are considered identical).

-1 Lists only the names of files with matching lines (once), separated by newline characters,

-n Precedes each line by its relative line number in the file.

-s Works silently, that is, displays nothing except error messages. This is useful for checking the
exit status.

-v Inverts the search to display only lines that do not match.

-w Searches for the expression as a word, as if surrounded by \< and \>. This applies to grep only
(Not all versions of grep support this feature; e.g., SCO UNIX does not.)
4.1 The grep Command 85

4.1.4 grep and Exit Status

The grep command is very useful in shell scripts, because it always returns an exit status
to indicate whether it was able to locate the pattern or the file you were looking for. If
the pattern is found, grep returns an exit status of 0, indicating success; if grep cannot
find the pattern, it returns 1 as its exit status; and if the file cannot be found, grep returns
an exit status of 2. (Other UNIX utilities that search for patterns, such as sed and awk, do
not use the exit status to indicate the success or failure of locating a pattern; they report
failure only if there is a syntax error in a command.)
In the following example, John is not found in the /etc/passwd file.

EXAMPLE 4.4

1 % grep 'johiT /etc/passwd # john is not in the passwd file

2 % echo Sstatus (csh)
1

or

2 $ echo $? (sh, ksh)

1

EXPLANATION

1 Grep searches for john in the /etc/passwd file, and if successful, grep exits with a sta-
tus of 0. If john is not found in the file, grep exits with 1. If the file is not found, an
exit status of 2 is returned.

2 The C shell variable, status, and the Bourne/Korn shell variable, ?, are assigned
the exit status of the last command that was executed.
86 Chapter 4 • The grep Family

4.2 grep Examples with Regular Expressions

The following datafile, used for the examples in this section, is repeated periodically for
your convenience.

% cat datafile
northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Gray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia He men way 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 4.5

% grep NW datafile
northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34

EXPLANATION

Prints all lines containing the regular expression NIW in a file called datafile.

EXAMPLE 4.6

% grep NW d*
datafile: northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
db: northwest NW Joel Craig 30 40 5 123

EXPLANATION

Prints all lines containing the regular expression NW in all files starting with a d. The
shell expands dv; to all files that begin with a d. In this case, the filenames retrieved are
db and datafile.

EXAMPLE 4.7

% grep 'An' datafile

northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9

EXPLANATION

Prints all lines beginning with an n. The caret (a) is the beginning-of-line anchor.
4.2 grep Examples with Regular Expressions 87

EXAMPLE 4.8

% grep '4$' datafile

northwest N\fJ Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34

EXPLANATION

Prints all lines ending with a 4. The dollar sign ($) is the end-of-line anchor.

EXAMPLE 4.9

% grep IB Savage datafile

grep: Savage: No such file or directory
datafile: eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20

EXPLANATION

Because the first argument is the pattern and all of the remaining arguments are file-
names, grep will search for TB in a file called Savage and a file called datafile. To search
for TB Savage, see the next example.

EXAMPLE 4.10

% grep 'TB Savage' datafile

eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20

EXPLANATION

Prints all lines containing the pattern TB Savage. Without quotes (in this example, ei-
ther single or double quotes will do), the whitespace between TB and Savage would
cause grep to search for TB in a file called Savage and a file called datafile, as in the pre-
vious example.

EXAMPLE 4.11

% grep '5\..' datafile

western ME Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXPLANATION

Prints a line containing the number 5, followed by a literal period and any single char-
acter. The "dot" metacharacter represents a single character, unless it is escaped with
a backslash. When escaped, the character is no longer a special metacharacter, but rep-
resents itself, a literal period.
88 Chapter 4 • The grep Family

% cat datafile
northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Gray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia He men way 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 4.12

% grep 'VS' datafile

north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9

EXPLANATION

Prints any line containing the expression .5.

EXAMPLE 4.13

% grep 'A[we]' datafile

western WE Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20

EXPLANATION

Prints lines beginning with either a w or an e. The caret (A) is the beginning-of-line an-
chor, and either one of the characters in the brackets will be matched.

EXAMPLE 4.14

% grep '[A0-9]' datafile

northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13
4.2 grep Examples with Regular Expressions 89

EXPLANATION

Prints all lines containing one nondigit. Because all lines have at least one nondigit, all
lines are printed. (See the -v option in Table 4.2 on page 84.)

EXAMPLE 4.15

% grep '[A-Z][A-Z] [A-Z]' datafile

eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13

EXPLANATION

Prints all lines containing two capital letters followed by a space and a capital letter;
e.g., TB Savage and AM Main.

EXAMPLE 4.16

% grep 'ss* ' datafile

northwest A¥ Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
southwest S\fJ Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18

EXPLANATION

Prints all lines containing an s followed by zero or more consecutive occurrences of

the letter s and a space. Finds Charles and Dalsass.

EXAMPLE 4.17

% grep '[a-zlMIA}' datafile

northwest m Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
southwest SlfJ Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13

EXPLANATION

Prints all lines where there are at least nine consecutive lowercase letters, for example,
northwest, southwest, southeast, and northeast.

EXAMPLE 4.18

% grep 'XOXJV [0-9]. A1 *\1' datafile

northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34

EXPLANATION

Prints the line if it contains a 3 followed by a period and another number, followed by
any number of characters (.* ), another 3 (originally tagged), any number of tabs, and
another 3. Because the 3 was enclosed in parentheses, \(3\), it can be later referenced
with \1. \1 means that this was the first expression to be tagged with the \( \) pair.
90 Chapter 4 • The grep Family

% cat datafile
northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Gray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia He men way 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 4.19

% grep 'Vnorth' datafile

northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9

EXPLANATION

Prints all lines containing a word starting with north. The \< is the beginning-of-word
anchor.

EXAMPLE 4.20

% grep 'VcnorthV datafile

north NO Nlargot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9

EXPLANATION

Prints the line if it contains the word north. The \< is the beginning-of-word anchor,
and the \> is the end-of-word anchor.

EXAMPLE 4.21

% grep 'Vda-z]datafile
northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXPLANATION

Prints all lines containing a word starting with a lowercase letter, followed by any
number of characters, and a word ending in n. Watch the .* symbol. It means any char-
acter, including whitespace.
4.3 grep with Options 91

4.3 grep with Options

The grep command has a number of options that control its behavior. Not all versions of
UNIX support exactly the same options, so be sure to check your man pages for a com-
plete list.
The following datafile, used for the examples in this section, is repeated periodically
for your convenience.

% cat datafile
northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Gray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 4.22

% grep -n 'Asouth' datafile

3-.southwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
4:southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
5:southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17

EXPLANATION

The -n option precedes each line with the number of the line where the pattern was
found, followed by the line.

EXAMPLE 4.23

% grep -i 'pat' datafile

southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17

EXPLANATION

The -i option turns off case sensitivity. It does not matter if the expression pat contains
any combination of upper- or lowercase letters.
92 Chapter 4 • The grep Family

% cat datafile
northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Gray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest Sl/V Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia He men way 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 4.24

% grep -v 'Suan Chin' datafile

northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXPLANATION

Here, the -v option prints all lines not containing the pattern Suan Chin. This option is
used when deleting a specific entry from the input file. To really remove the entry, you
would redirect the output of grep to a temporary file, and then change the name of the
temporary file back to the name of the original file as shown here;

grep -v 'Suan Chin' datafile > temp

mv temp datafile

Remember that you must use a temporary file when redirecting the output from data-
file. If you redirect from datafile to datafile, the shell will "clobber" the datafile. (See
"Redirection" on page 25.)

EXAMPLE 4.25

% grep -1 'SB' *
datafile
datebook

EXPLANATION

The -1 option causes grep to print out only the filenames where the pattern is found
instead of the line of text.
4.3 grep with Options 93

EXAMPLE 4.26

% grep -c 'west' datafile

3

EXPLANATION

The -c option causes grep to print the number of lines where the pattern was found.
This does not mean the number of occurrences of the pattern. For example, if west is
found three times on a line, it only counts the line once.

EXAMPLE 4.27

% grep -w 'north' datafile

north NO Margot Meber 4.5 .89 5 9

EXPLANATION

The -w option causes grep to find the pattern only if it is a word,a not part of a word.
Only the line containing the word north is printed, not northwest, northeast, etc.

a. A word is a sequence of alphanumeric characters starting at the beginning of a line or preceded by whitespace and
ending in whitespace, punctuation, or a newline.

EXAMPLE 4.28

% echo $L0GNAME
lewis

% grep -i "$L0GNAMEM datafile

southwest SM Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18

EXPLANATION

The value of the shell ENV variable, LOCNAME, is printed. It contains the user's login name.
If the variable is enclosed in double quotes, it will still be expanded by the shell, and
in case there is more than one word assigned to the variable, whitespace is shielded
from shell interpretation. If single quotes are used, variable substitution does not take
place; that is, SLOCNAME is printed.
94 Chapter 4 • The grep Family

4.4 grep with Pipes

Instead of taking its input from a file, grep often gets its input from a pipe.

EXAMPLE 4.29

% Is -1
drwxrwxrwx 2 ellie 2441 Jan 6 12:34 dirl
-rw-r—r— 1 ellie 1538 Jan 2 15:50 filel
-rw-r—r— 1 ellie 1539 Jan 3 13:36 file2
drwxrwxrwx 2 ellie 2341 Jan 6 12:34 grades

% Is -1 1 grep 'Ad'
drwxrwxrwx 2 ellie 2441 Jan 6 12:34 dirl
drwxrwxrwx 2 ellie 2341 Jan 6 12:34 grades

EXPLANATION

The output of the Is command is piped to grep. All lines of output that begin with a d
are printed; that is, all directories are printed.

4.4.1 grep Review

Table 4.3 contains examples of grep commands and what they do.

Table 4.3 Review of grep

Command What It Does

grep '\<Toffl\>' file Prints lines containing the word Tom.

grep 'Tom Savage' file Prints lines containing Tom Savage.

grep 'ATommy' file Prints lines if Tommy is at the beginning of the line.

grep '\.bak$' file Prints lines ending in .bak. Single quotes protect the dollar sign
($) from interpretation.

grep '[Pplyramid' * Prints lines from all files containing pyramid or Pyramid in the
current working directory.

grep '[A-Z]' file Prints lines containing at least one capital letter.

grep '[0-9]' file Prints lines containing at least one number.

grep '[A-Z]...[0-9]' file Prints lines containing five-character patterns starting with a
capital letter and ending with a number.

grep -w '[tT]est' files Prints lines with the word Test and/or test.
4.5 egrep (Extended grep) 95

Table 4.3 Review of grep (continued)

Command What It Does

grep -s 'Mark Todd' file Finds lines containing Mark Todd, but does not print the lines.
Can be used when checking grep's exit status.

grep -v 'Mary' file Prints all lines not containing Mary.

grep -i 'sam' file Prints all lines containing sam, regardless of case (e.g., SAM, sam,
SaM, sAm).

grep -1 'Dear Boss' * Lists all filenames containing Dear Boss.

grep-n 'Tom' file Precedes matching lines with line numbers.

grep "Sname" file Expands the value of variable name and prints lines containing
that value. Must use double quotes.

grep '$5' file Prints lines containing literal $5. Must use single quotes.

ps -ef| grep 'a *userr Pipes output of ps-ef to grep, searching for userl at the beginning
of a line, even if it is preceded by zero or more spaces.

4.5 egrep (Extended grep)

The main advantage of using egrep is that additional regular expression metacharacters
(see Table 4.4) have been added to the set provided by grep. The \( \) and \{ \}, however,
are not allowed. (See GNU grep -E if using Linux.)

Table 4.4 eg rep's Regular Expression Metacharacters

Metacharacter Function Example What It Matches

A Beginning-of-line 'Alove' Matches all lines beginning with

anchor love.

$ End-of-line anchor 'lover Matches all lines ending with love.

• Matches one character '1..e' Matches lines containing an 1,

followed by two characters,
followed by an e.

* Matches zero or more of ' *love' Matches lines with zero or more
the characters preceding spaces followed by the pattern
the asterisk love.

[ 1 Matches one character '[11]ove' Matches lines containing love or

in the set Love.
96 Chapter 4 • The grep Family

Table 4.4 eg rep's Regular Expression Metacharacters (continued)

Metacharacter Function Example What It Matches

[A ] Matches one character '[M-KM-Zjove' Matches lines not containing A

not in the set through K or M through Z, followed
by ove.

New with egrep

1
+ Matches one or more of [a-z]+ove' Matches one or more lowercase
the characters preceding letters, followed by ove. Would
the + sign find move, approve, love, behoove, etc.

? Matches zero or one of 'loZve' Matches for an 1 followed by

the preceding either one or not any occurrences
characters of the letter o. Would find love or
Ive.

a|b Matches either a or b 'love|hate' Matches for either expression,

love or hate.

0 Groups characters 'love(ablelly)' Matches for lovable or lovely.

'(ov)+' Matches for one or more
occurrences of ov.

4.5.1 egrep Examples

The following examples illustrate only the way the new extended set of regular expres-
sion metacharacters is used with egrep. The grep examples presented earlier illustrate the
use of the standard metacharacters, which behave the same way with egrep. Egrep also
uses the same options at the command line as grep.
The following datafile is used in the examples in this section.

% cat datafile
northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Gray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13
4.5 egrep (Extended grep) 97

EXAMPLE 4.30

% egrep 'NWIEA' datafile

northwest N\fJ Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20

EXPLANATION

Prints the line if it contains either the expression fMl or the expression EA.

EXAMPLE 4.31

% egrep '3+' datafile

northwest NM Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXPLANATION

Prints all lines containing one or more occurrences of the number B; e.g., 3, 33, 33333333.

EXAMPLE 4.32

% egrep '2\.?[0-9]' datafile

western WE Sharon Gray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Lewis Daisass 2.7 .8 2 18
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20

EXPLANATION

Prints all lines containing a 2, followed by one period or no period at all, followed by
a number; e.g., matches 2.5, 25, 29, 2.3, etc.

EXAMPLE 4.33

,
% egrep (no)+, datafile
northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9

EXPLANATION

Prints lines containing one or more consecutive occurrences of the pattern group no;
e.g., no, nono, nononononono, etc.
98 Chapter 4 • The grep Family

EXAMPLE 4.34

% egrep 'SChlu)' datafile

western ME Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15

EXPLANATION

Prints all lines containing S, followed by either h or u; e.g., Sharon or Suan.

EXAMPLE 4.35

% egrep 'Shju' datafile

western ME Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southwest SM Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17

EXPLANATION

Prints all lines containing the expression Sh or u; e.g., Sharon or southern.

4.5.2 egrep Review

Table 4.5 contains examples of egrep commands and what they do.

Table 4.5 Review of egrep

Command What It Does

egrep 'a +' file Prints lines beginning with one or more spaces.

egrep 'a *' file Prints lines beginning with zero or more spaces.a

egrep '(Tom]Dan) Savage' file Prints lines containing Tom Savage or Dan Savage.

egrep 1(ab)+' file Prints lines with one or more occurrences of ab.

egrep 'AXie-D]?' file Prints lines beginning with X followed by zero or one
single digit.

egrep 'funU' « Prints lines ending in fun. from all files.a

egrep '[A-Z]+' file Prints lines containing one or more capital letters.

egrep '[0-9]' file Prints lines containing a number.3

4.6 fgrep (Fixed grep or Fast grep) 99

Table 4.5 Review of eg rep (continued)

Command What It Does

egrep '[A-Z]...[0-9]' file Prints lines containing five-character patterns

starting with a capital letter, followed by three of any
character, and ending with a number.'1

egrep '[fHest' files Prints lines with Test and/or test.3

egrep 1(Susan|Jean) Doe' file Prints lines containing Susan Doe or Jean Doe.

egrep -v 'Mary' file Prints all lines not containing Mary.3

egrep -i 'sam' file Prints all lines containing sam, regardless of case (e.g.,
3
SAM, sam, SaM, sAm)

egrep -1 'Dear Boss' * Lists all filenames containing Dear Boss.3

egrep -n 'Tom' file Precedes matching lines with line numbers.3

egrep -s "Sname" file Expands variable name, finds it, but prints nothing.
Can be used to check the exit status of egrep.3
(s stands for silent)

a. egrep and grep handle this pattern in the same way.

4.6 fgrep (Fixed grep or Fast grep)

The fgrep command behaves like grep, but does not recognize any regular expression
metacharacters as being special. All characters represent only themselves. A caret is sim-
ply a caret, a dollar sign is a dollar sign, and so forth. (See GNU grep -F if using Linux.)

EXAMPLE 4.36

fgrep '[A-Z]****[0-9]..$5.00' file

EXPLANATION

Finds all lines in the file containing the literal string [A-Z]****[0-9]. .$5.00. All charac-
ters are treated as themselves. There are no special characters.
100 Chapter 4 • The grep Family

4.7 Linux and GNU grep

Linux uses the GNU version of grep, which in functionality

is much the same as grep, only better. In addition to POSIX
n
t
character classes (see Table 4.7 and Table 4.8), there are a
number of new options, including -G, -E, -F, and -P that
&
allow you to use regular grep for everything, and still get the
functionality of both egrep and fgrep.2

4.7.1 Basic and Extended

Regular Expressions

The GNU grep command supports the same regular expres-

sion metacharacters (see Table 4.7) as the UNIX grep and
then some (see Table 4.8), to modify the way it does its search or displays lines. For
example, you can provide options to turn off case sensitivity, display line numbers, dis-
play filenames, and so on.
There are two versions of regular expression metacharacters: basic and extended. The
regular version of GNU grep (also grep -G) uses the basic set (see Table 4.7), and egrep (or
grep -E) uses the extended set (Table 4.8). With GNU grep, both sets are available. The
basic set consists of

A
, $, *, [ 1, [A ], \< \>, and \( \)

In addition, GNU grep recognizes \b, \w, and \W, as well as a new class of POSIX meta-
characters (see Table 4.9).
With the -E option to GNU grep, the extended (egrep) set is available, but even without
the -E option, regular grep, the default, can use the extended set of metacharacters, pro-
vided that the metacharacters are preceded with a backslash.3 For example, the extended
set of metacharacters is

?, +,{},!,()

The extended set of metacharacters have no special meaning to regular grep, unless
they are backslashed, as follows:

\?, \+, \{, \l, \(, \)

The format for using the GNU grep is shown in Table 4.6.

2. To use grep recursively, see Appendix A for GNU rgrep and xargs.
3. In any version of grep, a metacharacter can be quoted with a backslash to turn off its special meaning.
4.7 Linux and GNU grep 101

Table 4.6 GNU grep

Format What It Understands

grep 'pattern' filename(s) Basic RE metacharacters (the default)

grep -G 'pattern' filename(s) Same as above; the default

grep -E 'pattern' filenaine(s) Extended RE metacharacters

grep -F 'pattern' filename No RE metacharacters

grep -P 'pattern' filename Interpret the pattern as a Perl RE

Table 4.7 The Basic Set—GNU g rep's Regular Expression Metacharacters

Metacharacter Function Example What It Matches

A Beginning-of-line anchor Alove Matches all lines beginning with love.

$ End-of-line anchor love$ Matches all lines ending with love.

1 1. .e
Matches one character Matches lines containing an 1,
followed by two characters, followed
by an e.

n Matches zero or more *1 ove Matches lines with zero or more

characters spaces, of the preceding characters
followed by the pattern love.

[ ] Matches one character in the [LI love Matches lines containing love or Love.
set

[A] Matches one character not in [AA-K]ove Matches lines not containing A
the set through K followed by ove.

\<a Beginning-of-word anchor \<love Matches lines containing a word that

begins with love.

\> End-of-word anchor love\> Matches lines containing a word that

ends with love.

\(..\)b Tags matched characters \(love\)able Tags marked portion in a register to be

remembered later as number 1. To
reference later, use \1 to repeat the
pattern. May use up to nine tags,
starting with the first tag at the
leftmost part of the pattern. For
example, the pattern love is saved in
register 1 to be referenced later as \1.

Repetition of character x:
x\{m\} m times, o\{5\} Matches if line has 5 occurrences of o,
x\{m,\} at least m times, or o\{5 A} at least 5 occurrences of o, or
c
x\{m,n\} between m and n times o\{5,10\} between 5 and 10 occurrences of o.
102 Chapter 4 • The grep Family

Table 4.7 The Basic Set—GNU grep's Regular Expression Metacharacters (continued)

Metacharacter Function Example What It Matches

\w Alphanumeric word l\wi-e Matches an 1 followed by zero more

character; [a-zA-Z0-9_] word characters, and an e.

\W Nonalphanumeric word 1ove\W+ Matches love followed by one or more

character; [Aa-zA-Z0-9_] nonword characters (., ?, etc.).

\b Word boundary \blove\b Matches only the word love.

a. Won't work unless backslashed, even with grep -E and GNU egrep; work with UNIX egrep at all.
b. These metacharacters are really part of the extended set, but are placed here because they work with UNIX grep and
GNU regular grep, if backslashed. They do not work with UNIX egrep at all.
c. The \{ \} metacharacters are not supported on all versions of UNIX or all pattern-matching utilities; they usually
work with vi and grep. They don't work with UNIX egrep at all.

Table 4.8 The Extended Set—Used with egrep and grep -E

Metacharacter Function Example What It Matches

+ Matches one or more of the [a-z]+ove Matches one or more lowercase letters,
preceding characters followed by ove. Would find move,
approve, love, behoove, etc.

? Matches zero or one of the lo?ve Matches for an 1 followed by either one
preceding characters or not any o's at all. Would find love or
Ive.

a|b|c Matches either a or b or c lovelhate Matches for either expression, love or

hate.

0 Groups characters love(able|rs) Matches for loveable or lovers.

(ov)+ Matches for one or more occurrences
of ov.

(..) (...) U \2a Tags matched characters \(love\)ing Tags marked portion in a register to be
remembered later as number 1. To
reference later, use \1 to repeat the
pattern. May use up to nine tags,
starting with the first tag at the leftmost
part of the pattern. For example, the
pattern love is saved in register 1 to be
referenced later as \1.

Repetition of character x:
x{m} m times, o\{5\} Matches if line has 5 occurrences of o,
x{m,} at least m times, or o\{5,\} at least 5 occurrences of o, or
x{in1n}^ between m and n times o\{5,10\} between 5 and 10 occurrences of o.

a. Tags and back references do not work with UNIX egrep.

b. The \{ \} metacharacters are not supported on all versions of UNIX or all pattern-matching utilities; they usually
work with vi and grep. They do not work with UNIX egrep at all.
4.7 Linux and GNU grep 103

The POSIX Class. POSIX (the Portable Operating System Interface) is an industry
standard to ensure that programs are portable across operating systems. In order to be
portable, POSIX recognizes that different countries or locales may differ in the way they
encode characters, represent currency, and how times and dates are represented. To han-
dle different types of characters, POSIX added to the basic and extended regular expres-
sions the bracketed character class of characters shown in Table 4.9.
The class, for example, [ :alnuni: ] is another way of saying A-Za-z0-9. To use this class,
it must be enclosed in another set of brackets for it to be recognized as a regular expres-
sion. For example, A-Za-z0-9, by itself, is not a regular expression, but [A-Za-z0-9] is. Like-
wise, [: al num: ] should be written [ [: al num: ] ]. The difference between using the first form,
[A-Za-z0-9] and the bracketed form, [[:alnum:]] is that the first form is dependent on
ASCII character encoding, whereas the second form allows characters from other lan-
guages to be represented in the class, such as Swedish rings and German umlauts.

Table 4.9 The Bracketed Character Class

Bracket Class Meaning

[:alnum:] Alphanumeric characters

[:alpha:] Alphabetic characters

[:cntrl:] Control characters

[:digit:] Numeric characters

[:graph:] Nonblank characters (not spaces, control characters, etc.)

[:lower:] Lowercase letters

[:print:] Like [:graph:], but includes the space character

[:punct:] Punctuation characters

[:space:] All whitespace characters (newlines, spaces, tabs)

[:upper:] Uppercase letters

[:xdigit:] Allows digits in a hexadecimal number (0-9a-fA-F)

EXAMPLE 4.37

1 % grep '[[ispaceillVthdigit^Hlispace:]]' datafile

southwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17

2 % grep -E '[kspaceniVlIidigitilJllispace:]]' datafile

southwest SM Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
104 Chapter 4 • The grep Family

EXAMPLE 4.37 (continued)

3 % egrep '[[ispacei^VIIidigit^Hhspace:]]' datafile

southwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17

EXPLANATION

1, 2, 3 For all Linux variants of grep (other than fgrep), the POSIX bracketed class set
is supported. In each of these examples, grep will search for a space character, a literal
period, a digit [0-9], and another space character.

4.8 GNU Basic grep (grep -G) with Regular

Expressions

Basic grep interprets its patterns as basic regular expressions. All of the examples for
UNIX basic grep in this section also apply to the GNU version of basic grep, also grep -G
or grep '--basic-regexp'.
The metacharacters used in the examples below are not found in the basic UNIX grep.
The examples in this section use the following datafile.

% cat datafile
northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Gray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 4.38

% grep NW datafile or
% grep -C NW datafile
northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34

EXPLANATION

Prints all lines containing the regular expression NIW in a file called datafile.
4.9 grep -E or egrep (GNU Extended grep) 105

EXAMPLE 4.39

% grep 'AnVwAW datafile

northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13

EXPLANATION

Prints any line starting with an n, followed by zero or more alphanumeric word char-
acters [a-zA-Z0-9_], followed by a nonalphanumeric word character [Aa-zA-Z0-9_]. \w
and \W are standard word metacharacters for GNU variants of grep.

EXAMPLE 4.40

% grep '\bnorth\b' datafile

north NO Margot Meber 4.5 .89 5 9

EXPLANATION

Prints the line if it contains the word north. The \b is a word boundary. It can be used
instead of the word anchors (\< \>) on all GNU variants of grep.

4.9 grep -E or egrep (GNU Extended grep)

The main advantage of using extended grep is that additional regular expression meta-
characters (see Table 4.10) have been added to the basic set. With the -E extension, GNU
grep allows the use of these new metacharacters.

Table 4.10 eg rep's Regular Expression Metacharacters

Metacharacter Function Example What It Matches

A Beginning-of-line anchor Alove Matches all lines beginning with

love.

End-of-line anchor love$ Matches all lines ending with love.

Matches one character l..e Matches lines containing an 1,

followed by two characters, followed
by an e.

Matches zero or more *love Matches lines with zero or more

characters spaces, of the preceding characters
followed by the pattern love.

[ 1 Matches one character in [11]ove Matches lines containing love or Love.

the set
106 Chapter 4 • The grep Family

Table 4.10 eg rep's Regular Expression Metacharacters (continued)

Metacharacter Function Example What It Matches

[A ] Matches one character not [AA-KM-Z]ove Matches lines not containing A

in the set through K or M through Z, followed by
ove.

New with grep - £ or egrep

+ Matches one or more of [a-z]+ove Matches one or more lowercase

the preceding characters letters, followed by ove. Would find
move, approve, love, behoove, etc.

? Matches zero or one of the lo?ve Matches for an 1 followed by either

preceding characters one or not any o's at all. Would find
love or Ive.

a|b Matches either a or b love]hate Matches for either expression,! ove or

hate.

0 Groups characters love(able|ly) Matches for loveable or lovely.

(ov)+ Matches for one or more
occurrences of ov.

Repetition of character x:
xfm} m times, o\{5} Matches if line has 5 occurrences of o
xflD,} at least m times, or o\{5,} at least 5 occurrences of o, or
a
x{m,n} between m and n times o\{5,10} between 5 and 10 occurrences of o.

\w Alphanumeric word l\w*e Matches an 1 followed by zero more

character; [a-zA-Z0-9_] word characters, and an e.

\W Nonalphanumeric word \W\w* Matches a non-word (\W) character

character; [Aa-zA-Z0-9_] followed by zero or more word
characters (\w).

\b Word boundary \blove\b Matches only the word love.

a. The { } metacharacters are not supported on all versions of UNIX or all pattern-matching utilities; they usually work
with vi and grep. They don't work with UNIX egrep at all.

4.9.1 grep -E and egrep Examples

The following examples illustrate the way the extended set of regular expression meta-
characters are used with grep -E and egrep. The grep examples presented earlier illustrate
the use of the standard metacharacters, also recognized by egrep. With basic GNU grep
(grep -G), it is possible to use any of the additional metacharacters, provided that each
of the special metacharacters is preceded by a backslash.
The following examples show all three variants of grep to accomplish the same task.
4.9 grep -E or egrep (GNU Extended grep) 107

The examples in this section use the following datafi 1 e, repeated periodically for your
convenience.

% cat datafi le
northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Gray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SI/1/ Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia He men way 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 4.41

l % egrep 'NW|EA1 datafile

northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20

2 % grep -E 'NW|EA' datafile

northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20

3 % grep 'NWIEA' datafile

4 % grep 'NWMEA' datafile

northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20

EXPLANATION

1 Prints the line if it contains either the expression Nl•J or the expression EA. In this
example, egrep is used. If you do not have the GNU version of grep, use egrep.

2 In this example, the GNU grep is used with the -E option to include the extended
metacharacters. Same as egrep.

3 Regular grep does not normally support extended regular expressions; the vertical
bar is an extended regular expression metacharacter used for alternation. Regular
grep doesn't recognize it and searches for the explicit pattern 'NW EA'. Nothing
matches; nothing prints.

4 With GNU regular grep (grep -G), if the metacharacter is preceded by a backslash
it will be interpreted as an extended regular expression just as with egrep and
grep -E.
108 Chapter 4 • The grep Family

% cat datafile
northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Gray 53 .97 5 23
southwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 4.42

% egrep '3+' datafile

% grep -E '3+' datafile
% grep 'l\+' datafile
northwest m Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western ME Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXPLANATION

Prints all lines containing one or more Bs.

EXAMPLE 4.43

% egrep datafile
% grep -E 'ZV?^]' datafile
% grep 'ZX.VtO-g]' datafile
western ME Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SM Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20

EXPLANATION

Prints all lines containing a 2, followed by zero or one period, followed by a number
in the range between 0 and 9.

EXAMPLE 4.44

,
% egrep (no)+, datafile
% grep -E '(noK' datafile
% grep 'XCnoVlV datafile
northwest NM Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Meber 4.5 .89 5 9
4.9 grep -E or egrep (GNU Extended grep) 109

EXPLANATION

Prints lines containing one or more occurrences of the pattern group no.

EXAMPLE 4.45

% grep -E '\w+\W+[ABC]' datafile

northwest Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
southern so Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXPLANATION

Prints all lines containing one or more alphanumeric word characters (\w+), followed
by one or more nonalphanumeric word characters (\W+), followed by one letter in the
set ABC.

EXAMPLE 4.46

% egrep 'SChlu)' datafile

% grep -E 'SCMu)' datafile
% grep 'SVhMuW datafile
western WE Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15

EXPLANATION

Prints all lines containing S, followed by either h or u; i.e. , Sh or Su.

EXAMPLE 4.47

% egrep 'Shlu' datafile

% grep -E 'Shlu' datafile
% grep 'ShMu' datafile
western WE Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southwest SW Lewis Daisass 2.7 .8 2 18
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17

EXPLANATION

Prints all lines containing the expression Sh or u.

110 Chapter 4 • The grep Family

4.9.2 Anomalies with Regular and Extended Variants of grep

The variants of GNU grep supported by Linux are almost, but not the same, as their
UNIX namesakes. For example, the version of egrep, found in Solaris or BSD UNIX, does
not support three metacharacter sets: \{ \}for repetition, \( \) for tagging characters, and
\< \>, the word anchors. Under Linux, these metacharacters are available with grep and
grep -E, but egrep does not recognize \< \>. The following examples illustrate these dif-
ferences, just in case you are running bash or tcsh under a UNIX system other than Linux,
and you want to use grep and its family in your shell scripts.
The examples in this section use the following datafile, repeated periodically for your
convenience.

% cat datafile
northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Gray 53 .97 5 23
southwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia He men way 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 4.48

(Linux GNU grep)

1 % grep Nnortb-' datafile # Must use backslashes

2 % grep 'VnorthV datafile

north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9

3 % grep -E 'VnorthV datafile

north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9

4 % egrep '\<north\>' datafile

north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9

(Solaris egrep)
5 % egrep 'XcnorthV datafile
<no output; not recognized>
4.9 grep -E or egrep (GNU Extended grep) in

EXPLANATION

1 No matter what variant of grep is being used, the word anchor metacharacters,
< >, must be preceded by a backslash.

2 This time, grep searches for a word that begins and ends with north. \< represents
the beginning-of-word anchor and \> represents the end-of-word anchor.

3 Grep with the -E option also recognizes the word anchors.

4 The GNU form of egrep recognizes the word anchors.

5 When using Solaris (SVR4), egrep does not recognize word anchors as regular ex-
pression metacharacters.

EXAMPLE 4.49

(Linux GNU grep)

1 % grep ^(esJt.Al' datafile
grep: Invalid back reference

2 % grep 'wVfesVJt.Al' datafile

northwest NM Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34

3 % grep -E 'wfesJt.Al' datafile

northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34

4 % egrep 'wCesJt.Al' datafile

northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34

(Solaris egrep)
5 % egrep 'wfesJt.Al' datafile
<no output; not recognized>

EXPLANATION

1 When using regular grep, the ( ) extended metacharacters must be backslashed or

an error occurs.

2 If the regular expression, w\(es\)t, is matched, the pattern, es, is saved and stored
in memory register 1. The expression reads: if west is found, tag and save es, search
for any number of characters (.*) after it, followed by es (\1) again, and print the
line. The es in Charles is matched by the backreference.

3 This is the same as the previous example, except that grep with the -E switch does
not precede the ( ) with backslashes.

4 The GNU egrep also uses the extended metacharacters, ( ), without backslashes.

5 With Solaris, egrep doesn't recognize any form of tagging and backreferencing.
112 Chapter 4 • The grep Family

% cat datafile
northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Gray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SI/1/ Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hernenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 4.50

(Linux GNU grep)

1 %> grep 'UO-m^HAG--9]' datafile
northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

2 % grep -E '\.[0-9]{2}[A0-9]' datafile

northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

3 % egrep 'VIG-gHZHAO-g]' datafile

northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

(Solaris egrep)
4 % egrep 'VIG-GHZHAQ-g]' datafile
<no output; not recognized with or without backslashes>
4.10 Fixed grep (grep -F and fgrep) 113

EXPLANATION

1 The extended metacharacters, { }, are used for repetition. The GNU and UNIX
versions of regular grep do not evaluate this extended metacharacter set unless the
curly braces are preceded by backslashes. The whole expression reads; search for
a literal period \., followed by a number between 0 and 9, [0-9], if the pattern is
repeated exactly two times, \{2\}, followed by a nondigit [A0-9].

2 With extended grep, grep -E, the repetition metacharacters, {2}, do not need to be
preceded with backslashes as in the previous example.

3 Because GNU egrep and grep -E are functionally the same, this command produces
the same output as the previous example.

4 This is the standard UNIX version of egrep. It does not recognize the curly braces
as an extended metacharacter set either with or without backslashes.

4.10 Fixed grep (grep -F and fgrep)

The fgrep command behaves like grep, but does not recognize any regular expression
metacharacters as being special. All characters represent only themselves. A caret is sim-
ply a caret, a dollar sign is a dollar sign, and so forth. With the -F option, GNU grep
behaves exactly the same as fgrep.

EXAMPLE 4.51

% fgrep '[A-Z]****[0-9]..$5.00" file or

%o grep -F '[A-Z]****[0-9]..$5.00' file

EXPLANATION

Finds all lines in the file containing the literal string [A-Z]****[0-9]. .S5.00. All charac-
ters are treated as themselves. There are no special characters.

4,11 Recursive grep (rgrep, grep -R)

Unlike the members of the grep family, Linux's rgrep can recursively descend a directory
tree. Rgrep has a number of command-line options and supports the same metacharacters
as regular grep (grep -R). See Appendix A for a complete description of rgrep, or type rgrep-
? for online help (not supported on regular versions of UNIX).

EXAMPLE 4.52

% grep -r 'Tom' ./dir

% rgrep 'Tom' ./dir

EXPLANATION

Searches recursively for all files containing Tom starting from under the ./di r directory.
114 Chapter 4 • The grep Family

4.12 GNU grep with Options

The grep command has a number of options that control its behavior. The GNU version
of grep added a number of new options and alternative ways to use the options. The GNU
grep options work with all the different variants of grep, including grep -G, -E, and -F; as
shown in Table 4.11.

Table 4.11 GNU grep Options for All Variants (-G, -E, and -F)

Option What It Does

-#- (# is a symbol used to represent Matches will be printed with # lines of leading and trailing context;
an integer value) i.e., grep -2 pattern filename will cause grep to print the matched line
with the two lines before and after it.

-A #, —after-context=# Print # lines of trailing context after matching lines; i.e, the matched
line and the specified # lines after it.

-B #, —before-context=# Print # lines of leading context before matching lines; i.e., the
matched lines and the specified # lines before it.

-C #, —context=# Equivalent to -2. Prints the two lines before and after the matched
line.

-V, —version Displays the version information about grep that should be
included in all bug reports.

-a, —text, —binary-files=text Processes binary files as text files.

-b, —byte-offset Displays the byte offset before each line of output.

-c, —count Prints a count of matching lines for each input file. With the -v
prints a count of nonmatching lines.

-D action, —devices=action If the input file is a device such as a socket or pipe, action is read
from the device by default just as thought it were a normal file. If
action is skip, the device will be silently skipped over.

-e PATTERN, —regexp=PATTERN Use PATTERN literally as the pattern; useful to protect patterns
beginning with -.

-f FILE, —file=FILE Obtain patterns from FILE, one per line. The empty file contains
zero patterns, and therefore matches nothing.

—help— Display a usage message summarizing grep's command-line options

and bug reporting address, then exit.

-h, -no-filename Suppress the prefixing of filenames on output when multiple files
are searched.

-i, —ignore-case Ignore case distinctions in both the pattern and the input files.
4.12 GNU grep with Options 115

Table 4.11 GNU grep Options for All Variants (-G, -E, and -F) (continued)

Option What It Does

-L, —files-without-match Print just the names of all files where the pattern does not match.

-1, —files-with-matches Print just the names of all files where the pattern does match.

-m #, —max-count-# Stop reading a file after specified number (#) of matching lines if
the file is standard input or a regular file.

-n, -line-number Prefix each line of output with the line number where the match
occurred.

-q, —quiet Suppress normal output. Can be used instead of -n.

-r, -R, --recursive, For directories listed, reads and processes all files in those
—di rectories=recurse directories recursively; i.e., all directories from that directory down
the tree.

-s, —silent Suppress error messages about nonexistent or unreadable files.

-v, —revert-match Invert the sense of matching, to select nonmatch in lines.

-w, —word-regexp Select only those lines containing matches that are words. Matches
are for strings containing letters, digits, and the underscore, on
word boundaries.

-x, —line-regexp Select only those matches that exactly match the whole line.

-y Obsolete synonym for -i.

-U, —binary Treat the file(s) as binary. This option is only supported on
MS-DOS and MS-Windows.

-u, —unix-byte-offsets Report UNIX-style byte offsets. This option has no effect unless -b
option is also used; it is only supported on MS-DOS and
MS-Windows.

-Z, —null Places the ASCII null character at the end of filenames, instead of a
newline.
116 Chapter 4 • The grep Family

4.13 grep with Options (UNIX and GNU)

The grep command has a number of options that control its behavior. Not all versions of
UNIX support exactly the same options, so be sure to check your man pages for a com-
plete list.
The examples in this section use the following datafi le, which is repeated periodically
for your convenience.

% cat datafi le
northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Gray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 4.53

% grep -n 'Asouth' datafile

Sisouthwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
4:southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
5:southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17

EXPLANATION |

The -n option precedes each line with the number of the line where the pattern was
found, followed by the line.

EXAMPLE 4.54

% grep -i 'pat' datafile

southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17

EXPLANATION

The -i option turns off case sensitivity. It does not matter if the expression pat contains
any combination of upper- or lowercase letters.
4.13 grep with Options (UNIX and GNU) 117

EXAMPLE 4.55

% grep -v 'Suan Chin' datafile

northwest N\fJ Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Lewis Daisass 2.7 .8 2 18
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AN Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXPLANATION |

Here, the -v option prints all lines not containing the pattern Suan Chin. This option is
used when deleting a specific entry from the input file. To really remove the entry, you
would redirect the output of grep to a temporary file, and then change the name of the
temporary file back to the name of the original file as shown here:

grep -v 'Suan Chin' datafile > temp

mv temp datafile

Remember that you must use a temporary file when redirecting the output from data-
file. If you redirect from datafile to datafile, the shell will "clobber" the datafile. (See
"Redirection" on page 25.)

EXAMPLE 4.56

% grep -1 'SB' *
datafile
datebook

EXPLANATION

The -1 option causes grep to print out only the filenames where the pattern is found
instead of the line of text.

EXAMPLE 4.57

% grep -c 'west' datafile

3

EXPLANATION

The -c option causes grep to print the number of lines where the pattern was found.
This does not mean the number of occurrences of the pattern. For example, if west is
found three times on a line, it only counts the line once.
118 Chapter 4 • The grep Family

% cat datafile
northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Gray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 4.58

% grep -w 'north' datafile

north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9

EXPLANATION

The -w option causes grep to find the pattern only if it is a word,3 not part of a word.
Only the line containing the word north is printed, not northwest, northeast, etc.

a. A word is a sequence of alphanumeric characters starting at the beginning of a line or preceded by whitespace and
ending in whitespace, punctuation, or a newline.

EXAMPLE 4.59

% echo SLOGNAME
lewis
% grep -i "SLOGNAME" datafile
southwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18

EXPLANATION

The value of the shell ENV variable, LOCNAME, is printed. It contains the user's login name.
If the variable is enclosed in double quotes, it will still be expanded by the shell, and
in case there is more than one word assigned to the variable, whitespace is shielded
from shell interpretation. If single quotes are used, variable substitution does not take
place; that is, SLOGNAME is printed.

4.13.1 GNU grep Options Examples

In addition to the options provided with UNIX grep, the GNU version provides options
that further refine the output resulting from pattern searches.
The examples in this section use the following datafi 1 e, repeated periodically for your
convenience.
4.13 grep with Options (UNIX and GNU) 119

% cat datafile
northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Gray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 4.60

% grep -V
grep (GNU grep) 2.2

Copyright (C) 1988, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97 Free Software Foundation, Inc. This is free
software; see the source for copying conditions. There is NO warranty; not even for MER-
CHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.

EXPLANATION

With the -V option, grep's version and copyright information are listed. The version in-
formation should be included with any bug reports sent to the GNU Foundation.

EXAMPLE 4.61
1 % grep -2 Patricia datafile
southwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern so Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13

2 % grep -C Patricia datafile

southwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13

EXPLANATION

1 After a line matching Patricia is found, grep displays that line and the two lines
before and after it.

2 The -C option is the same as -2.

120 Chapter 4 • The grep Family

% cat datafile
northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Gray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 4.62

% grep -A 2 Patricia datafile

southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AN Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13

EXPLANATION

After a line matching Patricia is found, grep displays that line and the two lines after it.

EXAMPLE 4.63

% grep -B 2 Patricia datafile

southwest SIN Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17

EXPLANATION

After a line matching Patricia is found, grep displays that line and the two lines before
(preceding) it.

EXAMPLE 4.64

% grep -b '[abc]' datafile

0:northwest NIN Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
39:western WE Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
76:southwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
115:southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
150:southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
193-.eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
228:northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
266:north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
301:central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13
4.13 grep with Options (UNIX and GNU) 121

EXPLANATION

With the -b option, grep prints the byte offset from the input file before each line of
output.

Instead of using the datafile for these next two examples, we'll use a file called nega-
tive to demonstrate the -e and -x options.

% cat negative
-40 is cold.
This is line 1.
This is line 2.5
-alF are options to the Is command

EXAMPLE 4.65

1 % grep -e '-alF' negative

-alF are options to the Is command

2 % grep —regexp=-40 negative

-40 is cold.

EXPLANATION

1 With the -e option, grep treats all characters in the pattern equally, so that leading
dashes are not mistaken for options.

2 The alternate way to represent -e is --regexp=pattern, where pattern is the regular

expression; in this example the regular expression is -40.

EXAMPLE 4.66

% grep -x -e '-40 is cold.' negative

-40 is cold.

EXPLANATION

With the -x option, grep will not match a line unless the search pattern is identical to
the entire line. The -e is used to allow a dash as the first character in the search string.
122 Chapter 4 • The grep Family

The remaining examples in this section use the following datafile.

% cat datafile
northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Gray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 4.67

1 % cat repatterns
western
north

2 % grep -f repatterns datafile

northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9

EXPLANATION

1 The file repatterns is displayed. It contains grep's search patterns that will be
matched against lines in an input file. Western and north are the patterns grep will
use in its search.

2 With the -f option followed by a filename (in this example, repatterns), grep will
get its search patterns from that file and match them against lines in datafile. Grep
searched for and printed all lines containing patterns western and north.

EXAMPLE 4.68

1 % grep '[0-9]' datafile db

datafile:northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
datafile western WE Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
data fi 1e:southwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
datafile:southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
data fi le:southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
datafile:eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
datafile:northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
datafile:north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
datafile:central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13
db:123
4.13 grep with Options (UNIX and GNU) 123

EXAMPLE 4.68 (continued)

2 % grep -h '[0-9]' datafle db

northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western ME Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest 5M Lewis Daisass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Meber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

123

EXPLANATION

1 If more than one file is listed, grep prepends each line of its output with the file-
name. Filenames are datafile and db.

2 With the -h option, grep suppresses the header information; i.e., does not print the
filenames.

EXAMPLE 4.69

% grep -q Charles datafile or

% grep —quiet Charles datafile
% echo Sstatus
0

EXPLANATION

The quiet option suppresses any output from grep. It is used when the exit status is all
that is needed. If the exit status is zero, grep found the pattern.
124 Chapter 4 • The grep Family

LAB 1: grep EXERCISE

(Refer to the file called datebook on the CD.)

Steve Blenheim:238-923-7366:95 Latham Lane, Easton, PA 83755:11/12/56:20300

Betty Boop:245-836-8357:635 Cutesy Lane, Hollywood, CA 91464:6/23/23:14500
Igor Chevsky:385-375-8395;3567 Populus Place, Caldwell, NJ 23875:6/18/68:23400
Norma Corder;397-857-2735:74 Pine Street, Dearborn, MI 23874:3/28/45:245700
Jennifer Cowan;548-834-2348:583 Laurel Ave., Kingsville, TX 83745:10/1/35:58900
Jon DeLoach:408-253-3122:123 Park St., San Jose, CA 04086:7/25/53:85100
Karen Evich:284-758-2857:23 Edgecliff Place, Lincoln, NB 92743:7/25/53:85100
Karen Evich:284-758-2867:23 Edgecliff Place, Lincoln, NB 92743:11/3/35:58200
Karen Evich;284-758-2867:23 Edgecliff Place, Lincoln, NB 92743:11/3/35:58200
Fred Fardbarkle:674-843-1385:20 Parak Lane, Dululh, MN 23850:4/12/23:780900
Fred Fardbarkle:674-843-1385:20 Parak Lane, Duluth, MN 23850:4/12/23:780900
Lori Gortz:327-832-5728:3465 Mirlo Street, Peabody, MA 34756:10/2/65:35200
Paco Gutierrez:835-365-1284:454 Easy Street, Decatur, 1L 75732:2/28/53:123500
Ephram Hardy:293-259-5395:235 CarltonLane, Joliet, IL 73858:8/12/20:56700
James Ikeda;834-938-8376:23445 Aster Ave., Allentown, NJ 83745:12/1/38:45000
Barbara Kertz:385-573-8326:832 Ponce Drive, Gary, IN 83756:12/1/46:268500
Lesley Kirstin:408-456-1234:4 Harvard Square, Boston, MA 02133:4/22/62:52600
William Kopf:846-836-2837:6937 Ware Road, Milton, PA 93756:9/21/46:43500
Sir Lancelot:837-835-8257:474 Camelot Boulevard, Bath, WY 28356:5/13/69:24500
Jesse Neal:408-233-8971;45 Rose Terrace, San Francisco, CA 92303:2/3/36:25000
Zippy Pinhead:834-823-8319;2356 Bizarro Ave., Farmount, IL 84357:1/1/67:89500
Arthur Putie:923-835-8745:23 Wimp Lane, Kensington, DL 38758:8/31/69:126000
Popeye Sailor: 156-454-3322:945 Bluto Street, Anywhere, USA 29358:3/19/35:22350
Jose Santiago:385-898-8357:38 Fife Way, Abilene, TX 39673:1/5/58:95600
Tommy Savage:408-724-0140;1222 Oxbow Court, Sunnyvale, CA 94087:5/19/66:34200
Yukio Takeshida:387-827-1095:13 Uno Lane, Ashville, NC 23556:7/1/29:57000
Vinh Tranh:438-910-7449:8235 Maple Street, Wilmington, VM 29085:9/23/63:68900

1. Print all lines containing the string San.

2. Print all lines where the person's first name starts with 3.

3. Print all lines ending in 700.

4. Print all lines that don't contain 834.

5. Print all lines where birthdays are in December.

6. Print all lines where the phone number is in the 408 area code.

7. Print all lines containing an uppercase letter, followed by four lowercase letters, a comma, a
space, and one uppercase letter.

8. Print lines where the last name begins with K or k.

9. Print lines preceded by a line number where the salary is a six-figure number.

10. Print lines containing Lincoln or lincoln (remember that grep is insensitive to case).
chapter

Bigt|l
5
iiUI

sed, the

Streamlined Editor

5.1 What Is sed?

Sed is a streamlined, noninteractive editor. It allows you to perform the same kind of
editing tasks used in the vi and ex editors. Instead of working interactively with the edi-
tor, the sed program lets you type your editing commands at the command line, name
the file, and then see the output of the editing command on the screen. The sed editor is
nondestructive. It does not change your file unless you save the output with shell redi-
rection. All lines are printed to the screen by default.
The sed editor is useful in shell scripts, where using interactive editors such as vi or
ex would require the user of the script to have familiarity with the editor and would
expose the user to making unwanted modifications to the open file. You can also put sed
commands in a file called a sed script, if you need to perform multiple edits or do not
like worrying about quoting the sed commands at the shell command line.1

5.2 Versions of sed

Linux uses the GNU version of sed, copyrighted by the Free Software Foundation. This
version is almost identical to the sed provided by standard UNIX distributions.

1. Remember, the shell will try to evaluate any metacharacters or whitespace when a command is typed at
the command line; any characters in the sed command that could be interpreted by the shell must be
quoted.

125
126 Chapters • sed, the Streamlined Editor

EXAMPLE 5.1

% sed -V or sed —version

GNU sed version 3.02

Copyright (C) 1998 Free Software Foundation, Inc.

This is free software; see the source for copying conditions.
There is NO warranty; not even for MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR /I
PARTICULAR PURPOSE, to the extent permitted by law.

5.3 How Does sed Work?

The sed editor processes a file (or input) one line at a time and sends its output to the
screen. Its commands are those you may recognize from the vi and ed/ex editors. Sed
stores the line it is currently processing in a temporary buffer called a pattern space or
temporary buffer. Once sed is finished processing the line in the pattern space (i.e., exe-
cuting sed commands on that line), the line in the pattern space is sent to the screen
(unless the command was to delete the line or suppress its printing). After the line has
been processed, it is removed from the pattern space and the next line is then read into
the pattern space, processed, and displayed. Sed ends when the last line of the input file
has been processed. By storing each line in a temporary buffer and performing edits on
that line, the original file is never altered or destroyed.

sed's output
Text file sed's pattern space (buffer)

this is a line
this is a line this is a line

5.4 Regular Expressions

Sed, like grep, searches for patterns in files using regular expressions (REs) and a variety
of metacharacters shown in Table 5.3 on page 132. Regular expressions are patterns of
characters enclosed in forward slashes for searches and substitutions.

sed -n '/RE/p' filename

sed -n '/love/p' filename

sed -n 's/RE/replacement string/' filename

sed -n 's/love/like/' filename
5.4 Regular Expressions 127

To change the regular expression delimeter, some character, say c, is preceded by a

backslash, followed by the regular expression, and that character; for example,

sed -n '/love/p' filename

prints all lines containing love.

To change the delimiter:

sed -n 'XcREcp' filename

where c represents the character to delimit the regular expression (RE) in place of for-
ward slashes.

EXAMPLE 5.2

1 % sed -n '/IZVlGVOVp' datafile

2 % sed -n '\xl2/10/04xp' datafile # sed lets you change the delimiter

EXPLANATION

1 When forward slashes are part of the regular expression, they must be back-
slashed so they won't be confused with the forward slashes that delimit it.

2 The forward slashes are replaced by the letter x. This makes it easier when the reg-
ular expression contains forward slashes.

If you recall, the grep command returns a zero exit status if a pattern is found in a file,
and 1 if it is not found. The exit status of the sed command, however, will be zero,
whether or not the pattern being searched for is found. The only time the exit status will
be nonzero is when the command contains a syntax error. (See "Error Messages and Exit
Status" on page 131.) In the following example, both grep and sed search for the regular
expression, John, in a file.
Regular expressions can also be made part of an address as shown in "Addressing" on
page 128.

EXAMPLE 5.3

1 % grep 'lohiT datafile # grep searches for John

2 % echo Sstatus
1

3 % sed -n '/John/p1 datafile # sed searches for John

4 % echo Sstatus
0
128 Chapter 5 • sed, the Streamlined Editor

EXPLANATION

l With grep, the regular expression John is not enclosed in a delimiter.

2 The exit status of the grep command is zero if the pattern John was found, and non-
zero if not.

3 The sed command will print all lines containing the RE pattern, John.

4 Even though the pattern John is not found in the file, the exit status is zero because
the syntax was okay.

5.5 Addressing

You can use addressing to decide which lines you want to edit. The addresses can be in the
form of decimal numbers or regular expressions (also called context addresses), or a com-
bination of both. Without specifying an address, sed processes all lines of the input file.
When an address consists of a number, the number represents a line number. A dollar
sign can be used to represent the last line of the input file. If a comma separates two line
numbers, the addresses that will be processed are within that range of lines, including
the first and last line in the range. The range may be numbers, regular expressions, or a
combination of numbers and regular expressions.
Sed commands tell sed what to do with the line: print it, remove it, change it, and so
forth.

FORMAT

sed 'command' filename(s)

EXAMPLE 5.4

1 sed 'Md' myfile

2 sed -n 7[Jj]ohn/p' datafile

EXPLANATION

1 Lines 1 through 3 of myfile are deleted.

2 Only lines matching the pattern John or John in myfile are printed.

5.6 Commands and Options

Sed commands tell sed how to process each line of input specified by an address. If an
address is not given, sed processes every line of input. (The % is the csh prompt.) See
Table 5.1 for a list of sed commands and what they do, and see Table 5.2 for a list of
options and how they control sed's behavior.
Commands and Options 129

Table 5.1 sed Commands

Command Function

a\ Appends one or more lines of text to the current line

c\ Changes (replaces) text in the current line with new text

d Deletes lines

i\ Inserts text above the current line

h Copies the contents of the pattern space to a holding buffer

H Appends the contents of the pattern space to a holding buffer

9 Gets what is in the holding buffer and copies it into the pattern buffer,
overwriting what was there

G Gets what is in the holding buffer and copies it into the pattern buffer,
appending to what was there

1 Lists nonprinting characters

p Prints lines

n Reads the next input line and starts processing the newline with the next
command rather than the first command

q Quits or exits sed

r Reads lines from a file

! Applies the command to all lines except the selected ones

s Substitutes one string for another

Substitution Flags

9 Globally substitutes on a line

p Prints lines

w Writes lines out to a file

x Exchanges contents of the holding buffer with the pattern space

y Translates one character to another (cannot use regular expression

metacharacters with y)
130 Chapter 5 • sed, the Streamlined Editor

Table 5.2 sed Options

Options Function

-e Allows multiple edits

-f Precedes a sed script filename

-n Suppresses default output

When multiple commands are used or addresses need to be nested within a range of
addresses, the commands are enclosed in curly braces and each command is either on a
separate line or terminated with semicolons.
The exclamation point (!) can be used to negate a command. For example,

sed '/Tom/d' file

tells sed to delete all lines containing the pattern Tom, whereas

sed '/Tom/Id' file (sh, ksh, bash)

sed '/Tom/Vd' file (csh, tcsh)

tells sed to delete lines not containing Tom.

The sed options are -e, -f, and, -n. The -e is used for multiple edits at the command
line, the -f precedes a sed script filename, and the -n suppresses printing output.

5.6.1 How to Modify a File with sed

Sed is a nondestructive editor. It will display the edits you make on your screen, but it
will not change the file you are editing. To really reflect the edits in the file, you must
redirect the output to another file, and then rename the orginal file.

EXAMPLE 5.5

1 % sed 'l.ld' filex > temp

2 % mv temp filex

EXPLANATION

1 Lines 1 through 3 of myfile are deleted. Instead of displaying the remaining lines
on the screen, they are redirected to a file called temp. (Make sure the file where
you are sending your output, in this case temp, is an empty file. Otherwise the re-
direction will cause it to be clobbered.)

2 The mv command will overwrite filex with the contents of temp.

5.7 Error Messages and Exit Status 131

5.6.2 GNU sed Options

Example 5.6 lists additional options provided by GNU sed, and how they control sed's
behavior. With the -h option, sed displays a list of its command-line options and a short
description of what each one does.

EXAMPLE 5.6

% sed -h
Usage: sed [OPTION]... {script-only-if-no-other-script} [input-file]...

-n, —quiet, —silent

suppress automatic printing of pattern space
-e script, —expressionismpt
add the script to the commands to be executed
-f script-file, —file=script-file
add the contents of script-file to the commands to be executed
—help display this help and exit
-V, —version output version information and exit

EXPLANATION

If an -e, --expression, -f, or --file option is not given, then the first nonoption argu-
ment is taken as a sed script to be interpreted. All remaining arguments are names of
input files; if no input files are specified, then the standard input is read.

5.7 Error Messages and Exit Status

When sed encounters a syntax error, it sends a pretty straightforward error message to
standard error, but if it cannot figure out what you did wrong, sed gets "garbled," which
we could guess means confused. If the syntax is error-free, the exit status that sed returns
to the shell is a zero for success and a nonzero integer for failure.2

EXAMPLE 5.7

1 % sed 'l,3v ' file

sed: Unrecognized command: l,3v
% echo $status # use echo $? if using Korn or Bourne shell
2

2 % sed V^ohn' f-jie

sed: Illegal or missing delimiter: /AJohn

2. For a complete list of diagnostics, see the man page for sed.
132 Chapter 5 • sed, the Streamlined Editor

EXAMPLE 5.7 (continued)

3 % sed '5/134345/9' file

sed: Ending delimiter missing on substitution: s/134345/g

EXPLANATION

1 The v command is unrecognized by sed. The exit status was 2, indicating that sed
exited with a syntax problem.

2 The pattern /Ajohn is missing the closing forward slash.

3 The substitution command, s, contains the search string but not the replacement
string.

5.8 Metacharacters

Like grep, sed supports a number of special metacharacters to control pattern searching.
See Table 5.3.

Table 5.3 sed's Regular Expression Metacharacters

Metacharacter Function Example What It Matches

Beginning-of-line /Alove/ Matches all lines beginning with

anchor love.

End-of-line anchor /love$/ Matches all lines ending with love.

Matches one character, /L.e/ Matches lines containing an 1,

but not the newline followed by two characters,
character followed by an e.

Matches zero or more / *love/ Matches lines with zero or more

characters spaces, followed by the pattern love.

[ ] Matches one character in /[Ll]ove/ Matches lines containing love or

the set Love.

[A ] Matches one character /[AA-KM-Z]ove/ Matches lines not containing A

not in the set through K or M through Z followed
by ove.

\(..\) Saves matched s/\(love\)able/\ler/ Tags marked portion and saves it as

characters tag number 1. To reference later,
use \1 to reference the pattern. May
use up to nine tags, starting with
the first tag at the leftmost part of
the pattern. For example, love is
saved in register 1 and remembered
in the replacement string, lovable is
replaced with lover.
5.9 sed Examples 133

Table 5.3 sed's Regular Expression Metacharacters (continued)

Metacharacter Function Example What It Matches

& Saves search string so it s/love/**&**/ The ampersand represents the

can be remembered in search string. The string love will
the replacement string be replaced with itself surrounded
by asterisks; i.e., love will become
4*1ove**.

\< Beginning-of-word /\<love/ Matches lines containing a word

anchor that begins with love.

\> End-of-word anchor /love\>/ Matches lines containing a word

that ends with love.

Repetition of character x; Matches if line has:

x\{m\} m times, /o\{5\}/ 5 occurrences of o,
x\{iflA} at least m times, or /o\{5,\}/ at least 5 occurrences of o, or
a
x\{m,n\} between m and n times /o\{5,10\}/ between 5 and 10 occurrences of o.

a. Not dependable on all versions of UNIX or all pattern-matching utilities; usually works with vi and grep.

5.9 sed Examples

The following examples show you how to use sed, its options, commands, and regular
expressions. Remember that sed is non-destructive; that is the file that sed is editing will
not be modified unless its output is redirected, as shown in Example 5.6.
The examples in the following sections use the following datafile, repeated periodi-
cally for your convenience.

% cat datafile
northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Gray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13
134 Chapter 5 • sed, the Streamlined Editor

5.9.1 Printing: The p Command

The p command is the print command. It is used to display the contents of the pattern
buffer. Because, by default, sed prints lines to the screen, the -n option is used to suppress
default printing. With the -n option and the p command together, selected text can be
printed.

EXAMPLE 5.8

% sed '/north/p' datafile

northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
northwest m Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western ME Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SM Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Meber 4.5 .89 5 9
north NO Margot Meber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXPLANATION

Prints all lines to standard output by default. If the pattern north is found, sed will print
that line in addition to all the other lines.

EXAMPLE 5.9

% sed -n '/north/p' datafile

northwest NM Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Meber 4.5 .89 5 9

EXPLANATION

By default, sed prints the line currently in the pattern buffer. With the p command, sed
is told to print the line again. The -n option suppresses the default behavior of sed.
When used with the p command, the line in the pattern buffer is printed only once.
Without the -n option, sed will print duplicate lines of output as shown in the preced-
ing example. Only the lines containing the pattern north are printed when -n is used.

5.9.2 Deleting: The d Command

The d command is used to delete lines. After sed copies a line from a file and puts it into
a pattern buffer, it executes any sed commands for that line, and finally, displays the con-
tents of the pattern buffer to the screen. When the d command is issued, the line cur-
rently in the pattern buffer is removed, not displayed.
5.9 sed Examples 135

% cat datafile
northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Gray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest Sid/ Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia He men way 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 5.10

% sed '3d' datafile

northwest NM Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western ME Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Meber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXPLANATION

Deletes the third line. All other lines are printed to the screen, by default.

EXAMPLE 5.11

% sed 'S.Sd' datafile

northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western ME Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23

EXPLANATION

The third line through the last line are deleted. The dollar sign ($) represents the last
line of the file. The comma is called the range operator. The remaining lines are print-
ed. In this example, the range of addresses starts at line 3 and ends at the last line,
which is represented by the dollar sign ($).
136 Chapter 5 • sed, the Streamlined Editor

EXAMPLE 5.12

% sed 'Sd' datafile

northwest N\fJ Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Lewis Daisass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9

EXPLANATION

Deletes the last line. The dollar sign ($) represents the last line. The default is to print
all of the lines except those affected by the d command.

EXAMPLE 5.13

% sed '/tiorth/d' datafile

western WE Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXPLANATION

All lines containing the pattern north are deleted. The remaining lines are printed.

5.9.3 Substitution: The s Command

The s command is the substitution command. Substitution and replacement of text in

files is accomplished with sed's s command. The text enclosed in the forward slashes
after the s command is a regular expression, followed by the replacement text on the
right-hand side. Replacements can be done globally across a line if the g flag is used.
5.9 sed Examples 137

% cat datafile
northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Gray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest Sl/V Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia He men way 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 5.14

% sed 's/west/north/g' datafile

northnorth NM Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
northern ME Sharon Gray 5.3 .97 5 23
southnorth SM Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Meber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXPLANATION

The s command is for substitution. The g flag at the end of the command indicates that
the substitution is global across the line; that is, if multiple occurrences of west are
found, all of them will be replaced with north. Without the g command, only the first
occurrence of west on each line would be replaced with north.

EXAMPLE 5.15

% sed -n 's/Awest/north/p' datafile

northern ME Sharon Gray 5.3 .97 5 23

EXPLANATION

The s command is for substitution. The -n option with the p flag at the end of the com-
mand tells sed to print only those lines where the substitution occurred; that is, if west
is found at the beginning of the line and is replaced with north, just those lines are
printed.
138 Chapter 5 • sed, the Streamlined Editor

EXAMPLE 5.16

,
% sed s/[0-9][0-9]$/&.5/, datafile
northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34.5
western WE Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23.5
southwest SW Lewis Daisass 2.7 .8 2 18.5
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15.5
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17.5
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20.5
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13.5
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13.5

EXPLANATION

The ampersand3 (&) in the replacement string represents exactly what was found in the
search string. Each line that ends in two digits will be replaced by itself, and . 5 will be
appended to it.

a. To represent a literal ampersand in the replacement string, it must be escaped: \&.

EXAMPLE 5.17

% sed -n 's/Hemenway/Jones/gp' datafile

southeast SE Patricia Jones 4.0 .7 4 17

EXPLANATION

All occurrences of Hemenway are replaced with lones, and only the lines that changed are
printed. The -n option combined with the p command suppresses the default output.
The g stands for global substitution across the line.

EXAMPLE 5.18

,
% sed -n s/\(Mar\)got/\lianne/p' datafile
north NO Marianne Weber 4.5 .89 5 9

EXPLANATION

The pattern Mar is enclosed in parentheses and saved as tag 1 in a special register.
It will be referenced in the replacement string as \1. Margot is then replaced with
Marianne.
5.9 sed Examples 139

% cat datafile
northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Gray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest Sl/V Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia He men way 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 5.19

,
% sed s#B#88#g, datafile
northwest NM Charles Main 88.0 .98 88 884
western WE Sharon Cray 5.88 .97 5 288
southwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 88 188
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 188

EXPLANATION

The character after the s command is the delimiter between the search string and the
replacement string. The delimiter character is a forward slash by default, but can be
changed. Whatever character follows the s command (with the exception of the new-
line character or backslash) is the new delimiter. This technique can be useful when
searching for patterns containing a forward slash, such as pathnames or birthdays.

5.9.4 Range of Selected Lines: The Comma

A range of lines starts at one address in a file and ends at another address in the file.
The address range can be line numbers (such as 5,10), regular expressions (such as
/Dick/,/Joe/), or a combination of both (such as /north/,$). The range is inclusive—it
consists of the line with the starting condition, all lines in between, and the line ending
the condition of the range. If the ending condition is never reached, it ends when the file
ends. If the ending condition is reached, and then the condition for starting again
applies, the range starts over.
140 Chapter 5 • sed, the Streamlined Editor

EXAMPLE 5.20

% sed -n Vwest/,/east/p' datafile

r-*-northwest N\fJ Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Lewis Daisass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17

EXPLANATION

All lines in the range of patterns between west and east are printed. If west were to ap-
pear on a line after east, the lines from west to the next east or to the end of file, which-
ever comes first, would be printed. The arrows mark the range.

EXAMPLE 5.21

1
% sed -n ' SjyMnortheast/p datafile
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13

EXPLANATION

Prints the lines from line 5 through the first line that begins with northeast.

EXAMPLE 5.22

% sed '/west/./east/s/S/^VACA^v/' datafile

northwest m Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34**VACA**
western WE Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23**/ACA**
southwest sw Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18**VACA**
southern so Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15**VACA**
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17**VACA**
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXPLANATION

For lines in the range between the patterns east and west, the end-of-line ($) is replaced
with the string **VACA**. The newline is moved over to the end of the new string. The
arrows mark the range.
5.9 sed Examples 141

5.9.5 Multiple Edits: The e Command

The -e command is the edit command, and is used if you have more than one editing
command for sed to execute. All edits are applied to the line in the pattern buffer, before
the next line is edited.

% cat datafile
northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Gray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 5.23

% sed -e 'l.Bd' -e 's/Hemenway/Jones/' datafile

southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Jones 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AN Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Meber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXPLANATION

The -e option allows multiple edits. The first edit removes lines 1 through 3. The second
edit substitutes Hemenway with Jones. Because both edits are done on a per-line basis (i.e.,
both commands are executed on the current line in the pattern space), the order of the
edits may affect the outcome. For example, if both commands had performed substitu-
tions on the line, the first substitution could affect the second substitution.

5.9.6 Reading from Files: The r Command

The r command is the read command. It allows sed to load content from one text file into
the current file at some specified location.
142 Chapter 5 • sed, the Streamlined Editor

EXAMPLE 5.24

% cat newfile

| •'» 'A* SUAN HAS LEFT THE COMPANY*** |

i
1 1
% sed '/Suan/r newfile' datafile
northwest fitt Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western ME Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Lewis Dais as s 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15

| ***SUAN HAS LEFT THE COMPANY*** \

i i
i i
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Meber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXPLANATION

The r command reads specified lines from a file. The contents of newfile are read into
the input file datafile, after the line where the pattern Suan is matched. If Suan had ap-
peared on more than one line, the contents of newfile would have been read in under
each occurrence.

5.9.7 Writing to Files: The w Command

The w command is the write command. It allows sed to write lines from the current file
ito another file.

EXAMPLE 5.25

% sed -n '/north/w newfile'1 datafile

cat newfile
northwest NM Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Meber 4.5 .89 5 9

EXPLANATION

The w command writes specified lines to a file. All lines containing the pattern north
are written to a file called newfile.
5.9 sed Examples 143

5.9.8 Appending: The a Command

The a command is the append command. Appending causes new text to be placed below
the current line in the file; that is, the line that was just read into the pattern buffer.
Whether at the command line or in a sed script, the a command is followed by a back-
slash. If you are at the C/TC command line, two backslashes are required as shown in
Example 5.26—one backslash is for sed's append command, and one is for line contin-
uation. With C/TC the opening quote that starts the sed command must be terminated
on the same line. The second backslash makes it possible to continue typing on the next
line without an "Unmatched quote" error. (The Bourne and Bash shells do not require
the second backslash because closing quotes do not have to be matched on the same
line.) The line of text that will be appended is placed after the sed command on its own
line. If additional lines are to be appended, each line must be terminated with a back-
slash, except the final line, which ends with the closing quote and filename. That line
will not be terminated with a backslash.

% cat datafile
northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Gray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 5.26

% sed 7Anorth /a\\ # Use two backslashes only if the shell is C/TC
—>THE NORTH SALES DISTRICT HAS M0VED<—' datafile
northwest NM Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western ME Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SM Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Meber 4.5 .89 5 9
—>THE NORTH SALES DISTRICT HAS MOVE De-
cent ral CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13
144 Chapter 5 • sed, the Streamlined Editor

EXPLANATION

The a command is the append command. The string —>THE NORTH SALES DISTRICT HAS
M0VED<— is appended after lines beginning with the pattern north, when north is fol-
lowed by a space. The text that will be appended must be on the line following the
append command.
Sed requires a backslash after the a command. The second backslash is used by the
C shell to escape the newline so that its closing quote can be on the next line.a If more
than one line is appended, each line, except the last one, must also end with a back-
slash.

a. The Bourne and Korn shells do not require the second backslash to escape the newline because they do not require
quotes to be matched on the same line, only that they match.

5.9.9 Inserting: The i Command

The i command is the insert command. It is like the a command, but instead of placing
text below the current line, it inserts new text above the current line in the file; that is,
the line that was just read into the pattern buffer. Whether at the command line or in a
sed script, the i command is followed by a backslash.

EXAMPLE 5.27

% sed '/eastern/iW # Use two backslashes for G/TG

NEW ENGLAND REGI0N\\
' datafile
northwest NW Gharles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western ME Sharon Gray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SM Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
NEW ENGLAND REGION

eastern EA IB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20

northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Meber 4.5 .89 5 9
central GT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXPLANATION

The i command is the insert command. If the pattern eastern is matched, the i corn-
mand causes the text following the backslash to be inserted above the line containing
eastern. A backslash is required after each line to be inserted, except the last one. (The
extra backslash is for the C shell.)
5.9 sed Examples 145

5.9.10 Changing: The c Command

The c command is the change command. It allows sed to modify or change existing text
with new text. The old text is overwritten with the new.

% cat datafile
northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Gray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia He men way 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 5.28

% sed '/eastern/cW
THE EASTERN REGION HAS BEEN TEMPORARILY CLOSED' datafile
northwest m Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western h/E Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest 5/1/ Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
THE EASTERN REGION HAS BEEN TEMPORARILY CLOSED
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Meber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXPLANATION

The c command is the change command. It completely changes or modifies the cur-
rent line in the pattern buffer. If the pattern eastern is matched, the c command causes
the text following the backslash to replace the line containing eastern. A backslash is
required after each line to be inserted, except the last one. (The extra backslash is for
the C shell.)

5.9.11 Next: The n Command

The n command is the next command. It causes sed to get the next line from the input
file, and read it into the pattern buffer. Any sed commands will be applied to the line
immediately following the line that is being addressed.
146 Chapter 5 • sed, the Streamlined Editor

EXAMPLE 5.29

,
% sed /eastern/{ n; s/AM/Archie/; }' datafile
northwest N\fJ Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Lewis Daisass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE Archie Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXPLANATION

If the pattern eastern is matched on a line, the n command causes sed to get the next
line of input (the line with AM Main Jr.), replace the pattern space with this line, sub-
stitute AM with Archie, print the line, and continue.

5.9.12 Transform: The y Command

The y command is the transform command. It is similar to the UNIX/Linux tr command.

Characters are translated on a one-to-one, corresponding basis from those on the left-
hand side to those on the right-hand side. For example, in the command y/abc/ABC/ any
lowercase letter a will be transformed to an uppercase A, as will b to B, and c to C.

EXAMPLE 5.30

% sed T.By/abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz/ABCDEFGHIJKL
MNOPQRSTUVWXYZ/' datafile
NORTHWEST NW CHARLES MAIN 3.0 .98 3 34
WESTERN WE SHARON CRAY 5.3 .97 5 23
SOUTHWEST SW LEWIS DALSASS 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXPLANATION

For lines 1 through B, the y command translates all lowercase letters to uppercase let-
ters. Regular expression metacharacters do not work with this command, and like the
substitution delimiter, the forward slash can be changed to a different character.
5.9 sed Examples 147

5.9.13 Quit: The q Command

The q command is the quit command. It causes the sed program to exit without further
processing.

% cat datafile
northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Gray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia He men way 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 5.31

% sed 'Sq' datafile

northwest m Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern so Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17

EXPLANATION

After line 5 is printed, the q command causes the sed program to quit.

EXAMPLE 5.32

% sed '/Lewis/f s/Lewis/Joseph/;q; }' datafile

northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Joseph Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18

EXPLANATION

When the pattern Lewi s is matched on a line, first the substitution command (s) replac-
es Lewis with Joseph, and then the q command causes the sed program to quit.
148 Chapter 5 • sed, the Streamlined Editor

5.9.14 Holding and Getting: The h and g Commands

The h command is for holding; the g command is for getting. When a line is read in from
a file, sed places it in the pattern buffer and executes commands on that line. There is an
additional buffer called the holding buffer. (Both buffers can hold up to 8,192 bytes.) A
line can be sent from the pattern buffer to a holding buffer with the h command, later to
be retrieved with the g or G (get) command.

% cat datafile
northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Gray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia He men way 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 5.33

% sed -e ' /northeast/h' -e 'SG' datafile

northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13

EXPLANATION

As sed processes the file, each line is stored in a temporary buffer called the pattern
space. Unless the line is deleted or suppressed from printing, the line will be printed
to the screen after it is processed. The pattern space is then cleared and the next line
of input is stored there for processing. In this example, after the line containing the
pattern northeast is found, it is placed in the pattern space and the h command copies
it and places it into another special buffer called the holding buffer. In the second sed
instruction, when the last line is reached ($) the G command tells sed to get the line
from the holding buffer and put it back in the pattern space buffer, appending it to the
line that is currently stored there, in this case, the last line. Simply stated: Any line
containing the pattern northeast will be copied and appended to the end of the file.
5.9 sed Examples 149

EXAMPLE 5.34

% sed -e 7WE/{h; d; }' -e 7CT/{G; }' datafile

northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
southwest SM Lewis Daisass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13
—► western WE Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23

EXPLANATION

If the pattern WE is found on a line, the h command causes the line to be copied from
the pattern space into a holding buffer, from which the line can be retrieved (G or g
command) at a later time. In this example, the line where the pattern WE is found is
stored in the pattern buffer first. The h command then puts a copy of the line in the
holding buffer. The d command deletes the copy in the pattern buffer, so that it will
not be displayed. The second command searches for CT in a line, and when it is found,
sed gets (C) the line that was stored in the holding buffer and appends it to the line cur-
rently in the pattern space. Simply stated; The line containing WE is moved after the line
containing CT. See also "Holding and Exchanging: The h and X Commands" on
page 151.

EXAMPLE 5.35

% sed -e ' /northeast/h' -e 'Sg' datafile

northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Lewis Daisass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13

EXPLANATION

As sed processes the file, each line is stored in a temporary buffer called the pattern
space. Unless the line is deleted or suppressed from printing, the line will be printed
to the screen after it is processed. The pattern space is then cleared and the next line
of input is stored there for processing. In this example, after the line containing the
pattern northeast is found, it is placed in the pattern space. The h command takes a
copy of it and places it in another special buffer called the holding buffer. In the second
sed instruction, when the last line is reached ($), the g command tells sed to get the line
from the holding buffer and put it back in the pattern space buffer, replacing the line
that is currently stored there, in this case, the last line. Simply stated; The line contain-
ing the pattern northeast is copied and moved to overwrite the last line in the file.
150 Chapter 5 • sed, the Streamlined Editor

% cat datafile
northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Gray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia He men way 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 5.36
% sed -e 7WE/{h; d; }' -e 7CT/{g; }' datafile
no rt hives t m Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
southwest S\fJ Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern so Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
western h/E Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23

EXPLANATION

If the pattern WE is found, the h command copies the line into the holding buffer; the d
command deletes the line in the pattern space. When the pattern CT is found, the g
command gets the copy in the holding buffer and overwrites the line currently in the
pattern space. Simply stated: Any line containing the pattern WE will be moved to over-
write lines containing CT. (See Figure 5.1.)

/WE/{h; d;}

western WE Sharon Gray 5.3 .97 5 23

WE is found. The pattern space above is copied to the holding buffer

below, then the contents of the pattern buffer are deleted with d.

western WE Sharon Gray 5.3 .97 5 23

/CT/{g; }

central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

CT is found. The pattern space above is overwritten with the contents of

the holding buffer, and the new pattern space appears as shown below.

western WE Sharon Gray 5.3 .97 5 23

Figure 5.1 The pattern space and holding buffer, See Example 5,36.
5.10 sed Scripting 151

5.9.15 Holding and Exchanging: The h and x Commands

The x command is the exchange command. It lets sed exchange the pattern in the holding
buffer with what is currently in the pattern buffer.

EXAMPLE 5.37

% sed -e ' /Patricia/h' -e '/Margot/x' datafile

northwest m Charles Wain 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest sw Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern so Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

EXPLANATION

The x command exchanges (swaps) the contents of the holding buffer with the current
pattern space. When the line containing the pattern Patricia is found, it will be stored
in the holding buffer. When the line containing Margot is found, the pattern space will
be exchanged for the line in the holding buffer. Simply stated: The line containing Mar-
got will be replaced with the line containing Patricia.

5.10 sed Scripting

A sed script is a list of sed commands in a file. To let sed know your commands are in a
file, when invoking sed at the command line, use the -f option followed by the name of
the sed script. Sed is very particular about the way you type lines into the script. There
cannot be any trailing whitespace or text at the end of the command. If commands are
not placed on a line by themselves, they must be terminated with a semicolon. A line
from the input file is copied into the pattern buffer, and all commands in the sed script
are executed on that line. After the line has been processed, the next line from the input
file is placed in the pattern buffer, and all commands in the script are executed on that
line. Sed gets "garbled" if your syntax is incorrect.
The nice thing about sed scripts is that you don't have to worry about the shell's inter-
action as you do when at the command line. Quotes are not needed to protect sed com-
mands from interpretation by the shell and only one backslash is used in line
continuation. In fact, you cannot use quotes in a sed script at all, unless they are part of
a search pattern.
The examples in this section use the following datafile.
152 Chapter 5 • sed, the Streamlined Editor

% cat datafile
northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western WE Sharon Gray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest Sl/V Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Weber 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Ann Stephens 5.7 .94 5 13

5.10.1 sed Script Examples

EXAMPLE 5.38

% cat seddingl # Look at the contents of the sed script

1 # My first sed script by Jack Sprat
2 /Lewi s/a\
3 Lewis is the TOP Salesperson for April!!\
Lewis is moving to the southern district next month.\
4 CONGRATULATIONS!
5 /Margot/c\
■i •!; * •!; A A A A A A A A A A A A A A \
MARGOT HAS RETIRED\
AAAAAAAAAA AAAAA AAAA A
6 li\
EMPLOYEE DATABASE\

7 Sd

% sed -f seddingl datafile # Execute the sed script commands; input file is datafile
EMPLOYEE DATABASE

northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34

western WE Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Lewis Dalsass 2.7 .8 2 18
Lewis is the TOP Salesperson for April!!
Lewis is moving to the southern district next month.
CONGRATULATIONS!
5.10 sed Scripting 153

EXAMPLE 5.38 (continued)

southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15

southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA TB Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE API Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13

j. J. J. J. J. .j- J. J. J. J. .j. J. J. J. .j. .j-J.

MARCOT HAS RETIRED

)i- j;-* :!■'n :!•

EXPLANATION

1 This line is a comment. Comments must be on lines by themselves and start with
a pound sign (#).

2 If a line contains the pattern Lewis, the next three lines are appended to that line.

3 Each line being appended, except the last one, is terminated with a backslash. The
backslash must be followed immediately with a newline. If there is any trailing
text, even one space after the newline, sed will complain.

4 The last line to be appended does not have the terminating backslash. This indi-
cates to sed that this is the last line to be appended and that the next line is another
command.

5 Any lines containing the pattern Margot will be replaced (c command) with the
next three lines of text.

6 The next two lines will be inserted (i command) above line 1.

7 The last line ($) will be deleted.

EXAMPLE 5.39

% cat sedding2 # Look at the contents of the sed script

# This script demonstrates the use of curly braces to nest addresses
# and commands. Comments are preceded by a pound sign (#) and must
# be on a line by themselves. Commands are terminated with a newline
# or semicolon. If there is any text after a command, even one
# space, you receive an error message:
# sed: Extra text at end of command:

1 /western/, /southeast/1
/a *S/d
/Suan/{ h; d; }
}
2 /Ann/g
3 s/TB \(Savage\)/Thomas \1/
154 Chapter 5 • sed, the Streamlined Editor

EXAMPLE 5.39 (continued)

4 % sed -f sedding2 datafile

northwest NW Charles Main 3.0 .98 3 34
western ME Sharon Cray 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SM Lewis Daisass 2.7 .8 2 18
southeast SE Patricia Hemenway 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA Thomas Savage 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE AM Main Jr. 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Margot Meber 4.5 .89 5 9
southern SO Suan Chin 5.1 .95 4 15

EXPLANATION

1 In the range of lines starting at western and ending at southeast, blank lines are de-
leted, and lines matching Suan are copied from the pattern buffer into the holding
buffer, then deleted from the pattern buffer.

2 When the pattern Ann is matched, the g command copies the line in the holding
buffer to the pattern buffer, overwriting what is in the pattern buffer.

3 All lines containing the pattern IB Savage are replaced with Thomas and the pattern
that was tagged, Savage. In the search string, Savage is enclosed in escaped paren-
theses, tagging the enclosed string so that it can be used again. It is tag number 1,
referenced by \1.

4 Sed will get its commands from the file following the -f option, sedding2. The file
that sed is editing is datafile.

5.10.2 sed Review

Table 5.4 lists sed commands and what they do.

Table 5.4 sed Review

Command What It Does

sed -n '/sentimental/p' filex Prints to the screen all lines containing sentimental.
The file filex does not change. Without the -n option, all lines
with sentimental will be printed twice.

sed T.Bd1 filex > newfilex Deletes lines 1,2, and 3 from filex and saves changes in newfilex.

sed '/[Ddlaniel/d' filex Deletes lines containing Daniel or daniel.

sed -n TS.ZOp' filex Prints only lines 15 through 20.

sed 'l,10s/Montana/MT/g' filex Substitutes Montana with MT globally in lines 1 through 10.

sed '/March/\!d' filex (csh) Deletes all lines not containing March. (The backslash is used
sed '/March/!d' filex (sh) only in the csh to escape the history character.)
5.10 sed Scripting 155

Table 5.4 sed Review (continued)

Command What It Does

sed '/report/s/S/S/' filex Changes the first occurrence of 5 to 8 on all lines containing
report.

sed 's/....//' filex Deletes the first four characters of each line.

sed '5/...$//' filex Deletes the last three characters of each line.

sed 1/east/,/west/s/North/South/' fi1 ex For any lines falling in the range from east to west, substitutes
North with South.

sed -n '/Time off/w timefile' filex Writes all lines containing Time off to the file timefile.

sed 'sAdOojccuiAlenceAlrence/' file Substitutes either Occurence or occurence with Occurrence or

occurrence.

sed -n T filex Prints all lines showing nonprinting characters as \nn, where nn
is the octal value of the character, and showing tabs as >.

LAB 2: sed EXERCISE

(Refer to the file called datebook on the CD.)

Steve Blenheim:238-923-7366:95 Latham Lane, Easton, PA 83755:11/12/56:20300

Betty Boop:245-836-8357;635 Cutesy Lane, Hollywood, CA 91464:6/23/23:14500
Igor Chevsky:385-375-8395;3567 Populus Place, Caldwell, NJ 23875:6/18/68:23400
Norma Corder;397-857-2735:74 Pine Street, Dearborn, MI 23874:3/28/45:245700
Jennifer Cowan:548-834-2348:583 Laurel Ave., Kingsville, TX 83745:10/1/35:58900
Jon DeLoach:408-253-3122:123 Park St., San Jose, CA 04086:7/25/53:85100
Karen Evich:284-758-2857:23 Edgecliff Place, Lincoln, NB 92743:7/25/53:85100
Karen Evich;284-758-2867:23 Edgecliff Place, Lincoln, NB 92743:11/3/35:58200
Karen Evich:284-758-2867:23 Edgecliff Place, Lincoln, NB 92743:11/3/35:58200
Fred Fardbarkle;674-843-1385:20 Parak Lane, Duluth, MN 23850:4/12/23:780900
Fred Fardbarkle:674-843-1385:20 Parak Lane, Duluth, MN 23850:4/12/23:780900
Lori Gortz:327-832-5728:3465 Mirlo Street, Peabody, MA 34756:10/2/65:35200
Paco Gutierrez:835-365-1284:454 Easy Street, Decatur, 1L 75732:2/28/53:123500
Ephram Hardy:293-259-5395:235 CarltonLane, Joliet, IL 73858:8/12/20:56700
James Ikeda:834-938-8376:23445 Aster Ave., Allentown, NJ 83745:12/1/38:45000
Barbara Kertz:385-573-8326:832 Ponce Drive, Gary, IN 83756:12/1/46:268500
Lesley Kirstin:408-456-1234:4 Harvard Square, Boston, MA 02133:4/22/62:52600
William Kopf:846-836-2837:6937 Ware Road, Milton, PA 93756:9/21/46:43500
Sir Lancelot:837-835-8257:474 Camelot Boulevard, Bath, WY 28356:5/13/69:24500
Jesse Neal:408-233-8971:45 Rose Terrace, San Francisco, CA 92303:2/3/36:25000
Zippy Pinhead:834-823-8319:2356 Bizarro Ave., Farmount, IL 84357:1/1/67:89500
Arthur Putie:923-835-8745:23 Wimp Lane, Kensington, DL 38758:8/31/69:126000
Popeye Sailor: 156-454-3322:945 Bluto Street, Anywhere, USA 29358:3/19/35:22350
Jose Santiago;385-898-8357:38 Fife Way, Abilene, TX 39673:1/5/58:95600
156 Chapter 5 • sed, the Streamlined Editor

Tommy Savage:408-724-0140:1222 Oxbow Court, Sunnyvale, CA 94087:5/19/66:34200

Yukio Takeshida:387-827-1095;13 Uno Lane, Ashville, NC 23556:7/1/29:57000
Vinh Tranh:438-910-7449:8235 Maple Street, Wilmington, VM 29085:9/23/63:68900

1. Change the name Jon to Jonathan.

2. Delete the first three lines.

3. Print lines 5 through 10.

4. Delete lines containing Lane.

5. Print all lines where the birthdays are in November or December.

6. Append three asterisks to the end of lines starting with Fred.

7. Replace the line containing Jose with JOSE HAS RETIRED.

8. Change Popeye's birthday to 11/14/46. Assume you don't know Popeye's original birthday. Use
a regular expression to search for it.

9. Delete all blank lines.

10. Write a sed script that will

a. Insert above the first line the title PERSONNEL FILE.

b. Remove the salaries ending in 500.

c. Print the contents of the file with the last names and first names reversed.

d. Append at the end of the file THE END.

chapter

The awk Utility

6.1 What's awk? What's nawk? What's gawk?

Awk is a UNIX programming language used for manipulating data and generating reports.
Nawk is a newer version of awk, and gawk is the GNU version used on Linux.
The data may come from standard input, one or more files, or as output from a pro-
cess. Awk can be used at the command line for simple operations, or it can be written into
programs for larger applications. Because awk can manipulate data, it is an indispensable
tool used in shell scripts and for managing small databases.
Awk scans a file (or input) line by line, from the first to the last line, searching for lines
that match a specified pattern and performing selected actions (enclosed in curly braces)
on those lines. If there is a pattern with no specific action, all lines that match the pattern
are displayed; if there is an action with no pattern, all input lines specified by the action
are executed upon.

6.1.1 What Does awk Stand For?

Awk stands for the first initials in the last names of each of the authors of the language,
Alfred Aho, Brian Kernighan, and Peter Weinberger. They could have called it wak or kai^
but for whatever reason, awk won out.

6.1.2 Which awk?

There are a number of versions of awk: old awk, new awk, GNU awk (gawk), POSIX awk, and
others. Awk was originally written in 1977, and in 1985, the original implementation was
improved so that awk could handle larger programs. Additional features included user-
defined functions, dynamic regular expressions, processing multiple input files, and
more. On most systems, the command is awk if using the old version, nawk if using the
new version, and gawk if using the GNU version.1

1. On SCO UNIX, the new version is spelled awk, and on Linux, the GNU version is spelled gawk. This text
pertains primarily to the new awk, nawk. The GNU implementation, gawk, is fully upward-compatible with nawk.

157
158 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

6.2 awk's Format

An awk program consists of the awk command, the program instructions enclosed in
quotes (or in a file), and the name of the input file. If an input file is not specified, input
comes from standard input (stdin), the keyboard.
Awk instructions consist of patterns, actions, or a combination of patterns and actions.
A pattern is a statement consisting of an expression of some type. If you do not see the
keyword if, but you think the word if when evaluating the expression, it is a pattern.
Actions consist of one or more statements separated by semicolons or newlines and
enclosed in curly braces. Patterns cannot be enclosed in curly braces, and consist of reg-
ular expressions enclosed in forward slashes or expressions consisting of one or more of
the many operators provided by awk.
Awk commands can be typed at the command line or in awk script files. The input lines
can come from files, pipes, or standard input.

6.2.1 Input from Files

In the following examples, the percent sign is a shell prompt. Please take note: In all
examples where the command is nawk, use either awk or gawk if you are on an HP-UX flavor
system or using Linux.

FORMAT

% nawk 'pattern' filename

% nawk '{action}' filename
% nawk 'pattern {action}' filename

Here is a sample file called employees;

EXAMPLE 6.1

% cat employees
Tom Jones 4424 5/12/66 543354
Mary Adams 5346 11/4/63 28765
Sally Chang 1654 7/22/54 650000
Billy Black 1683 9/23/44 336500

% nawk '/Mary/' employees

Mary Adams 5346 11/4/63 28765

EXPLANATION

Nawk prints all lines that contain the pattern Mary.

6.2 awk's Format 159

EXAMPLE 6.2

% cat employees
Tom Jones 4424 5/12/66 543354
Mary Adams 5346 11/4/63 28765
Sally Chang 1654 7/22/54 650000
Billy Black 1683 9/23/44 336500

% nawk '{print $1}' employees

Tom
Mary
Sally
Billy

EXPLANATION

Nawk prints the first field of file employees, where the field starts at the left margin of the
line and is delimited by whitespaee.

EXAMPLE 6.3

% cat employees
Tom Jones 4424 5/12/66 543354
Mary Adams 5346 11/4/63 28765
Sally Chang 1654 7/22/54 650000
Billy Black 1683 9/23/44 336500

,
% nawk /Sally/{print SI, $2}' employees
Sally Chang

EXPLANATION

Nawk prints the first and second fields of file employees, only if the line contains the pat-
tern Sally. Remember, the field separator is whitespaee.

6.2.2 Input from Commands

The output from a UNIX/Linux command or commands can be piped to awk for process-
ing. Shell programs commonly use awk for manipulating commands.

FORMAT

% command I nawk 'pattern'

% command I nawk '{action}'
% command I nawk 'pattern {action}'
160 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

EXAMPLE 6.4

1 % df 1 nawk '$4 > 75000'

/oracle (/dev/dsk/c0t0d057 ):390780 blocks 105756 files
/opt (/dev/dsk/c0t0d058 ):1943994 blocks 49187 files

2 % rusers 1 nawk 7root$/{print $1}'

owl
crow
bluebird

EXPLANATION

1 The df command reports the free disk space on file systems. The output of the df
command is piped to nawk. If the fourth field is greater than 75,000 blocks, the line
is printed.

2 The rusers command prints those logged on remote machines on the network.
The output of the rusers command is piped to nawk as input. The first field is print-
ed if the regular expression root is matched at the end of the line ($); that is, all
machine names are printed where root is logged on.

6.3 How awk Works

Before getting into all the details of awk, let's look at how it does its job, step by step. We'll
look at a simple three-line file called names:

Tom Savage 100

Molly Lee 200
John Doe 300

The awk command follows:

% nawk '{print $1, $3}' names

1. Awk takes a line of input (from a file or pipe) and puts the line into an internal
variable called $0. Each line is also called a record and is terminated by a new-
line, by default.

Tom Savage 100

\

$0

2. Next, the line is broken into fields (words) separated by whitespace. Each field
is stored in a numbered variable, starting with $1. There can be as many as 100
fields.
Formatting Output 161

Tom Savage 100

$1 $2 $3

3. How does awk know that whitespace separates the fields? There is another inter-
nal variable, called FS, that designates the field separator. Initially, FS is assigned
whitespace—tabs and spaces. If the fields are separated by another character,
such as a colon or dash, you can change the value of FS to designate the new
field separator. (See "Field Separators" on page 169.)

4. When awk prints the fields, it uses the print function as follows:

{print $1,$3}

And the output shows each field separated by a space, as

Tom 100
Molly 200
John 300

Awk provides the space in the output between Tom and 100 for you because there is
a comma placed between $1 and $3. The comma is special. It is mapped to
another internal variable, called the output field separator (OFS). The OFS is
assigned a space as its default. The comma generates whatever character has
been assigned to the OFS variable.

5. After awk displays its output, it gets the next line in the file and stores that in $0,
overwriting what was there. It then breaks that line into fields, and processes it.
This continues until all the lines in the file have been processed.

4 Formatting Output

6.4.1 The print Function

The action part of the awk command is enclosed in curly braces. If no action is specified
and a pattern is matched, awk takes the default action, which is to print the lines that are
matched to the screen. The print function is used to print simple output that does not
require fancy formatting. For more sophisticated formatting, the pri ntf or spri ntf functions
are used. If you are familiar with C, then you already know how pri ntf and spri ntf work.
The print function can also be explicitly used in the action part of awk as {print}. The
print function accepts arguments as variables, computed values, or string constants.
Strings must be enclosed in double quotes. Commas are used to separate the arguments;
if commas are not provided, the arguments are concatenated together. The comma eval-
uates to the value of the OFS, which is by default a space.
162 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

The output of the print function can be redirected or piped to another program, and
the output of another program can be piped to awk for printing. (See "Redirection" on
page 25 and "Pipes" on page 28.)

EXAMPLE 6.5

% date
Wed Jul 28 22:23:16 PDT 2004

% date | nawk '{ print "Month: " $2 "\nYear: " , $6 }'

Month: Jul
Year: 2004

EXPLANATION

The output of the UNIX date command will be piped to nawk. The string Month: is print-
ed, followed by the second field, the string containing the newline character (\n), and
Year:, followed by the sixth field ($6).

Escape Sequences. Escape sequences are represented by a backslash and a letter

or number. They can be used in strings to represent tabs, newlines, form feeds, and so
forth (see Table 6.1).

Table 6.1 pri nt Escape Sequences

Escape Sequence Meaning

\b Backspace

\f Form feed

\n Newline

\r Carriage return

\t Tab

\047 Octal value 47, a single quote

\c c represents any other character, e.g., \

EXAMPLE 6.6

Tom Jones 4424 5/12/66 543354

Mary Adams 5346 11/4/63 28765
Sally Chang 1654 7/22/54 650000
Billy Black 1683 9/23/44 336500

M M
% nawk '/Sally/fprint \t\tHave a nice day, " $1, $2 \!T employees
Have a nice day, Sally Chang!
6.4 Formatting Output 163

EXPLANATION

If the line contains the pattern Sally, the print function prints two tabs, the string Have
a nice day, the first (where SI is Sally) and second fields (where $2 is Chang), followed by
a string containing an exclamation mark.

6.4.2 The OFMT Variable

When printing numbers, you may want to control the format of the number. Normally
this would be done with the printf function, but the special awk variable, OFMT, can be set
to control the printing of numbers when using the print function. It is set by default to
%.6g—six significant digits to the right of the decimal are printed. (The following section
describes how this value can be changed.)

EXAMPLE 6.7

% nawk 'BEGINJOFMTr'TZf"; print 1.2456789, UE-l}'

1.25 0.12

EXPLANATION

The OFMT variable is set so that floating-point numbers (f) will be printed with two
numbers following the decimal point. The percent sign (%) indicates a format is being
specified.

6.4.3 The printf Function

When printing output, you may want to specify the amount of space between fields so
that columns line up neatly. Because the print function with tabs does not always guar-
antee the desired output, the printf function can be used for formatting fancy output.
The pri ntf function returns a formatted string to standard output, like the pri ntf state-
ment in C. The printf statement consists of a quoted control string that may be embed-
ded with format specifications and modifiers. The control string is followed by a comma
and a list of comma-separated expressions that will be formatted according to the spec-
ifications stated in the control string. Unlike the print function, printf does not provide
a newline. The escape sequence, \n, must be provided if a newline is desired.
For each percent sign and format specifier, there must be a corresponding argument.
To print a literal percent sign, two percent signs must be used. See Table 6.2 for a list of
printf conversion characters and Table 6.3 for printf modifiers. The format specifiers are
preceded by a percent sign; see Table 6.4 for a list of printf format specifiers.
When an argument is printed, the place where the output is printed is called the field,
and the width of the field is the number of characters contained in that field.
The pipe symbol (vertical bar) in the following examples, when part of the printf
string, is part of the text and is used to indicate where the formatting begins and ends.
164 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

EXAMPLE 6.8

1 % echo "UNIX" | nawk ' {printf "|%o-15s|\n", $1}'

(Output)
/UNIX /

2 % echo "UNIX" | nawk '{ printf "|0/ol5s|\n", $1}'

(Output)
/ UNIX/

EXPLANATION

1 The output of the echo command, UNIX, is piped to nawk. The printf function con-
tains a control string. The percent sign alerts printf that it will be printing a 15-
space, left-justified string enclosed in vertical bars and terminated with a newline.
The dash after the percent sign indicates left justification. The control string is fol-
lowed by a comma and $1. The string UNIX will be formatted according to the for-
mat specification in the control string.

2 The string UNIX is printed in a right-justified, 15-space string, enclosed in vertical

bars, and terminated with a newline.

EXAMPLE 6.9

% cat employees
Tom Jones 4424 5/12/66 543354
Mary Adams 5346 11/4/63 28765
Sally Chang 1654 7/22/54 650000
Billy Black 1683 9/23/44 336500

% nawk '{printf "The name is: %-15s ID is "/iSdVi", $1, $3}' employees
The name is Tom ID is 4424
The name is Mary ID is 5346
The name is Sally ID is 1654
The name is Billy ID is 1683

EXPLANATION

The string to be printed is enclosed in double quotes. The first format specifier is %-
15s. It has a corresponding argument, $1, positioned directly to the right of the comma
after the closing quote in the control string. The percent sign indicates a format spec-
ification: The dash means left justify, the 15s means 15-space string. At this spot, print
a left-justified, 15-space string followed by the string ID is and a number.
The %8d format specifies that the decimal (integer) value of $2 will be printed in its
place within the string. The number will be right justified and take up eight spaces.
Placing the quoted string and expressions within parentheses is optional.
6.4 Formatting Output 165

Table 6.2 pri ntf Conversion Characters

Conversion
Character Definition

c Character

s String

d Decimal number

Id Long decimal number

u Unsigned decimal number

lu Long unsigned decimal number

X Hexadecimal number

Ix Long hexadecimal number

0 Octal number

lo Long octal number

e Floating-point number in scientific notation (e-nolalion)

f Floating-point number

9 Floating-point number using either e or f conversion,

whichever takes the least space

Table 6.3 pri ntf Modifiers

Character Definition

Left-justification modifier

# Integers in octal format are displayed with a leading 0; integers in

hexadecimal form are displayed with a leading Ox

+ For conversions using d, e, f, and g, integers are displayed with a

numeric sign + or -

0 The displayed value is padded with zeros instead of whitespace

166 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

Table 6.4 pri ntf Format Specifiers

Format Specifier What It Does

Given x = 'A', y = 15, z = 2.3, and $1 = Bob Smith:

%c Prints a single ASCII character.

printf("The character is %c.\n",x)
prints: The character is A.

%d Prints a decimal number.

printf("The boy is %d years old.\n", y)
prints: The boy is 15 years old.

%e Prints the e-notation of a number.

printf("z is %e.\n",z)
prints: z is 2.3e+01.

%f Prints a floating-point number.

printf("z is %f.\n", 2.3 *2)
prints: z is 4.600000.

%o Prints the octal value of a number.

printf("y is %o.\n", y)
prints: z is 17.

%s Prints a string of characters.

printf("The name of the culprit is %s.\n", $1)
prints: The name of the culprit is Bob Smith.

%x Prints the hex value of a number.

printf ("y is %x.\n", y)
prints: x is f.

6.5 awk Commands from Within a File

If awk commands are placed in a file, the -f option is used with the name of the awk file,
followed by the name of the input file to be processed. A record is read into awk's buffer
and each of the commands in the awk file is tested and executed for that record. After awk
has finished with the first record, it is discarded and the next record is read into the
buffer, and so on. If an action is not controlled by a pattern, the default behavior is to
print the entire record. If a pattern does not have an action associated with it, the default
is to print the record where the pattern matches an input line.
6.6 Records and Fields 167

EXAMPLE 6.10

(The Database)
SI $2 S3 $4 S5
Tom Jones 4424 5/12/66 543354
Mary Adams 5346 11/4/63 28765
Sally Chang 1654 7/22/54 650000
Billy Black 1683 9/23/44 336500

% cat awkfile
1 /AMary/{print "Hello Mary!"}
2 {print $1, $2, $3}

% nawk -f awkfile employees

Tom Jones 4424
Hello Mary!
Mary Adams 5346
Sally Chang 1654
Billy Black 1683

EXPLANATION

1 If the record begins with the regular expression Mary, the string Hel lo Mary! is print-
ed. The action is controlled by the pattern preceding it. Fields are separated by
whitespace.

2 The first, second, and third field of each record are printed. The action occurs for
each line because there is not a pattern controlling the action.

6.6 Records and Fields

6.6.1 Records

Awk does not see input data as an endless string of characters, but sees it as having a format
or structure. By default, each line is called a record and is terminated with a newline.

The Record Separator. By default, the output and input record separator (line sep-
arator) is a carriage return (newline), stored in the built-in awk variables ORS and RS,
respectively. The ORS and RS values can be changed, but only in a limited fashion.

The $0 Variable. An entire record is referenced as $0 by awk. (When $0 is changed by

substitution or assignment, the value of NF, the number of fields, may be changed.) The
newline value is stored in awk's built-in variable RS, a carriage return by default.
168 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

EXAMPLE 6.11

% cat employees
Tom Jones 4424 5/12/66 543354
Mary Adams 5346 11/4/63 28765
Sa1 ly Chang 1654 7/22/54 650000
Billy Black 1683 9/23/44 336500

% nawk '{print $0}' employees

Tom Jones 4424 5/12/66 543354
Mary Adams 5346 11/4/63 28765
Sa1 ly Chang 1654 7/22/54 650000
Billy Black 1683 9/23/44 336500

EXPLANATION

The nawk variable $0 holds the current record. It is printed to the screen. By default, nawk
would also print the record if the command were

% nawk '{print}' employees

The NR Variable. The number of each record is stored in awk's built-in variable, NR.
After a record has been processed, the value of NR is incremented by one.

EXAMPLE 6 12

% cat employees
Tom Jones 4424 5/12/66 543354
Mary Adams 5346 11/4/63 28765
Sally Chang 1654 7/22/54 650000
Billy Black 1683 9/23/44 336500

% nawk '{print NR, $0}' employees

1 Tom Jones 4424 5/12/66 543354
2 Mary Adams 5346 11/4/63 28765
3 Sally Chang 1654 7/22/54 650000
4 Billy Black 1683 9/23/44 336500

EXPLANATION

Each record, $(3, is printed as it is stored in the file and is preceded with the number of
the record, NR.

6.6.2 Fields

Each record consists of words called/ields that, by default, are separated by whitespace
(blank spaces or tabs). Each of these words is called a field, and awk keeps track of the
number of fields in its built-in variable, NE The value of NF can vary from line to line, and
6.6 Records and Fields 169

the limit is implementation-dependent, typically 100 fields per line. New fields can be
created. The following example has four records (lines) and five fields (columns). Each
record starts at the first field, represented as $1, then moves to the second field, S2, and
so forth.

EXAMPLE 6.13

(Fields are represented by a dollar sign and the number of the field.)
(The Database)

SI $2 $3 S4 $5
Tom Jones 4424 5/12/66 543354
Mary Adams 5346 11/4/63 28765
Sally Chang 1654 7/22/54 650000
Billy Black 1683 9/23/44 336500

% nawk '{print NR, $1, $2, $5}' employees

1 Tom Jones 543354
2 Mary Adams 28765
3 Sally Chang 650000
4 Billy Black 336500

EXPLANATION

Nawk will print the number of the record (NR), and the first, second, and fifth fields (col-
umns) of each line in the file.

EXAMPLE 6.14

% nawk '{print $0, NF}11 employees

Tom Jones 4444 5/12/66 543354 5
Mary Adams 5346 11/4/63 28765 5
Sally Chang 1654 7/22/54 650000 5
Billy Black 1683 9/23/44 336500 5

EXPLANATION

Nawk will print each record ($0) in the file, followed by the number of fields.

6.6.3 Field Separators

The Input Field Separator. Awk's built-in variable, FS, holds the value of the input
field separator. When the default value of FS is used, awk separates fields by spaces and/or
tabs, stripping leading blanks and tabs. The value of FS can be changed by assigning a
new value to it, either in a BEGIN statement or at the command line. For now, we will
assign the new value at the command line. To change the value of FS at the command
line, the -F option is used, followed by the character representing the new separator.
170 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

Changing the Field Separator at the Command Line. See Example 6.15 for a
demonstration on how to change the input field separator at the command line using
the -F option.

EXAMPLE 6.15

% cat employees
Tom Jones:4424:5/12/66:S43354
Mary Adams:5346:11/4/63:28765
Sally Chang:1654:7/22/54:650000
Billy Black:1683:9/23/44:336500

% nawk -F: '/Tom Jones/fprint $1, $2}' employees2

Tom Jones 4424

EXPLANATION

The -F option is used to reassign the value of the input field separator at the command
line. When a colon is placed directly after the -F option, nawk will look for colons to
separate the fields in the employees file.

Using More Than One Field Separator. You may specify more than one input sep-
arator. If more than one character is used for the field separator, FS, then the string is a
regular expression and is enclosed in square brackets. In the following example, the field
separator is a space, colon, or tab. (The old version of awk did not support this feature.)

EXAMPLE 6.16

% nawk -F'l At]' '{print $1, $2, S3}' employees

Tom Jones 4424
Mary Adams 5346
Sally Chang 1654
Billy Black 1683

EXPLANATION

The -F option is followed by a regular expression enclosed in brackets. If a space, co-

lon, or tab is encountered, nawk will use that character as a field separator. The expres-
sion is surrounded by quotes so that the shell will not pounce on the metacharacters
for its own. (Remember that the shell uses brackets for filename expansion.)

The Output Field Separator. The default output field separator is a single space and
is stored in awk's internal variable, OFS. In all of the examples thus far, we have used the
print statement to send output to the screen. The comma that is used to separate fields
in print statements evaluates to whatever the OFS has been set. If the default is used, the
comma inserted between $1 and $2 will evaluate to a single space and the print function
will print the fields with a space between them.
6.7 Patterns and Actions 171

The fields are jammed together if a comma is not used to separate the fields. The OFS
will not be evaluated unless the comma separates the fields. The OFS can be changed.

EXAMPLE 6.17

% cat employeesZ
Tom Jones:4424:5/12/66:543354
Mary Adams:5346:11/4/63:28765
Sally Chang:1654:7/22/54:650000
Billy Black:1683:9/23/44:336500

(The Command Line)

% nawk -F: '/Tom Jones/fprint $1, $2, S3, $4}' employeesZ
Tom Jones 4424 5/12/66 543354

EXPLANATION

The output field separator, a space, is stored in nawk's OFS variable. The comma between
the fields evaluates to whatever is stored in OFS. The fields are printed to standard out-
put separated by a space.

EXAMPLE 6.18

% nawk -F: '/Tom Jones/fprint $0}' employeesZ

Tom Jones:4424:5/12/66:543354

EXPLANATION

The $0 variable holds the current record exactly as it is found in the input file. The
record will be printed as is.

6.7 Patterns and Actions

6.7.1 Patterns

Awk patterns control what actions awk will take on a line of input. A pattern consists of a
regular expression, an expression resulting in a true or false condition, or a combination
of these. The default action is to print each line where the expression results in a true
condition. When reading a pattern expression, there is an implied if statement. When
an if is implied, there can be no curly braces surrounding it. When the if is explicit, it
becomes an action statement and the syntax is different. (See "Conditional Statements"
on page 227.)
172 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

EXAMPLE 6.19

% cat employees
Tom Jones 4424 5/12/66 543354
Mary Adams 5346 11/4/63 28765
Sally Chang 1654 7/22/54 650000
Billy Black 1683 9/23/44 336500

(The Command Line)

1 nawk '/Tom/' employees
Tom Jones 4424 5/12/66 543354

2 nawk '$3 < 4000' employees

Sally Chang 1654 7/22/54 650000
Billy Black 1683 9/23/44 336500

EXPLANATION

1 If the pattern Tom is matched in the input file, the record is printed. The default
action is to print the line if no explicit action is specified. This is equivalent to

nawk '$0 ~ /Tom/{print $0}' employees

2 If the third field is less than 4000, the record is printed.

6.7.2 Actions

Actions are statements enclosed within curly braces and separated by semicolons.2 If a
pattern precedes an action, the pattern dictates when the action will be performed.
Actions can be simple statements or complex groups of statements. Statements are sep-
arated by semicolons, or by a newline if placed on their own line.

FORMAT

{ action }

EXAMPLE 6.20

{ print $1, $2 }

2. On some versions of awk, actions must be separated by semicolons or newlines, and the statements within
the curly braces also must be separated by semicolons or newlines. SVR4's nawk requires the use of semico-
lons or newlines to separate statements within an action, but does not require the use of semicolons to
separate actions; for example, the two actions that follow do not need a semicolon;
nawk '/Tom/lprint "hi Tom"};{x=5}' file
6.8 Regular Expressions 173

EXPLANATION

The action is to print fields 1 and 2.

Patterns can be associated with actions. Remember, actions are statements enclosed
in curly braces. A pattern controls the action from the first open curly brace to the first
closing curly brace. If an action follows a pattern, the first opening curly brace must
be on the same line as the pattern. Patterns are never enclosed in curly braces.

FORMAT

patternf action statement; action statement; etc. }

or
patternf
action statement
action statement
}

EXAMPLE 6.21

% nawk '/Tom/fprint "Hello there, " $1}' employees

Hello there, Tom

EXPLANATION

If the record contains the pattern Tom, the string Hello there, Tom will print.
A pattern with no action displays all lines matching the pattern. String-matching
patterns contain regular expressions enclosed in forward slashes.

6.8 Regular Expressions

A regular expression to awk is a pattern that consists of characters enclosed in forward

slashes. Awk supports the use of regular expression metacharacters (same as eg rep) to
modify the regular expression in some way. If a string in the input line is matched by the
regular expression, the resulting condition is true, and any actions associated with the
expression are executed. If no action is specified and an input line is matched by the reg-
ular expression, the record is printed. See Table 6.5.

EXAMPLE 6.22

% nawk '/Mary/' employees

Mary Adams 5346 11/4/63 28765

EXPLANATION

All lines in the employees file containing the regular expression pattern Mary are
displayed.
174 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

EXAMPLE 6.23

% nawk 7Mary/{print $1, $2}' employees

Mary Adams

EXPLANATION

The first and second fields of all lines in the employees file containing the regular ex-
pression pattern Mary are displayed.

Table 6.5 awk Regular Expression Metacharacters

Metacharacter What It Does

A Matches at the beginning of string

$ Matches at the end of string

• Matches for a single character

J. Matches for zero or more of the preceding characters

+ Matches for one or more of the preceding characters

? Matches for zero or one of the preceding characters

[ABC] Matches for any one character in the set of characters A, B, or C

[AABC] Matches any one character not in the set of characters A, B, or C

[A-Z] Matches for any one character in the range from A to Z

A|B Matches either A or B

(AB)+ Matches one or more sets of AB; e.g., AB, ABAB, ABABAB

\* Matches for a literal asterisk

& Used in the replacement string to represent what was found in the search
string

The metacharacters listed in Table 6.6 are supported by most versions of grep and sed,
but are not supported by any versions of awk.

Table 6.6 Metacharacters NOT supported

Metacharacter Function

\< >/ Word anchors

\( \) Backreferencing

\{ \} Repetition
6.8 Regular Expressions 175

6.8.1 Matching on an Entire Line

A stand-alone regular expression matches for the pattern on an entire line and if no
action is given, the entire line where the match occurred will be printed. The regular
expression can be anchored to the beginning of the line with the A metacharacter.

EXAMPLE 6.24

% nawk '/AMary/' employees

Mary Adams 5346 11/4/63 28765

EXPLANATION

All lines in the employees file that start with the regular expression Mary are displayed.

EXAMPLE 6.25

% nawk 7A[A-Z][a-z]+ /' employees

Tom Jones 4424 5/12/66 543354
Mary Adams 5346 11/4/63 28765
Sally Chang 1654 7/22/54 650000
Billy Black 1683 9/23/44 336500

EXPLANATION

All lines in the employees file beginning with an uppercase letter, followed by one or
more lowercase letters, followed by a space, are displayed.

6.8.2 The match Operator

The match operator, the tilde (~), is used to match an expression within a record or field.

EXAMPLE 6.26

% cat employees
Tom Jones 4424 5/12/66 543354
Mary Adams 5346 11/4/63 28765
Sally Chang 1654 7/22/54 650000
Billy Black 1683 9/23/44 336500

% nawk '$1 ~ /[Bb]ill/' employees

Billy Black 1683 9/23/44 336500

EXPLANATION

Any lines matching Bill or bill in the first field are displayed.

EXAMPLE 6.27

% nawk '$1 !~ /W employees

Tom Jones 4424 5/12/66 543354
Mary Adams 5346 11/4/63 28765
176 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

Any lines not matching ly, when ly is at the end of the first field are displayed.

The POSIX Character Class. POSIX (the Portable Operating System Interface) is
an industry standard to ensure that programs are portable across operating systems. In
order to be portable, POSIX recognizes that different countries or locales may differ in
the way characters are encoded, alphabets, the symbols used to represent currency, and
how times and dates are represented. To handle different types of characters, POSIX
added to the basic and extended regular expressions, the bracketed character class of
characters shown in Table 6.7. Gawk supports this new character class of metacharacters,
whereas awk and nawk do not.
The class, [:alnum:] is another way of saying A-Za-z0-9. To use this class, it must be
enclosed in another set of brackets for it to be recognized as a regular expression. For
example, A-Za-z0-9, by itself, is not a regular expression, but [A-Za-z0-9] is. Likewise,
[:alnum:] should be written [[:alnuiii:]]. The difference between using the first form,
[A-Za-z0-9] and the bracketed form, [[:alnum:]] is that the first form is dependent on
ASCII character encoding, whereas the second form allows characters from other lan-
guages to be represented in the class, such as Swedish rings and German umlauts.

Table 6.7 Bracketed Character Class Added by POSIX

Bracket Class Meaning

:alnuni Alphanumeric characters

: alpha Alphabetic characters

:cntrl Control characters

digit Numeric characters

:graph Nonblank characters (not spaces, control characters, etc.)

: lower Lowercase letters

:print Like [:graph:], but includes the space character

:punct Punctuation characters

:space All whitespace characters (newlines, spaces, tabs)

:upper Uppercase letters

:xdigit Allows digits in a hexadecimal number (0-9a-fA-F)

6.9 awk Commands in a Script File 177

EXAMPLE 6.28

% gawk '/[hloweriJJ+gttispaceiJHhdigit:]]/' employees

Sally Chang 1654 7/22/54 650000

EXPLANATION

Gawk searches for one or more lowercase letters, followed by a g, followed by one or
more spaces, followed by a digit. (If you are a Linux user, awk is linked to gawk, making
both awk and gawk valid commands.)

6.9 awk Commands in a Script File

When you have multiple awk pattern/action statements, it is often much easier to put the
statements in a script. The script is a file containing awk comments and statements. If
statements and actions are on the same line, they are separated by semicolons. If state-
ments are on separate lines, semicolons are not necessary. If an action follows a pattern,
the opening curly brace must be on the same line as the pattern. Comments are preceded
by a pound (#) sign.

EXAMPLE 6.29

% cat employees
Tom ]ones:4424:5/12/66:54335
Mary Adams:5346:11/4/63:28765
Billy Black:1683:9/23/44:336500
Sally Chang:1654:7/22/54:65000
Jose Tomas:1683:9/23/44:33650

(The Awk Script)

% cat info
1 # My first awk script by Jack Sprat
# Script name: info; Date: February 28, 2004
2 /Tom/{print "Tom's birthday is "$3}
3 /Mary/fprint NR, $0}
4 /ASally/fprint "Hi Sally. " $1 " has a salary of $'" $4 "."}
# End of info script

(The Command Line)

5 % nawk -F: -f info employees2
Tom's birthday is 5/12/66
2 Mary Adams:5346:11/4/63:28765
Hi Sally. Sally Chang has a salary of $65000.

EXPLANATION

1 These are comment lines.

2 If the regular expression Tom is matched against an input line, the string Tom's
birthday is and the value of the third field ($3) are printed.
178 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

EXPLANATION (continued)

3 If the regular expression Mary is matched against an input line, the action block
prints NR, the number of the current record, and the record.

4 If the regular expression Sally is found at the beginning of the input line, the
string Hi Sally, is printed, followed by the value of the first field (SI), the string
has a salary of $, and the value of the fourth field ($4).

5 The nawk command is followed by the -F: option, specifying the colon to be the
field separator. The -f option is followed by the name of the awk script. Awk will read
instructions from the info file. The input file, eniployees2, is next.

6.10 Review

The examples in this section use the following sample database, called datafile, repeated
periodically for your convenience. In the database, the input field separator, FS, is
whitespace, the default. The number of fields, NF, is 8. The number may vary from line
to line, but in this file, the number of fields is fixed. The record separator, RS, is the new-
line, which separates each line of the file. Awk keeps track of the number of each record
in the NR variable. The output field separator, OFS, is a space. If a comma is used to sepa-
rate fields, when the line is printed, each field printed will be separated by a space.

% cat datafile
northwest NW Joel Craig 3.0 .98 3 4
western WE Sharon Kelly 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Chris Foster 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO May Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Derek Johnson 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA Susan Beal 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE TJ Nichols 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Val Shultz 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Sheri Watson 5.7 .94 5 13

6.10.1 Simple Pattern Matching

EXAMPLE 6.30

nawk '/west/' datafile

northwest Joel Craig 3.0 .98 3 4
western WE Sharon Kelly 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Chris Foster 2.7 .8 2 18

EXPLANATION

All lines containing the pattern west are printed.

6.10 Review 179

EXAMPLE 6.31

nawk 7Anorth/' datafile

northwest NW Joel Craig 3.0 .98 3 4
northeast NE TJ Nichols 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Val Shultz 4.5 .89 5 9

EXPLANATION

All lines beginning with the pattern north are printed.

EXAMPLE 6.32

nawk VMnolso)/' datafile

northwest NW Joel Craig 3.0 .98 3 4
southwest SW Chris Foster 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO May Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Derek Johnson 4.0 .7 4 17
northeast NE TJ Nichols 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Val Shultz 4.5 .89 5 9

EXPLANATION

All lines beginning with the pattern no or so are printed.

6.10.2 Simple Actions

EXAMPLE 6.33

nawk '{print $3, $2}' datafile

Joel A¥
Sharon WE
Chris SW
May SO
Derek SE
Susan EA
TJ NE
Val NO
Sheri CT

EXPLANATION

The output field separator, OFS, is a space by default. The comma between $3 and $2 is
translated to the value of the OFS. The third field is printed, followed by a space and
the second field.
180 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

% cat datafile
northwest NW Joel Craig 3.0 .98 3 4
western WE Sharon Kelly 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Chris Foster 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO May Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Derek Johnson 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA Susan Beat 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE TJ Nichols 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Val Shultz 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Sheri Watson 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 6.34

nawk '{print S3 S2}' datafile

JoelNW
SharonWE
ChrisSh/
MaySO
DerekSE
SusanEA
TJNE
ValNO
SheriCT

EXPLANATION

The third field is followed by the second field. Because the comma does not separate
fields $3 and $2, the output is displayed without spaces between the fields.

EXAMPLE 6.35

nawk 'print $1' datafile

nawk: syntax error at source line 1
context is
»> print «< $1
nawk: bailing out at source line 1

EXPLANATION

This is the nawk (new awk) error message. Nawk error messages are much more verbose
than those of the old awk. In this program, the curly braces are missing in the action
statement.
6.10 Review 181

EXAMPLE 6.36

awk 'print SI' datafile

awk: syntax error near line 1
awk: bailing out near line 1

EXPLANATION

This is the awk (old awk) error message. Old awk programs were difficult to debug be-
cause almost all errors produced this same message. The curly braces are missing in
the action statement.

EXAMPLE 6.37

nawk '{print $0}' datafile

northwest m Joel Craig 3.0 .98 3 4
western ME Sharon Kelly 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SM Chris Foster 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO May Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Derek Johnson 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA Susan Beal 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE TJ Nichols 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Val Shultz 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Sheri Matson 5.7 .94 5 13

EXPLANATION

Each record is printed. $0 holds the current record.

EXAMPLE 6.38

nawk '{print "Number of fields: "NF}' datafile

Number of fields: 8
Number of fields: 8
Number of fields: 8
Number of fields: 8
Number of fields: 8
Number of fields: 8
Number of fields: 8
Number of fields: 8
Number of fields: 8

EXPLANATION

There are 8 fields in each record. The built-in awk variable NF holds the number of fields
and is reset for each record.
182 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

% cat datafile
northwest NW Joel Craig 3.0 .98 3 4
western WE Sharon Kelly 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Chris Foster 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO May Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Derek Johnson 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA Susan Beat 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE TJ Nichols 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Val Shultz 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Sheri Watson 5.7 .94 5 13

6.10.3 Regular Expressions in Pattern

and Action Combinations

EXAMPLE 6.39

nawk 7northeast/{print S3, $2}' datafile

77 NE

EXPLANATION

If the record contains (or matches) the pattern northeast, the third field, followed by
the second field, is printed.

EXAMPLE 6.40

nawk '/E/' datafile

western ME Sharon Kelly 5.3 .97 5 23
southeast SE Derek Johnson 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA Susan Beal 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE TJ Nichols 5.1 .94 3 13

EXPLANATION

If the record contains an E, the entire record is printed.

EXAMPLE 6.41
A
nawk 7 [ns]/{print $1}' datafile
northwest
southwest
southern
southeast
northeast
north

EXPLANATION

If the record begins with an n or s, the first field is printed.

6.10 Review 183

EXAMPLE 6.42

nawk '$5 ~ A. [7-9]+/' datafile

southwest SW Chris Foster 2.7 .8 2 18
central CT Sheri Matson 5.7 .94 5 13

EXPLANATION

If the fifth field ($5) contains a literal period, followed by one or more numbers be-
tween 7 and 9, the record is printed.

EXAMPLE 6.43

nawk '$2 !~ /E/{print $1, $2}' datafile

northwest A¥
southwest SM
southern SO
north NO
central CT

EXPLANATION

If the second field does not contain the pattern E, the first field followed by the second
field ($1, $2) is printed.

EXAMPLE 6.44

nawk '$3 ~ /AJoel/{print $3 " is a nice guy."}' datafile

Joel is a nice guy.

EXPLANATION

If the third field ($3) begins with the pattern Joel, the third field followed by the string
is a nice guy. is printed. Note that a space is included in the string if it is to be printed.

EXAMPLE 6.45

nawk '$8 ~ /[0-9][0-9]$/{print $8}' datafile

23
18
15
17
20
13
13

EXPLANATION

If the eighth field ($8) ends in two digits, it is printed.

184 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

% cat datafile
northwest NW Joel Cralg 3.0 .98 3 4
western WE Sharon Kelly 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Chris Foster 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO May Ch in 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Derek Johnson 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA Susan Beal 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE TJ Nichols 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Val Shultz 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Sheri Watson 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 6.46

nawk '$4 ~ /Chin$/{print "The price is $" $8 ".T datafile

The price is $15.

EXPLANATION

If the fourth field ($4) ends with Chin, the string enclosed in double quotes ("The price
is $"), the eighth field ($8), and the string containing a period are printed.

EXAMPLE 6.47

nawk '/TJ/iprint $0}' datafile

northeast NE TJ Nichols 5.1 .94 3 13

EXPLANATION

If the record contains the pattern T], S0 (the record) is printed.

6.10.4 Input Field Separators

Use the following datafile? for Examples 6.48 through 6.52.

% cat datafile2
Joel Craig:northwest:NW:3.0:. 98:3:4
Sharon Kelly:western:WE:5.3:.97:5:23
Chris Foster:southwest:S W:2.7:. 8:2:18
May Chin:southern:SO:5.1:.95:4:15
Derek Johnson:southeast:SE:4.0:. 7:4:17
Susan Beal:eastern:EA:4.4:. 84:5:20
TJ Nichols:northeast:NE:5.1:.94:3:13
Val Shultz:north:NO:4.5:. 89:5:9
Sheri Watson:central:CT:5.7:. 94:5:13
6.10 Review 185

EXAMPLE 6.48

nawk '{print $1}' datafile2

Joel
Sharon
Chris
May
Derek
Susan
TJ
Val
Sheri

EXPLANATION

The default input field separator is whitespace. The first field ($1) is printed.

EXAMPLE 6.49

nawk -F: '{print $1}' datafile2

Joel Craig
Sharon Kelly
Chris Foster
<1110re output here>
Val Shultz
Sheri Matson

EXPLANATION

The -F option specifies the colon as the input field separator. The first field ($1) is
printed.

EXAMPLE 6.50

nawk '{print "Number of fields: "NF}' datafile2

Number of fields: 2
Number of fields: 2
Number of fields: 2
<more of the same output here>
Number of fields: 2
Number of fields: 2

EXPLANATION

Because the field separator is the default (whitespace), the number of fields for each
record is 2. The only space is between the first and last name.
186 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

EXAMPLE 6.51

nawk -F: '{print "Number of fields: "NF}' datafile2

Number of fields: 7
Number of fields: 7
Number of fields: 7
<more of the same output here>
Number of fields: 7
Number of fields: 7

EXPLANATION

Because the field separator is a colon, the number of fields in each record is 7.

EXAMPLE 6.52

nawk -F"! :]" '{print $1, $2}' datafileZ

Joel Craig northwest
Sharon Kelly western
Chris Foster southwest
Flay Chin southern
Derek Johnson southeast
Susan Beal eastern
TJ Nichols northeast
Val Shultz north
Sheri Matson central

EXPLANATION

Multiple field separators can be specified with nawk as a regular expression. Either a
space or a colon will be designated as a field separator. The first and second fields ($1,
$2) are printed. (The square brackets must be quoted to prevent the shell from trying
to interpret them as shell metacharacters.)

6.10.5 awk Scripting

The following datafile is used for the next example.

% cat datafile
northwest NW Joel Craig 3.0 .98 3 4
western WE Sharon Kelly 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Chris Foster 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO May Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Derek Johnson 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA Susan Beal 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE TJ Nichols 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Val Shultz 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Sheri Watson 5.7 .94 5 13
6.10 Review 187

EXAMPLE 6.53

cat nawk.scl
# This is a comment
# This is my first nawk script
1 /Anorth/{print $1, $2, $3}
2 /Asouth/{print "The " $1 " district."}

3 nawk -f nawk.scl datafile

northwest NW Joel
The southwest district.
The southern district.
The southeast district.
northeast NE TJ
north NO Val

EXPLANATION

l If the record begins with the pattern north, the first, second, and third fields ($1,
$2, $3) are printed.

2 If the record begins with the pattern south, the string The, followed by the value of
the first field (Si), and the string district, are printed.

3 The -f option precedes the name of the nawk script file, followed by the input file
that is to be processed.

LAB 3: awk EXERCISE

(Refer to the database called labB.data on the CD.)

Mike Harrington:(510) 548-1278:250:100:175

Christian Dobbins:(408) 538-2358:155:90:201
Susan Dalsass:(206) 654-6279:250:60:50
Archie McNichol:(206) 548-1348:250:100:175
Jody Savage:(206) 548-1278:15:188:150
Guy Quigley:(916) 343-6410:250:100:175
Dan Savage:(406) 298-7744:450:300:275
Nancy McNeil:(206) 548-1278:250:80:75
John Goldenrod:(916) 348-4278:250:100:175
Chet Main:(510) 548-5258:50:95:135
Tom Savage:(408) 926-3456:250:168:200
Elizabeth Stachelin:(916) 440-1763:175:75:300

The database contains the names, phone numbers, and money contributions to the party
campaign for the past three months.
188 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

1. Prim all the phone numbers.

2. Print Dan's phone number.

3. Print Susan's name and phone number.

4. Print all last names beginning with D.

5. Print all first names beginning with either a C or E.

6. Print all first names containing only four characters.

7. Print the first names of all those in the 916 area code.

8. Print Mike's campaign contributions. Each value should be printed with a leading dollar sign;
e.g., $250 $100 $175.

9. Print last names followed by a comma and the first name.

10. Write an awk script called facts that

a. Prints full names and phone numbers for the Savages.

b. Prints Chet's contributions.

c. Prints all those who contributed $250 the first month.

6.11 Comparison Expressions

Comparison expressions match lines where the action is performed only if a certain con-
dition is true. These expressions use relational operators and are used to compare num-
bers or strings.

6.11.1 Relational and Equality Operators

Table 6.8 provides a list of the relational operators. The value of the expression is 1 if
the expression evaluates true, and 0 if false.

Table 6.8 Relational Operators

Operator Meaning Example

< Less than x < y

<= Less than or equal to x <= y

== Equal to x == y

j= Not equal to x != y

>= Greater than or equal to x >= y

> Greater than x > y

6.11 Comparison Expressions 189

Table 6.8 Relational Operators (continued)

Operator Meaning Example

Matched by regular expression x ~ /y/

!~ Not matched by regular expression x !~/y/

EXAMPLE 6.54

(The Database)
% cat employees
Tom Jones 4423 5/12/66 543354
Mary Adams 5346 11/4/63 28765
Sally Chang 1654 7/22/54 650000
Billy Black 1683 9/23/44 336500

(The Command Line)

1 % awk '$3 == 5346' employees
Mary Adams 5346 11/4/63 28765

1
2 % awk '$3 > 5000{print $1} employees
Mary

3 % awk '$2 ~ /Adam/ ' employees

Mary Adams 5346 11/4/63 28765

4 % awk '$2 !~ /Adam/ ' employees

Tom Jones 4423 5/12/66 543354
Sally Chang 1654 7/22/54 650000
Billy Black 1683 9/23/44 336500

EXPLANATION

1 If the third field is exactly equal to 5346, the condition is true and awk will perform
the default action—print the line. When an if condition is implied, it is a condi-
tional pattern test.

2 If the third field is greater than 5000, awk prints the first field.

3 If the second field matches or contains the regular expression Adam, the record is
printed.

4 If the second field does not match or does not contain the regular expression Adam,
the record is printed. If an expression is a numeric value and is being compared
with a string value with an operator that requires a numeric comparison, the
string value will be converted to a numeric value. If the operator requires a string
value, the numeric value will be converted to a string value.
190 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

6.11.2 Conditional Expressions

A conditional expression uses two symbols, the question mark and the colon, to evalu-
ate expressions. It is really just a short way to achieve the same result as doing an if/else
statement. The general format is as follows:

FORMAT

conditional expression! ? expression2 : expression!

This produces the same result as the if/else shown here. (A complete discussion of the
if/else construct is given later.)

{
if (expression!)
expressionZ
else
expression!
}

EXAMPLE 6.55

% awk ,{max=($l > $2) ? $1 : $2; print max}' filename

EXPLANATION

If the first field is greater than the second field, the value of the expression after the
question mark is assigned to max; otherwise the value of the expression after the colon
is assigned to max. This is comparable to

if ($1 > $2 )
max=$l
else
max=$2

6.11.3 Computation

Computation can be performed within patterns. Awk (all versions) performs all arith-
metic in floating point. The arithmetic operators are provided in Table 6.9.

EXAMPLE 6.56

% awk '$! * $4 > 500' filename

EXPLANATION

Awk will multiply the third field ($!) by the fourth field (S4), and if the result is greater
than 500, it will display those lines. (Filename is assumed to be a file containing the input.)
6.11 Comparison Expressions 191

Table 6.9 Arithmetic Operators

Operator Meaning Example

+ Add x + y

Subtract x - y

* Multiply x * y

/ Divide x / y

% Modulus x % y

A
Exponentiation x a y

6.11.4 Logical Operators and Compound Patterns

Logical operators test whether an expression or pattern is true or false. With the &&, log-
ical AND operator, if both expressions are true, the entire expression is true. If one
expression is false, the whole expression is false. With 11, the logical OR operator, only
one expression or pattern must evaluate to true to make the whole expression true. If
both expressions are false, the entire expression is false.
Compound patterns are expressions that combine patterns with logical operators
(see Table 6.10). An expression is evaluated from left to right.

Table 6.10 Logical Operators

Operator Meaning Example

&& Logical AND a && b

II Logical OR a 11 b

! NOT ! a

EXAMPLE 6.57

% awk '$2 > 5 && $2 <= 15' filename

EXPLANATION

Awk will display those lines that match both conditions; that is, where the second field
($2) is greater than 5 AND the second field ($2) is also less than or equal to 15. With
the && operator, both conditions must be true. (Filename is assumed to be a file contain-
ing the input.)
192 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

EXAMPLE 6.58

% awk '$3 == 100 |I $4 > 50' filename

EXPLANATION

Awk will display those lines that match one of the conditions; that is, where the third field
is equal to 100 OR the fourth field is greater than 50. With the 11 operator, only one of the
conditions must be true. (Filename is assumed to be a file containing the input.)

EXAMPLE 6.59

% awk '!($2 < 100 && $3 < 20)' filename

EXPLANATION

If both conditions are true, awk will negate the expression and display those lines—so
the lines displayed will have one or both conditions false. The unary ! operator negates
the result of the condition so that if the expression yields a true condition, the NOT
will make it false, and vice versa. (Fi 1 ename is assumed to be a file containing the input.)

6.11.5 Range Patterns

Range patterns match from the first occurrence of one pattern to the first occurrence of
the second pattern, then match for the next occurrence of the first pattern to the next
occurrence of the second pattern, and so on. If the first pattern is matched and the sec-
ond pattern is not found, awk will display all lines to the end of the file.

EXAMPLE 6.60

% awk '/Tom/,/Suzanne/' filename

EXPLANATION

Awk will display all lines, inclusive, that range between the first occurrence of Tom and
the first occurrence of Suzanne. If Suzanne is not found, awk will continue processing lines
until the end of the file. If, after the range between Tom and Suzanne is printed, Tom ap-
pears again, awk will start displaying lines until another Suzanne is found or the file ends.

6.11.6 A Data Validation Program

Using the awk commands discussed so far, the password-checking program from the
book The AWK Programming Language3 illustrates how the data in a file can be validated.

3. Aho, Weinberger, and Kernighan, The Awk Programming Language (Boston; Addison-Wesley, 1988).
6.11 Comparison Expressions 193

EXAMPLE 6.61

(The Password Database)

1 % cat /etc/passwd
tooth:pwHfudo.eC9sM:476:40:Contract Admi n.:/home/ri ckenbacker/tooth:/bi n/csh
1isam:9]Y70uS2f31HY:4467:40:Li sa M. Spencer:/home/fortunel/lisam:/bin/csh
goode:v7Ww.nWJCeSIQ:32555:60:Coodwi11 Guest User:/usr/goodwi11:/bi n/csh
bonzo:eTZbu6M2]M7VA:5101:911: SSTOOL Log account :/hoine/sun4/bonzo:/bin/csh
1 nfo:mKZsrioPtW9hA:611:41:Tenri Stern:/home/chewi e/i nfo:/bi n/csh
cnc:INlIVqV]lbVv2:10209:41:Charles Carnel1:/home/ch ri sti ne/cnc:/bi n/csh
bee:*:347:40:Contract Temp.:/home/chanel5/bee:/bi n/csh
fri edman:oyuli KoFTV0TE:3561:50:]ay Fri edman:/home/i banez/fri edman:/bi n/csh
chambers:Rw7Rlk77yUY4.:592:40:Carol Chambers:/usr/cal1isto2/chambers:/bin/csh
gregc:nkLulOg:7777:30:Creg Champlin FE Chicago
ramona:gbDQLdDBeRc46;16660:68:RamonaLeininge MWA CustomerService Rep;/home/forsh:

(The Awk Commands)

2 % cat /etc/passwd | awk -F: 'X
3 NF != 7{\
4 printfC'line "/od, does not have 7 fields: %s\n",NR,S0)} \
5 SI !~ /[A-Za-z0-9]/{printf(nline %d, nonalphanumeric user id: %s\n,,,NR,$0)} \
6 $2 == {printfC'line %d, no password: %s\n",NR,$0)} '

(The Output)
line 1, no password: bee:*:347:40-.Contract Temp.:/home/chane 15/bee:/bin/csh
line 10, does not have 7 fields: gregc:nk2EYi7kLul0g:7777:30:Greg Champlin
FE Chicago
line 11, does not have 7 fields: ramona:gbDQLdDBeRc46:16660:68:Ramona
Leininger MWA Customer Service Rep:/home/forsh:

EXPLANATION

1 The contents of the /etc/passwd file are displayed.

2 The cat program sends its output to awk. Awk's field separator is a colon.

3 If the number of fields (NF) is not equal to 7, the following action block is
executed.

4 The printf function prints the string line <number>, does not have 7 fields followed
by the number of the current record (NR) and the record itself ($0).

5 If the first field ($1) does not contain any alphanumeric characters, the printf
function prints the string nonalphanumeric user id, followed by the number of the
record and the record itself.

6 If the second field ($2) equals an asterisk, the string no password is printed, followed
by the number of the record and the record itself.
194 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

6.12 Review

The examples in this section use the following sample database, called datafile, repeated
periodically for your convenience.

% cat datafile
northwest NW Joel Craig 3.0 .98 3 4
western WE Sharon Kelly 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Chris Foster 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO May Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Derek Johnson 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA Susan Seal 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE TJ Nichols 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Val Shultz 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Sheri Watson 5.7 .94 5 13

6.12.1 Equality Testing

EXAMPLE 6.62

% awk '$7 == 5' datafile

western ME Sharon Kelly 5.3 .97 5 23
eastern EA Susan Beal 4.4 .84 5 20
north NO Val Shultz 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Sheri Matson 5.7 .94 5 13

EXPLANATION

If the seventh field ($7) is equal to the number 5, the record is printed.

EXAMPLE 6.63

% awk '$2 == "CT'fprint $1, $2}' datafile

central CT

EXPLANATION

If the second field is equal to the string CT, fields one and two ($1, $2) are printed.
Strings must be quoted.

EXAMPLE 6.64
% awk '$7 != 5' datafile
northwest NM Joel Craig 3.0 .98 3 4
southwest SM Chris Foster 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO May Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Derek Johnson 4.0 .7 4 17
northeast NE TJ Nichols 5.1 .94 3 13
6.12 Review 195

EXPLANATION

If the seventh field ($7) is not equal to the number 5, the record is printed.

6.12.2 Relational Operators

EXAMPLE 6.65

% awk '$7 < 5 {print $4, $7}' datafile

Craig 3
Foster 2
Chin 4
Johnson 4
Nichols 3

EXPLANATION

If the seventh field ($7) is less than 5, fields 4 and 7 are printed.

EXAMPLE 6.66

% awk '$6 > .9 {print $1, $6}' datafile

northwest .98
western .97
southern .95
northeast .94
central .94

EXPLANATION

If the sixth field ($6) is greater than .9, fields 1 and 6 are printed.

EXAMPLE 6.67

% awk '$8 <= 17 { print $8}' datafile

4
15
17
13
9
13

EXPLANATION

If the eighth field ($8) is less than or equal to 17, it is printed.

196 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

% cat datafile
northwest NW Joel Craig 3.0 .98 3 4
western WE Sharon Kelly 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest Sid/ Chris Foster 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO May Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Derek Johnson 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA Susan Beal 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE TJ Nichols 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Val Shultz 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Sheri Watson 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 6.68

% awk '$8 >= 17 {print $8}' datafile

23
18
17
20

EXPLANATION

If the eighth field ($8) is greater than or equal to 17, the eighth field is printed.

6.12.3 Logical Operators (&&, 11)

EXAMPLE 6.69
»—i

OO
V

% awk '$8 > 10 && $ datafile

southern so May Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
northeast NE TJ Nichols 5.1 .94 3 13
central CT Sheri Matson 5.7 .94 5 13

EXPLANATION

If the eighth field ($8) is greater than 10 AND less than 17, the record is printed. The
record will be printed only if both expressions are true.

EXAMPLE 6.70

% awk '$2 == "NW" || $1 ~ /south/{print $1, $2}' datafile

northwest A¥
southwest Sk/
southern SO
southeast SE
6.12 Review 197

EXPLANATION

If the second field ($2) is equal to the string NW OR the first field ($1) contains the pat-
tern south, the first and second fields ($1, $2) are printed. The record will be printed if
only one of the expressions is true.

6.12.4 Logical NOT Operator (!)

EXAMPLE 6.71

% awk ' !($8 == IBHprint $8}' datafile

4
23
18
15
17
20
9

EXPLANATION

If the eighth field ($8) is equal to 13, the ! (NOT operator) NOTs the expression and
prints the eighth field (S8). The ! is a unary negation operator.

6.12.5 Arithmetic Operators

EXAMPLE 6.72

% awk '/southern/lprint S5 + 10}' datafile

15.1

EXPLANATION

If the record contains the regular expression southern, 10 is added to the value of the
fifth field ($5) and printed. Note that the number prints in floating point.

EXAMPLE 6.73

% awk '/southern/iprint $8 + 10}' datafile

25

EXPLANATION

If the record contains the regular expression southern, 10 is added to the value of the
eighth field ($8) and printed. Note that the number prints in decimal.
198 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

% cat datafile
northwest NW Joel Craig 3.0 .98 3 4
western WE Sharon Kelly 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest Sid/ Chris Foster 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO May Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Derek Johnson 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA Susan Seal 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE TJ Nichols 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Val Shultz 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Sheri Watson 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 6.74

,
% awk /southern/{print $5 + 10.56}' datafile
15.66

EXPLANATION

If the record contains the regular expression southern, 10.56 is added to the value of the
fifth field ($5) and printed.

EXAMPLE 6.75

,
% awk /southern/{print $8 - 10}' datafile
5

EXPLANATION

If the record contains the regular expression southern, 10 is subtracted from the value
of the eighth field ($8) and printed.

EXAMPLE 6.76

% awk '/southern/lprint $8/2}' datafile

7.5

EXPLANATION

If the record contains the regular expression southern, the value of the eighth field ($8)
is divided by 2 and printed.
6.12 Review 199

EXAMPLE 6.77

% awk ,/northeast/{print $8/3}' datafile

4.33333

EXPLANATION

If the record contains the regular expression northeast, the value of the eighth field ($8)
is divided by 3 and printed. The precision is five places to the right of the decimal
point.

EXAMPLE 6.78

,
% awk /southern/{print $8 * 2}' datafile
30

EXPLANATION

If the record contains the regular expression southern, the eighth field ($8) is multiplied
by 2 and printed.

EXAMPLE 6.79

% awk '/northeast/ {print $8 % 3}' datafile

1

EXPLANATION

If the record contains the regular expression northeast, the eighth field ($8) is divided
by 3 and the remainder (modulus) is printed.

EXAMPLE 6.80

% awk '$3 ~ /ASusan/\

{print "Percentage: "$6 + .2 " Volume: " $8}' datafile
Percentage: 1.04 Volume: 20

EXPLANATION

If the third field ($3) begins with the regular expression Susan, the print function prints
the result of the calculations and the strings in double quotes.
200 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

% cat datafile
northwest NW Joel Craig 3.0 .98 3 4
western WE Sharon Kelly 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest Sid/ Chris Foster 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO May Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Derek Johnson 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA Susan Seal 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE TJ Nichols 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Val Shultz 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Sheri Watson 5.7 .94 5 13

6.12.6 Range Operator

EXAMPLE 6.81

% awk '/^estern/j/Aeastern/' datafile

western WE Sharon Kelly 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Chris Foster 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO May Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Derek Johnson 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA Susan Beal 4.4 .84 5 20

EXPLANATION

All records within the range beginning with the regular expression western are printed
until a record beginning with the expression eastern is found. Records will start being
printed again if the pattern western is found and will continue to print until eastern or
the end of the file is reached.

6.12.7 Conditional Operator

EXAMPLE 6.82

% awk '{print ($7 > 4 ? "high "$7 : "low "$7)}' datafile

low 3
high 5
low 2
low 4
low 4
high 5
low 3
high 5
high 5
6.12 Review 201

EXPLANATION

If the seventh field ($7) is greater than 4, the print function gets the value of the expres-
sion after the question mark (the string high and the seventh field); else the print func-
tion gets the value of the expression after the colon (the string low and the value of the
seventh field).

6.12.8 Assignment Operators

EXAMPLE 6.83

% awk '$3 == "Chris'd $3 = "Christian"; print}' datafile

southwest SM Christian Foster 2.7 .8 2 18

EXPLANATION

If the third field ($3) is equal to the string Chris, the action is to assign Christian to the
third field ($3) and print the record. The double equal tests its operands for equality,
whereas the single equal is used for assignment.

EXAMPLE 6.84

% awk '/Derek/{$8 += 12; print $8}' datafile

29

EXPLANATION

If the regular expression Derek is found, 12 is added and assigned to (+=), the eighth field
($8), and that value is printed. Another way to write this is $8 = $8 + 12.

EXAMPLE 6.85

% awk '{$7 %= 3; print $7}' datafile

0
2
2
1
1
2
0
2
2

EXPLANATION

For each record, the seventh field (S7) is divided by 3, and the remainder of that divi-
sion (modulus) is assigned to the seventh field and printed.
202 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

LAB 4; awk EXERCISE

(Refer to the database called lab4.data on the CD.)

Mike Harrington:(510) 548-1278:250:100:175

Christian Dobbins:(408) 538-2358:155:90:201
Susan Dalsass:(206) 654-6279:250:60:50
Archie McNichol:(206) 548-1348:250:100:175
Jody Savage:(206) 548-1278:15:188:150
Guy Quigley:(916) 343-6410:250:100:175
Dan Savage:(406) 298-7744:450:300:275
Nancy McNeil:(206) 548-1278:250:80:75
John Goldenrod:(916) 348-4278:250:100:175
Chet Main:(510) 548-5258:50:95:135
Tom Savage:(408) 926-3456:250:168:200
Elizabeth Stachelin:(916) 440-1763:175:75:300

The database contains the names, phone numbers, and money contributions to the party
campaign for the past three months.

1. Print the first and last names of those who contributed more than $100 in the second month.

2. Print the names and phone numbers of those who contributed less than $85 in the last
month.

3. Print the names of those who contributed between $75 and $150 in the first month.

4. Print the names of those who contributed less than $800 over the three-month period.

5. Print the names and addresses of those with an average monthly contribution greater than
$200.

6. Print the first name of those not in the 916 area code.

7. Print each record preceded by the number of the record.

8. Print the name and total contribution of each person.

9. Add $10 to Chefs second contribution.

10. Change Nancy McNeil's name to Louise Mclnnes.

6.13 Variables 203

6.13 Variables

6.13.1 Numeric and String Constants

Numeric constants can be represented as integers, such as 243; floating-point numbers,

such as 3.14; or numbers using scientific notation, such as .723E-1 or 3.4e7. Strings, such
as Hello world, are enclosed in double quotes.

Initialization and Type Coercion. Just mentioning a variable in your awk program
causes it to exist. A variable can be a string, a number, or both. When it is set, it becomes
the type of the expression on the right-hand side of the equal sign.
Uninitialized variables have the value zero or the value " ", depending on the context
in which they are used.

name = "Nancy" name is a string

x++ x is a number;
x is initialized to zero and incremented by 1

number = 35 number is a number

To coerce a string to be a number:

name + 0

To coerce a number to be a string:

number " "

All fields and array elements created by the split function are considered strings,
unless they contain only a numeric value. If a field or array element is null, it has the
string value of null. An empty line is also considered to be a null string.

6.13.2 User-Defined Variables

User-defined variables consist of letters, digits, and underscores, and cannot begin with
a digit. Variables in awk are not declared. Awk infers data type by the context of the variable
in the expression. If the variable is not initialized, awk initializes string variables to null
and numeric variables to zero. If necessary, awk will convert a string variable to a numeric
variable, and vice versa. Variables are assigned values with awk's assignment operators.
See Table 6.11.
204 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

Table 6.11 Assignment Operators

Operator Meaning Equivalence

= a=5 a=5

+= a=a+5 a += 5

-= a = a- 5 a-= 5

j.= a = a* 5 a *=5

/= a = a/5 a 1=5

%= a = a% 5 a%= 5

A= a = aA 5 a A
=5

The simplest assignment takes the result of an expression and assigns it to a variable.

FORMAT

variable = expression

EXAMPLE 6.86

% nawk '$1 ~ /Tom/ {wage = $2 * $3; print wage}' filename

EXPLANATION

Awk will scan the first field for Tom and when there is a match, it will multiply the value
of the second field by the value of the third field and assign the result to the user-
defined variable wage. Because the multiplication operation is arithmetic, awk assigns
wage an initial value of zero. (The % is the shell prompt and filename is an input file.)

Increment and Decrement Operators. To add one to an operand, the increment

operator is used. The expression x++ is equivalent to x = x + 1. Similarly, the decrement
operator subtracts one from its operand. The expression x— is equivalent to x = x - 1. This
notation is useful in looping operations when you simply want to increment or decre-
ment a counter. You can use the increment and decrement operators either preceding the
operator, as in ++x, or after the operator, as in x++. If these expressions are used in assign-
ment statements, their placement will make a difference in the result of the operation.

{x = 1; y = x++ ; print x, y}

The ++ here is called a post-increment operator; y is assigned the value of 1, and then x
is increased by 1, so that when all is said and done, y will equal 1, and x will equal 2.
6.13 Variables 205

{x = 1; y = ++x; print x, y}

The ++ here is called a pre-increment operator; x is incremented first, and the value of
two is assigned to y, so that when this statement is finished, y will equal 2, and x will
equal 2.

User-Defined Variables at the Command Line. A variable can be assigned a

value at the command line and passed into an awk script. For more on processing argu-
ments and ARCV, see "Processing Command Arguments (nawk)" on page 239.

EXAMPLE 6.87

nawk -F: -f awkscript iiionth=4 year=2004 filename

EXPLANATION

The user-defined variables month and year are assigned the values 4 and 2004, respective-
ly. In the awk script, these variables may be used as though they were created in the
script. Note: If filename precedes the arguments, the variables will not be available in
the BEGIN statements. (See "BEGIN Patterns" on page 208.)

Th© -V Option (nawk). The -v option provided by nawk allows command-line argu-
ments to be processed within a BEGIN statement. For each argument passed at the com-
mand line, there must be a -v option preceding it.

Field Variables. Field variables can be used like user-defined variables, except they
reference fields. New fields can be created by assignment. A field value that is referenced
and has no value will be assigned the null string. If a field value is changed, the $0 vari-
able is recomputed using the current value of OFS as a field separator. The number of
fields allowed is usually limited to 100.

EXAMPLE 6.88

% nawk ' { S5 = 1000 * S3 / $2; print } ' filename

EXPLANATION

If $5 does not exist, nawk will create it and assign the result of the expression 1000 * $3
/ $2 to the fifth field ($5). If the fifth field exists, the result will be assigned to it, over-
writing what is there.

EXAMPLE 6.89

% nawk ' $4 == "CA" { $4 = "California"; print}' filename

206 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

EXPLANATION

If the fourth field ($4) is equal to the string CA, nawk will reassign the fourth field to
California. The double quotes are essential. Without them, the strings become user-
defined variables with an initial value of null.

Built-in Variables. Built-in variables have uppercase names. They can be used in
expressions and can be reset. See Table 6.12 for a list of built-in variables.

Table 6.12 Built-in Variables

Variable Name Contents

ARCC Number of command-line argument

ARCIND Index in ARGV of the current file being processed from the command line (gawk only)

ARGV Array of command-line arguments

CONVFMT Conversion format for numbers, %.6g, by default (gawk only)

ENVIRON An array containing the values of the current environment variables passed in from
the shell

ERRNO Contains a string describing a system error occurring from redirection when read-
ing from the getline function or when using the close function (gawk only)

FIELDWIDTHS A whitespace-separated list of fieldwidths used instead of FS when splitting records

of fixed fieldwidth (gawk only)

FILENAME Name of current input file

FNR Record number in current file

FS The input field separator, by default a space

ICNORECASE Turns off case sensitivity in regular expressions and string operations (gawk only)

NF Number of fields in current record

NR Number of records so far

OFMT Output format for numbers

OFS Output field separator

ORS Output record separator

RLENGTH Length of string matched by match function

RS Input record separator

6.13 Variables 207

Table 6.12 Built-in Variables (continued)

Variable Name Contents

RSTART Offset of string matched by match function

RT The record terminator; gawk sets it to the input text that matched the character or
regex specified by RS

SUBSEP Subscript separator

EXAMPLE 6.90

(The Employees Database)

% cat employees2
Tom Jones:4423:5/12/66:543354
Mary Adams:5346:11/4/63:28765
Sally Chang:1654:7/22/54:650000
Mary Black:1683:9/23/44:336500

(The Command Line)

% nawk -F: '$1 == "Mary Adams"{print NR, $1, $2, SNF}' employees2

(The Output)
2 Mary Adams 5346 28765

EXPLANATION

The -F option sets the field separator to a colon. The print function prints the record
number, the first field, the second field, and the last field ($NF).

EXAMPLE 6.91

(The Employees Database)

% cat efflployees2
Tom ]ones:4423:5/12/66:543354
Mary Adams:5346:11/4/63:28765
Sally Chang:1654:7/22/54:650000
Mary Black:1683:9/23/44:336500

(The Command Line)

% gawk -F: '{IGN0RECASE=1}; \
$1 == "mary adams"{print NR, $1, $2^}' employees2

(The Output)
2 Mary Adams 5346 28765
208 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

EXPLANATION

The -F option sets the field separator to a colon. The gawk built-in variable, ICNORECASE,
when set to a nonzero value, turns off gawk's case-sensitivity when doing case-sensitive
string and regular expression operations. The string mary adams will be matched, even
though in the input file, her name is spelled Mary Adams. The print function prints the
record number, the first field, the second field, and the last field ($NF).

6.13.3 BEGIN Patterns

The BEGIN pattern is followed by an action block that is executed before awk processes any
lines from the input file. In fact, a BEGIN block can be tested without any input file, bec-
uase awk does not start reading input until the BEGIN action block has completed. The
BEGIN action is often used to change the value of the built-in variables, OFS, RS, FS, and so
forth, to assign initial values to user-defined variables and to print headers or titles as
part of the output.

EXAMPLE 6.92

% nawk 'BEGIN{FS=":"; OFS^'Xt"; ORS="\n\nMHprint file

EXPLANATION

Before the input file is processed, the field separator (FS) is set to a colon, the output
field separator (OFS) to a tab, and the output record separator (ORS) to two newlines. If
there are two or more statements in the action block, they should be separated with
semicolons or placed on separate lines (use a backslash to escape the newline charac-
ter if at the shell prompt).

EXAMPLE 6.93

% nawk 'BECINlprint "MAKE YEAR"}'

MAKE YEAR

EXPLANATION

Awk will display MAKE YEAR. The print function is executed before awk opens the input file,
and even though the input file has not been assigned, awk will still print MAKE and YEAR.
When debugging awk scripts, you can test the BEGIN block actions before writing the rest
of the program.

6.13.4 END Patterns

END patterns do not match any input lines, but execute any actions that are associated
with the END pattern. END patterns are handled after all lines of input have been pro-
cessed.
6.14 Redirection and Pipes 209

EXAMPLE 6.94

% nawk 'ENDiprint "The number of records is " NR }' filename

The number of records is 4

EXPLANATION

The END block is executed after awk has finished processing the file. The value of NR is
the number of the last record read.

EXAMPLE 6.95

% nawk VMary/{count++}END{print "Mary was found " count " times."}' employees
Mary was found 2 times.

EXPLANATION

For every input line from the file employees containing the pattern Mary, the user-defined
variable, count, is incremented by 1. When all input lines have been read, the END block
is executed to display the string Mary was found 2 times containing the final value of
count.

6.14 Redirection and Pipes

6.14.1 Output Redirection

When redirecting output from within awk to a UNIX/Linux file, the shell redirection
operators are used. The filename must be enclosed in double quotes. When the > symbol
is used, the file is opened and truncated. Once the file is opened, it remains open until
explicitly closed or the awk program terminates. Output from subsequent print state-
ments to that file will be appended to the file.
The » symbol is used to open the file, but does not clear it out; instead it simply
appends to it.

EXAMPLE 6.96

% nawk 'S4 >= 70 {print $1, $2 > "passing.file" }' filename

EXPLANATION

If the value of the fourth field is greater than or equal to 70, the first and second fields
will be printed to the file passing.file.
210 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

6.14.2 Input Redirection (getl i ne)

The getl ine Function. The getline function is used to read input from the standard
input, a pipe, or a file other than the current file being processed. It gets the next line of
input and sets the NF, NR, and the FNR built-in variables. The getline function returns 1 if
a record is found and 0 if EOF (end of file) is reached. If there is an error, such as failure
to open a file, the getline function returns a value of-1.

EXAMPLE 6.97

% nawk 'BEGIN{ "date" | getline d; print d}' filename

Thu Jan 14 11:24:24 PST 2004

EXPLANATION

Will execute the UNIX/Linux date command, pipe the output to getline, assign it to
the user-defined variable d, and then print d.

EXAMPLE 6.98

% nawk 'BEGIN! "date " | getline d; split( d, mon) ; print mon[2]}' filename
Jan

EXPLANATION

Will execute the date command and pipe the output to getline. The getline function
will read from the pipe and store the input in a user-defined variable, d. The spl i t func-
tion will create an array called mon out of variable d and then the second element of the
array mon will be printed.

EXAMPLE 6.99

% nawk 'BEGIN!while("ls" | getline) print}'

a. out
db
dbook
getdir
file
sortedf

EXPLANATION

Will send the output of the Is command to getline; for each iteration of the loop, get-
line will read one more line of the output from Is and then print it to the screen. An
input file is not necessary, because the BEGIN block is processed before awk attempts to
open input.
6.14 Redirection and Pipes 211

EXAMPLE 6.100

(The Command Line)

1 % nawk 'BECINi printf "What is your name?" ;\
getline name < "/dev/tty"}\
2 $1 ~ name {print "Found " name " on line ", NR "."JX
3 END{print "See ya, " name filename

(The Output)
k/hat is your name? El lie < Waits for input from user >
Found El lie on line 5.
See ya, El lie.

EXPLANATION

1 Will print to the screen What is your name? and wait for user response; the getline
function will accept input from the terminal (/dev/tty) until a newline is entered,
and then store the input in the user-defined variable name.

2 If the first field matches the value assigned to name, the print function is executed.

3 The END statement prints out See ya, and then the value El lie, stored in variable
name, is displayed, followed by a period.

EXAMPLE 6.101

(The Command Line)

% nawk 'BEGINlwhile (getline < "/etc/passwd" > 0 )lc++; print 1c}' file

(The Output)
16

EXPLANATION

Awk will read each line from the /etc/passwd file, increment 1c until EOF is reached, then
print the value of 1c, which is the number of lines in the passwd file.
Note: The value returned by getline is -1 if the file does not exist. If the EOF is
reached, the return value is 0, and if a line was read, the return value is 1. Therefore,
the command

while ( getline < "/etc/junk")

would start an infinite loop if the file /etc/junk did not exist, because the return value
of -1 yields a true condition.
212 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

6.15 Pipes

If you open a pipe in an awk program, you must close it before opening another one. The
command on the right-hand side of the pipe symbol is enclosed in double quotes. Only
one pipe can be open at a time.

EXAMPLE 6.102

(The Database)
% cat names
john smith
a!ice cheba
george goldberg
susan goldberg
tony tram
barbara nguyen
elizabeth lone
dan savage
eliza goldberg
john golden rod

(The Command Line)

% nawk '{print $1, $2 1 "sort -r +1 -2 +0 -1 names

(The Output)
tony tram
john smith
dan savage
barbara nguyen
elizabeth lone
john golden rod
susan goldberg
george goldberg
eliza goldberg
alice cheba

EXPLANATION

Awk will pipe the output of the print statement as input to the UNIX/Linux sort com-
mand, which does a reversed sort using the second field as the primary key and the
first field as the secondary key (i.e., sort by last name in reverse). The UNIX/Linux
command must be enclosed in double quotes. (See "sort" in Appendix A.)
6.15 Pipes 213

6.15.1 Closing Files and Pipes

If you plan to use a file or pipe in an awk program again for reading or writing, you may
want to close it first, because it remains open until the script ends. Once opened, the
pipe remains open until awk exits. Therefore, statements in the END block will also be
affected by the pipe. The first line in the END block closes the pipe.

EXAMPLE 6.103

(In Script)
1 { print $1, $2, $3 | " sort -r +1 -2 +0 -1"}
END{
2 close("sort -r +1 -2 +0 -1")
<rest of statements> }

EXPLANATION

1 Awk pipes each line from the input file to the UNIX/Linux sort utility.

2 When the END block is reached, the pipe is closed. The string enclosed in double
quotes must be identical to the pipe string where the pipe was initially opened.

The system Function. The built-in system function takes a UNIX/Linux system com-
mand as its argument, executes the command, and returns the exit status to the awk pro-
gram. It is similar to the C standard library function, also called system(). The
UNIX/Linux command must be enclosed in double quotes.

FORMAT

system( "UNIX/Linux Command")

EXAMPLE 6.104

(In Script)
{
1 system ( "cat" $1 )
2 system ( "clear" )
}

EXPLANATION

1 The system function takes the UNIX/Linux cat command and the value of the first
field in the input file as its arguments. The cat command takes the value of the
first field, a filename, as its argument. The UNIX/Linux shell causes the cat com-
mand to be executed.

2 The system function takes the UNIX/Linux clear command as its argument. The
shell executes the command, causing the screen to be cleared.
214 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

6.16 Review

The examples in this section, unless noted otherwise, use the following datafile,
repeated periodically for your convenience.

% cat datafile
northwest NW Joel Craig 3.0 .98 3 4
western WE Sharon Kelly 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Chris Foster 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO May Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Derek Johnson 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA Susan Beal 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE TJ Nichols 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Val Shultz 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Sheri Watson 5.7 .94 5 13

6.16.1 Increment and Decrement Operators

EXAMPLE 6.105

% nawk VAnorth/{count += 1; print count}' datafile

1
2
3

EXPLANATION

If the record begins with the regular expression north, a user-defined variable, count, is
created; count is incremented by 1 and its value is printed.

EXAMPLE 6.106

,
% nawk /Anorth/{count++; print count}' datafile
1
2
3

EXPLANATION

The auto-increment operator increments the user-defined variable count by 1. The val-
ue of count is printed.
6.16 Review 215

EXAMPLE 6.107

% nawk '{x = $7--; print "x = "x $7 = "$7}' datafile

x = 3, $7 = 2
x = 5, $7 = 4
x = 2, $7 = 1
x = 4, $7 = 3
x = 4, $7 = 3
x = 5, $7 = 4
x = 3, $7 = 2
x = S, $7 = 4
x = 5, $7 = 4

EXPLANATION

After the value of the seventh field ($7) is assigned to the user-defined variable x, the
auto-decrement operator decrements the seventh field by 1. The value of x and the sev-
enth field are printed.

6.16.2 Built-in Variables

EXAMPLE 6.108

% nawk '/Anorth/{pnnt "The record number is " NR}' datafile

The record number is 1
The record number is 7
The record number is 8

EXPLANATION

If the record begins with the regular expression north, the string The record number is
and the value of NR (record number) are printed.

EXAMPLE 6.109

% nawk '{print NR, S0}' datafile

1 northwest m Joel Craig 3.0 .98 3 4
2 western ME Sharon Kelly 5.3 .97 5 23
3 southwest SM Chris Foster 2.7 .8 2 18
4 southern SO May Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
5 southeast SE Derek Johnson 4.0 .7 4 17
6 eastern EA Susan Beal 4.4 .84 5 20
7 northeast NE TJ Nichols 5.1 .94 3 13
8 north NO Val Shultz 4.5 .89 5 9
9 central CT Sheri Matson 5.7 .94 5 13

EXPLANATION

The value of NR, the number of the current record, and the value of $0, the entire record,
are printed.
216 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

% cat datafile
northwest NW Joel Craig 3.0 .98 3 4
western WE Sharon Kelly 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Chris Foster 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO May Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Derek Johnson 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA Susan Beat 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE TJ Nichols 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Val Shultz 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Sheri Watson 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 6.no

,
% nawk NR==2,NR= =5{print NR, $0}' datafile
2 western HE Sharon Kelly 5.3 .97 5 23
3 southwest SH Chris Foster 2.7 .8 2 18
4 southern SO May Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
5 southeast SE Derek Johnson 4.0 .7 4 17

EXPLANATION

If the value of NR is in the range between 2 and 5 (record numbers 2-5), the number of
the record (NR) and the record ($0) are printed.

EXAMPLE 6.ill

% nawk VAnorth/{print NR, $1, $2, $NF, RS}' datafile

1 northwest NM 4

7 northeast NE 13

8 north NO 9

EXPLANATION

If the record begins with the regular expression north, the number of the record (NR),
followed by the first field, the second field, the value of the last field (NF preceded by
a dollar sign), and the value of RS (a newline) are printed. Because the print function
generates a newline by default, RS will generate another newline, resulting in double
spacing between records.
6.16 Review 217

Use the following datafileZ for Examples 6.112 and 6.113.

% cat datafile2
Joel Craig:northwest:NW:3.0:. 98:3:4
Sharon Kelly:western:WE:5.3:. 97:5:23
Chris Foster:southwest:S W:2.7:. 8:2:18
May Chin:southern:SO:5.1:. 95:4:15
Derek Johnson:southeast:SE:4.0:. 7:4:17
Susan Beal:eastern:EA:4.4:.84:5:20
TJ Nichols:northeast:NE:5.1:. 94:3:13
Val Shultz:north:NO:4.5:.89:5:9
Sheri Watson:central:CT:5.7:. 94:5:13

EXAMPLE 6.112

% nawk -F: 'NR == Sfprint NF}' datafileZ

7

EXPLANATION

The field separator is set to a colon at the command line with the -F option. If the num-
ber of the record (NR) is 5, the number of fields (NF) is printed.

EXAMPLE 6.113

% nawk 'BEGIN{OFMT=,,%.Zf";print l^SeZSMZE-Z}' datafileZ

1.25 0.12

EXPLANATION

OFMT, the output format variable for the pri nt function, is set so that floating-point num-
bers will be printed with a decimal-point precision of two digits. The numbers
1.23456789 and 12E-2 are printed in the new format.
218 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

% cat datafile
northwest NW Joel Craig 3.0 .98 3 4
western WE Sharon Kelly 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Chris Foster 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO May Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Derek Johnson 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA Susan Beat 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE TJ Nichols 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Val Shultz 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Sheri Watson 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 6.114

% nawk '{$9 = $6 * $7; print $9}' datafile

2.94
4.85
1.6
3.8
2.8
4.2
2.82
4.45
4.7

EXPLANATION

The result of multiplying the sixth field ($6) and the seventh field ($7) is stored in a
new field, $9, and printed. There were eight fields; now there are nine.

EXAMPLE 6.115

nawk '{$10 = 100; print NF, $9, $0}' datafile

0 northwest m Joel Craig 3.0 .98 3 4 100
0 western ME Sharon Kelly 5.3 .97 5 23 100
0 southwest SM Chris Foster 2.7 .8 2 18 100
0 southern SO May Chin 5.1 .95 4 15 100
0 southeast SE Derek Johnson 4.0 .7 4 17 100
0 eastern EA Susan Beal 4.4 .84 5 20 100
0 northeast NE TJ Nichols 5.1 .94 3 13 100
0 north NO Val Shultz 4.5 .89 5 9 100
0 central CT Sheri Matson 5.7 .94 5 13 100

EXPLANATION

A tenth field ($10) is assigned 100 for each record. This is a new field. The ninth field
($9) does not exist, so it will be considered a null field. The number of fields is printed
(NF), followed by the value of $9, the null field, and the entire record ($0). The value of
the tenth field is 100.
6.16 Review 219

6.16.3 BEGIN Patterns

EXAMPLE 6.116

% nawk 'BEGBKprint " EMPLOYEES T

employees —

EXPLANATION

The BEGIN pattern is followed by an action block. The action is to print out the string
EMPLOYEES before opening the input file. Note that an input file has

not been provided and awk does not complain because any action preceded by BEGIN oc-
curs first, even before awk looks for an input file.

EXAMPLE 6.117

% nawk 'BEGIN{print "\t\t -EMPLOYEES- \n"}\

{print $0}' datafile
EMPLOYEES
northwest m Joel Craig 3.0 .98 3 4
western IYE Sharon Kelly 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SH Chris Foster 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO May Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Derek Johnson 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA Susan Seal 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE TJ Nichols 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Val Shultz 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Sheri lYatson 5.7 .94 5 13

EXPLANATION

The BEGIN action block is executed first. The title EMPLOYEES is printed.
The second action block prints each record in the input file. When breaking lines, the
backslash is used to suppress the carriage return. Lines can be broken at a semicolon
or a curly brace.
220 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

The following datafileZ is used for Example 6.118.

% cat datafile2
Joel Craig:northwest:NW:3.0:. 98:3:4
Sharon Kelly:western:WE:5.3:. 97:5:23
Chris Foster:southwest:S W:2.7:. 8:2:18
May Chin:southern:SO:5.1:. 95:4:15
Derek Johnson:southeast:SE:4.0:. 7:4:17
Susan Beal:eastern:EA:4.4:.84:5:20
TJ Nichols:northeast:NE:5.1:. 94:3:13
Val Shultz:north :NO:4.5:. 89:5:9
Sheri Watson:central:CT:5.7:. 94:5:13

EXAMPLE 6.118

% nawk 'BEGIN! FS=":";OFS="\tM};/ASharon/{print $1, $2, $8 }' datafile2

Sharon Kelly western 28

EXPLANATION

The BEGIN action block is used to initialize variables. The FS variable (field separator)
is assigned a colon. The OFS variable (output field separator) is assigned a tab (\t). After
processing the BEGIN action block, awk opens datafileZ and starts reading input from the
file. If a record begins with the regular expression Sharon, the first, second, and eighth
fields ($1, $Z, $8) are printed. Each field in the output is separated by a tab.

6.16.4 END Patterns

The following datafile is used for Examples 6.119 and 6.120.

% cat datafile
northwest NW Joel Craig 3.0 .98 3 4
western WE Sharon Kelly 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Chris Foster 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO May Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Derek Johnson 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA Susan Seal 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE TJ Nichols 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Val Shultz 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Sheri Watson 5.7 .94 5 13
6.16 Review 221

EXAMPLE 6.119

% nawk 'ENDiprint "The total number of records is " NR}' datafile

The total number of records is 9

EXPLANATION

After awk has finished processing the input file, the statements in the END block are ex-
ecuted. The string The total number of records is is printed, followed by the value of NR,
the number of the last record.

EXAMPLE 6.120

% nawk VAnorth/{count++}END{print count}' datafile

3

EXPLANATION

If the record begins with the regular expression north, the user-defined variable count
is incremented by one. When awk has finished processing the input file, the value
stored in the variable count is printed.

6.16.5 awk Script with BEGIN and END

The following datafileZ is used for Example 6.121.

% cat datafile2
Joel Craig:northwest:NW:3.0:. 98:3:4
Sharon Kelly:western: WE:5.3:. 97:5:23
Chris Foster:southwest:SW:2.7:.8:2:18
May Chin:southern:SO:5.1:. 95:4:15
Derek Johnson:southeast:SE:4.0:. 7:4:17
Susan Beal:eastern:EA:4.4:.84:5:20
TJ Nichols:northeast:NE:5.1:.94:3:13
Val Shultz:north:NO:4.5:. 89:5:9
Sheri Watson:central:CT:5.7:. 94:5:13
222 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

EXAMPLE 6.121

/ Second awk script— awk.scl

1 BECIN{ FS=":"
print " NAME\t\tDISTRICT\tQUANTITY"
print " \n"
}

2 {print Sl'^t " SB'^tU" $7}

{total+=$7}
/north/{count++}

3 END{
print " "
print "The total quantity is " total
print "The number of northern salespersons is " count
}

(The Output)
4 % nawk -f awk.scZ datafileZ
NAME DISTRICT QUANTITY

Joel Craig NW 4
Sharon Kelly WE 23
Chris Foster SW 18
May Chin SO 15
Derek Johnson SE 17
Susan Beal EA 20
77 Nichols NE 13
Val Shultz NO 9
Sheri Watson CT 13

The total quantity is 132

The number of northern salespersons is 3.

EXPLANATION

1 The BEGIN block is executed first. The field separator (FS) is set. Header output is
printed.

2 The body of the awk script contains statements that are executed for each line of
input coming from datafileZ.

3 Statements in the END block are executed after the input file has been closed, i.e.,
before awk exits.

4 At the command line, the nawk program is executed. The -f option is followed by
the script name, awk.scZ, and then by the input file, datafileZ.
6.16 Review 223

The remaining examples in this section use the following datafile, repeated periodi-
cally for your convenience.

% cat datafile
northwest NW Joel Craig 3.0 .98 3 4
western WE Sharon Kelly 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest Sid/ Chris Foster 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO May Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Derek Johnson 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA Susan Beat 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE TJ Nichols 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Val Shultz 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Sheri Watson 5.7 .94 5 13

6.16.6 The printf Function

EXAMPLE 6.122

% nawk '{printf 'W.ZfVi'hSG * 100}' datafile

S 98.00
$ 97.00
$ 80.00
$ 95.00
$ 70.00
$ 84.00
$ 94.00
$ 89.00
$ 94.00

EXPLANATION

The printf function formats a floating-point number to be right-justified (the default)

with a total of 6 digits, one for the decimal point, and two for the decimal numbers to
the right of the period. The number will be rounded up and printed.
224 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

EXAMPLE 6.123

,,
% nawk '{printf |%-15s|\n^$4}, datafile
ICraigl
I Kelly I
/Foster /
/Chin I
/Johnson/
/Beal /
/Nichols/
IShultz/
/Watson/

EXPLANATION

A left-justified, 15-space string is printed. The fourth field ($4) is printed enclosed in
vertical bars to illustrate the spacing.

6.16.7 Redirection and Pipes

EXAMPLE 6.124

% nawk '/north/lprint $1, $3, $4 > "districts"}' datafile

% cat districts
northwest Joel Craig
northeast TJ Nichols
north Val Shultz

EXPLANATION

If the record contains the regular expression north, the first, third, and fourth fields ($1,
$3, S4) are printed to an output file called districts. Once the file is opened, it remains
open until closed or the program terminates. The filename "districts" must be en-
closed in double quotes.

EXAMPLE 6.125

% nawk '/south/lprint $1, $2, $3 » "districts"}' datafile

% cat districts
southwest SW Chris
southern SO May
southeast SE Derek

EXPLANATION

If the record contains the pattern south, the first, second, and third fields ($1, $2, $3) are
appended to the output file districts.
6.16 Review 225

% cat datafile
northwest NW Joel Craig 3.0 .98 3 4
western WE Sharon Kelly 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Chris Foster 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO May Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Derek Johnson 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA Susan Seal 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE TJ Nichols 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Val Shultz 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Sheri Watson 5.7 .94 5 13

6.16.8 Opening and Closing a Pipe

EXAMPLE 6.126

# awk script using pipes — awk.sc3

1 BEGIN{
2 printf " %-22s%s\n,,) "NAME", "DISTRICT"
print " "
3 }
4 /west/{count++}
5 {printf "yos %s\t\t%-15s\n,,s $3, $4, $1| "sort +1" }
6 END{
7 close "sort +1"
printf "The number of sales persons in the western "
printf "region is " count "."}

(The Output)
% nawk -f awk.scB datafile
NAME DISTRICT

Susan Beal eastern

May Chin southern
Joel Craig northwest
Chris Foster southwest
Derek Johnson southeast
Sharon Kelly western
TJ Nichols northeast
Val Shultz north
Sheri Natson central
The number of sales persons in the western region is 3.
226 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

EXPLANATION

1 The special BEGIN pattern is followed by an action block. The statements in this
block are executed first, before awk processes the input file.

2 The printf function displays the string NAME as a 22-character, left-justified string,
followed by the string DISTRICT, which is right-justified.

3 The BEGIN block ends.

4 Now awk will process the input file, one line at a time. If the pattern west is found,
the action block is executed, i.e., the user-defined variable count is incremented by
one. The first time awk encounters the count variable, it will be created and given
an initial value of 0.

5 The printf function formats and sends its output to a pipe. After all of the output
has been collected, it will be sent to the sort command.

6 The END block is started.

7 The pipe (sort +1) must be closed with exactly the same command that opened it;
in this example, sort +1. Otherwise, the END statements will be sorted with the rest
of the output.

LAB 5: nawk EXERCISE

(Refer to the database called labS.data on the CD.)

Mike Harrington:(510) 548-1278:250:100:175

Christian Dobbins:(408) 538-2358:155:90:201
Susan Dalsass:(206) 654-6279:250:60:50
Archie McNichol:(206) 548-1348:250:100:175
Jody Savage:(206) 548-1278:15:188:150
Guy Quigley:(916) 343-6410:250:100:175
Dan Savage:(406) 298-7744:450:300:275
Nancy McNeil:(206) 548-1278:250:80:75
John Goldenrod:(916) 348-4278:250:100:175
Chet Main:(510) 548-5258:50:95:135
Tom Savage:(408) 926-3456:250:168:200
Elizabeth Stachelin:(916) 440-1763:175:75:300

The database contains the names, phone numbers, and money contributions to the party
campaign for the past three months.
6.17 Conditional Statements 227

Write a nawk script to produce the following output:

% nawk -f nawk.sc db

-vCAMPAIGN 1998 CONTRIBUTIONS**-

NAME PHONE Ian | Feb | Mar | Total Donated

Mike Harrington (510) 548-1278 250.00 100.00 175.00 525.00

Christian Dobbins (408) 538-2358 155.00 90.00 201.00 446.00
Susan Dalsass (206) 654-6279 250.00 60.00 50.00 360.00
Archie McNichol (206) 548-1348 250.00 100.00 175.00 525.00
3ody Savage (206) 548-1278 15.00 188.00 150.00 353.00
Guy Quigley (916) 343-6410 250.00 100.00 175.00 525.00
Dan Savage (406) 298-7744 450.00 300.00 275.00 1025.00
Nancy McNeil (206) 548-1278 250.00 80.00 75.00 405.00
John Coldenrod (916) 348-4278 250.00 100.00 175.00 525.00
Chet Main (510) 548-5258 50.00 95.00 135.00 280.00
Tom Savage (408) 926-3456 250.00 68.00 200.00 618.00
Elizabeth Stachelin (916) 440-1763 175.00 75.00 300.00 550.00

SUMMARY

The campaign received a total of $6137.00 for this quarter.

The average donation for the 12 contributors was $511.42.
The highest contribution was $300.00.
The lowest contribution was $15.00.

6.17 Conditional Statements

The conditional statements in awk were borrowed from the C language. They are used to
control the flow of the program in making decisions.

6.17.1 if Statements

Statements beginning with the if construct are action statements. With conditional pat-
terns, the if is implied; with a conditional action statement, the if is explicitly stated,
and followed by an expression enclosed in parentheses. If the expression evaluates true
(nonzero or non-null), the statement or block of statements following the expression is
executed. If there is more than one statement following the conditional expression, the
statements are separated either by semicolons or a newline, and the group of statements
must be enclosed in curly braces so that the statements are executed as a block.
228 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

FORMAT

if (expression) {
statement; statement;
}

EXAMPLE 6.127

1 % nawk '{if ( $6 > 50 ) print $1 "Too high"}' filename

2 % nawk '{if ($6 > 20 && $6 <= 50){safe++; print "OK"}}' filename

EXPLANATION

1 In the if action block, the expression is tested. If the value of the sixth field ($6)
is greater than 50, the pri nt statement is executed. Because the statement following
the expression is a single statement, curly braces are not required, (filename repre-
sents the input file.)

2 In the i f action block, the expression is tested. If the sixth field ($6) is greater than
20 and the sixth field is less than or equal to 50, the statements following the ex-
pression are executed as a block and must be enclosed in curly braces.

6.17.2 i f/el se Statements

The if/else statement allows a two-way decision. If the expression after the if keyword
is true, the block of statements associated with that expression are executed. If the first
expression evaluates to false or 0, the block of statements after the else keyword is exe-
cuted. If multiple statements are to be included with the if or else, they must be blocked
with curly braces.

FORMAT

{if (expression) {
statement; statement;
}
else{
statement; statement;
}
}

EXAMPLE 6.128

1 % nawk '{if( $6 > 50) print $1 " Too high" ;\

else print "Range is OK"}' filename
2 % nawk '{if ( $6 > 50 ) { count++; print $3 } \
else { x+5; print $2 } }' filename
6.17 Conditional Statements 229

EXPLANATION

1 If the first expression is true, that is, the sixth field ($6) is greater than 50, the pri nt
function prints the first field and Too high; otherwise, the statement after the else,
Range is OK, is printed.

2 If the first expression is true, that is, the sixth field ($6) is greater than 50, the block
of statements is executed; otherwise, the block of statements after the else is exe-
cuted. Note that the blocks are enclosed in curly braces.

6.17.3 if/else and else if Statements

The if/else and else if statements allow a multiway decision. If the expression following
the keyword if is true, the block of statements associated with that expression is exe-
cuted and control starts again after the last closing curly brace associated with the final
else. Otherwise, control goes to the else if and that expression is tested. When the first
else if condition is true, the statements following the expression are executed. If none
of the conditional expressions test true, control goes to the else statements. The else is
called the default action because if none of the other statements are true, the else block
is executed.

FORMAT

{if (expression) {
statement; statement; ...
}
else if (expression){
statement; statement; ...
}
else if (expression)!
statement; statement; ...
}
else{
statement
}
}

EXAMPLE 6.129

(In the Script)

1 {if ( $3 > 89 && $3 < 101 ) Agrade++
2 else if ( $3 > 79 ) Bgrade++
3 else if ( $3 > 69 ) Cgrade++
4 else if ( $3 > 59 ) Dgrade++
5 else Fgrade++
}
END{print "The number of failures is" Fgrade }
230 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

EXPLANATION

1 The if statement is an action and must be enclosed in curly braces. The expres-
sion is evaluated from left to right. If the first expression is false, the whole ex-
pression is false; if the first expression is true, the expression after the logical AND
(&&) is evaluated. If it is true, the variable Agrade is incremented by 1.

2 If the first expression following the if keyword evaluates to false (0), the else if ex-
pression is tested. If it evaluates to true, the statement following the expression is
executed; that is, if the third field ($3) is greater than 79, Bgrade is incremented by 1.

3 If the first two statements are false, the el se if expression is tested, and if the third
field ($3) is greater than 69, Cgrade is incremented.

4 If the first three statements are false, the else if expression is tested, and if the
third field is greater than 59, Dgrade is incremented.

5 If none of the expressions tested above is true, the else block is executed. The
curly brace ends the action block. Fgrade is incremented.

6.18 Loops

Loops are used to repeatedly execute the statements following the test expression if a
condition is true. Loops are often used to iterate through the fields within a record and
to loop through the elements of an array in the END block. Awk has three types of loops;
while, for, and special-for, which will be discussed later when working with awk arrays.

6.18.1 while Loop

The first step in using a while loop is to set a variable to an initial value. The value is then
tested in the while expression. If the expression evaluates to true (nonzero), the body of
the loop is entered and the statements within that body are executed. If there is more
than one statement within the body of the loop, those statements must be enclosed in
curly braces. Before ending the loop block, the variable controlling the loop expression
must be updated or the loop will continue forever. In the following example, the variable
is reinitialized each time a new record is processed.
The do/while loop is similar to the while loop, except that the expression is not tested
until the body of the loop is executed at least once.

EXAMPLE 6.130

% nawk '{ i =1; while ( i <= NF ) { print NF, Si ; i++ } }' filename

EXPLANATION

The variable i is initialized to 1; while i is less than or equal to the number of fields
(NF) in the record, the print statement will be executed, then i will be incremented by
1. The expression will then be tested again, until the variable i is greater than the value
of NF. The variable i is not reinitialized until awk starts processing the next record.
6.18 Loops 231

6.18.2 forloop

The for loop and while loop are essentially the same, except the for loop requires three
expressions within the parentheses: the initialization expression, the test expression,
and the expression to update the variables within the test expression. In awk, the first
statement within the parentheses of the for loop can perform only one initialization. (In
C, you can have multiple initializations separated by commas.)

EXAMPLE 6.131

% nawk '{ for( i = 1; i <= NF; i++) print NF,$i }' filex

EXPLANATION

The variable i is initialized to 1 and tested to see whether it is less than or equal to the
number of fields (NF) in the record. If so, the print function prints the value of NF and
the value of $i (the $ preceding the i is the number of the ith field), then i is incre-
mented by 1. (Frequently the for loop is used with arrays in an END action to loop
through the elements of an array) See "Arrays" on page 233.

6.18.3 Loop Control

break and continue Statements. The break statement lets you break out of a loop if
a certain condition is true. The continue statement causes the loop to skip any statements
that follow if a certain condition is true, and returns control to the top of the loop, start-
ing at the next iteration.

EXAMPLE 6.132

(In the Script)

1 {for { x = 3; x <= NF; x++ )
if ( $x < 0 ){ print "Bottomed out!"; break}
# breaks out of for loop
}

2 {for ( x = 3; x <= NF; x++ )

if ( $x == 0 ) { print "Get next item"; continue}
# starts next iteration of the for loop
}

EXPLANATION

1 If the value of the field $x is less than 0, the break statement causes control to go
to the statement after the closing curly brace of the loop body; i.e., it breaks out
of the loop.

2 If the value of the field $x is equal to 0, the continue statement causes control to
start at the top of the loop and start execution, in the third expression at the for
loop at x++.
232 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

6.19 Program Control Statements

6.19.1 next Statement

The next statement gets the next line of input from the input file, restarting execution at
the top of the awk script.

EXAMPLE 6.133

(In Script)
{ if ($1 ~ /Peter/){next}
else {print}
}

EXPLANATION

If the first field contains Peter, awk skips over this line and gets the next line from the
input file. The script resumes execution at the beginning.

6.19.2 exit Statement

The exit statement is used to terminate the awk program. It stops processing records, but
does not skip over an END statement. If the exit statement is given a value between 0 and
255 as an argument—in the following example, it is exit (1)—this value can be printed
at the command line to indicate success or failure by typing the following.

EXAMPLE 6.134

(In Script)
{exit (1) }

(The Command Line)

% echo Sstatus (csh)
1

$ echo $? (sh/ksh)
1

EXPLANATION

An exit status of 0 indicates success, and an exit value of nonzero indicates failure (a
convention in UNIX). It is up to the programmer to provide the exit status in a pro-
gram. The exit value returned in this example is 1.
6.20 Arrays 233

6.20 Arrays

Arrays in awk are called associative arrays because the subscripts can be either numbers
or strings. The subscript is often called the key and is associated with the value assigned
to the corresponding array element. The keys and values are stored internally in a table
where a hashing algorithm is applied to the value of the key in question. Due to the tech-
niques used for hashing, the array elements are not stored in a sequential order, and
when the contents of the array are displayed, they may not be in the order you expected.
An array, like a variable, is created by using it, and awk can infer whether it is used to
store numbers or strings. Array elements are initialized with numeric value zero and
string value null, depending on the context. You do not have to declare the size of an awk
array. Awk arrays are used to collect information from records and may be used for accu-
mulating totals, counting words, tracking the number of times a pattern occurred, and
so forth.

6.20.1 Subscripts for Associative Arrays

Using Variables As Array Indexes. [See Example 6.135 for a demonstration.

EXAMPLE 6.135

(The Input File)

% cat employees
Tom Jones 4424 5/12/66 543354
Mary Adams 5346 11/4/63 28765
Sally Chang 1654 7/22/54 650000
Billy Black 1683 9/23/44 336500

(The Command Line)

,
1 % nawk {name[x++]=$2};END{for(i=0; i<NR; i++)\
print i, namefi]}' employees
0 Jones
1 Adams
2 Chang
3 Black

,
2 % nawk {id[NR]=$3};END{for(x = 1; x <= NR; x++)\
print ichx]}' employees
4424
5346
1654
1683
234 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

EXPLANATION

1 The subscript in array name is a user-defined variable, x. The ++ indicates a numeric

context. Awk initializes x to 0 and increments x by 1 after (post-increment operator)
it is used. The value of the second field is assigned to each element of the name array.
In the END block, the for loop is used to loop through the array printing the value
that was stored there, starting at subscript 0. Because the subscript is just a key, it
does not have to start at 0. It can start at any value, either a number or a string.

2 The awk variable NR contains the number of the current record. By using NR as a sub-
script, the value of the third field is assigned to each element of the array for each
record. At the end, the for loop will loop through the array, printing out the values
that were stored there.

The Special-for Loop. The special-for loop is used to read through an associative
array in cases where the for loop is not practical; that is, when strings are used as sub-
scripts or the subscripts are not consecutive numbers. The special-for loop uses the sub-
script as a key into the value associated with it.

FORMAT

{for(item in arrayname){
print arrayname[item]
}
}

EXAMPLE 6.136

(The Input File)

% cat db
1 Tom Jones
2 Mary Adams
3 Sally Chang
4 Billy Black
5 Tom Savage
6 Tom Chung
7 Reggie Steel
8 Tommy Tucker

(The Command Line, for Loop)

1 % nawk 7AToiii/{name[NR]=$l};\
END{for( i = 1; i <= NR; i++ )print namefi]}' db
Tom

Tom
Tom

Tommy
6.20 Arrays 235

EXAMPLE 6.136 (continued)

(The Command Line, Special-for Loop)

,
2 % nawk /AToiii/{name[NR]=$l};\
END{for(i in nameHprint nameti]}}' db
Tom
Tommy
Tom
Tom

EXPLANATION

1 If the regular expression Tom is matched against an input line, the name array is as-
signed a value. The NR value, the number of the current record, will be used as an
index in the name array. Each time Tom is matched on a line, the name array is assigned
the value of $1, the first field. When the END block is reached, the name array consists
of four elements: name[l], name[5], name[6], and name[8]. Therefore, when printing
the values for the name array with the traditional for loop, the values for indexes 2,
3, 4, and 7 are null.

2 The special-for loop iterates through the array, printing only values where there
was a subscript associated with that value. The order of the printout is random
because of the way the associative arrays are stored (hashed).

Using Strings As Array Subscripts. A subscript may consist of a variable contain-

ing a string or literal string. If the string is a literal, it must be enclosed in double quotes.

EXAMPLE 6.137

(The Input File)

% cat datafile3
torn
mary
sean
torn
mary
mary
bob
mary
alex

(The Script)
# awk.sc script
1 /torn/ { count["torn"]++ }
2 /mary/ { count["mary"]++ }
3 END{print "There are " count["tom"] " Toms in the file and
" count["mary"]" Marys in the file."}
236 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

EXAMPLE 6.137 (continued)

(The Command Line)

% nawk -f awk.sc datafile3
There are 2 Toms in the file and 4 Marys in the file.

EXPLANATION

1 An array called count consists of two elements, count ["torn"] and count ["mary"]. The
initial value of each of the array elements is 0. Every time torn is matched, the value
of the array is incremented by 1.

2 The same procedure applies to count ["mary"]. Note: Only one torn is recorded for
each line, even if there are multiple occurrences on the line.

3 The END pattern prints the value stored in each of the array elements.

2 4
value |^.
^ Name ["Tom"] ^ Name ["Mary"]
—J
^ index

Figure 6.1 Using strings as subscripts in an array (Example 6.137).

Using Field Values As Array Subscripts. Any expression can be used as a sub-
script in an array. Therefore, fields can be used. The program in Example 6.138 counts
the frequency of all names appearing in the second field and introduces a new form of
the for loop:

for( index.value in array ) statement

The for loop found in the END block of the previous example works as follows: The
variable name is set to the index value of the count array After each iteration of the for
loop, the pri nt action is performed, first printing the value of the index, and then the value
stored in that element. (The order of the printout is not guaranteed.)

EXAMPLE 6.138

(The Input File)

% cat datafile4
4234 Tom 43
4567 Arch 45
2008 Eliza 65
4571 Tom 22
3298 Eliza 21
4622 Tom 53
2345 Mary 24
6.20 Arrays 237

EXAMPLE 6.138 (continued)

(The Command Line)

,
% nawk {count[$2]++}END{for(name in count)print name.count[name] }' datafile4
Tom 3
Arch 1
Eliza 2
Mary 1

EXPLANATION

The awk statement first will use the second field as an index in the count array. The in-
dex varies as the second field varies, thus the first index in the count array is Tom and
the value stored in count ["Tom"] is 1.
Next, count["Arch"] is set to 1, count["Eliza"] to 1, and count["Mary"] to 1. When awk
finds the next occurrence of Tom in the second field, count ["Tom"] is incremented, now
containing the value 2. The same thing happens for each occurrence of Arch, Eliza, and
Mary.

EXAMPLE 6.139

(The Input File)

% cat datafile4
4234 Tom 43
4567 Arch 45
2008 Eliza 65
4571 Tom 22
3298 Eliza 21
4622 Tom 53
2345 Mary 24

(The Command Line)

% nawk '{dupfSZ^+i if (dup[$2] > l){name[$2]++ }}\
END{print "The duplicates wereM\
for (i in name){print i, namefi]}}' datafile4

(The Output)
Tom 2
Eliza 2

EXPLANATION

The subscript for the dup array is the value in the second field, that is, the name of a
person. The value stored there is initially zero, and it is incremented by one each time
a new record is processed. If the name is a duplicate, the value stored for that subscript
will go up to two, and so forth. If the value in the dup array is greater than one, a new
array called name also uses the second field as a subscript and keeps track of the number
of names greater than one.
238 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

Arrays and the split Function. Awk's built-in split function allows you to split a
string into words and store them in an array. You can define the field separator or use
the value currently stored in FS.

FORMAT

splitlstring, array, field separator)

split (string, array)

EXAMPLE 6.140

(The Command Line)

% nawk BEGIN! split( "3/15/2004", date, 7");\
print "The month is " date[l] "and the year is "date[3]"} filename

(The Output)
The month is 3 and the year is 2004.

EXPLANATION

The string B/15/2004 is stored in the array date, using the forward slash as the field sep-
arator. Now date[l] contains 3, date[2] contains 15, and date[3] contains 2004. The field
separator is specified in the third argument; if not specified, the value of FS is used as
the separator.

The delete Function. The delete function removes an array element.

EXAMPLE 6.141

,
% nawk {line[x++]=$2}END{for(x in line) deleteOinelx])}' filename

EXPLANATION

The value assigned to the array line is the value of the second field. After all the records
have been processed, the special-for loop will go through each element of the array,
and the delete function will in turn remove each element.

Multidimensional Arrays (nawk). Although awk does not officially support multidi-
mensional arrays, a syntax is provided that gives the appearance of a multidimensional
array. This is done by concatenating the indexes into a string separated by the value of
a special built-in variable, SUBSER The SUBSEP variable contains the value "\034", an
unprintable character that is so unusual that it is unlikely to be found as an index char-
acter. The expression matrix[2,8] is really the array matrix[2 SUBSEP 8], which evaluates to
matrix["2\0348"]. The index becomes a unique string for an associative array.
6.20 Arrays 239

EXAMPLE 6.142

(The Input File)

1 2 3 4 5
2 3 4 5 6
6 7 8 9 10

(The Script)
1 {nf=NF
2 for(x = 1; x <= NF; x++ ){
3 matrix[NR, x] = $x
}
}
4 END { for (x=l; x <= NR; x++ ){
for (y = 1; y <= nf; y++ )
printf '^d matrixtx.y]
printf"\n"
}
}

(The Output)
1 2 3 4 5
2 3 4 5 6
6 7 8 9 10

EXPLANATION

1 The variable nf is assigned the value of NF, the number of fields. (This program
assumes a fixed number of five fields per record.)

2 The for loop is entered, storing the number of each field on the line in the variable x.

3 The matrix array is a two-dimensional array. The two indexes, NR (number of the
current record) and x, are assigned the value of each field.

4 In the END block, the two for loops are used to iterate through the matrix array,
printing out the values stored there. This example does nothing more than dem-
onstrate that multidimensional arrays can be simulated.

6.20.2 Processing Command Arguments (nawk)

ARCV. Command-line arguments are available to nawk (the new version of awk) with the
built-in array called ARCV These arguments include the command nawk, but not any of the
options passed to nawk. The index of the ARCV array starts at zero. (This works only for
nawk.)

ARGC. ARCC is a built-in variable that contains the number of command-line arguments.
240 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

EXAMPLE 6.143

(The Script)
# Scriptname: argvs
BECIN{
for ( i=0; i < ARGC; i++ ){
printf("argv[%d] is %s\n") i, ARGV[i])
}
printf("The number of arguments, ARGC=%cl\n", ARGC)
}

(The Output)
% nawk -f argvs datafile
argv[0] is nawk
argvfl] is datafile
The number of arguments, ARGC=2

EXPLANATION

In the for loop, i is set to zero, i is tested to see if it is less than the number of command-
line arguments (ARGC), and the printf function displays each argument encountered, in
turn. When all of the arguments have been processed, the last pri ntf statement outputs
the number of arguments, ARGC. The example demonstrates that nawk does not count
command-line options as arguments.

EXAMPLE 6.144

(The Command Line)

% nawk -f argvs datafile "Peter Pan" 12
argv[0] is nawk
argvfl] is datafile
argv[2] is Peter Pan
argv[3] is 12
The number of arguments, ARCC=4

EXPLANATION

As in the last example, each of the arguments is printed. The nawk command is consid-
ered the first argument, whereas the -f option and script name, argvs, are excluded.
6.20 Arrays 241

EXAMPLE 6.145

(The Datafile)
% cat datafileS
Tom Jones:123:03/14/56
Peter Pan:456:06/22/58
Joe Blow: 145:12/12/78
Santa Ana:234:02/03/66
Ariel Jones:987:11/12/66

(The Script)
% cat arging.sc
# Scriptname: arging.sc
1 BEGIN{FS=":"; name=ARGV[2]
,, ,,
2 print ARGV[2] is ARGV[2]
}
$1 ~ name { print $0 }

(The Command Line)

% nawk -f arging.sc datafileS "Peter Pan"
ARGV[2] is Peter Pan
Peter Pan:456:06/22/58
nawk: can't open Peter Pan
input record number 5, file Peter Pan
source line number 2

EXPLANATION

1 In the BEGIN block, the variable name is assigned the value of ARGV[2], Peter Pan.

2 Peter Pan is printed, but then nawk tries to open Peter Pan as an input file after it has
processed and closed the datafile. Nawk treats arguments as input files.

EXAMPLE 6.146

(The Script)
% cat arging2.sc
BECIN{FS=":"; name=ARGV[2]
print "ARGV[2] is " ARGV[2]
delete ARGV[2]
}
$1 ~ name { print $0 }

(The Command Line)

% nawk -f arging2.sc datafile "Peter Pan"
ARCV[2] is Peter Pan
Peter Pan:456:06/22/58
242 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

EXPLANATION

Nawk treats the elements of the ARGV array as input files; after an argument is used, it is
shifted to the left and the next one is proeessed, until the ARGV array is empty If the
argument is deleted immediately after it is used, it will not be processed as the next
input file.

6.21 awk Built-in Functions

6.21.1 String Functions

The sub and gsub Functions. The sub function matches the regular expression for
the largest and leftmost substring in the record, and then replaces that substring with
the substitution string. If a target string is specified, the regular expression is matched
for the largest and leftmost substring in the target string, and the substring is replaced
with the substitution string. If a target string is not specified, the entire record is used.

FORMAT

sub (regular expression , substitution string);

sub (regular expression , substitution string, target string)

EXAMPLE 6.147

, 1
1 % nawk {sub(/Mac/! 'Macintosh"); print}' filename
, 1
2 % nawk {sub(/Mac/) 'Macintosh", $1); print}' filename

EXPLANATION

1 The first time the regular expression Mac is matched in the record ($0), it will be
replaced with the string Macintosh. The replacement is made only on the first oc-
currence of a match on the line. (See gsub for multiple occurrences.)

2 The first time the regular expression Mac is matched in the first field of the record,
it will be replaced with the string Macintosh. The replacement is made only on the
first occurrence of a match on the line for the target string. The gsub function sub-
stitutes a regular expression with a string globally, that is, for every occurrence
where the regular expression is matched in each record ($0).

FORMAT

gsub(regular expression, substitution string)

gsub(regu1ar expression, substitution string, target string)
6.21 awk Built-in Functions 243

EXAMPLE 6.148

1 % nawk gsub(/CA/, "California"); print }' datafile

2 % nawk '{ gsub(/[Tt]oiti/, "Thomas", $1 ); print }' filename

EXPLANATION

1 Everywhere the regular expression CA is found in the record ($0), it will be replaced
with the string California.

2 Everywhere the regular expression Tom or torn is found in the first field, it will be
replaced with the string Thomas.

The index Function. The index function returns the first position where a substring
is found in a string. Offset starts at position 1.

FORMAT

indexlstring, substring)

EXAMPLE 6.149

% nawk '{ print index("hollow", "low") }' filename

4

EXPLANATION

The number returned is the position where the substring low is found in hollow, with the
offset starting at one.

The length Function. The length function returns the number of characters in a
string. Without an argument, the length function returns the number of characters in a
record.

FORMAT

length ( string )
length

EXAMPLE 6.150

% nawk '{ print length("hello") }' filename

5

EXPLANATION

The length function returns the number of characters in the string hello.
244 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

The substr Function. The substr function returns the substring of a string starting at
a position where the first position is one. If the length of the substring is given, that part
of the string is returned. If the specified length exceeds the actual string, the string is
returned.

FORMAT

substr(string, starting position)

substr(string, starting position, length of string)

EXAMPLE 6.151

% nawk ' { print substr(MSanta Claus", 7, 6 )} 1

filename
Claus

EXPLANATION

In the string Santa Claus, print the substring starting at position 7 with a length of 6
characters.

The match Function. The match function returns the index where the regular expres-
sion is found in the string, or zero if not found. The match function sets the built-in vari-
able RSTART to the starting position of the substring within the string, and RLENCTH to the
number of characters to the end of the substring. These variables can be used with the
substr function to extract the pattern. (Works only with nawk.)

FORMAT

match(string, regular expression)

EXAMPLE 6.152

,
% nawk END{start=match("Good ole USA", /[A-Z]+$/); print starthX
filename
10

EXPLANATION

The regular expression /[A-Z]+$/ says search for consecutive uppercase letters at the
end of the string. The substring USA is found starting at the tenth character of the string
Good ole USA. If the string cannot be matched, 0 is returned.
6.21 awk Built-in Functions 245

EXAMPLE 6.153

,
1 % nawk END{start=match("Good ole USA", /[A-Z]+S/);\
print RSTART, RLENGTH}' filename
10 3
2 % nawk 'BEGINi line="Good ole USA"}; \
END{ match( line, /[A-Z]+$/);\
print substr(line, RSTART,RLENGTH)}' filename
USA

EXPLANATION

1 The RSTART variable is set by the match function to the starting position of the reg-
ular expression matched. The RLENGTH variable is set to the length of the substring.

2 The substr function is used to find a substring in the variable line, and uses the
RSTART and RLENGTH values (set by the match function) as the beginning position and
length of the substring.

The spl it Function. The split function splits a string into an array using whatever
field separator is designated as the third parameter. If the third parameter is not pro-
vided, awk will use the current value of FS.

FORMAT

split (string, array, field separator)

split (string, array)

EXAMPLE 6.154

1
% awk BEGIN{split("12/25/2001",date,"/");print datelZ]}' filename
25

EXPLANATION

The split function splits the string 12/25/2001 into an array, called date, using the for-
ward slash as the separator. The array subscript starts at 1. The second element of the
date array is printed.

The sprintf Function. The sprintf function returns an expression in a specified for-
mat. It allows you to apply the format specifications of the printf function.

FORMAT

variable=sprintf("string with format specifiers ", exprl, expr2, ... , expr2)

246 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

EXAMPLE 6.155

% awk '{line = sprintf ( "%-15s %6.2f $1 , $3 ); print line}' filename

EXPLANATION

The first and third fields are formatted according to the printf specifications (a left-
justified, 15-space string and a right-justified, 6-character floating-point number).
The result is assigned to the user-defined variable line. See "The printf Function" on
page 223.

6.22 Built-in Arithmetic Functions

Table 6.13 lists the built-in arithmetic functions, where x and y are arbitrary expressions.

Table 6.13 Arithmetic Functions

Function Value Returned

atan2(x,y) Arctangent of y/x in the range

cos(x) Cosine of x (x in radians)

exp(x) Exponential function e to the power of x

int(x) Integer portion of x; truncated toward 0 when x > 0

log(x) Natural (base e) logarithm of x

rand( ) Random number r, where 0 < r < 1

sin(x) Sine of x (with x in radians)

sqrt(x) Square root of x

srand(x) x is a new seed for rand( )

6.22.1 Integer Function

The int function truncates any digits to the right of the decimal point to create a whole
number. There is no rounding off.
6.22 Built-in Arithmetic Functions 247

EXAMPLE 6.156

1 % awk 'ENDiprint 31/3}' filename

10.3333
1 % awk 'ENDlprint intOl/S})' filename
10

EXPLANATION

1 In the END block, the result of the division is to print a floating-point number.

2 In the END block, the i nt function causes the result of the division to be truncated
at the decimal point. A whole number is displayed.

6.22.2 Random Number Generator

The rand Function. The rand function generates a pseudorandom floating-point

number greater than or equal to 0 and less than 1.

EXAMPLE 6.157

% nawk '{print rand()}' filename

0.513871
0.175726
0.308634

% nawk '{print rand()}' filename

0.513871
0.175726
0.308634

EXPLANATION

Each time the program runs, the same set of numbers is printed. The stand function
can be used to seed the rand function with a new starting value. Otherwise, as in this
example, the same sequence is repeated each time rand is called.

The srand Function. The stand function without an argument uses the time of day to
generate the seed for the rand function. Srand(x) uses x as the seed. Normally, x should
vary during the run of the program.
248 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

EXAMPLE 6.158

% nawk 'BEGINlsrandOfjfprint rand()}' filename

0.508744
0.639485
0.657277

% nawk 'BEGINfsrandO};{print randQ}' filename

0.133518
0.324747
0.691794

EXPLANATION

The srand function sets a new seed for rand. The starting point is the time of day. Each
time rand is called, a new sequence of numbers is printed.

EXAMPLE 6.159

% nawk 'BEGINisrandOMprint 1 + int(rand() * 25)}' filename

6
24
14

EXPLANATION

The srand function sets a new seed for rand. The starting point is the time of day. The
rand function selects a random number between 0 and 25 and casts it to an integer
value.

6.23 User-Defined Functions (nawk)

A user-defined function can be placed anywhere in the script that a pattern action rule can
be placed.

FORMAT

function name ( parameter, parameter, parameter, ... ) {

statements
return expression
(The return statement and expression are optional)
}
6.23 User-Defined Functions (nawk) 249

Variables are passed by value and are local to the function where they are used. Only
copies of the variables are used. Arrays are passed by address or by reference, so array
elements can be directly changed within the function. Any variable used within the
function that has not been passed in the parameter list is considered a global variable;
that is, it is visible to the entire nawk program, and if changed in the function, is changed
throughout the program. The only way to provide local variables within a function is to
include them in the parameter list. Such parameters are usually placed at the end of the
list. If there is not a formal parameter provided in the function call, the parameter is ini-
tially set to null. The return statement returns control and possibly a value to the caller.

EXAMPLE 6.160

(The Command Line Display of grades File before Sort)

% cat grades
44 55 66 22 77 99
100 22 77 99 33 66
55 66 100 99 88 45

(The Script)
% cat sorter.sc
# Scriptname: sorter
# It sorts numbers in ascending order
1 function sort ( scores, num.elements, temp, i, j ) {
# temp, ?, and j will be local and private,
# with an initial value of null.
2 for( i = 2; i <= num.elements ; ++i ) {
3 for ( j = i; scores [j-1] > scores!]]; —j ){
temp = scores!]]
scores!]] = scores[j-1]
scores[]-l] = temp
}
4 }
5 }
6 {for ( i = 1; i <= NF; i++)
grades[i]=$i
7 sort(grades, NF) # Two arguments are passed
8 for( j = 1; j <= NF; ++j )
printf( "%d ", grades!j] )
printfCV)
}

(After the Sort)

% nawk -f sorter.sc grades
22 44 55 66 77 99
22 33 66 77 99 100
45 55 66 88 99 100
250 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

EXPLANATION

1 The function called sort is defined. The function can be defined anywhere in the
script. All variables, except those passed as parameters, are global in scope. If
changed in the function, they will be changed throughout the nawk script. Arrays
are passed by reference. Five formal arguments are enclosed within the parenthe-
ses. The array scores will be passed by reference, so that if any of the elements of
the array are modified within the function, the original array will be modified. The
variable num.elements is a local variable, a copy of the original. The variables temp,
i, and j are local variables in the function.

2 The outer for loop will iterate through an array of numbers, as long as there are
at least two numbers to compare.

3 The inner for loop will compare the current number with the previous number,
scores [j -1]). If the previous array element is larger than the current one, temp will
be assigned the value of the current array element, and the current array element
will be assigned the value of the previous element.

4 The outer loop block ends.

5 This is the end of the function definition.

6 The first action block of the script starts here. The for loop iterates through each
field of the current record, creating an array of numbers.

7 The sort function is called, passing the array of numbers from the current record
and the number of fields in the current record.

8 When the sort function has completed, program control starts here. The for loop
prints the elements in the sorted array.

6.24 Review

Unless otherwise noted, the examples in this section use the following datafile, repeated
periodically for your convenience.

% cat datafile
northwest NW Joel Craig 3.0 .98 3 4
western WE Sharon Kelly 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Chris Foster 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO May Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Derek Johnson 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA Susan Seal 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE TJ Nichols 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Val Shultz 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Sheri Watson 5.7 .94 5 13
6.24 Review 251

EXAMPLE 6.161

% nawk '{if ( $8 > 15 ){ print $3 " has a high rating"}\

else print $3 "—NOT A COMPETITOR—"}11 datafile

Joel—NOT A COMPETITOR—
Sharon has a high rating
Chris has a high rating
May—NOT A COMPETITOR—
Derek has a high rating
Susan has a high rating
TJ—NOT A COMPETITOR—
Val—NOT A COMPETITOR—
Sheri---NOT A COMPETITOR—

EXPLANATION |

The if statement is an action statement. If there is more than one statement following
the expression, it must be enclosed in curly braces. (Curly braces are not required in
this example, because there is only one statement following the expression.) The ex-
pression reads; if the eighth field is greater than 15, print the third field and the string
has a high rating; else print the third field and —NOT A COMPETITOR—.

EXAMPLE 6.162

% nawk '{i=l; while(i<=NF && NR < 2){print Si; i++}}' datafile

northwest
m
Joel
Craig
3.0
.98
3
4

EXPLANATION

The user-defined variable i is assigned 1. The while loop is entered and the expression
tested. If the expression evaluates true, the print statement is executed; the value of
the ith field is printed. The value of i is printed, next the value is incremented by 1,
and the loop is reentered. The loop expression will become false when the value of i
is greater than NF and the value of NR is 2 or more. The variable i will not be reinitialized
until the next record is entered.
252 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

% cat datafile
northwest NW Joel Craig 3.0 .98 3 4
western WE Sharon Kelly 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Chris Foster 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO May Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Derek Johnson 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA Susan Beat 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE TJ Nichols 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Val Shultz 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Sheri Watson 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 6.163

% nawk '{ for( i=3 ; i <= NF && NR == 3 ; i++ ){ print $i }}' datafile
Chris
Foster
2.7
.8
2
18

EXPLANATION

This is similar to the while loop in functionality. The initialization, test, and loop con-
trol statements are all in one expression. The value of i (i = 3) is initialized once for
the current record. The expression is then tested. If i is less than or equal to NF, and NR
is equal to 3, the pri nt block is executed. After the value of the i th field is printed, con-
trol is returned to the loop expression. The value of i is incremented and the test is
repeated.

EXAMPLE 6.164

(The Command Line)

% cat nawk.sc4
# Awk script illustrating arrays
BECIN{OFS="\t"}
{ list[NR] = SI } # The array is called list. The index is
# the number of the current record. The value of the
# first field is assigned to the array element.
END{ for( n = 1; n <= NR; n++){
print list[n]} # for loop is used to loop through the array.
}
6.24 Review 253

EXAMPLE 6.164 (continued)

(The Command Line)

% nawk -f nawk.sc4 datafile
northwest
western
southwest
southern
southeast
eastern
northeast
north
central

EXPLANATION

The array, list, uses NR as an index value. Each time a line of input is processed, the
first field is assigned to the list array. In the END block, the for loop iterates through
each element of the array.

EXAMPLE 6.165

(The Command Line)

% cat nawk.scS
# Awk script with special for loop
/north/{name[count++]=$3}
END{ print "The number living in a northern district: " count
print "Their names are: "
for ( i in name ) # Special nawk for loop is used to
print name[i] # iterate through the array.
}

% nawk -f nawk.scS datafile

The number living in a northern district: 3
Their names are:
Joel
TJ
Val

EXPLANATION

Each time the regular expression north appears on the line, the name array is assigned
the value of the third field. The index count is incremented each time a new record is
processed, thus producing another element in the array. In the END block, the special-
for loop is used to iterate through the array.
254 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

% cat datafile
northwest NW Joel Craig 3.0 .98 3 4
western WE Sharon Kelly 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest Sid/ Chris Foster 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO May Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Derek Johnson 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA Susan Beat 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE TJ Nichols 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Val Shultz 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Sheri Watson 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 6.166

(The Command Line)

% cat nawk.sc6
# Awk and the special for loop
{region[Sl]++} # The index is the first field of each record
END{for(item in region){
print region[item], item
}
}

% nawk -f nawk.sc6 datafile

1 central
1 northwest
1 western
1 southeast
1 north
1 southern
1 northeast
1 southwest
1 eastern

% nawk -f nawk.sc6 datafile3

4 14a ry
2 Tom
1 Alax
1 Bob
1 Sean

EXPLANATION

The region array uses the first field as an index. The value stored is the number of times
each region was found. The END block uses the awk special-for loop to iterate through
the array called region.
6.24 Review 255

LAB 6: nawk EXERCISE

(Refer to the database called lab6.data on the CD.)

Mike Harrington:(510) 548-1278:250:100:175

Christian Dobbins:(408) 538-2358:155:90:201
Susan Dalsass:(206) 654-6279:250:60:50
Archie McNichol:(206) 548-1348:250:100:175
Jody Savage:(206) 548-1278:15:188:150
Guy Quigley:(916) 343-6410:250:100:175
Dan Savage:(406) 298-7744:450:300:275
Nancy McNeil:(206) 548-1278:250:80:75
John Goldenrod:(916) 348-4278:250:100:175
Chet Main:(510) 548-5258:50:95:135
Tom Savage:(408) 926-3456:250:168:200
Elizabeth Stachelin:(916) 440-1763:175:75:300

The database above contains the names, phone numbers, and money contributions to the party
campaign for the past three months.

1.Write a nawk script that will produce the following report:

***FIRST QUARTERLY REPORT***

***CAMPAIGN 2004 CONTRIBUTIONS***

NAME PHONE Jan | Feb | Mar | Total Donated

Mike Harrington (510) 548-1278 250.00 100.00 175.00 525.00

Christian Dobbins (408) 538-2358 155.00 90.00 201.00 446.00
Susan Dalsass (206) 654-6279 250.00 60.00 50.00 360.00
Archie McNichol (206) 548-1348 250.00 100.00 175.00 525.00
Jody Savage (206) 548-1278 15.00 188.00 150.00 353.00
Guy Quigley (916) 343-6410 250.00 100.00 175.00 525.00
Dan Savage (406) 298-7744 450.00 300.00 275.00 1025.00
Nancy McNeil (206) 548-1278 250.00 80.00 75.00 405.00
John Goldenrod (916) 348-4278 250.00 100.00 175.00 525.00
Chet Main (510) 548-5258 50.00 95.00 135.00 280.00
Tom Savage (408) 926-3456 250.00 168.00 200.00 618.00
Elizabeth Stachelin (916) 440-1763 175.00 75.00 300.00 550.00

SUMMARY

The campaign received a total of $6137.00 for this quarter.

The average donation for the 12 contributors was $511.42.
The highest total contribution was $1025.00 made by Dan Savage.
***THANKS Dan***
The following people donated over $500 to the campaign.
They are eligible for the quarterly drawing!!
Listed are their names (sorted by last names) and phone numbers:
John Goldenrod—(916) 348-4278
Mike Harrington—(510) 548-1278
256 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

Archie McNichol —(206) 548-1348

Guy Quigley—(916) 343-6410
Dan Savage—(406) 298-7744
Tom Savage—(408) 926-3456
Elizabeth Stachelin—(916) 440-1763
Thanks to all of you for your continued support!!

6.25 Odds and Ends

Some data (e.g., that read in from tape or from a spreadsheet) may not have obvious field
separators but may instead have fixed-width columns. To preprocess this type of data,
the substr function is useful.

6.25.1 Fixed Fields

In the following example, the fields are of a fixed width, but are not separated by a field
separator. The substr function is used to create fields.

EXAMPLE 6.167

% cat fixed
031291ax5633(408)987-0124
021589bg2435(415)866-1345
122490del237(916)933-1234
010187ax3458(408)264-2546
092491bd9923(415)134-8900
112990bg4567(803)234-1456
070489qr3455(415)899-1426

% nawk '{printf substKSG.M)' 1 printf substr($0,7,6)" ";\

print substr($0,13,length)}' fixed
031291 ax5633 (408)987-0124
021589 bg2435 (415)866-1345
122490 del237 (916)933-1234
010187 ax3458 (408)264-2546
092491 bd9923 (415)134-8900
112990 bg4567 (803)234-1456
070489 qr3455 (415)899-1426

EXPLANATION

The first field is obtained by getting the substring of the entire record, starting at the
first character, offset by 6 places. Next, a space is printed. The second field is obtained
by getting the substring of the record, starting at position 7, offset by 6 places, followed
by a space. The last field is obtained by getting the substring of the entire record, start-
ing at position 13 to the position represented by the length of the line. (The length
function returns the length of the current line, $0, if it does not have an argument.)
6.25 Odds and Ends 257

Empty Fields. If the data is stored in fixed-width fields, it is possible that some of the
fields are empty. In the following example, the substr function is used to preserve the
fields, regardless of whether they contain data.

EXAMPLE 6.168

1 % cat db
xxx xxx
xxx abc xxx
xxx a bbb
xxx xx

% cat awkfix
# Preserving empty fields. Field width is fixed.
{
2 f[l]=substr($0)l,B)
3 f[2]=substr($0)5,3)
4 f[3]=substr($0l9,3)
5 line=sprintf(,,%-4s%-4s%-4s\n,,) f[l],f[2], f[3])
6 print line
}
% nawk -f awkfix db
xxx xxx
xxx abc xxx
xxx a bbb
xxx xx

EXPLANATION

1 The contents of the file db are printed. There are empty fields in the file.

2 The first element of the f array is assigned the substring of the record, starting at
position 1 and offset by 3.

3 The second element of the f array is assigned the substring of the record, starting
at position 5 and offset by 3.

4 The third element of the f array is assigned the substring of the record, starting at
position 9 and offset by 3.

5 The elements of the array are assigned to the user-defined variable 1 i ne after being
formatted by the sprintf function.

6 The value of line is printed and the empty fields are preserved.

Numbers with $, Commas, or Other Characters, in the following example, the

price field contains a dollar sign and comma. The script must eliminate these characters
to add up the prices to get the total cost. This is done using the gsub function.
258 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

EXAMPLE 6.169

% cat vendor
access tech:gp237221:220:vax789:20/20:ll/01/90:$l,043.00
alisa systems:bp262292:280:macintosh:new updates:06/30/91:$456. 00
allsa systerns:gp262345:260:vax8700:alisa talk:02/03/91:$1,598.50
apple computer:zx342567:240:macs:e-mai1:06/25/90:$575. 75
caci:gp262313:280:spare station:networkll.5:05/12/91:$1,250. 75
data 1 ogics:bpl32455:260:micmvax2:pagestation maint:07/01/90:$1,200.00
dec:2x354612:220:microvax2:vm5 sms:07/20/90:$1,350.00

,
% nawk -F: {gsub(/\$/I,",);gsub(/)/),",); cost +=$7};\

END{print "The total is $" cost}' vendor

$7474

EXPLANATION

The first gsub function globally substitutes the literal dollar sign (\$) with the null
string, and the second gsub function substitutes commas with a null string. The user-
defined cost variable is then totaled by adding the seventh field to cost and assigning
the result back to cost. In the END block, the string The total is $ is printed, followed
by the value of cost.3

a. For details on how commas are added back into the program, see Alfred V Aho, Brian W. Kernighan, and Peter ].
Weinberger, The AWK Programming Language (Boston: Addison-Wesley, 1988), p. 72.

6.25.2 Multiline Records

In the sample data files used so far, each record is on a line by itself. In the following
sample datable, called checkbook, the records are separated by blank lines and the fields
are separated by newlines. To process this file, the record separator (RS) is assigned a
value of null, and the field separator (FS) is assigned the newline.

EXAMPLE 6.170

(The Input File)

% cat checkbook
1/1/04
#125
-695.00
Mortgage

1/1/04
#126
-56.89
PC&E
6.25 Odds and Ends 259

EXAMPLE 6.170 (continued)

1/2/04
#127
-89.99
Safeway

1/3/04
+750.00
Paycheck

1/4/04
#128
-60.00
Visa

(The Script)
% cat awkchecker
1 BEGIN{RS=""; FS=n\n";0RS=M\n\n"}
2 {print NR, $1,52,$3,54}

(The Output)
% nawk -f awkchecker checkbook
1 1/1/04 #125 -695.00 Mortgage

2 1/1/04 #126 -56.89 PG&E

3 1/2/04 #127 -89.99 Safeway

4 1/3/04 +750.00 Paycheck

5 1/4/04 #128 -60.00 Visa

EXPLANATION

1 In the BEGIN block, the record separator (RS) is assigned null, the field separator
(FS) is assigned a newline, and the output record separator (ORS) is assigned two
newlines. Now each line is a field and each output record is separated by two
newlines.

2 The number of the record is printed, followed by each of the fields.

260 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

6.25.3 Generating Form Letters

The following example is modified from a program in The AWK Programming Language4
The trieky part of this is keeping traek of what is actually being processed. The input file
is called data.form. It contains just the data. Each field in the input file is separated by
colons. The other file is called form.letter. It is the actual form that will be used to create
the letter. This file is loaded into awk's memory with the getline function. Each line of the
form letter is stored in an array. The program gets its data from data.form, and the letter
is created by substituting real data for the special strings preceded by # and @ found in
form.letter. A temporary variable, temp, holds the actual line that will be displayed after
the data has been substituted. This program allows you to create personalized form let-
ters for each person listed in data.form.

EXAMPLE 6.171

(The Awk Script)

% cat form.awk
# form.awk is an awk script that requires access to 2 files: The
# first file is called "form, letter." This file contains the
# format for a form letter. The awk script uses another file,
# "data, form," as its input file. This file contains the
# information that will be substituted into the form letters in
# the place of the numbers preceded by pound signs. Today's date
# is substituted in the place of "@date" in "form.letter."
1 BEGINf FS=":"; n=l
2 while(getline < "form.letter" > 0)
3 form[n++] = $0 # Store lines from form.letter in an array
4 "date" | getline d; splitld, today, " ")
# Output of date is Fri Mar 2 14:35:50 PST 2004
5 thisday=today[2]". "today[3]", "today[6]
6 }
7 { for( i =1; i < n; i++ ){
8 temp=form[i]
9 for ( j = 1; j <=NF; ]++ ){
gsub("©date", thisday, temp)
10 gsub("#" j, $j , temp )
}
11 print temp
}
}

4. Alfred V Aho, Brian W. Kernighan, and Peter J. Weinberger, The AWK Programming Language (Boston:
Addison-Wesley 1988). © 1988 Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc. Reprinted by permission of Pearson
Education, Inc.
6.25 Odds and Ends 261

EXAMPLE 6.171 (continued)

% cat form.letter
The form letter, form.letter, looks like this:
.1. J. J. J* J. .1. .1. J. J. J. .1. .1. J. J. Js .1. .1. .1. A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A

Subject: Status Report for Project "#1"

To: #2
From: #3
Date: @date
This letter is to tell you, #2, that project "#1" is up to
date.
We expect that everything will be completed and ready for
shipment as scheduled on #4.

Sincerely,

#3
A AAA AA AA A AAAA A AA AA AA A AAAAA AAAAA AAAAA AAAAA AA AA A AAAA AAAAA AA A

The file, data, form, is awk's input file containing the data that will replace the #1-4
and the ©date in form, letter.

% cat data.form
Dynamo:]ohn Stevens:Dana Smith, Mgr:4/12/2004
Gallactius:Cuy Sterling:Dana Smith, Mgr:5/18/2004

(The Command Line)

% nawk -f form.awk data.form

* i- i; -A- i; •!; -A- i; -A- -A- -A- -A- ;'t * -A- * -A- -A- -A- * -A- -A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Subject: Status Report for Project "Dynamo"
To: John Stevens
From: Dana Smith, Mgr
Date: Mar. 2, 2004
This letter is to tell you, John Stevens, that project
"Dynamo" is up to date.
Me expect that everything will be completed and ready for
shipment as scheduled on 4/12/2001.
Sincerely,

Dana Smith, Mgr

Subject: Status Report for Project "Callactius"
To: Cuy Sterling
From: Dana Smith, Mgr
Date: Mar. 2, 2004
This letter is to tell you, Cuy Sterling, that project "Callactius"
is up to date.
262 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

EXAMPLE 6.171 (continued)

Me expect that everything will be completed and ready for

shipment as scheduled on 5/18/2004.

Sincerely,

Dana Smith, Mgr

EXPLANATION

1 In the BEGIN block, the field separator (FS) is assigned a colon, and a user-defined
variable n is assigned 1.

2 In the while loop, the getline function reads a line at a time from the file called
form.letter. If getline fails to find the file, it returns a -1. When it reaches the end
of file, it returns 0. Therefore, by testing for a return value of greater than 1, we
know that the function has read in a line from the input file.

3 Each line from form.letter is assigned to an array called form.

4 The output from the UNIX/Linux date command is piped to the getline function
and assigned to the user-defined variable d. The split function then splits up the
variable d with whitespace, creating an array called today.

5 The user-defined variable thisday is assigned the month, day, and year.

6 The BEGIN block ends.

7 The for loop will loop n times.

8 The user-defined variable temp is assigned a line from the form array.

9 The nested for loop is looping through a line from the input file, data.form, NF num-
ber of times. Each line stored in the temp variable is checked for the string ©date. If
©date is matched, the gsub function replaces it with today's date (the value stored
in thisday).

10 If a # and a number are found in the line stored in temp, the gsub function will re-
place the # and number with the value of the corresponding field in the input file,
data.form. For example, if the first line stored is being tested, #1 would be replaced
with Dynamo, #2 with John Stevens, #3 with Dana Smith, #4 with 4/12/2004, and so forth.

11 The line stored in temp is printed after the substitutions.

6.25.4 Interaction with the Shell

Now that you have seen how awk works, you will find that awk is a very powerful utility
when writing shell scripts. You can embed one-line awk commands or awk scripts within
your shell scripts. The following is a sample of a Korn shell program embedded with awk
commands.
6.25 Odds and Ends 263

EXAMPLE 6.172

!#/bin/ksh
# This korn shell script will collect data for awk to use in
# generating form letter(s). See above.
print "Hello SLOGNAME. "
print "This report is for the month and year:"
,
1 cal | nawk NR==l{print $0}'

if [[ -f data.form || -f formletter? ]]
then
rm data.form formletter? 2> /dev/null
fi
integer num=l
while true
do
print "Form letter #$num:"
read pro]ect?"What is the name of the project? "
read sender?"Who is the status report from? "
read recipient?"Who is the status report to? "
read due_date?"What is the completion date scheduled? "
echo $project:$recipient:$sender:$due_date > data.form
print -n "Do you wish to generate another form letter? "
read answer
if [[ "Sanswer" != [Yy]-;.- ]]
then
break
else
2 nawk -f form.awk data.form > formletter$num
fi
(( num+=l ))
done
nawk -f form.awk data.form > formletter$num

EXPLANATION

1 The UNIX cal command is piped to nawk. The first line that contains the current
month and year is printed.

2 The nawk script form.awk generates form letters, which are redirected to a UNIX file.
264 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

LAB 7: nawk EXERCISE

(Refer to the database called lab7.data on the CD.)

Mike Harrington:(510) 548-1278:250:100:175

Christian Dobbins:(408) 538-2358:155:90:201
Susan Dalsass:(206) 654-6279:250:60:50
Archie McNichol:(206) 548-1348:250:100:175
Jody Savage:(206) 548-1278:15:188:150
Guy Quigley:(916) 343-6410:250:100:175
Dan Savage:(406) 298-7744:450:300:275
Nancy McNeil:(206) 548-1278:250:80:75
John Goldenrod:(916) 348-4278:250:100:175
Chet Main:(510) 548-5258:50:95:135
Tom Savage:(408) 926-3456:250:168:200
Elizabeth Stachelin:(916) 440-1763:175:75:300

The database contains the names, phone numbers, and money contributions to the party
campaign for the past three months.Write a user-defined function to return the average of all the
contributions for a given month. The month will be passed in at the command line.

6.26 awk Built-in Functions

Unless otherwise noted, the examples in this section use the following datafile, repeated
periodically for your convenience.

% cat datafile
northwest NW Joel Craig 3.0 .98 3 4
western WE Sharon Kelly 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Chris Foster 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO May Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Derek Johnson 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA Susan Beal 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE TJ Nichols 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Val Shultz 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Sheri Watson 5.7 .94 5 13
6.26 awk Built-in Functions 265

6.26.1 String Functions

EXAMPLE 6.173

% nawk 'NR==l{gsub(/northwest/,"southeast", $1) jprint}' datafile

southeast NM Joel Craig 3.0 .98 3 4

EXPLANATION

If this is the first record (NR == 1), globally substitute the regular expression northwest
with southeast, if northwest is found in the first field.

EXAMPLE 6.174

% nawk 'NR==l{print substr($3, 1, 3)}' datafile

Joe

EXPLANATION

If this is the first record, display the substring of the third field, starting at the first char-
acter, and extracting a length of 3 characters. The substring Joe is printed.

EXAMPLE 6.175

,
% nawk NR==l{print lengthCSl)}' datafile
9

EXPLANATION

If this is the first record, the length (number of characters) in the first field is printed.

EXAMPLE 6.176

% nawk 'NR==l{print index(Sl,Mwest")}' datafile

6

EXPLANATION

If this is the first record, print the first position where the substring west is found in
the first field. The string west starts at the sixth position (index) in the string northwest.
266 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

% cat datafile
northwest NW Joel Craig 3.0 .98 3 4
western WE Sharon Kelly 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest Sid/ Chris Foster 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO May Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Derek Johnson 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA Susan Seal 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE TJ Nichols 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Val Shultz 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Sheri Watson 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 6.177

% nawk '{if(match($l,/Ano/)){print substKS^RSTART.RLENGTH)}}' datafile

no
no
no

EXPLANATION

If the match function finds the regular expression /Ano/ in the first field, the index po-
sition of the leftmost character is returned. The built-in variable RSTART is set to the in-
dex position and the RLENGTH variable is set to the length of the matched substring. The
substr function returns the string in the first field starting at position RSTART, RLENGTH
number of characters.

EXAMPLE 6.178

% nawk 'BEGIN{split("10/14/04M)now)7");print now[l],now[2].nowtB]}'

10 14 04

EXPLANATION

The string 10/14/04 is split into an array called now The delimiter is the forward slash.
The elements of the array are printed, starting at the first element of the array.
6.26 awk Built-in Functions 267

The following datafileZ is used for Example 6.179.

% cat datafile2
Joel Craig:northwest:NW:3.0:. 98:3:4
Sharon Kelly:western:WE:5.3:. 97:5:23
Chris Foster:southwest:S W:2.7:. 8:2:18
May Chin:southern:SO:5.1:. 95:4:15
Derek Johnson:southeast:SE:4.0:. 7:4:17
Susan Beal:eastern:EA:4.4:.84:5:20
TJ Nichols:northeast:NE:5.1:. 94:3:13
Val Shultz:north:NO:4.5:.89:5:9
Sheri Watson:central:CT:5.7:. 94:5:13

EXAMPLE 6.179

% nawk -F: '/north/lsplitCSl, name., " ")\\

print "First name: "name[l];\
print "Last name: " name[2];\
print "\n T datafileZ

First name: Joel

Last name: Craig

First name: TJ
Last name: Nichols

First name: Val

last name: Shultz

EXPLANATION |

The input field separator is set to a colon (-F:). If the record contains the regular ex-
pression north, the first field is split into an array called name, where a space is the de-
limiter. The elements of the array are printed.
268 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

% cat datafile
northwest NW Joel Craig 3.0 .98 3 4
western WE Sharon Kelly 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest Sl/V Chris Foster 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO May Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Derek Johnson 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA Susan Seal 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE TJ Nichols 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Val Shultz 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Sheri Watson 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 6.180

,
% nawk {line=sprintf("%10.2f%5s\n",$7,$2); print line}' datafile
3.00 A¥
5.00 ME
2.00 SM
4.00 SO
4.00 SE
5.00 EA
3.00 NE
5.00 NO
5.00 CT

EXPLANATION

The sprintf function formats the seventh and the second fields (S7, $2) using the for-
matting conventions of the printf function. The formatted string is returned and as-
signed to the user-defined variable line and printed.

The toupper and tolower Functions (gawk only). The toupper function returns a
string with all the lowercase characters translated to uppercase, and leaves nonalpha-
betic characters unchanged. Likewise, the tolower function translates all uppercase let-
ters to lowercase. Strings must be quoted.

FORMAT

toupper (string)
tolower (string)

EXAMPLE 6.181

% awk 'BEGINlprint toupperC'linux"), tolower("BASH Z-e")}'

LINUX bash 2.0
6.26 awk Built-in Functions 269

6.26.2 Time Functions with gawk

Gawk provides two functions for getting the time and formatting timestamps: systime and
strftime.

The systime Function. The systime function returns the time of day in non-leap-year
seconds since January 1, 1970 (called the Epoch).

FORMAT

systimeQ

EXAMPLE 6.182

,
% awk BEGIN{now=systiiiie(); print now}'
939515282

EXPLANATION

The return value of the systime function is returned to a user-defined variable, now.
The value is the time of day in non-leap-year seconds since January 1, 1970.

The Strftime Function. The strftime function formats the time using the C library
strftime function. The format specifications are in the form %T %D, and so on (see
Table 6.14). The timestamp is in the same form as the return value from systime. If the
timestamp is omitted, then the current time of day is used as the default.

Table 6.14 Date and Time Format Specifications

Date
Format Definition

For the following definitions, assume the current date and time as
Date: Sunday, October 17, 2004
Time: 15:26:26 PDT

%a Abbreviated weekday name (Sun)

%A Full weekday name (Sunday)

%b Abbreviated month name (Oct)

%B Full month name (October)

%c Date and lime for locale (Sun Oct 17 15:26:46 2004)

%d Day of month in decimal (17)

%D Date as 10/17/04a

%e Day of the month, padded with space if only one digit

270 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

Table 6.14 Date and Time Format Specifications (continued)

Date
Format Definition

%H Hour for a 24-hour clock in decimal (15)

%I Hour for a 12-hour clock in decimal (03)

%] Day of the year since January 1 in decimal (290)

%ni Month in decimal (10)

%M Minute in decimal (26)

%p AM/PM notation assuming a 12-hour clock (PM)

%S Second as a decimal number (26)

%U Week number of the year (with the first Sunday as the first day of week one)
as a decimal number (42)

%w Weekday (Sunday is 0) as a decimal number (0)

%W The week number of the year (the first Monday as the first day of week one)
as a decimal number (41)

%x Date representation for locale (10/17/04)

%X Time representation for locale (15:26:26)

%y Year as two digits in decimal (04)

%Y Year with century (2004)

%Z Time zone (PDT)

%% A literal percent sign (%)

a. %0 and %e are available only on some versions of gawk.

FORMAT

systime([format specification][,timestamp])

EXAMPLE 6.183

% awk 'BEGIN{now=strftime(,,%D", systimeQ); print now}'

10/09/04

,
% awk BEGIN{now=strftime("%T"); print now}'
17:58:03

,
% awk BEGIN{now=strftime(,,%m/%d/%yM); print now}'
10/09/04
6.26 awk Built-in Functions 271

EXPLANATION

The strftime function formats the time and date according to the format instruction
provided as an argument. (See Table 6.14.) If systime is given as a second argument or
no argument is given at all, the current time for this locale is assumed. If a second ar-
gument is given, it must be in the same format as the return value from the systime
function.

The examples in the next sections use the following datafile database, repeated peri-
odically for your convenience.

% cat datafile
northwest NW Joel Craig 3.0 .98 3 4
western WE Sharon Kelly 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest SW Chris Foster 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO May Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Derek Johnson 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA Susan Seal 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE TJ Nichols 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Val Shultz 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Sheri Watson 5.7 .94 5 13

6.26.3 Command-Line Arguments

EXAMPLE 6.184

% cat argvs.sc
# Testing command-line arguments with ARCV and ARCC using a for loop.

BECINf
for(i=0;i < ARGC;i++)
printf("argv[%d] is %s\n", i, ARCV[i])
printf("The number of arguments, ARGC=%d\n", ARCC)
}

% nawk -f argvs.sc datafile

argv[0] is nawk
argvfl] is datafile
The number of arguments, ARCC=2

EXPLANATION

The BEGIN block contains a for loop to process the command-line arguments. ARGC is the
number of arguments and ARCV is an array that contains the actual arguments. Nawk does
not count options as arguments. The only valid arguments in this example are the nawk
command and the input file, datafile.
272 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

% cat datafile
northwest NW Joel Craig 3.0 .98 3 4
western WE Sharon Kelly 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest Sid/ Chris Foster 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO May Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Derek Johnson 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA Susan Seal 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE TJ Nichols 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Val Shultz 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Sheri Watson 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 6.185

1
1 % nawk BECIN{naine=ARGV[ 1]};\
$0 ~ name {print $3 , $4}' "Derek" datafile
nawk: can't open Derek
source line number 1

l
2 % nawk BECIN{name=ARGV[l]; delete ARGV[1]};\
$0 ~ name {print $3, $4}' "Derek" datafile
Derek Johnson

EXPLANATION

1 The name "Derek" was assigned to the variable name in the BEGIN block. In the pattern-
action block, nawk attempted to open "Derek" as an input file and failed.

2 After assigning "Derek" to the variable name, ARGV[1] is deleted. When starting the
pattern-action block, nawk does not try to open "Derek" as the input file, but opens
datafile instead.

6.26.4 Reading Input (getl ine)

EXAMPLE 6.186

% nawk 'BEGINi "date" | getline d; print d}' datafile

Mon Jan 15 11:24:24 PST 2004

EXPLANATION

The UNIX/Linux date command is piped to the getline function. The results are stored
in the variable d and printed.
6.26 awk Built-in Functions 273

EXAMPLE 6.187

% nawk 'BEGINi "date " | getline d; split( d, mon) ;print lnon[2]}, datafile
Jan

EXPLANATION

The UNIX/Linux date command is piped to the getline function and the results are
stored in d. The split function splits the string d into an array called mon. The second
element of the array is printed.

EXAMPLE 6.188

% nawk 'BEGIN! printf "Who are you looking for?" ; \

getline name < "/dev/tty"};\

EXPLANATION

Input is read from the terminal, /dev/tty, and stored in the array called name.

EXAMPLE 6.189
,
% nawk BEGIN{while(getline < "/etc/passwd" > 0 ){lc++}; print k}' datafile
16

EXPLANATION

The while loop is used to loop through the /etc/passwd file one line at a time. Each time
the loop is entered, a line is read by getline and the value of the variable 1c is incre-
mented. When the loop exits, the value of lc is printed (i.e., the number of lines in the
/etc/passwd file). As long as the return value from getline is not 0 (i.e., a line has been
read), the looping continues.

6.26.5 Control Functions

EXAMPLE 6.190

% nawk '{if ( $5 >= 4.5) next; print $1}' datafile

northwest
southwest
southeast
eastern
north

EXPLANATION

If the fifth field is greater than 4.5, the next line is read from the input file (datafile)
and processing starts at the beginning of the awk script (after the BEGIN block). Other-
wise, the first field is printed.
274 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

% cat datafile
northwest NW Joel Craig 3.0 .98 3 4
western WE Sharon Kelly 5.3 .97 5 23
southwest Sid/ Chris Foster 2.7 .8 2 18
southern SO May Chin 5.1 .95 4 15
southeast SE Derek Johnson 4.0 .7 4 17
eastern EA Susan Seal 4.4 .84 5 20
northeast NE TJ Nichols 5.1 .94 3 13
north NO Val Shultz 4.5 .89 5 9
central CT Sheri Watson 5.7 .94 5 13

EXAMPLE 6.191

% nawk '{if ($2 ~ /S/){print ; exit 0}}' datafile

southwest SM Chris Foster 2.7 .8 2 18

% echo $status (csh) or echo $? (sh or ksh)

0

EXPLANATION

If the second field contains an S, the record is printed and the awk program exits. The
C shell status variable contains the exit value. If using the Bourne or Korn shells, the
$? variable contains the exit status.

6.26.6 User-Defined Functions

EXAMPLE 6.192

(The Command Line)

% cat nawk.sc?
1 BEGIN{largest=0}
2 {maximum=max($5)}

3 function max ( num ) {

4 if ( num > largest){ largest=num }
return largest
5 }
6 END{ print "The maximum is " maximum

% nawk -f nawk.sc? datafile

The maximum is 5.7.
6.26 awk Built-in Functions 275

EXPLANATION

l In the BEGIN block, the user-defined variable largest is initialized to 0.

2 For each line in the file, the variable maximum is assigned the value returned from
the function max. The function max is given $5 as its argument.

3 The user-defined function max is defined. The function statements are enclosed in
curly braces. Each time a new record is read from the input file, datafile, the func-
tion max will be called.

4 It will compare the values in num and largest and return the larger of the two
numbers.

5 The function definition block ends.

6 The END block prints the final value in maximum.

6.26.7 awk/gawk Command-Line Options

Awk has a number of comand-line options. Gawk has two formats for command-line
options: the GNU long format starting with a double dash (--) and a word; and the tra-
ditional short POSIX format, consisting of a dash and one letter. Gawk-specific options are
used with the -W option or its corresponding long option. Any arguments provided to
long options are either joined by an = sign (with no intervening spaces), or may be pro-
vided in the next command-line argument. The --help option (see Example 6.193) to
gawk lists all the gawk options. See Table 6.15.

EXAMPLE 6.193

% awk —help
Usage: awk [POSIX or GNU style options] -f progfile [—] file ...
awk [POSIX or GNU style options] [—] 'program' file ...
POSIX options: GNU long options:
-f progfile —file=progfile
-F fs —fie Id-separa tor=fs
-v var=val —assign=var=val
-m[fr] val
-IX com pat —compat
-IX copyleft —copyleft
-IX copyright —copyright
-X help —he Ip
-IX lint — lint
-IX lint-old -lint-old
-IX posix —posix
-IX re-interval -re-interval
-IX source=program-text —source=program- text
-X traditional —traditional
-IX usage —usage
-IX version —version
276 Chapter 6 • The awk Utility

EXAMPLE 6.193 (continued)

Report bugs to [email protected],

with a Cc: to [email protected]

Table 6.15 gawk Command-Line Options

Options Meaning

-F fs, Specifies the input field separator,where fs is either a string or

-field-separator fs regular expression; for example, FS=":" or FS="[\t:]".

-v var=value, Assigns a val ue to a user-defined variable, var before the awk script
—assign var=value starts execution. Available to the BEGIN block.

-f scriptfile, Reads awk commands from the scriptfile.

—file scriptfile

-mf nnn, Sets memory limits to the value of nnn. With -mf as the option, limits
-mr nnn the maximum number of fields to nnn; with -mr as the option, sets the
maximum number of records. Not applicable for gawk.

-W traditional, Runs in compatibility mode so that gawk behaves exactly as UNIX

-W compat, versions of awk. All gawk extensions are ignored. Both modes do the
—traditional same thing; --traditional is preferred.
—compat

-W copyleft Prints abbreviated version of copyright information.

-W copyright
—copyleft

-W help Prints the available awk options and a short summary of what they do.
-W usage
—help
—usage

-W lint Prints warnings about the use of constructs that may not be portable
—lint to traditional versions of UNIX awk.

-W lint-old, Provides warnings about constructs that are not portable to the
-lint-old original version of UNIX implementations.

-W posix Turns on the compatibility mode. Does not recognize \x escape

—posix sequences, newlines as a field separator character if FS is assigned a
single space, the function keyword (func), operators ** and **= to
A
replace and A=, and fflush.

-W re-interval, Allows the use of interval regular expressions (see "The POSIX
-re-interval Character Class" on page 176); that is, the bracketed expressions
such as [[:alpha:]].
6.26 awk Built-in Functions 277

Table 6.15 gawk Command-Line Options (continued)

Options Meaning

-W source program-text Uses program-text as awk's source code allowing awk commands at the
—source program-text command line to be intermixed with -f files;
for example, awk -W source '{print $1} -f cmdfile inputfile.

-W version Prints version and bug reporting information.

—version

— Signals the end of option processing.

This page intentionally left blank
chapter

The Interactive

Bourne Shell

7.1 Introduction

When you are at the command line you are using the shell interactively. The shell has a
special built-in variable that contains a string of options. If one of the options is the letter
i, the shell is running interactively. To test this, type in the following small script at the
prompt:

case in
*i*) echo This shell is interactive ;;
*) echo This shell is not interactive ;;
esac

The Bourne shell offers you many features to make life easier when you are working
at the command line. Although the Bourne shell isn't as robust in this area as the other
shells discussed in this book, it provides filename expansion, I/O redirection, command
substitution, functions, and a host of other features. Once you have become familiar
with the interactive shell, you will be ready to start using these features in shell scripts.
If the Bourne shell is your login shell, it follows a chain of processes before you see a
shell prompt (see Figure 7.1).
Here's a very rough sketch of what goes on; The first process to run is called i nit, BID
1. It gets instructions from a file called inittab (System V), or it spawns a getty process
(BSD). These processes open up the terminal ports, providing a place where standard
input comes from and a place where standard output and error go, and they put a login
prompt on your screen. The /bin/login program is then executed. The login program
prompts for a password, encrypts and verifies the password, sets up an initial environ-
ment, and starts up the login shell, /bin/sh, the last entry in the passwd file. The sh process
looks for the system file, /etc/profile, and executes its commands. It then looks in the
user's home directory for an initialization file called .profile. After executing commands
from .profile, the default dollar sign ($) prompt appears on your screen and the Bourne
shell awaits commands. Of course, most systems today start up with a graphical user

279
 Chapter 7 • The Interactive Bourne Shell

Starting Up

login;

/ \
getty
login: joe
passwd:

logi

sh login: joe
passwd: Welcome!

Figure 7.1 Starting the Bourne shell.

interface that provides a login window, a virtual desktop, and submenus to start up shell
terminals and other applications. This is more a more complex setup than shown in Fig-
ure 7.1, but once the user selects a terminal window, a prompt will appear, and the shell
will wait for commands.

The Environment

The environment of a process consists of variables, open files, the current working direc-
tory, functions, resource limits, signals, and so forth. It defines those features that are
inherited from one shell to the next and the configuration for the working environment.
The configuration for the user's shell is defined in the shell initialization files.

7.2.1 The Initialization Files

After the Bourne shell program starts up, it first checks for the system file /etc/profile.
After executing the commands in that initialization file, . profi 1 e in the user's home direc-
tory is executed. Skeleton files for initial setup can be found in /etc/skel (SVR4).

The /etc/profile File. The /etc/profile file is a systemwide initialization file set up
by the system administrator to perform tasks when the user logs on. It is executed when
7.2 The Environment 281

the Bourne shell starts up. It is available to all Bourne and Korn shell users on the system
and normally performs such tasks as checking the mail spooler for new mail and dis-
playing the message of the day from the /etc/motd file. (The following examples will
make more sense after you have completed this chapter.)

EXAMPLE 7.1

(Sample /etc/profile)
# The profile that all logins get before using their own .profile
1 trap ""23
2 export LOGNAME PATH
"h

—1
m

3
II

then
if /bin/i386
then
TERM=AT386 # Sets the terminal
else
TERM=sun
fi
export TERM
fi
# Login and -su shells get /etc/profile services.
# -rsh is given its environment in its own .profile.
4 case "$0" in
-sh | -ksh | -jsh )
5 if [ ! -f .hushlogin ]
then
/usr/sbin/quota
# Allow the user to break the Message-Of-The-Day only.
6 trap "trap ' ' 2" 2
7 /bin/cat -s /etc/motd
# Message of the day displayed
trap " " 2
8 /bin/mail -E # Checks for new mail
9 case $? in
0)
echo "You have new mail. "
JJ
2)
echo "You have mail. "
JJ
esac
fi
esac
10 umask 022
11 trap 2 3
282 Chapter 7 • The Interactive Bourne Shell

EXPLANATION

1 The trap command controls signals coming into this program while it is running.
If signals 2 (Ctrl-C) or 3 (CtrlA) are sent while the program is in execution, those
signals will be ignored.

2 The variables LOCNAME and PATH are exported so that their values will be known in
subshells started from this process.

3 The command /bin/i386 is executed. If the exit status of the command is 0, the ter-
minal variable, TERM, is assigned the value AT386; if not, the TERM variable is assigned sun.

4 If the value of $0, the name of the program running the /etc/profile file, is either
a login Bourne, Korn, or job shell, the following commands will be executed.

5 If the . hushl ogi n file does not exist, quota will be run to display the disk usage warn-
ings if usage is over the quota.

6 The trap is reset so that the user can terminate the message of the day (motd) with
Ctrl-C.

7 After the message of the day has been displayed, the trap is reset to ignore Ctrl-C.

8 The mail program checks for new incoming mail.

9 If the exit status ($?) of the mail program is 0 or 2, the message You have new mail.
or You have mai 1., respectively, is displayed.

10 The umask command is set to determine the initial permissions of files and direc-
tories when they are created.

11 The trap command sets signals 2 and 3 back to their defaults; that is, to kill the
program if either Ctrl-C or CtrlA arrive.

The .profile File. The .profile file is a user-defined initialization file executed once
at login and found in your home directory. It gives you the ability to customize and mod-
ify the shell environment. Environment and terminal settings are normally put here, and
if a window application or database application is to be initiated, it is started here. The
settings in this file will be discussed in detail as the chapter progresses, but a brief syn-
opsis of each line in the file is explained here.

EXAMPLE 7.2

(Sample .profile)
1 TERM=vtl02
2 HOSTNAME^ uname -iT
3 EDITOR=/usr/ucb/vi
4 PATH=/bi n:/us r/ucb:/us r/bi n:/us r/1ocal:/etc:/bi n:/us r/bi n:.
5 PS1="$H0STNAME $ > "
6 export TERM HOSTNAME EDITOR PATH PS1
7 stty erase Ah
8 go () { cd $1; PS1=1 pwd'; PSl='basename SPSE; }
9 trap "SHOME/.logout' EXIT
10 clear
7.2 The Environment 283

EXPLANATION

1 The TERM variable is assigned the value of the terminal type, vtl02.

2 Because the uname -n command is enclosed in backquotes, the shell will perform
command substitution; that is, the output of the command (the name of the host
machine) will be assigned to the variable HOSTNAME.

3 The EDITOR variable is assigned /usr/ucb/vi. Programs such as mail will now have
this variable available when defining an editor.

4 The PATH variable is assigned the directory entries that the shell searches to find a
UNIX/Linux program. If, for example, you type Is, the shell will search the PATH
until it finds that program in one of the listed directories. If it never finds the pro-
gram, the shell will tell you so.

5 The primary prompt is assigned the value of HOSTNAME, the machine name, and the
$ and > symbols.

6 All of the variables listed are exported. They will be known by child processes
started from this shell.

7 The stty command sets terminal options. The erase key is set to Ah, so that when
you press the Backspace key, the letter typed preceding the cursor is erased.

8 A function called go is defined. The purpose of this function is to take one argu-
ment, a directory name, cd to that directory, and set the primary prompt to the
present working directory. The basename command removes all but the last entry of
the path. The prompt will show you the current directory.

9 The trap command is a signal handling command. When you exit the shell, that
is, log out, the .logout file will be executed.

10 The clear command clears the screen.

7.2.2 The Prompts

When used interactively, the shell prompts you for input. When you see the prompt, you
know that you can start typing commands. The Bourne shell provides two prompts; the
primary prompt, a dollar sign ($), and the secondary prompt, a right angle bracket sym-
bol (>). The prompts are displayed when the shell is running interactively. You can
change these prompts. The variable RSI is the primary prompt set initially to a dollar
sign. The primary prompt appears when you log on and the shell waits for you to type
commands. The variable PS2 is the secondary prompt, initially set to the right angle
bracket character. It appears if you have partially typed a command and then pressed the
carriage return. You can change the primary and secondary prompts.

The Primary Prompt. The dollar sign is the default primary prompt. You can change
your prompt. Normally prompts are defined in .profile, the user initialization file.
284 Chapter 7 • The Interactive Bourne Shell

EXAMPLE 7.3

,M
1 $ PS1="'uname -n >
2 chargers >

EXPLANATION

1 The default primary prompt is a dollar sign ($). The PS1 prompt is being reset to
the name of the machine (uname -n) and a > symbol. (Don't confuse backquotes and
single quotes.)

2 The new prompt is displayed.

The Secondary Prompt. The PS2 prompt is the secondary prompt. Its value is dis-
played to standard error, which is the screen by default. This prompt appears when you
have not completed a command and have pressed the carriage return.

EXAMPLE 7.4

l $ echo "Hello
2 > there"
3 Hello
there
4 $

5 $ PS2=" > "

6 $ echo 'Hi
7 >

—> there'
Hi

there
$

EXPLANATION

1 The double quotes must be matched after the string "Hello.

2 When a newline is entered, the secondary prompt appears. Until the closing dou-
ble quotes are entered, the secondary prompt will be displayed.

3 The output of the echo command is displayed.

4 The primary prompt is displayed.

5 The secondary prompt is reset.

6 The single quote must be matched after the string 'Hi.

7 When a newline is entered, the new secondary prompt appears. Until the closing
single quote is entered, the secondary prompt will be displayed.
7.2 The Environment 285

7.2.3 The Search Path

The PATH variable is used by the Bourne shell to locate commands typed at the command
line. The path is a colon-separated list of directories used by the shell when searching
for commands. The search is from left to right. The dot at the end of the path represents
the current working directory. If the command is not found in any of the directories
listed in the path, the Bourne shell sends to standard error the message filename: not
found. It is recommended that the path be set in the .profile file.
If the dot is not included in the path and you are executing a command or script from
the current working directory, the name of the script must be preceded with a ./, such
as ./program_name, so that shell can find the program.

EXAMPLE 7.5

(Printing the PATH)

1 S echo $PATH
/home/gsal 2/b in: /us r/ucb:/us r/b in:/us r/loca 1/b in:/usr/b in :/usr/loca 1/bin:.

(Setting the PATH)

2 $ PATH=$H0ME:/usr/ucb:/usr:/usr/bin:/usr/1ocal/bin:.
3 $ export PATH

EXPLANATION

1 By echoing SPATH, the value of the PATH variable is displayed. The path consists of a
list of colon-separated elements and is searched from left to right. The dot at the
end of the path represents the user's current working directory.

2 To set the path, a list of colon-separated directories are assigned to the PATH variable.

3 By exporting the path, child processes will have access to it.

7.2.4 The hash Command

The hash command controls the internal hash table used by the shell to improve effi-
ciency in searching for commands. Instead of searching the path each time a command
is entered, the first time you type a command, the shell uses the search path to find the
command, and then stores it in a table in the shell's memory. The next time you use the
same command, the shell uses the hash table to find it. This makes it much faster to
access a command than having to search the complete path. If you know that you will
be using a command often, you can add the command to the hash table. You can also
remove commands from the table. The output of the hash command displays both the
number of times the shell has used the table to find a command (hits) and the relative
cost of looking up the command (cost), that is, how far down the search path it had to
go before it found the command. The hash command with the -r option clears the hash
table.
286 Chapter 7 • The Interactive Bourne Shell

EXAMPLE 7.6

$ hash
hits cost command
3 8 /usr/bin/date
1 8 /us r/bin/who
1 8 /usr/bin/ls
2 $ hash vi
3 8 /usr/bin/date
1 8 /usr/bin/who
1 8 /usr/bin/ls
0 6 /usr/ucb/vi
3 $ hash -r

EXPLANATION

1 The hash command displays the commands currently stored in the internal hash
table. The shell will not have to search the search path to find the commands listed
when they are entered at the command line. This saves time. Otherwise, the shell
has to go out to the disk to search the path. When you type a new command, the
shell will search the path first, and then place it on the hash table. The next time
you use that command, the shell finds it in memory.

2 The hash command can take arguments; the names of commands you want to
guarantee get stored on the hash table ahead of time.

3 The hash command with the -r option clears the hash table.

7.2.5 The dot Command

The dot command is a built-in Bourne shell command. It takes a script name as an argu-
ment. The script will be executed in the environment of the current shell; that is, a child
process will not be started. All variables set in the script will become part of the current
shell's environment. Likewise, all variables set in the current shell will become part of
the script's environment. The dot command is normally used to re-execute the .profile
file if it has been modified. For example, if one of the settings, such as the EDITOR or TERM
variable, has been changed since you logged on, you can use the dot command to re-
execute the .profile without logging out and then logging back in.

EXAMPLE 7.7

$ . .profile

EXPLANATION

The dot command executes the initialization file, .profile, within this shell. Local and
global variables are redefined within this shell. The dot command makes it unneces-
sary to log out and then log back in again.3

a. If the .profile were executed directly as a script, a subshell would be started. Then the variables would be set in the
subshell, but not in the login shell (parent shell).
7.3 The Command Line 287

7.3 The Command Line

After logging on, the shell displays its primary prompt, a dollar sign by default. The shell
is your command interpreter. When the shell is running interactively, it reads commands
from the terminal and breaks the command line into words. A command line consists of
one or more words (tokens), separated by whitespace (blanks and/or tabs), and termi-
nated with a newline, which is generated by pressing Enter. The first word is the com-
mand and subsequent words are the command's arguments. The command may be a
UNIX executable program such as Is or pwd, a built-in command such as cd or test, or a
shell script. The command may contain special characters, called metacharacters, that
the shell must interpret while parsing the command line. If a command line is long and
you want to continue typing on the next line, the backslash character, followed by a
newline, will allow you to continue typing on the next line. The secondary prompt will
appear until the command line is terminated.

7.3.1 The Exit Status

After a command or program terminates, it returns an exit status to the parent process.
The exit status is a number between 0 and 255. By convention, when a program exits, if
the status returned is 0, the command was successful in its execution. When the exit sta-
tus is nonzero, the command failed in some way. The shell status variable, ?, is set to the
value of the exit status of the last command that was executed. Success or failure of a
program is determined by the programmer who wrote the program.

EXAMPLE 7.8

1 $ grep "John" /etc/passwd

john:Mg/yBsZ]avdl6s:9496:40:John Doe:/home/fa 1 con/John:/bin/sh
2 $ echo $?
0
3 $ grep "nicky" /etc/passwd
4 $ echo $?
1
5 $ grep "scott" /etc/passsswd
grep: /etc/passsswd: No such file or directory
6 $ echo $?
2

EXPLANATION

1 The grep program searches for the pattern John in the /etc/passwd file and is success-
ful. The line from /etc/passwd is displayed.

2 The ? variable is set to the exit value of the grep command. Zero indicates success.

3 The grep program cannot find user nicky in the /etc/passwd file.
288 Chapter 7 • The Interactive Bourne Shell

EXPLANATION (continued)

4 If the grep program cannot find the pattern, it returns an exit status of 1.

5 The grep program fails because the /etc/passsswd file cannot be opened.

6 If grep cannot find the file, it returns an exit status of 2.

7.3.2 Multiple Commands at the Command Line

A command line can consist of multiple commands. Each command is separated by a

semicolon, and the command line is terminated with a newline.

EXAMPLE 7.9

$ Is; pwd; date

EXPLANATION

The commands are executed from left to right, one after the other, until the newline
is reached.

Grouping Commands. Commands may also be grouped so that all of the output is
either piped to another command or redirected to a file.

EXAMPLE 7.10

$ ( Is ; pwd; date ) > outputfile

EXPLANATION

The output of each of the commands is sent to the file called outputfile. The spaces
inside the parentheses are necessary.

7.3.3 Conditional Execution of Commands

With conditional execution, two command strings are separated by the special meta-
characters, double ampersands (&&) and double vertical bars (||). The command on the
right of either of these metacharacters will or will not be executed based on the exit con-
dition of the command on the left.

EXAMPLE 7.11

$ cc prgml.c -o prgml && prgml

EXPLANATION

If the first command is successful (has a 0 exit status), the command after the && is ex-
ecuted; that is, if the cc program can successfully compile prgml.c, the resulting execut-
able program, prgml, will be executed.
7.3 The Command Line 289

EXAMPLE 7.12

$ cc prog.c 2> err M mail bob < err

EXPLANATION

If the first command fails (has a nonzero exit status), the command after the 11 is ex-
ecuted; that is, if the cc program cannot compile prog.c, the errors are sent to a file
called err, and user bob will be mailed the err file.

7.3.4 Commands in the Background

Normally, when you execute a command, it runs in the foreground, and the prompt does
not reappear until the command has completed execution. It is not always convenient
to wait for the command to complete. By placing an ampersand (&) at the end of the
command line, the shell will return the shell prompt immediately and execute the com-
mand in the background concurrently. You do not have to wait to start up another com-
mand. The output from a background job will be sent to the screen as it processes.
Therefore, if you intend to run a command in the background, the output of that com-
mand might be redirected to a file or piped to another device, such as a printer, so that
the output does not interfere with what you are doing.
The $! variable contains the PID number of the last job put in the background.

EXAMPLE 7.13

l $ man sh | lp&
2 [1] 1557
3 $ kill -9 $!

EXPLANATION

1 The output of the man command (the manual pages for the sh command) is piped
to the printer. The ampersand at the end of the command line puts the job in the
background.

2 There are two numbers that appear on the screen: the number in square brackets
indicates that this is the first job to be placed in the background; the second num-
ber is the PID, or the process identification number of this job.

3 The shell prompt appears immediately. While your program is running in the
background, the shell is waiting for another command in the foreground. The !
variable evaluates to the PID of the job most recently put in the background. If
you get it in time, you will kill this job before it goes to the print queue.
290 Chapter 7 • The Interactive Bourne Shell

7.4 Shell Metacharacters (Wildcards)

Like grep, sed, and awk, the shell has metacharacters. At first glance, they may look the
same, but they don't always represent the same characters when the shell evaluates
them. Metacharacters, as we discussed in "Metacharacters" on page 83 of Chapter 4, are
special characters used to represent something other than themselves. Shell metachar-
acters are often called wildcards. Table 7.1 lists the Bourne shell metacharacters and
what they do.

Table 7.1 Bourne Shell Metacharacters

Metacharacter Meaning

\ Literally interprets the following character

& Processes in the background

; Separates commands

$ Substitutes variables

? Matches for a single character

[abc] Matches for one character from a set of characters

[ labc] Matches for one character not from the set of characters

* Matches for zero or more characters

(cmds) Executes commands in a subshell

{cmds} Executes commands in current shell

7.5 Filename Substitution

When evaluating the command line, the shell uses metacharacters to abbreviate file-
names or pathnames that match a certain set of characters. The filename substitution
metacharacters listed in Table 7.2 are expanded into an alphabetically listed set of file-
names. The process of expanding the metacharacter into filenames is also called/ilename
substitution, or globhing. If a metacharacter is used and there is no filename that matches
it, the shell treats the metacharacter as a literal character.

Table 7.2 Bourne Shell Metacharacters and Filename Substitution

Metacharacter Meaning

* Matches zero or more characters

? Matches exactly one character

[abc] Matches one character in the set a, b, or c

7.5 Filename Substitution 291

Table 7.2 Bourne Shell Metacharacters and Filename Substitution (continued)

Metacharacter Meaning

[a-z] Matches one character in the range from a to z

[ !a-z] Matches one character not in the range from a to z

\ Escapes or disables the metacharacter

7.5.1 The Asterisk

The asterisk is a wildcard that matches for zero or more of any characters in a filename.

EXAMPLE 7.14

l $ Is *
abc abcl abcl22 abcl23 abc2 filel filel.bak file2 file2.bak none
nonsense nobody nothing nowhere one
2 $ Is *.bak
filel.bak file2.bak
3 $ echo a*
ab abcl abcl22 abcl23 abc2

EXPLANATION

l The asterisk expands to all of the files in the present working directory. All of the
files are passed as arguments to Is and displayed.

2 All files starting with zero or more characters and ending with . bak are matched
and listed.

3 All files starting with a, followed by zero or more characters, are matched and
passed as arguments to the echo command.

7.5.2 The Question Mark

The question mark represents a single character in a filename. When a filename contains
one or more question marks, the shell performs filename substitution by replacing the
question mark with the character it matches in the filename.

EXAMPLE 7.15

1 $ Is
abc abcl22 abc2 filel.bak file2.bak nonsense nothing one
abcl abcl23 filel file2 none noone nowhere
2 $ Is a?c?
abcl abc2
292 Chapter 7 • The Interactive Bourne Shell

EXAMPLE 7.15 (continued)

3 $ Is ??
77 not found
4 $ echo abc???
abcl22 abcl23
5 $ echo ??
77

EXPLANATION

1 The files in the current directory are listed.

2 Filenames starting with a, followed by a single character, followed by c and a sin-

gle character, are matched and listed.

3 Filenames containing exactly two characters are listed if found. Because there are
no two-character filenames, the question marks are treated as a literal filename.

4 Filenames starting with abc and followed by exactly three characters are expanded
and displayed by the echo command.

5 There are no files in the directory that contain exactly two characters. The shell
treats the question mark as a literal question mark if it cannot find a match.

7.5.3 The Square Brackets

The brackets are used to match filenames containing one character in a set or range of
characters.

EXAMPLE 7.16

1 S Is
abc abcl22 abc2 filel.bak file2.bak nonsense nothing
one abcl abcl23 filel file2 none noone nowhere
2 $ Is abc[123]
abcl abc2
3 $ Is abc[l-3]
abcl abc2
4 $ Is [a-z][a-z][a-z]
abc one
5 $ Is [!f-z]???
abcl abc2
6 $ Is abcl2[23]
abcl22 abcl23

EXPLANATION

1 All of the files in the present working directory are listed.

2 All filenames containing four characters are matched and listed if the filename
starts with abc, followed by 1,2, or 3. Only one character from the set in the brack-
ets is matched.
7.5 Filename Substitution 293

EXPLANATION (continued)

3 All filenames containing four characters are matched and listed if the filename
starts with abc and is followed by a number in the range from 1 to B.

4 All filenames containing three characters are matched and listed if the filename
contains exactly three lowercase alphabetic characters.

5 All filenames containing four characters are listed if the first character is not a low-
ercase letter between f and z ([!f-z]), followed by three of any character (e.g., ???).

6 Files are listed if the filenames contain abcl2 followed by 2 or 3.

7.5.4 Escaping Metacharacters

To use a metacharacter as a literal character, the backslash may be used to prevent the
metacharacter from being interpreted.

EXAMPLE 7.17

l $ Is
abc filel youx
2 $ echo How are you?
How are youx
3 S echo How are you\?
How are you?
4 $ echo When does this line \
> ever end\?
When does this line ever end?

EXPLANATION |

1 The files in the present working directory are listed. (Note the file youx.)

2 The shell will perform filename expansion on the ?. Any files in the current direc-
tory starting with y-o-u and followed by exactly one character are matched and
substituted in the string. The filename youx will be substituted in the string to read
How are youx (probably not what you wanted to happen).

3 By preceding the question mark with a backslash, it is escaped, meaning that the
shell will not try to interpret it as a wildcard.

4 The newline is escaped by preceding it with a backslash. The secondary prompt

is displayed until the string is terminated with a newline. The question mark (?)
is escaped to protect it from filename expansion.
294 Chapter 7 • The Interactive Bourne Shell

7.6 Variables

There are two types of variables: local and environment. Some variables are created by
the user and others are special shell variables.

7.6.1 Local Variables

Local variables are given values that are known only to the shell in which they are cre-
ated. Variable names must begin with an alphabetic or underscore character. The
remaining characters can be alphabetic, decimal digits 0 to 9, or an underscore charac-
ter. Any other characters mark the termination of the variable name. When assigning a
value, there can be no whitespace surrounding the equal sign. To set the variable to null,
the equal sign is followed by a newline.1
A dollar sign is used in front of a variable to extract the value stored there.

Setting Local Variables. See Example 7.18 for a demonstration on setting a local
variable.

EXAMPLE 7.18

1 $ round=world
$ echo $round
world
2 $ name="Peter Piper"
$ echo Sname
Peter Piper
3 $ x=
$ echo Sx

4 $ file.bak="$HOME/junk"
file.bak=/home/jody/e 11ie/junk: not found

EXPLANATION

1 The variable round is assigned the value world. When the shell encounters the dollar
sign preceding a variable name, it performs variable substitution. The value of the
variable is displayed.

2 The variable name is assigned the value "Peter Piper". The quotes are needed to hide
the whitespace so that the shell will not split the string into separate words when
it parses the command line. The value of the variable is displayed.

1. A variable set to some value or to null will be displayed by using the set command, whereas an unset vari-
able will not.
7.6 Variables 295

EXPLANATION (continued)

3 The variable x is not assigned a value. The shell will assign the null value. The null
value, an empty string, is displayed.

4 The period in the variable name is illegal. The only characters allowed in a vari-
able name are numbers, letters, and the underscore. The shell tries to execute the
string as a command.

The Scope Of Local Variables. A local variable is known only to the shell in which
it was created. It is not passed on to subshells. The double dollar sign variable is a special
variable containing the PID of the current shell.

EXAMPLE 7.19

l $ echo S$
1313
2 S round=world
$ echo Sround
world
3 $ sh # Start a subshell
4 $ echo $$
1326
5 $ echo $round

6 $ exit # Exits this shell, returns to parent shell

7 $ echo S$
1313
8 $ echo $round
world

EXPLANATION

1 The value of the double dollar sign variable evaluates to the PID of the current
shell. The PID of this shell is 1313.

2 The local variable round is assigned the string value world, and the value of the vari-
able is displayed.

3 A new Bourne shell is started. This is called a subshell, or child shell.

4 The PID of this shell is 1326. The parent shell's PID is 1313.

5 The variable round is not defined in this shell. A blank line is printed.

6 The exit command terminates this shell and returns to the parent shell. (Ctrl-D
will also exit this shell.)

7 The parent shell returns. Its PID is displayed.

8 The value of the variable round is displayed.

296 Chapter 7 • The Interactive Bourne Shell

Setting Read-Only Variables. A read-only variable cannot be redefined or unset.

EXAMPLE 7.20

l $ name=Tom
2 $ readonly name
$ echo $name
Tom
3 $ unset name
name: readonly
4 $ name=Joe
name: readonly

EXPLANATION

1 The local variable name is assigned the value Tom.

2 The variable is made readonly.

3 A read-only variable cannot be unset.

4 A read-only variable cannot be redefined.

7.6.2 Environment Variables

Environment variables are available to the shell in which they are created and any sub-
shells or processes spawned from that shell. By convention, environment variables are
capitalized. Environment variables are variables that have been exported.
The shell in which a variable is created is called the parent shell. If a new shell is
started from the parent shell, it is called the child shell. Some of the environment vari-
ables, such as HOME, LOCNAME, PATH, and SHELL, are set before you log on by the /bi n/1 ogi n pro-
gram. Normally, environment variables are defined and stored in the .profile file in the
user's home directory. See Table 7.3 for a list of environment variables.

Table 7.3 Bourne Shell Environment Variables

Variable Value

PATH The search path for commands.

HOME Elome directory; used by cd when no directory is specified.

IPS Internal field separators, normally space, tab, and newline.

LOCNAME The user's login name.

MAIL If this parameter is set to the name of a mail file and the MAILPATH parameter is not set,
the shell informs the user of the arrival of mail in the specified file.

MAILCHECK This parameter specifies how often (in seconds) the shell will check for the arrival of mail
in the files specified by the MAILPATH or MAIL parameters. The default value is 600 seconds
(10 minutes). If set to zero, the shell will check before issuing each primary prompt.
7.6 Variables 297

Table 7.3 Bourne Shell Environment Variables (continued)

Variable Value

MAILPATH A colon-separated list of filenames. If this parameter is set, the shell informs the user
of the arrival of mail in any of the specified files. Each filename can be followed by a
percent sign and a message that will be printed when the modification time changes.
The default message is You have mail.

PWD Present working directory.

PS1 Primary prompt string, which is a dollar sign by default.

PS2 Secondary prompt string, which is a right angle bracket by default.

SHELL When the shell is invoked, it scans the environment for this name. The shell gives
default values to PATH, PS1, PS2, MAILCHECK, and IPS. HOME and MAIL are set by login.

Setting Environment Variables. To set environment variables, the export command

is used either after assigning a value or when the variable is set. (Do not use the dollar
sign on a variable when exporting it.)

EXAMPLE 7.21 1

1 $ TERM=wyse
$ export TERM
2 $ NAME="]ohn Smith"
$ export NAME
$ echo $NAME
John Smith
3 $ echo $$
319 # pid number for parent shell
4 $ sh # Start a subshell
5 $ echo $S
340 # pid number for new shell
6 $ echo $NAME
John Smith
7 $ NAME="April Tenner"
$ export NAME
S echo SNAME
April Jenner
8 $ exit # Exit the subshell and go back to parent shell
9 $ echo $S
319 # pid number for parent shell
10 $ echo SNAME
John Smith
298 Chapter 7 • The Interactive Bourne Shell

EXPLANATION

1 The TERM variable is assigned wyse. The variable is exported. Now, processes started
from this shell will inherit the variable.

2 The variable is defined and exported to make it available to subshells started from
the shell.

3 The value of this shell's PID is printed.

4 A new Bourne shell is started. The new shell is called the child. The original shell
is its parent.

5 The PID of the new Bourne shell is stored in the $$ variable and its value is echoed.

6 The variable, set in the parent shell, was exported to this new shell and is dis-
played.

7 The variable is reset to Apri 1 Jenner. It is exported to all subshells, but will not affect
the parent shell. Exported values are not propagated upward to the parent shell.

8 This Bourne child shell is exited.

9 The PID of the parent is displayed again.

10 The variable NAME contains its original value. Variables retain their values when ex-
ported from parent to child shell. The child cannot change the value of a variable
for its parent.

7.6.3 Listing Set Variables

There are two built-in commands that print the value of a variable: set and env. The set
command prints all variables, local and global. The env command prints just the global
variables.

EXAMPLE 7.22

1 $ env (Partial list)

L0GNAME=e11ie
TERMCAP=sun-cmd
USER=enie
DISPLAY=:0.0
5HELL=/bin/sh
HOME=/home/jody/e Hie
TERM=sun-cmd
LDMBRARY_PATH=/usr/loca l/0m/lib
PW=/home/j ody/e 11 i e/per 1

2 $ set
DISPLAY=:0.0
FMHOME=/usr/loca 1/Frame-?. IX
FONTPA TH=/usr/loca 1/01X3/1 ib/fon ts
HELPPA TH=/usr/loca 1/01X3/1 ib/loca le:/usr/loca 1/01X3/1 ib/he Ip
7.6 Variables 299

EXAMPLE 7.22 (continued)

HOME=/home/jody/e Hie
HZ=100
IFS=
LANG=C
LDMBRARYJA TH=/usr/loca l/OHS/l ib
LOCNAME=ellie
MARCHECK=600
MAN PA TH=/us r/loca l/OMS/sha re/man :/us r/loca l/OlriS/mn:/
usr/loca l/man:/usr/loca 1/doctoo Is/man:/us r/man
0PTIND=1
PA TH=/home/jody/e 11 ie:/us r/loca 1/0W3/bin:/us r/ucb:/usr/loca 1/
doctoo Is/bim/usr/b in:/us r/loca 1:/us r/e tc :/e tc:/us r/spoo 1/
news/bin :/home/jody/e llie/bim/usr/lo
PS1=$
PS2=>
PM)=/home/j ody/e 11 i e/kshprog/joke
SHELL=/bi n/sh
TERM=sun-cmd
TERMCAP=sun-cmd:te=\E[>4h:ti=\E[>41:tc=sun:
U5ER=ellie
name=Tom
place="San Francisco"

EXPLANATION

1 The env command lists all environment (exported) variables. These variables are,
by convention, named with all uppercase letters. They are passed from the process
in which they are created to any of its child processes.

2 The set command, without options, prints all set variables, local and exported (in-
cluding variables set to null).

7.6.4 Unsetting Variables

Both local and environment variables can be unset by using the unset command, unless
the variables are set as read-only.

EXAMPLE 7.23

unset name; unset TERM

EXPLANATION

The unset command removes the variable from the shell's memory.
300 Chapter 7 • The Interactive Bourne Shell

7.6.5 Printing the Values of Variables: The echo Command

The echo command prints its arguments to standard output and is used primarily in
Bourne and C shells. The Korn shell has a built-in print command. There are different
versions of the echo command; for example, the Berkeley (BSD) echo is different from the
System V echo. Unless you specify a full pathname, you will use the built-in version of
the echo command. The built-in version will reflect the version of UNIX you are using.
The System V echo allows the use of numerous escape sequences, whereas the BSD ver-
sion does not. Table 7.4 lists the BSD echo option and escape sequences.

Table 7.4 BSD echo Option and System V Escape Sequences

Option Meaning

BSD

-n Suppress newline at the end of a line of output

System V

\b Backspace

\c Print the line without a newline

\f Form feed

\n Newline

\r Return

\t Tab

\v Vertical tab

\\ Backslash

EXAMPLE 7.24

1 $ echo The username is $L0GNAME.

The username is ellie.
2 $ echo "\t\tHello there\c" # System V
Hello thereS
3 $ echo -n "Hello there" # BSD
Hello thereS

EXPLANATION

1 The echo command prints its arguments to the screen. Variable substitution is per-
formed by the shell before the echo command is executed.

2 The System V version of the echo command supports escape sequences similar to
those of the C programming language. The $ is the shell prompt.

3 The -n option to the echo command indicates the BSD version of the echo command
is being used. The line is printed without the newline. The escape sequences are
not supported by this version of echo.
7.6 Variables 301

7.6.6 Variable Expansion Modifiers

Variables can be tested and modified by using special modifiers. The modifier provides
a shortcut conditional test to check if a variable has been set, and then assigns a value
to the variable based on the outcome of the test. See Table 7.5 for a list of Bourne shell
variable modifiers.

Table 7.5 Bourne Shell Variable Modifiers

Modifier Value

${variable:-word} If variable is set and is non-null, substitute its value; otherwise,

substitute word.

${variable:=word} If variable is set or is non-null, substitute its value; otherwise, set it to

word. The value of variable is substituted permanently. Positional
parameters may not be assigned in this way.

${variable:+word} If parameter is set and is non-null, substitute word; otherwise, substitute

nothing.

${variable:?word} If variable is set and is non-null, substitute its value; otherwise, print
word and exit from the shell. If word is omitted, the message parameter null
or not set is printed.

Using the colon with any of the modifiers (-, =, +, ?) checks whether the variable is not
set or is null; without the colon, a variable set to null is considered to be set.

EXAMPLE 7.25 !

(Assigning temporary default values)

1 $ fruit=peach
2 $ echo ${fruit:-plum}
peach
3 $ echo ${newfruit:-apple}
apple
4 $ echo Snewfruit

5 $ echo SEDITOR # More realistic example

6 $ echo ${EDITOR:-/bin/vi}
/bin/vi
7 $ echo $EDIT0R

8 S name=
S echo ${nanie-]oe}

9 $ echo ${naitie:-3oe}
Joe
302 Chapter 7 • The Interactive Bourne Shell

EXPLANATION

1 The variable fruit is assigned the value peach.

2 The special modifier will check to see if the variable fruit has been set. If it has,
the value is printed; if not, plum is substituted for fruit and its value is printed.

3 The variable newfruit has not been set. The value apple will be temporarily substi-
tuted for newfruit.

4 The setting was only temporary. The variable newfruit is not set.

5 The environment variable EDITOR has not been set.

6 The modifier substitutes EDITOR with /bin/vi.

7 The EDITOR was never set. Nothing prints.

8 The variable name is set to null. By not prefixing the modifier with a colon, the vari-
able is considered to be set, even if to null, and the new value loe is not assigned
to name.

9 The colon causes the modifier to check that a variable is either not set or is set to
null. In either case, the value Joe will be substituted for name.

EXAMPLE 7.26

(Assigning permanent default values)

1 $ name=
2 $ echo ${name:=Patty}
Patty
3 $ echo $name
Patty
4 $ echo ${EDITOR:=/bin/vi}
/bin/vi
5 $ echo $EDIT0R
/bin/vi

EXPLANATION

l The variable name is assigned the value null.

2 The special modifier := will check to see if the variable name has been set. If it has
been set, it will not be changed; if it is either null or not set, it will be assigned the
value to the right of the equal sign. Patty is assigned to name because the variable is
set to null. The setting is permanent.

3 The variable name still contains the value Patty.

4 The value of the variable EDITOR is set to /bin/vi.

5 The value of the variable EDITOR is displayed.

7.6 Variables 303

EXAMPLE 7.27

(Assigning temporary alternate values)

1 $ foo=grapes
2 $ echo ${foo:+pears}
pears
3 $ echo Sfoo
grapes
$

EXPLANATION

1 The variable foo has been assigned the value grapes.

2 The special modifier :+ will check to see if the variable has been set. If it has been
set, pears will temporarily be substituted for foo; if not, null is returned.

3 The variable foo now has its original value.

EXAMPLE 7.28

(Creating error messages based on default values)

1 $ echo ${naiiiex:?,,namex is undefined"}
namex: namex is undefined
2 $ echo ${y?}
y: parameter null or not set

EXPLANATION

1 The :? modifier will check to see if the variable has been set. If not, the string to
the right of the ? is printed to standard error, after the name of the variable. If in
a script, the script exits.

2 If a message is not provided after the ?, the shell sends a default message to stan-
dard error.

7.6.7 Positional Parameters

Normally, the special built-in variables, often called positional parameters, are used in
shell scripts when passing arguments from the command line, or used in functions to
hold the value of arguments passed to the function. See Table 7.6. The variables are
called positional parameters because they are denoted by their position on the command
line. The Bourne shell allows up to nine positional parameters. The name of the shell
script is stored in the $0 variable. The positional parameters can be set and reset with the
set command.
304 Chapter 7 • The Interactive Bourne Shell

Table 7.6 Bourne Shell Positional Parameters

Positional Parameter Meaning

$0 References the name of the current shell script

$l-$9 Denotes positional parameters 1 through 9

$# Evaluates to the number of positional parameters

$* Evaluates to all the positional parameters

$@ Means the same as $*, except when double quoted

"$*" Evaluates to "$1 $2 $3"

"$r Evaluates to "$1" "$2" "$3"

EXAMPLE 7.29

1 $ set tim bill ann fred

$ echo $* # Prints all the positional parameters,
tim bill ann fred
2 $ echo $1 # Prints the first positional parameter,
tim
3 $ echo $2 S3 # Prints the second and third positional parameters,
bill ann
4 $ echo $# # Prints the total number of positional parameters.
4
5 Ssetabcdefghijklm
$ echo $10 # Prints the first positional parameter followed by a zero.
a0
6 $ echo $*
abcdefghijk 1 m
7 $ set filel file2 fileB
$ echo \$S#
$3
8 $ eval echo \$$#
filed

EXPLANATION

1 The set command assigns values to positional parameters. The $* special variable
contains all of the parameters set.

2 The value of the first positional parameter, tim, is displayed.

3 The value of the second and third parameters, bill and ann, are displayed.

4 The $# special variable contains the number of positional parameters currently set.
7.6 Variables 305

EXPLANATION (continued)

5 The set command resets all of the positional parameters. The original set is de-
stroyed. Positional parameters cannot be numbered beyond nine. The value of the
first positional parameter is printed, followed by the number 0.

6 The $"■ allows you to print all of the parameters, even past nine.

7 The positional parameters are reset to filel, file2, and fileB. The dollar sign is es-
caped; $# is the number of arguments. The echo command displays $3.

8 The eval command parses the command line a second time before executing the
command. The first time parsed, the shell substitutes \$$# with SB, and the second
time, the shell substitutes the value of $3 with fileB.

7.6.8 Other Special Variables

The shell has special variables consisting of a single character. The dollar sign preceding
the character allows you to access the value stored in the variable. See Table 7.7.

Table 7.7 Bourne Shell Special Variables

Variable Meaning

$ The PID of the shell

- The sh options currently set

? The exit value of last executed command

! The PID of the last job put in the background

EXAMPLE 7.30

1 $ echo The pid of this shell is $$

The pid of this shell is 4725
2 $ echo The options for this shell are $-
The options for this shell are s
3 $ grep dodo /etc/passwd
$ echo $?
1
4 $ sleep 25&
4736
$ echo S!
4736

EXPLANATION

1 The $ variable holds the value of the PID for this process.

2 The - variable lists all options for this interactive Bourne shell.
306 Chapter 7 • The Interactive Bourne Shell

EXPLANATION (continued)

3 The grep command searches for the string dodo in the /etc/passwd file. The ? variable
holds the exit status of the last command executed. Because the value returned
from grep is 1, grep is assumed to have failed in its search. An exit status of 0 indi-
cates a successful exit.

4 The ! variable holds the PID number of the last command placed in the back-
ground. The & appended to the sleep command sends the command to the back-
ground.

7.7 Quoting

Quoting is used to protect special metacharacters from interpretation. There are three
methods of quoting: the backslash, single quotes, and double quotes. The characters
listed in Table 7.8 are special to the shell and must be quoted.

Table 7.8 Special Metacharacters Requiring Quotes

Metacharacter Meaning

; Command separator

& Background processing

( ) Command grouping; creates a subshell

{ } Command grouping; does not create a subshell

I Pipe

< Input redirection

> Output redirection

newline Command termination

space/tab Word delimiter

$ Variable substitution character

* [ 1 ? Shell metacharacters for filename expansion

Single and double quotes must be matched. Single quotes protect special metachar-
acters, such as $, *, ?, |, >, and c, from interpretation. Double quotes also protect special
metacharacters from being interpreted, but allow variable and command substitution
characters (the dollar sign and backquotes) to be processed. Single quotes will protect
double quotes and double quotes will protect single quotes.
7.7 Quoting 307

The Bourne shell does not let you know if you have mismatched quotes. If running
interactively, a secondary prompt appears when quotes are not matched. If in a shell
script, the file is scanned and if the quote is not matched, the shell will attempt to match
it with the next available quote; if the shell cannot match it with the next available
quote, the program aborts and the message 'end of file' unexpected appears on the ter-
minal. Quoting can be a real hassle for even the best of shell programmers! See "What
You Should Know About Quotes" on page 985 for shell quoting rules.

7.7.1 The Backslash

The backslash is used to quote (or escape) a single character from interpretation. The
backslash is not interpreted if placed in single quotes. The backslash will protect the dol-
lar sign ($), backquotes {' Q, and the backslash from interpretation if enclosed in double
quotes.

EXAMPLE 7.31

1 $ echo Where are you going\?

Where are you going?
2 $ echo Start on this line and \
> go to the next line.
Start on this line and go to the next line.
3 $ echo \\
\
4 S echo 'W
w
5 $ echo ASSJO'
\$5.00
6 $ echo "\SSM"
$5.00

EXPLANATION

1 The backslash prevents the shell from performing filename substitution on the
question mark.

2 The backslash escapes the newline, allowing the next line to become part of this
line.

3 Because the backslash itself is a special character, it prevents the backslash follow-
ing it from interpretation.

4 The backslash is not interpreted when enclosed in single quotes.

5 All characters in single quotes are treated literally. The backslash does not serve
any purpose here.

6 When enclosed in double quotes, the backslash prevents the dollar sign from be-
ing interpreted for variable substitution.
308 Chapter 7 • The Interactive Bourne Shell

7.7.2 Single Quotes

Single quotes must be matched. They protect all metacharacters from interpretation. To
print a single quote, it must be enclosed in double quotes or escaped with a backslash.

EXAMPLE 7.32

1 $ echo 'hi there

> how are you?
> When will this end?
> When the quote is matched
> oh'
hi there
how are you?
When will this end?
When the quote is matched
oh
2 $ echo 'Don\'t you need $5.00?'
Don't you need $5.00?
3 $ echo 'Mother yelled, "Time to eat!"'
Mother yelled, "Time to eat!"

EXPLANATION

1 The single quote is not matched on the line. The Bourne shell produces a second-
ary prompt. It is waiting for the quote to be matched.

2 The single quotes protect all metacharacters from interpretation. The apostrophe
in Don't is escaped with a backslash. Otherwise, it would match the first quote,
and the single quote at the end of the string would not have a mate. In this exam-
ple, the $ and the ? are protected from the shell and will be treated as literals.

3 The single quotes protect the double quotes in this string.

7.7.3 Double Quotes

Double quotes must be matched, will allow variable and command substitution, and
protect any other special metacharacters from being interpreted by the shell.

EXAMPLE 7.33

1 $ name=Jody
2 $ echo "Hi $name, I'm glad to meet you!"
Hi Jody, I'm glad to meet you!
3 $ echo "Hey Sname, the time is date""
Hey Jody, the time is Med Oct 13 14:04:11 PST 2004
7.8 Command Substitution 309

EXPLANATION

1 The variable name is assigned the string Jody.

2 The double quotes surrounding the string will protect all special metacharacters
from interpretation, with the exception of $ in $name. Variable substitution is per-
formed within double quotes.

3 Variable substitution and command substitution are both performed when en-
closed within double quotes. The variable name is expanded, and the command in
backquotes, date, is executed.

7.8 Command Substitution

When a command is enclosed in backquotes, it will be executed and its output returned.
This process is called command substitution. It is used when assigning the output of a
command to a variable or when substituting the output of a command within a string.
All three shells use backquotes to perform command substitution.2

EXAMPLE 7.34

1 $ name=>nawk -F: '{print $1}' database"

$ echo $name
Ebenezer Scrooge
2 $ set date"
3 $ echo $*
Fri Oct 22 09:35:21 PDF 2004
4 $ echo $2 $6
Oct 2004

EXPLANATION

1 The nawk command is enclosed in backquotes. Command substitution is per-

formed. The output is assigned to the variable name, as a string, and displayed.

2 The set command assigns the output of the date command to positional parame-
ters. Whitespace separates the list of words into its respective parameters.

3 The $4 variable holds all of the positional parameters. The output of the date com-
mand was stored in the $4 variable. Each parameter is separated by whitespace.

4 The second and sixth parameters are printed.

2. The Korn shell allows backquotes for command substitution for upward compatibility, but provides an
alternate method as well.
310 Chapter 7 • The Interactive Bourne Shell

7.9 An Introduction to Functions

Although the Bourne shell does not have an alias mechanism for abbreviating com-
mands, it does support functions (introduced to the shell in SVR2). Functions are used
to execute a group of commands with a name. They are like scripts, only more efficient.
Once defined, they become part of the shell's memory so that when the function is
called, the shell does not have to read it in from the disk as it does with a file. Often func-
tions are used to improve the modularity of a script (discussed in the programming sec-
tion of this chapter). Once defined, they can be used again and again. Functions are
often defined in the user's initialization file, .profile. They must be defined before they
are invoked, and cannot be exported.

7.9.1 Defining Functions

The function name is followed by a set of empty parentheses. The definition of the func-
tion consists of a set of commands separated by semicolons and enclosed in curly braces.
The last command is terminated with a semicolon. Spaces around the curly braces are
required.

FORMAT

function_name () { commands ; commands; }

EXAMPLE 7.35

1 $ greet () { echo "Hello $L0GNAME, today is date"; }

2 $ greet
Hello ellie, today is Thu Oct 21 19:56:31 PDT 2004

EXPLANATION

1 The function is called greet.

2 When the greet function is invoked, the command(s) enclosed within the curly
braces are executed.

EXAMPLE 7.36

1 $ fun () { pwd; Is; date; }

2 $ fun
/home/jody/e 11 i e/prac
abc abcl23 filel.bak none nothing tmp
abcl abc2 file2 nonsense nowhere touch
abcl22 filel file2.bak noone one
Sat Feb 21 11:15:48 PST 2004
7.9 An Introduction to Functions 311

EXAMPLE 7.36 (continued)

3 $ welcome () { echo "Hi $1 and $2"; }

4 S welcome torn joe
Hi torn and joe
5 $ set jane nina lizzy
6 $ echo $*
jane nina lizzy
7 $ welcome torn joe
hi torn and joe
8 $ echo $1 $2
jane nina

EXPLANATION

l The function fun is named and defined. The name is followed by a list of com-
mands enclosed in curly braces. Each command is separated by a semicolon. A
space is required after the first curly brace or you will get a syntax error. A func-
tion must be defined before it can be used.

2 The function behaves just like a script when invoked. Each of the commands in
the function definition are executed in turn.

3 There are two positional parameters used in the function welcome. When arguments
are given to the function, the positional parameters are assigned those values.

4 The arguments to the function, torn and joe, are assigned to $1 and S2, respectively.
The positional parameters in a function are private to the function and will not
interfere with any used outside the function.

5 The positional parameters are set at the command line. These variables have noth-
ing to do with the ones set in the function.

6 $* displays the values of the currently set positional parameters.

7 The function welcome is called. The values assigned to the positional parameters are
torn and joe.

8 The positional variables assigned at the command line are unaffected by those set
in the function.

7.9.2 Listing and Unsetting Functions

To list functions and their definitions, use the set command. The function and its defi-
nition will appear in the output, along with the exported and local variables. Functions
and their definitions are unset with the unset command.
312 Chapter 7 • The Interactive Bourne Shell

7.10 Standard I/O and Redirection

When the shell starts up, it inherits three files; stdin, stdout, and stderr. Standard input
normally comes from the keyboard. Standard output and standard error normally go to
the screen. There are times when you want to read input from a file or send output or
error to a file. This can be accomplished by using I/O redirection. See Table 7.9 for a list
of redirection operators.

Table 7.9 Redirection Operators

Operator What It Does

< Redirect input

> Redirect output

» Append output

2> Redirect error

1>&2 Redirect output to where error is going

2>&1 Redirect error to where output is going

EXAMPLE 7.37

1 $ tr '[A-Z]' '[a-z]' < myfile # Redirect input

2 $ Is > Isfile / Redirect output
$ cat Isfile
dirl
dir2
filel
file2
filed
3 $ date » Isfile # Redirect and append otuput
$ cat Isfile
dirl
dir2
filel
file2
filed
Mon Sept 20 12:57:22 PDT 2004
4 S cc prog.c 2> errfile # Redirect error
5 $ find . -name \*.c -print > foundit 2> /dev/null # Redirect output to foundit,
# and error to /dev/null
6 $ find . -name \*.c -print > foundit 2>&1 # Redirect output and send standard
# error to where output is going
7 $ echo "File needs an argument" 1>&2 # Send standard output to error
7.10 Standard I/O and Redirection 313

EXPLANATION

1 Instead of getting input from the keyboard, standard input is redirected from the
file myfile to the UNIX tr command. All uppercase letters are converted to lower-
case letters.

2 Instead of sending output to the screen, the Is command redirects its output to
the file Isfile.

3 The output of the date command is redirected and appended to Isfile.

4 The file prog.c is compiled. If the compile fails, the standard error is redirected to
the file errfile. Now you can take your error file to the local guru for an explana-
tion (of sorts)!

5 The fi nd command starts searching in the current working directory for filenames
ending in .c, and prints the filenames to a file named foundit. Errors from the find
command are sent to /dev/null.

6 The fi nd command starts searching in the current working directory for filenames
ending in .c, and prints the filenames to a file named foundit. The errors are also
sent to foundit.

7 The echo command sends its message to standard error. Its standard output is
merged with standard error.

7.10.1 The exec Command and Redirection

The exec command can be used to replace the current program with a new one without
starting a new process. Standard output or input can be changed with the exec command
without creating a subshell (see Table 7.10). If a file is opened with exec, subsequent read
commands will move the file pointer down the file a line at a time until the end of the
file. The file must be closed to start reading from the beginning again. However, if using
UNIX utilities such as cat and sort, the operating system closes the file after each com-
mand has completed. For examples on how to use exec commands in scripts, see "Loop-
ing Control Commands" on page 358.

Table 7.10 The exec Command

Command What It Does

exec Is Execute Is in place of the shell. When Is is finished, the shell in which it was
started does not return.

exec < filea Open filea for reading standard input.

exec > filex Open filex for writing standard output.

exec 3< datfile Open datfile as file descriptor 3 for reading input.

sort <&3 Sort datfile.

exec 4>newfile Open newfile as file descriptor (fd) 4 for writing.

314 Chapter 7 • The Interactive Bourne Shell

Table 7.10 The exec Command (continued)

Command What It Does

Is >&4 Output of Is is redirected to newfile.

exec 5<&4 Make fd 5 a copy of fd 4.

exec 3<&- Close fd 3.

EXAMPLE 7.38

1 $ exec date
Sun Oct 17 10:07:34 POT 2004
<Login prompt appears if you are in your login shell >
2 $ exec > temp
$ Is
$ pwd
$ echo Hello
3 $ exec > /dev/tty
4 $ echo Hello
Hello

EXPLANATION

1 The exec command executes the date command in the current shell (it does not
fork a child shell). Because the date command is executed in place of the current
shell, when the date command exits, the shell terminates. If a Bourne shell had
been started from the C shell, the Bourne shell would exit and the C shell prompt
would appear. If you are in your login shell when you try this, you will be logged
out. If you are working interactively in a shell window, the window exits.

2 The exec command opens standard output for the current shell to the temp file.
Output from Is, pwd, and echo will no longer go to the screen, but to temp.

3 The exec command reopens standard output to the terminal. Now, output will go
to the screen as shown in line 4.

4 Standard output has been directed back to the terminal (/dev/tty).

EXAMPLE 7.39

1 $ cat doit
pwd
echo hello
date
2 S exec < doit
/home/jody/e 11ie/she11
hello
Sun Oct 17 10:07:34 PDT 2004
3 %
7.10 Standard I/O and Redirection 315

EXPLANATION

1 The contents of a file called doit are displayed.

2 The exec command opens standard input to the file called doit. Input is read from
the file instead of from the keyboard. The commands from the file doit are execut-
ed in place of the current shell. When the last command exits, so does the shell.
See Figure 7.2.

3 The Bourne shell exited when the exec command completed. The C shell prompt
appeared. It was the parent shell. If you had been in your login shell when the exec
finished, you would be logged out; if in a window, the window would have disap-
peared.

exeotemp exeo/dev/tty
RID RID

102| 102|

/bin/sh /bin/sh

0 stdin — keyboard 0 stdin — keyboard

1 stdout —► temp 1 stdout > screen (/dev/tty)

2 stderr — screen (/dev/tty) 2 stderr screen (/dev/tty)

Figure 7.2 The exec command,

EXAMPLE 7.40

1 $ exec 3> filex

2 S who >& 3
3 S date >& 3
4 $ exec 3>&-
5 $ exec 3< filex
6 $ cat <&3
ellie console Oct 7 09:53
ellie ttyp0 Oct 7 09:54
ellie ttypl Oct 7 09:54
ellie ttyp2 Oct 11 15:42
Sun Oct 17 13:31:31 PDT 2004
7 S exec 3<&-
8 S date >& 3
Sun Oct 17 13:41:14 PDT 2004
316 Chapter 7 • The Interactive Bourne Shell

EXPLANATION

l File descriptor 3 (fd 3) is assigned to filex and opened for redirection of output.
See Figure 7.3.

2 The output of the who command is sent to fd 3, filex.

3 The output of the date command is sent to fd 3; fi 1 ex is already opened, so the out-
put is appended to filex.

4 Fd 3 is closed.

5 The exec command opens fd 3 for reading input. Input will be redirected from
filex.

6 The cat program reads from fd 3, assigned to filex.

7 The exec command closes fd 3. (Actually, the operating system will close the file
once end of file is reached.)

8 When attempting to send the output of the date command to fd 3, the output goes
to the screen, because the file descriptor was closed.

exec 3>tilex exec 3<tilex

101 | lafl

/bin/sh /bin/sh

0 stdin 0 stdin

1 stdout 1 stdout

2 stderr 2 stderr

3 filex 3 tilex

opened tor writing opened for reading

Figure 7.3 exec and file descriptors,

7.11 Pipes

A pipe takes the output from the command on the left-hand side of the pipe symbol and
sends it to the input of the command on the right-hand side of the pipe symbol. A pipe-
line can consist of more than one pipe.
The purpose of the next three commands is to count the number of people logged on
(who), save the output of the command in a file (tmp), use the wc -1 to count the number
of lines in the tmp file (wc -1), and then remove the tmp file (i.e., find the number of people
logged on). See Figures 7.4 and 7.5.
7.11 Pipes 317

EXAMPLE 7.41

1 $ who > tmp

2 $ wc -1 tmp
4 tmp
3 $ rm tmp

# Using a pipe saves disk space and time.

4 $ who 1 wc -1
4
5 $ du . | sort -n | sed -n 'Sp'
72388 /home/jody/e Hie

EXPLANATION

1 The output of the who command is redirected to the tmp file.

2 The wc -1 command displays the number of lines in tmp.

3 The tmp file is removed.

4 With the pipe facility, you can perform all three of the preceding steps in one step.
The output of the who command is sent to an anonymous kernel buffer; the wc -1
command reads from the buffer and sends its output to the screen.

5 The output of the du command, the number of disk blocks used per directory, is
piped to the sort command and sorted numerically. It is then piped to the sed com-
mand, which prints the last line of the output it receives.

123| 123 terminal screen

$who\wc -1
who wc -1

0 stdin 0 stdin

1 stdout 1 stdout

2 stderr 2 stderr

Figure 7.4 The pipe.

terminal screen

du sort sed

0 stdin 0 stdin 0 stdin

1 stdout 1 stdout 1 stdout

2 stderr 2 stderr 2 stderr

Figure 7.5 Multiple pipes (filter),

318 Chapter 7 • The Interactive Bourne Shell

7.12 The here document and Input

The here document accepts inline text for a program expecting input, such as mail, sort, or
cat, until a user-defined terminator is reached. It is often used in shell scripts for creating
menus. The command receiving the input is appended with a « symbol, followed by a
user-defined word or symbol, and a newline. The next lines of text will be the lines of input
to be sent to the command. The input is terminated when the user-defined word or symbol
is then placed on a line by itself in the leftmost column (it cannot have spaces surrounding
it). The word is used in place of Ctrl-D to stop the program from reading input.

EXAMPLE 7.42

1 $ sort # Sort waits for user input if it does get a file

pears
apples
bananas
AD (Ctrl-D) # User presses Ctrl-D to stop input to sort

(Output)
apples
bananas
pears
$
2 $ sort «D0NE # DONE is a user-defined terminator
> pears
> apples # The user input is called the "document"
> bananas
3 DONE # Marks end of here document
# Here is where input stops
(Output)
4 apples
bananas
pears
5 $

EXPLANATION

1 The UNIX/Linux sort command waits for user input because it was not provided
with a filename as its argument. The user types three lines of input, and then must
press Ctrl-D, the key sequence that stops input to the program. (Don't mistake
Ctrl-D with Ctrl-C. Ctrl-C kills the program so that you won't get any output at
all!) After the user presses Ctrl-D, the sort command will send the sorted output
to the screen.

2 A here document will provide input to the sort command. The «is followed by what
is called a user-defined terminator, a word or symbol. A secondary prompt ap-
pears. The following text is input for the sort command.
7.12 The here document and Input 319

EXPLANATION (continued)

3 The DONE terminator marks the end of the here document. The DONE cannot have space
on either side of it. The terminator replaces typing Ctrl-D. The sort command will
not receive further input. When finished, sort will send its output to the screen.

4 The output from the sort program is displayed.

5 The shell prompt reappears.

If the terminator is preceded by the «- operator, leading tabs, and only tabs, may pre-
cede the final terminator. The user-defined terminating word or symbol must match
exactly from "here" to "here." The following examples illustrate the use of the here doc-
ument at the command line to demonstrate the syntax. It is much more practical to use
them in scripts.

EXAMPLE 7.43

1 $ cat « FINISH —i # FINISH is a user-defined terminator

2 > Hello there SLOGNAME
3 > The time is "date"
> I can't wait to see you!!! I
4 > FINISH —i # terminator matches first FINISH on line 1.

5 Hello there el lie

The time is Wed April 22 19:42:16 PST 2004
I can't wait to see you!!!
6 $

EXPLANATION

1 The UNIX cat program will accept input until the word FINISH appears on a line
by itself.

2 A secondary prompt appears. The following text is input for the cat command.
Variable substitution is performed within the here document.

3 Command substitution, date , is performed within the here document.

4 The user-defined terminator FINISH marks the end of input for the cat program. It
cannot have any spaces before or after it and is on a line by itself.

5 The output from the cat program is displayed.

6 The shell prompt reappears.

320 Chapter 7 • The Interactive Bourne Shell

EXAMPLE 7.44

l $ cat «- DONE
> Hello there
> What's up?
> Bye now The time is "dateh
2 > DONE
Hello there
What's up?
Bye now The time is Thu Oct 28 19:48:23 PST 2004.
$

EXPLANATION

l The cat program accepts input until DONE appears on a line by itself. The «- op-
erator allows the input and final terminator to be preceded by one or more tabs.

2 The final matching terminator, DONE, is preceded by a tab. The output of the cat
program is displayed on the screen.

7.12.1 Now What?

Now that we have completed our discussion on the interactive shell, it is time to com-
bine many of these features in scripts, to produce programs that will automate repetitive
tasks, produce information, monitor processes, and so on. If you are not a programmer,
writing shell scripts may be a good place for you to start. It's fun and you get results
quickly.
chapter

Programming the

Bourne Shell

8.1 Introduction

Shell programs are usually called shell scripts. Now that you have learned how to use the
shell interactively, you are ready to start scripting using what you have learned in addi-
tion to the programming constructs provided in this chapter. It doesn't matter whether
you are a system administrator, a programmer, or a user. Shell scripts can automate a
number of routine tasks to make life a lot easier—and they are fun to write and use!

8.1.1 The Steps in Creating a Shell Script

A shell script is normally written in an editor and consists of commands interspersed

with comments. Comments are preceded by a pound sign (#) and consist of text used to
document what is going on.

The First Line. The first line at the top left corner of the script will indicate the pro-
gram that will be executing the lines in the script. This line, known as the shbang line,
is commonly written as

#!/bin/sh

The #! is called a magic number and is used by the kernel to identify the program that
should be interpreting the lines in the script. This line must be the top line of your script.

Comments. Comments are lines preceded by a pound sign and can be on a line by
themselves or on a line following a script command. They are used to document your
script. It is sometimes difficult to understand what the script is supposed to do if it is
not commented. Although comments are important, they are often too sparse or not
used at all. Try to get used to commenting what you are doing not only for someone else,
but also for yourself. Two days from now you may not recall exactly what you were try-
ing to do.

321
322 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

Executable Statements and Bourne Shell Constructs. A Bourne shell program

consists of a combination of UNIX commands, Bourne shell commands, programming
constructs, and comments.

Making the Script Executable. When you create a file, it is not given the execute
permission. You need this permission to run your script. Use the chmod command to turn
on the execute permission.

EXAMPLE 8.1

1 $ chmod +x myscript
2 $ Is -IF myscript
-rwxr-xr-x 1 el lie 0 Jul 13:00 myscript*

EXPLANATION

1 The chmod command is used to turn on the execute permission for the user, group,
and others.

2 The output of the 1 s command indicates that all users have execute permission on
the myscript file. The asterisk at the end of the filename also indicates that this is
an executable program.

A Scripting Session. In the following example, the user creates a script in the editor.
After saving the file, the execute permissions are turned on, and the script is executed.
If there are errors in the program, the shell will respond immediately.

EXAMPLE 8.2

(The Script)
1 #!/bin/sh
2 # Scriptname: greetings
# Written by: Barbara Born
# This is the first Bourne shell program of the day.
3 echo "Hello SLOGNAME, it's nice talking to you."
4 echo "Your present working directory is "pwdV
echo "You are working on a machine called "uname -nV
echo "Here is a list of your files."
5 Is # List files in the present working directory
6 echo "Bye for now SLOGNAME. The time is "date +%r!"

(The Command Line)

7 $ chmod +x greetings
$ greetings
3 Hello barbara, it's nice talking to you.
8.2 Reading User Input 323

EXAMPLE 8.2 (continued)

4 Your present working directory is /home/7ion/barbara/prog

You are working on a machine called lion.
Here is a list of your files.
5 Afile cplus letter prac
Answerbook cprog library pracl
bourne joke notes perl 5
6 Bye for now barbara. The time is 18:05:07!

EXPLANATION

1 The first line of the script, #!/bin/sh, lets the kernel know what interpreter will ex-
ecute the lines in this program, in this case the sh (Bourne shell) interpreter.

2 The comments are nonexecutable lines preceded by a pound sign. They can be on
a line by themselves or appended to a line after a command.

3 After variable substitution is performed by the shell, the echo command displays
the line on the screen.

4 After command substitution is performed by the shell, the echo command displays
the line on the screen.

5 The Is command is executed. The comment will be ignored by the shell.

6 The echo command displays the string enclosed within double quotes. Variables
and command substitution (backquotes) are expanded when placed within dou-
ble quotes. In this case, the quotes were really not necessary.

7 The greetings script is given permission to execute by the user, group, and others,
and is run from the command line.

8.2 Reading User Input

The read command is a built-in command used to read input from the terminal or from
a file (see Table 8.1). The read command takes a line of input until a newline is reached.
The newline at the end of a line will be translated into a null byte when read. You can
also use the read command to cause a program to stop until the user enters a carriage
return. To see how the read command is most effectively used for reading lines of input
from a file, see "Looping Commands" on page 349.

Table 8.1 The read Command

Format Meaning

read answer Reads a line from standard input and assigns it to the variable answer.

read first last Reads a line from standard input to the first whitespace or newline,
putting the first word typed into the variable fi rst and the rest of the line
into the variable last.
324 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

EXAMPLE 8.3

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
# Scriptname: nosy
echo "Are you happy? \c"
1 read answer
echo "Sanswer is the right response."
echo "What is your full name? \c"
2 read first middle last
echo "Hello Sfirst"

(The Output)
Are you happy? Yes
1 Yes is the right response.
2 What is your full name? Jon Jake Jones
Hello Jon

EXPLANATION

l The read command accepts a line of user input and assigns the input to the vari-
able answer.

2 The read command accepts input from the user and assigns the first word of input
to the variable first, the second word of input to the variable middle, and all the
rest of the words up to the end of the line to the variable last.

EXAMPLE 8.4

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
# Scriptname: printer_check
# Script to clear a hung up printer for SVR4
1 if [ SLOCNAME != root ]
then
echo "Must have root privileges to run this program"
exit 1
fi
2 cat « EOF
Warning: All jobs in the printer queue will be removed.
Please turn off the printer now. Press Enter when you
are ready to continue. Otherwise press Ctrl-C.
EOF
3 read ANYTHING # Wait until the user turns off the printer
echo
4 /etc/init.d/lp stop # Stop the printer
8.3 Arithmetic 325

EXAMPLE 8.4 (continued)

5 rm -f /var/spool/lp/SCHEDLOCK /var/spool/lp/temp^v
echo
echo "Please turn the printer on now."
6 echo "Press Enter to continue"
7 read ANYTHING # Stall until the user turns the printer back on
echo # A blank line is printed
8 /etc/init.d/lp start # Start the printer

EXPLANATION

1 Checks to see if user is root. If not, sends an error and exits.

2 Creates a here document. Warning message is displayed on the screen.

3 The read command waits for user input. When the user presses Enter, the variable
ANYTHING accepts whatever is typed. The variable is not used for anything. The read
in this case is used to wait until the user turns off the printer, comes back, and
presses Enter.

4 The Ip program stops the printer daemon.

5 The SCHEDLOCK file must be removed before the scheduler can start again, as well as
temporary files in /var/spool/lp.

6 The user is asked to press Enter when ready.

7 Whatever the user types is read into the variable ANYTHING, and when Enter is
pressed, the program will resume execution.

8 The Ip program starts the print daemons.

8.3 Arithmetic

Arithmetic is not built into the Bourne shell. If you need to perform simple integer arith-
metic calculations, the UNIX expr command is most commonly used in Bourne shell
scripts. For floating-point arithmetic, the awk or be programs can be used. Because arith-
metic was not built in, the performance of the shell is degraded when iterating through
loops a number of times. Each time a counter is incremented or decremented in a loop-
ing mechanism, it is necessary to fork another process to handle the arithmetic.

8.3.1 Integer Arithmetic and the expr Command

The expr command is an expression-handling program. When used to evaluate arith-

metic expressions, it can perform simple integer operations (see Table 8.2). Each of its
arguments must be separated by a space. The +, -, *, /, and % operators are supported,
and the normal programming rules of associativity and precedence apply.
326 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

Table 8.2 The expr Command Arithmetic Operators

Operator Function

* Multiplication

/ Division

% Modulus

+ Addition

Subtraction

EXAMPLE 8.5

1 $ expr 1 + 4
5
2 $ expr 1+4
1+4
3 $ expr 5 + 9/3
8
4 $ expr 5 * 4
expr: syntax error
5 $ expr 5 V 4 - 2
18
6 $ expr 11 % 3
2
7 $ num=l
$ num='expr $num + r
$ echo $num
2

EXPLANATION

1 The expr command evaluates the expression. The two numbers are added.

2 Because there are no spaces between the operator, the expression is evaluated as
a string.

3 Addition and division are combined. The division is performed first and then the
addition.

4 The asterisk (*) is evaluated by the shell as one of its wildcards, causing the expr
command to fail.

5 The asterisk (*) is escaped with a backslash to prevent shell interpretation. The
expr command performs arithmetic.

6 The modulus operator (%) returns the remainder after division is performed.

7 The variable num is assigned 1. The expr command adds 1 to the value of the vari-
able and assigns the result to num. The value of num is echoed to the screen.
8.4 Positional Parameters and Command-Line Arguments 327

8.3.2 Floating-Point Arithmetic

The be, awk, and nawk utilities are useful if you need to perform more complex calcula-
tions.

EXAMPLE 8.6

(The Command Line)

1 $ n=,echo M
scale=3; 13 / 2" | be'
$ echo $n
6.500
2 $ n="bc « EOF
scale=3
13/2
EOF'
$ echo Sn
6.500
3 S products nawk -v x=2.45 -v y=3.123 'BEGINlprintf
$ echo $product
7.65

EXPLANATION

1 The output of the echo command is piped to the be program. The scale is set to 3,
which is the number of significant digits to the right of the decimal point that will
be printed. The calculation is to divide 13 by 2. The entire pipeline is enclosed in
backquotes. Command substitution will be performed and the output assigned to
the variable n.

2 This example uses the here document within backquotes to perform the same func-
tion as the first example. The output of the command will be asssigned to the vari-
able n and then displayed with the echo command.

3 The nawk program gets its values from the argument list passed in at the command
line, x=2.45 y=3.123. (The -v switch works with nawk, not awk.) After the numbers are
multiplied, the printf function formats and prints the result with a precision of
two places to the right of the decimal point. The output is assigned to the variable
product.

8.4 Positional Parameters and

Command-Line Arguments

Information can be passed into a script via the command line. Each word (separated by
whitespace) following the script name is called an argument.
Command-line arguments can be referenced in scripts with positional parameters; for
example, $1 for the first argument, $2 for the second argument, $3 for the third argument,
and so on. The $# variable is used to test for the number of parameters, and S* is used to
328 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

display all of them. Positional parameters ean be set or reset with the set command.
When the set command is used, any positional parameters previously set are cleared out.
See Table 8.3.

Table 8.3 Bourne Shell Positional Parameters

Positional Parameter What It References

$0 References the name of the script

U Holds the value of the number of positional parameters

$* Lists all of the positional parameters

$® Means the same as except when enclosed in double quotes

Expands to a single argument (e.g., "$1 $2 $3")

Expands to separate arguments (e.g., "$1" "$2" "S3")

$1 .. $9 References up to nine positional parameters

EXAMPLE 8.7 !

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
# Scriptname: greetings
echo "This script is called $0."
1 echo "$0 $1 and $2"
echo "The number of positional parameters is $#"

(The Command Line)

$ chmod +x greetings
2 $ greetings
This script is called greetings.
greetings and
The number of positional parameters is

3 $ greetings Tommy
This script is called greetings.
greetings Tommy and
The number of positional parameters is 1

4 $ greetings Tommy Kimberly

This script is called greetings.
greetings Tommy and Kimberly
The number of positional parameters is 2
8.4 Positional Parameters and Command-Line Arguments 329

EXPLANATION

1 In the script greetings, positional parameter $0 references the script name, $1 the
first command-line argument, and $2 the second command-line argument.

2 The greetings script is executed without any arguments passed. The output illus-
trates that the script is called greetings ($0 in the script) and that $1 and $2 were
never assigned anything; therefore, their values are null and nothing is printed.

3 This time, one argument is passed, Tommy. Tommy is assigned to positional parameter 1.

4 Two arguments are entered, Tommy and Kimberly. Tommy is assigned to $1 and Kimberly
is assigned to $2.

8.4.1 The set Command and Positional Parameters

The set command with arguments resets the positional parameters.1 Once reset, the old
parameter list is lost. To unset all of the positional parameters, use set $0 is always
the name of the script.

EXAMPLE 8.8

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
# Scriptname: args
# Script to test command-1ine arguments

1 echo The name of this script is $0.

2 echo The arguments are $*.
3 echo The first argument is $1.
4 echo The second argument is $2.
5 echo The number of arguments is $#.
6 oldargs=S* # Save parameters passed in from the command line
7 set lake Nicky Scott # Reset the positional parameters
8 echo All the positional parameters are $*.
9 echo The number of postional parameters is $#.
10 echo "Good-bye for now, $1 "
11 set 'date^ # Reset the positional parameters
12 echo The date is $2 $3, $6.
13 echo "The value of \$oldargs is Soldargs."
14 set Soldargs
15 echo $1 $2 $3

1. Remember, without arguments, the set command displays all the variables that have been set for this shell,
local and exported. With options, the set command turns on and off shell control options such as -x and -v.
330 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

EXAMPLE 8.8 (continued)

(The Command Line and Output)

$ args abed
1 The name of this script is args.
2 The arguments are a b c d.
3 The first argument is a.
4 The second argument is b.
5 The number of arguments is 4.
8 All the positional parameters are Jake Nicky Scott.
9 The number of positional parameters is 3.
10 Good-bye for now, Jake
12 The date is Mar 25, 2004.
13 The value of Soldargs is a b c d.
15 a b c

EXPLANATION

l The name of the script is stored in the $0 variable.

2 $■> represents all of the positional parameters.

3 $1 represents the first positional parameter (command-line argument).

4 $2 represents the second positional parameter.

5 $# is the total number of positional parameters (command-line arguments).

6 All positional parameters are saved in a variable called oldargs.

7 The set command allows you to reset the positional parameters, clearing out the
old list. Now, $1 is Jake, $2 is Nicky, and $3 is Scott.

8 $■> represents all of the parameters, Jake, Nicky, and Scott.

9 $# represents the number of parameters, 3.

10 $1 is Jake.

11 After command substitution is performed—that is, date is executed—the posi-

tional parameters are reset to the output of the date command.

12 The new values of $2, $3, and $6 are displayed.

13 The values saved in oldargs are printed.

14 The set command creates positional parameters from the value stored in oldargs.

15 The first three positional parameters are displayed.

8.4 Positional Parameters and Command-Line Arguments 331

EXAMPLE 8.9

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
# Scriptname: checker
# Script to demonstrate the use of special variable modifiers and arguments
1 name=${l:?"requires an argument" }
echo Hello Sname

(The Command Line)

2 $ checker
./checker: 1: requires an argument
3 $ checker Sue
Hello Sue

EXPLANATION

1 The special variable modifier : ? will check whether $1 has a value. If not, the script
exits and the message is printed.

2 The program is executed without an argument. $1 is not assigned a value; an error

is displayed.

3 The checker program is given a command-line argument, Sue. In the script, $1 is as-
signed Sue. The program continues.

8.4.2 How $* and $® Differ

The $* and $@ differ only when enclosed in double quotes. When $* is enclosed within
double quotes, the parameter list becomes a single string. When $@ is enclosed within
double quotes, each of the parameters is quoted; that is, each word is treated as a sepa-
rate string.

EXAMPLE 8.10

1 $ set 'apple pie' pears peaches

2 $ for i in $*
> do
> echo $i
> done
apple
pie
pears
peaches
332 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

EXAMPLE 8.10 (continued)

3 $ set 'apple pie' pears peaches

4 $ for i in "$*"
> do
> echo Si
> done
apple pie pears peaches

5 $ set 'apple pie' pears peaches

6 $ for i in $@
> do
> echo $i
> done
apple
pie
pears
peaches

7 $ set 'apple pie' pears peaches

8 $ for i in "$©" # At last!!
> do
> echo Si
> done
apple pie
pears
peaches

EXPLANATION

l The positional parameters are set.

2 When $* is expanded, the quotes surrounding apple pie are stripped; apple and pie
become two separate words. The for loop assigns each of the words, in turn, to the
variable i, and then prints the value of i. Each time through the loop, the word on
the left is shifted off, and the next word is assigned to the variable i.

3 The positional parameters are set.

4 By enclosing $* in double quotes, the entire parameter list becomes one string,
"apple pie pears peaches". The entire list is assigned to i as a single word. The loop
makes one iteration.

5 The positional parameters are set.

6 Unquoted, $@ and behave the same way (see line 2 of this explanation).

7 The positional parameters are set.

8 By surrounding S@ with double quotes, each of the positional parameters is treated

as a quoted string. The list would be "apple pie", "pears", "peaches". The desired re-
sult is finally achieved.
Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 333

5 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control

Conditional commands allow you to perform some task(s) based on whether a condi-
tion succeeds or fails. The if command is the simplest form of decision making; the
if/else command allows a two-way decision; and the if/el if/else command allows a
multiway decision.
The Bourne shell expects a command to follow an if. The command can be a system
command or a built-in command. The exit status of the command is used to evaluate
the condition.
To evaluate an expression, the built-in test command is used. This command is also
linked to the bracket symbol. Either the test command is used, or the expression can be
enclosed in set of single brackets. Shell metacharacters (wildcards) are not expanded by
the test command. The result of a command is tested, with zero status indicating success
and nonzero status indicating failure. See Table 8.4.

Table 8.4 String, Integer, and File Testing

Test Operator Test For

String Test

stringl = stringZ Stringl is equal to String2 (space surrounding = required)

stringl != string2 Stringl is not equal to String2 (space surrounding != required)

string String is not null

-z string Length of string is zero

-n string Length of string is nonzero

Example

test -n $word or [ -n $word ]

test torn = sue or [ torn = sue ]

Integer Test

intl -eq int2 Intl is equal to int2

intl -ne int2 Intl is not equal to int2

intl -gt int2 Intl is greater than i nt2

intl -ge int2 Intl is greater than or equal to int2

intl -It int2 Intl is less than int2

intl -le int2 Intl is less than or equal to int2

334 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

Table 8.4 String, Integer, and File Testing (continued)

Test Operator Test For

Logical Test

exprl -a exprZ Logical AND

exprl -o expr2 Logical OR

! expr Logical NOT

File Test

-b filename Block special file

-c filename Character special file

-d filename Directory existence

-f filename Regular file existence and not a directory

-g filename Set-group-ID is set

-k filename Sticky bit is set

-p filename File is a named pipe

-r filename File is readable

-s filename File is nonzero size

-u filename Set-user-ID bit is set

-w filename File is writable

-x filename File is executable

8.5.1 Testing Exit Status: The test Command

The following examples illustrate how the exit status is tested.

The test command is used to evaluate conditional expressions, returning true or
false. It will return a zero exit status for true and a nonzero exit status for false. The test
command or brackets can be used. (Refer back to Table 8.4.)
8.5 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 335

EXAMPLE 8.11

(At the Command Line)

1 $ name=Tom
M
2 $ grep $name" /etc/passwd
Tom:8ZKX2F:5102:40: Tom Savage:/home/torn:/bin/ksh
3 $ echo $?
0 Success!
4 $ test $name != Tom
5 $ echo $?
1 Failure
6 S [ $name = Tom ] # Brackets replace the test command
7 $ echo $?
0 Success
8 $ [ $name = [Tt]?m ] # Wildcards are not evaluated by the test command
9 $ echo S?
1 Failure

EXPLANATION

1 The variable name is assigned the string Tom.

2 The grep command will search for string Tom in the passwd file.

3 The ? variable contains the exit status of the last command executed, in this case,
the exit status of grep. If grep is successful in finding the string Tom, it will return
an exit status of 0. The grep command was successful.

4 The test command is used to evaluate strings, numbers, and perform file testing.
Like all commands, it returns an exit status. If the exit status is 0, the expression
is true; if the exit status is 1, the expression evaluates to false. There must be spaces
surrounding the equal sign. The value of name is tested to see if it is not equal to Tom.

5 The test fails and returns an exit status of 1.

6 The brackets are an alternate notation for the test command. There must be spac-
es after the first bracket. The expression is tested to see if Sname evaluates to the
string Tom.

7 The exit status of the test is 0. The test was successful because Sname is equal to Tom.

8 The test command does not allow wildcard expansion. Because the question mark
is treated as a literal character, the test fails. Tom and [Tt]?m are not equal.

9 The exit status is 1, indicating that the text in line 8 failed.

8.5.2 The if Command

The simplest form of conditional is the if command. The command or UNIX utility fol-
lowing the if construct is executed and its exit status is returned. The exit status is usu-
ally determined by the programmer who wrote the utility. Typically, if the exit status is
zero, the command succeeded and the statement(s) after the then keyword are executed.
In the C shell, the expression following the if command is a Boolean-type expression as
336 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

in C. But in the Bourne and Korn shells, the statement following the if is a command or
group of commands. If the exit status of the command being evaluated is zero, the block
of statements after the then is executed until fi is reached. The f i terminates the i f block.
If the exit status is nonzero, meaning that the command failed in some way, the state-
ment(s) after the then keyword are ignored and control goes to the line directly after the
f i statement. It is important that you know the exit status of the commands being tested.
For example, the exit status of grep is reliable in letting you know whether grep found
the pattern it was searching for in a file. If grep is successful in its search, it returns a 0
exit status; if not, it returns 1. The sed and awk programs also search for patterns, but they
will report a successful exit status regardless of whether they find the pattern. The cri-
teria for success with sed and awk is correct syntax, not functionality.2

FORMAT

if command
then
command
command
fi

if test expression
then
command
fi

or

if [ expression ]
then
command
fi

EXAMPLE 8.12

1 if ypmatch "$name" passwd > /dev/null 2>&1

2 then
echo Found Sname!
3 fi

2. Unlike the C shell, the Bourne shell does not support an if statement without a then, even for a simple
statement.
8.5 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 337

EXPLANATION

1 The ypmatch command is an NIS (Sun's Network Information Services) command

that searches for its argument, name, in the NIS passwd database on the server ma-
chine. Standard output and standard error are redirected to /dev/null, the UNIX
bit bucket. If ypmatch is not supported on your system, try

if grep "Sname" /etc/passwd > /dev/null 2>&1

2 If the exit status of the ypmatch command is 0, the program goes to the then state-
ment and executes commands until fi is reached.

3 The fi terminates the list of commands following the then statement.

EXAMPLE 8.13

1 echo "Are you okay (y/n) ?"

read answer
2 if [ "Sanswer" = Y -o "$answer" = y ]
then
echo "Clad to hear it."
3 fi

EXPLANATION

1 The user is asked the question and told to respond. The read command waits for
a response.

2 The test command, represented by square brackets, is used to test expressions. It

returns an exit status of zero if the expression is true and nonzero if the expression
is false. If the variable answer evaluates to Y or y, the commands after the then state-
ment are executed. (The test command does not allow the use of wildcards when
testing expressions, and spaces must surround the square brackets (as well as the
= operators). Refer to Table 8.4 on page 333.
The variable Sanswer is double quoted to hold it together as a single string. The
test command fails if more than one word appears before the = operator. For ex-
ample, if the user entered yes, you betcha, the answer variable would evaluate to
three words, causing the test to fail, unless Sanswer is enclosed in double quotes.

3 The fi terminates the list of commands following the then statement.

8.5.3 The exit Command and the ? Variable

The exit command is used to terminate the script and return to the command line. You
may want the script to exit if some condition occurs. The argument given to the exit
command is a number ranging from 0 to 255. If the program exits with 0 as an argument,
the program exited with success. A nonzero argument indicates some kind of failure.
The argument given to the exit command is stored in the shell's ? variable.
338 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

EXAMPLE 8.14

(The Script)
# Name: bigfiles
# Purpose: Use the find command to find any files in the root
# partition that have not been modified within the past n (any
# number within 30 days) days and are larger than 20 blocks
# (512-byte blocks)

1 if [ $# -ne 2 ]
then
echo "Usage: $0 mdays size " 1>&2
exit 1
2 fi
3 if [ $1 -It 0 -o $1 -gt 30 ]
then
echo "mdays is out of range"
exit 2
4 fi
5 if [ S2 -le 20 ]
then
echo "size is out of range"
exit 3
6 fi
7 find / -xdev -mtime $1 -size +$2 -print

(The Command Line)

$ bigfiles
Usage: bigfiles mdays size
$ echo $?
1
$ bigfiles 400 80
mdays is out of range
$ echo $?
2
$ bigfiles 25 2
size is out of range
$ echo $?
3
$ bigfiles 2 25
(Output of find prints here)
8.5 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 339

EXPLANATION

1 The statement reads; If the number of arguments is not equal to 2, print the error
message and send it to standard error, then exit the script with an exit status of 1.

2 The fi marks the end of the block of statements after then.

3 The statement reads: If the value of the first positional parameter passed in from
the command line is less than 0 or greater than 30, then print the message and
exit with a status of 2. See Table 8.4 on page 333 for numeric operators.

4 The fi ends the if block.

5 The statement reads: If the value of the second positional parameter passed in at
the command line is less than or equal to 20 (512-byte blocks), then print the
message and exit with a status of 3.

6 The fi ends the if block.

7 The fi nd command starts its search in the root directory. The -xdev option prevents
find from searching other partitions. The -mtime option takes a number argument,
which is the number of days since the file was modified, and the -si ze option takes
a number argument, which is the size of the file in 512-byte blocks.

8.5.4 Checking for Null Values

When checking for null values in a variable, use double quotes to hold the null value or
the test command will fail.

EXAMPLE 8.15

(The Script)
1 if I "Sname" = "" ] # Alternative to [ ! "Snatne" ] or [ -z "Sname" ]
then
echo The name variable is null
fi

(From System showmount program, which displays all remotely mounted systems)
remotes='/usr/sbi n/showmount'
M
2 if [ XS{remotes}" != "X" ]
then
/usr/sbin/wall ${remotes}

3 fi
340 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

EXPLANATION

1 If the name variable evaluates to null, the test is true. The double quotes are used
to represent null.

2 The showmount command lists all clients remotely mounted from a host machine.
The command will list either one or more clients, or nothing. The variable remotes
will either have a value assigned or will be null. The letter X precedes the variable
remotes when being tested. If remotes evaluates to null, no clients are remotely
logged on and X will be equal to X, causing the program to start execution again
on line 3. If the variable has a value, for example, the hostname pluto, the expres-
sion would read if Xpluto != X, and the wall command would be executed. (All
users on remote machines will be sent a message.) The purpose of using X in the
expression is to guarantee that even if the value of remotes is null, there will always
be a placeholder on either side of the != operator in the expression.

3 The fi terminates the if.

8.5.5 The i f/el se Command

The if/else command allows a two-way decision-making process. If the command after
the if fails, the commands after the else are executed.

FORMAT

if command
then
command(s)
else
command(s)
fi

EXAMPLE 8.16

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
1 if ypmatch "Sname" passwd > /dev/null 2>&la
2 then
echo Found Sname!
3 else
4 echo "Can't find Sname."
exit 1
5 fi

a. If using N1S+, the command would read; If nismatch "Sname" passwd.org_dir.

8.5 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 341

EXPLANATION

1 The ypmatch command searches for its argument, name, in the NIS passwd database.
Because the user does not need to see the output, standard output and standard
error are redirected to /dev/null, the UNIX bit bucket.

2 If the exit status of the ypmatch command is 0, program control goes to the then
statement and executes commands until else is reached.

3 The commands under the el se statement are executed if the ypmatch command fails
to find Sname in the passwd database; that is, the exit status of ypmatch must be non-
zero for the commands in the else block to be executed.

4 If the value in Sname is not found in the passwd database, this echo statement is exe-
cuted and the program exits with a value of 1, indicating failure.

5 The fi terminates the if.

EXAMPLE 8.17

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
# Scriptname: idcheck
# purpose: check user ID to see if user is root.
# Only root has a uid of 0.
# Format for id output:uid=9496(enie) gid=40 groups=40
# root's uid=0

1 id=,id | nawk -F'[=(]' '{print $2}'' # Cet user ID

echo your user id is: Sid
2 if [ Sid -eq 0 ]
then
3 echo "you are superuser."
4 else
echo "you are not superuser."
5 fi

(The Command Line)

6 $ idcheck
your user id is: 9496
you are not superuser.
7 $ su
Password:
8 # idcheck
your user id is: 0
you are superuser
342 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

EXPLANATION

1 The id command is piped to the nawk command. Nawk uses either an equal sign or
an open parenthesis as field separator, extracts the user ID from the output, and
assigns the output to the variable id.

2 If the value of id is equal to 0, then line 3 is executed.

4 If id is not equal to 0, the else statement is executed.

5 The fi marks the end of the if command.

6 The idcheck script is executed by the current user, whose UID is 9496.

7 The su command switches the user to root.

8 The # prompt indicates that the superuser (root) is the new user. The UID for root
is 0.

8.5.6 The i f/el i f/el se Command

The if/elif/else command allows a multiway decision-making process. If the command

following the if fails, the command following the el if is tested. If that command suc-
ceeds, the commands under its then statement are executed. If the command after the
el if fails, the next el if command is checked. If none of the commands succeeds, the else
commands are executed. The else block is called the default.

FORMAT

if command
then
command(s)
el if command
then
commands(s)
el if command
then
command(s)
else
command(s)
fi

EXAMPLE 8.18

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
# Scriptname: tellme
1 echo -n "How old are you? "
read age
8.5 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 343

EXAMPLE 8.18 (continued)

2 if [ Sage -It 0 -o Sage -gt 120 ]

then
echo "Welcome to our planet! "
exit 1
fi
3 if [ Sage -ge 0 -a Sage -It 13 ]
then
echo "A child is a garden of verses"
elif [ Sage -ge 13 -a Sage -It 20 ]
then
echo "Rebel without a cause"
elif [ Sage -ge 20 -a Sage -It 30 ]
then
echo "You got the world by the tail!!"
elif [ Sage -ge 30 -a Sage -It 40 ]
then
echo "Thirty something..
4 else
echo "Sorry I asked"
5 fi

(The Output)
$ tell me
How old are you? 200
Welcome to our planet!
$ tell me
How old are you? 13
Rebel without a cause
$ tell me
How old are you? 55
Sorry I asked

EXPLANATION

1 The user is asked for input. The input is assigned to the variable age.

2 A numeric test is performed within the square brackets. If age is less than 0 or
greater than 120, the echo command is executed and the program terminates with
an exit status of 1. The interactive shell prompt will appear.

3 A numeric test is performed within the square brackets. If age is greater than or
equal to 0 and less than 13, the test command returns exit status 0, true, and the
statement after the then is executed. Otherwise, program control goes to the elif.
If that test is false, the next elif is tested.

4 The el se construct is the default. If none of the above statements are true, the el se
commands will be executed.

5 The fi terminates the initial if statement.

344 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

8.5.7 File Testing

Often when writing scripts, your script will require that there are certain files available
and that those files have specific permissions, are of a certain type, or have other
attributes. (See Table 8.4 on page 333.) You will find file testing a necessary part of writ-
ing dependable scripts.
When if statements are nested, the fi statement always goes with the nearest if state-
ment. Indenting the nested ifs makes it easier to see which i f statement goes with which
fi statement.

EXAMPLE 8.19

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
file=./testing

1 i—if [ -d $file ]
then
echo "Sfile is a directory"
2 elif [ -f Sfile ]
then
3 r if [ -r Sfile -a -w Sfile -a -x Sfile ]
then # nested if command
echo "You have read, write, and execute permission on Sfile."
4 L_fi
5 else
echo "Sfile is neither a file nor a directory."
fi

EXPLANATION

1 If the file testing is a directory, print testing is a directory.

2 If the file testing is not a directory, else if the file is a plain file, then

3 If the file testing is readable, writable, and executable, then . . .

4 The fi terminates the innermost if command.

5 The else commands are executed if lines 1 and 2 are not true.

6 This fi goes with the first if.

8.5.8 The null Command

The null command, represented by a colon, is a built-in, do-nothing command that

returns an exit status of 0. It is used as a placeholder after an if command when you
have nothing to say, but need a command or the program will produce an error message
because it requires something after the then statement. Often the null command is used
as an argument to a looping command to make the loop a forever loop.
8.5 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 345

EXAMPLE 8.20

(The Script)
1 naine=Toin
2 if grep "Sname" databasefile > /dev/null 2>&1
then
3 :
4 else
echo "$1 not found in databasefile"
exit 1
fi

EXPLANATION

1 The variable name is assigned the string Tom.

2 The if command tests the exit status of the grep command. If Tom is found in the
database file, the null command, a colon, is executed and does nothing.

3 The colon is the nul 1 command. It does nothing other than returning a 0 exit status.

4 What we really want to do is print an error message and exit if Tom is not found.
The commands after the else will be executed if the grep command fails.

EXAMPLE 8.21

(The Command Line)

1 $ DATAFILE=
2 $ : ${DATAFILE:=$HOME/db/datafile}
$ echo $DATAFILE
/home/jody/e 11ie/db/da ta fi 1e
3 $ : ${DATAFILE:=$H0ME/junk}
$ echo $DATAFILE
/home/jody/e 17 ie/db/data fi 1e

EXPLANATION

1 The variable DATAFILE is assigned null.

2 The colon command is a "do-nothing" command. The modifier (:=) returns a val-
ue that can be assigned to a variable or used in a test. In this example, the expres-
sion is passed as an argument to the do-nothing command. The shell will perform
variable substitution; that is, assign the pathname to DATAFILE if DATAFILE does not
already have a value. The variable DATAFILE is permanently set.

3 Because the variable has already been set, it will not be reset with the default value
provided on the right of the modifier.
346 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

EXAMPLE 8.22

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
1 # Name:wholenum
# Purpose:The expr command tests that the user enters an integer
echo "Enter a number."
read number
2 if expr "Snumber" + 0 > /dev/null 2>&1
then
5
j
else
4 echo "You did not enter an integer value." 1782
exit 1
5 fi

EXPLANATION

l The user is asked to enter an integer. The number is assigned to the variable number.

2 The expr command evaluates the expression. If addition can be performed, the
number is a whole number and expr returns a successful exit status. All output is
redirected to the bit bucket /dev/null.

3 If expr is successful, it returns a 0 exit status, and the colon command does nothing.

4 If the expr command fails, it returns a nonzero exit status, the echo command dis-
plays the message to standard error (1782), and the program exits.

5 The fi ends the if block.

8.5.9 The case Command

The case command is a multiway branching command used as an alternative to the

if/el if command. The value of the case variable is matched against valuel, value2, and so
forth, until a match is found. When a value matches the case variable, the commands
following the value are executed until the double semicolons are reached. Then execu-
tion starts after the word esac (case spelled backwards).
If the case variable is not matched, the program executes the commands after the *),
the default value, until ;; or esac is reached. The *) value functions the same as the else
statement in if/else conditionals. The case values allow the use of shell wildcards and
the vertical bar (pipe symbol) for ORing two values.
8.5 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 347

FORMAT

case variable in
valuel)
commancKs)
J >
value2)
comniand(s)
>J

command(s)

esac

EXAMPLE 8.23

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
# Scriptname: colors

1 echo -n "Which color do you like?"

read color
M
2 case $color" in
3 [Bb]l??)
4 echo I feel Scolor
echo The sky is Scolor
5 ;;
6 [Gg]ree*)
echo Scolor is for trees
echo Scolor is for seasick;;
7 red | orange) # The vertical bar means "OR"
echo Scolor is very warm!;;
8 *)
echo No such color as Scolor;;
9 esac
10 echo "Out of case"

EXPLANATION

1 The user is asked for input. The input is assigned to the variable color.

2 The case command evaluates the expression Scolor.

3 If the color begins with a B or b, followed by the letter 1 and any two characters, the
case expression matches the first value. The value is terminated with a single closed
parenthesis. The wildcards are shell metacharacters used for filename expansion.

4 The statements are executed if the value in line 3 matches the case expression.
348 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

EXPLANATION (continued)

5 The double semicolons are required after the last command in this block of com-
mands. Control branches to line 10 when the semicolons are reached. The script
is easier to debug if the semicolons are on their own line.

6 If the case expression matches a G or g, followed by the letters ree and ending in
zero or more of any other characters, the echo commands are executed. The double
semicolons terminate the block of statements and control branches to line 10.

7 The vertical bar is used as an OR conditional operator. If the case expression

matches either red or orange, the echo command is executed.

8 This is the default value. If none of the above values match the case expression,
the commands after the *) are executed.

9 The esac statement terminates the case command.

10 After one of the case values is matched, execution continues here.

8.5.10 Creating Menus with the here document

and case Command

The here document and case command are often used together. The here document is used to
create a menu of choices that will be displayed to the screen. The user will be asked to
select one of the menu items, and the case command will test against the set of choices
to execute the appropriate command.

EXAMPLE 8.24

(The .profile file)

echo "Select a terminal type: "
1 cat « ENDIT
1) vt 120
2) wyse50
3) sun
2 ENDIT
3 read choice
4 case "Schoice" in
5 1) TERM=vtl20
export TERM

2) TERM=wyse50
export TERM

6 3) TERM=sun
export TERM
JJ
8.6 Looping Commands 349

EXAMPLE 8.24 (continued)

7 esac
8 echo "TERM is STERM."

(The Output)
$ . .profile
Select a terminal type:
1) vtl20
2) wyse50
3) sun
3 <— User input
TERM is sun.

EXPLANATION

1 If this segment of script is put in the .profile, when you log on, you will be given
a chance to select the proper terminal type. The here document is used to display a
menu of choices.

2 The user-defined ENDIT terminator marks the end of the here document.

3 The read command stores the user input in the variable TERM.

4 The case command evaluates the variable choice and compares that value with one
of the values preceding the closing parenthesis: 1, 2, or *.

5 The first value tested is 1. If there is a match, the terminal is set to a vtl20. The TERM
variable is exported so that subshells will inherit it.

6 A default value is not required. The TERM variable is normally assigned in /etc/pro-
file at login time. If the choice is 3, the terminal is set to a sun.

7 The esac terminates the case command.

8 After the case command has finished, this line is executed.

8.6 Looping Commands

Looping commands are used to execute a command or group of commands a set number
of times or until a certain condition is met. The Bourne shell has three types of loops:
for, while, and until.

8.6.1 The for Command

The for looping command is used to execute commands a finite number of times on a
list of items. For example, you might use this loop to execute the same commands on a
list of files or usernames. The for command is followed by a user-defined variable, the
keyword in, and a list of words. The first time in the loop, the first word from the
wordlist is assigned to the variable, and then shifted off the list. Once the word is
assigned to the variable, the body of the loop is entered, and commands between the do
350 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

and done keywords are executed. The next time around the loop, the second word is
assigned to the variable, and so on. The body of the loop starts at the do keyword and
ends at the done keyword. When all of the words in the list have been shifted off, the loop
ends and program control continues after the done keyword.

FORMAT

for variable in wordjist

do
coinniand(s)
done

EXAMPLE 8.25

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
# Scriptname: forloop
1 for pal in Tom Dick Harry Joe
2 do
3 echo "Hi $pal"
4 done
5 echo "Out of loop"

(The Output)
$ forloop
Hi Tom
Hi Dick
Hi Harry
Hi Joe
Out of loop

EXPLANATION

1 This for loop will iterate through the list of names, Tom, Di ck, Harry, and Joe, shifting
each one off (to the left and assigning its value to the user-defined variable, pal)
after it is used. As soon as all of the words are shifted and the wordlist is empty,
the loop ends and execution starts after the done keyword. The first time in the
loop, the variable pal will be assigned the word Tom. The second time through the
loop, pal will be assigned Dick, the next time pal will be assigned Harry, and the last
time pal will be assigned Joe.

2 The do keyword is required after the wordlist. If it is used on the same line, the list
must be terminated with a semicolon. Example:

for pal in Tom Dick Harry Joe; do

3 This is the body of the loop. After Tom is assigned to the variable pal, the commands
in the body of the loop (i.e., all commands between the do and done keywords) are
executed.
8.6 Looping Commands 351

EXPLANATION (continued)

4 The done keyword ends the loop. Once the last word in the list Qoe) has been as-
signed and shifted off, the loop exits.

5 Control resumes here when the loop exits.

EXAMPLE 8.26

(The Command Line)

1 $ cat mylist
torn
patty
ann
jake

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
# Scriptname: mailer
2 for person in cat mylist"
do
3 mail Sperson < letter
echo Sperson was sent a letter.
4 done
5 echo "The letter has been sent."

EXPLANATION

1 The contents of a file, called mylist, are displayed.

2 Command substitution is performed and the contents of mylist becomes the

wordlist. The first time in the loop, torn is assigned to the variable person, then it is
shifted off to be replaced with patty, and so forth.

3 In the body of the loop, each user is mailed a copy of a file called letter.

4 The done keyword marks the end of this loop iteration.

5 When all of the users in the list have been sent mail and the loop has exited, this
line is executed.

EXAMPLE 8.27

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
# Scriptname: backup
# Purpose:
# Create backup files and store them in a backup directory
1 di r=/home/jody/el1i e/backupscri pts
352 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

EXAMPLE 8.27 (continued)

2 for file in inemo[l-5]

do
3 if [ -f Sfile ]
then
cp Sfile $dir/$file.bak
echo "Sfile is backed up in $dir"
fi
done

(The Output)
memol is backed up in /home/jody/e 7 7 ie/backupscripts
memo? is backed up in /home/jody/e 11ie/backupscripts
memo? is backed up in /home/jody/e 11ie/backupscripts
memo4 is backed up in /home/jody/e 17 ie/backupscripts
memoS is backed up in /home/jody/e 17ie/backupscripts

EXPLANATION

1 The variable di r is assigned.

2 The wordlist will consist of all files in the current working directory with names
starting with memo and ending with a number between 1 and 5. Each filename will
be assigned, one at time, to the variable file for each iteration of the loop.

3 When the body of the loop is entered, the file will be tested to make sure it exists
and is a real file. If so, it will be copied into the directory /home/jody/ellie/backup-
scripts with the .bak extension appended to its name.

8.6.2 The $* and $@ Variables in Wordlists

When expanded, the S* and SO are the same unless enclosed in double quotes. S-^ evalu-
ates to one string, whereas $0 evaluates to a list of separate words.

EXAMPLE 8.28

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
# Scriptname: greet
1 for name in $* # Same as for name in $@
2 do
echo Hi Sname
3 done
8.6 Looping Commands 353

EXAMPLE 8.28

(The Command Line)

$ greet Dee Bert Lizzy Tommy
Hi Dee
Hi Bert
Hi Lizzy
Hi Tommy

EXPLANATION

1 $■> and $@ expand to a list of all the positional parameters, in this case, the argu-
ments passed in from the command line: Dee, Bert, Lizzy, and Tommy. Each name in
the list will be assigned, in turn, to the variable name in the for loop.

2 The commands in the body of the loop are executed until the list is empty.

3 The done keyword marks the end of the loop body.

EXAMPLE 8.29

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
# Scriptname:permx
1 for file # Empty wordlist
do
2 if [ -f Sfile -a ! -x Sfile ]
then
3 chmod +x Sfile
echo Sfile now has execute permission
fi
done

(The Command Line)

4 $ permx *
addon now has execute permission
checkon now has execute permission
doit now has execute permission

EXPLANATION

1 If the for loop is not provided with a wordlist, it iterates through the positional
parameters. This is the same as for file in $*.

2 The filenames are coming in from the command line. The shell expands the aster-
isk (*) to all filenames in the current working directory. If the file is a plain file
and does not have execute permission, line 3 is executed.

3 Execute permission is added for each file being processed.

4 At the command line, the asterisk will be evaluated by the shell as a wildcard and
all files in the current directory will be replaced for the -v. The files will be passed
as arguments to the permx script.
354 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

8.6.3 The while Command

The while command evaluates the command immediately following it and, if its exit sta-
tus is 0, the commands in the body of the loop (commands between do and done) are exe-
cuted. When the done keyword is reached, control is returned to the top of the loop and
the while command checks the exit status of the command again. Until the exit status of
the command being evaluated by the while becomes nonzero, the loop continues. When
the exit status reaches nonzero, program execution starts after the done keyword.

FORMAT

while command
do
command(s)
done

EXAMPLE 8.30

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
/ Scriptname: num
1 num=0 # Initialize num
2 while [ Snum -It 10 ] # Test num with test command
do
echo -n Snum
,
3 num= expr Snum + 1' # Increment num
done
echo "\nAfter loop exits, continue running here"

(The Output)
0123456789
After loop exits, continue running here

EXPLANATION

1 This is the initialization step. The variable num is assigned 0.

2 The whi 1 e command is followed by the test (square brackets) command. If the val-
ue of num is less than 10, the body of the loop is entered.

3 In the body of the loop, the value of num is incremented by 1. If the value of num
never changes, the loop would iterate infinitely or until the process is killed.
8.6 Looping Commands 355

EXAMPLE 8.31

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
# Script name: quiz
1 echo "Who was the chief defense lawyer in the OJ case?"
read answer
2 while [ "Sanswer" != "Johnny" ]
3 do
4 echo "Wrong try again!"
read answer
5 done
6 echo You got it!

(The Output)
$ quiz
Who was the chief defense lawyer in the OJ case? Marcia
Wrong try again!
Who was the chief defense lawyer in the OJ case? I give up
Wrong try again!
Who was the chief defense lawyer in the OJ case? Johnny
You got it!

EXPLANATION

1 The echo command prompts the user, Who was the chief defense lawyer in the OJ case?
The read command waits for input from the user. The input will be stored in the
variable answer.

2 The while loop is entered and the test command, the bracket, tests the expression.
If the variable answer does not equal the string Johnny, the body of the loop is en-
tered and commands between the do and done are executed.

3 The do keyword is the start of the loop body.

4 The user is asked to re-enter input.

5 The done keyword marks the end of the loop body. Control is returned to the top
of the while loop, and the expression is tested again. As long as Sanswer does not
evaluate to Johnny, the loop will continue to iterate. When the user enters Johnny,
the loop ends. Program control goes to line 6.

6 When the body of the loop ends, control starts here.

356 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

EXAMPLE 8.32

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
# Scriptname: say it
echo Type q to quit.
go=start
1 while [ -n "$goM ] # Make sure to double quote the variable
do
2 echo -n I love you.
3 read word
4 if [ "Sword" = q -o "Sword" = Q ]
then
echo "I'll always love you!"
go=
fi
done

(The Output)
$ sayit
Type q to quit.
I love you. <- When user presses the Enter key, the program continues
I love you.
I love you.
I love you.
I love you.q
I'll always love you!
$

EXPLANATION

1 The command after the while is executed and its exit status tested. The -n option
to the test command tests for a non-null string. Because go initially has a value,
the test is successful, producing a zero exit status. If the variable go is not enclosed
in double quotes and the variable is null, the test command would complain:

go: test: argument expected

2 The loop is entered. The string I love you. is echoed to the screen.

3 The read command waits for user input.

4 The expression is tested. If the user enters a q or Q, the string I'll always love you!
is displayed, and the variable go is set to null. When the while loop is re-entered,
the test is unsuccessful because the variable is null. The loop terminates. Control
goes to the line after the done statement. In this example, the script will terminate
because there are no more lines to execute.
8.6 Looping Commands 357

8.6.4 The until Command

The until command is used like the while command, but executes the loop statements
only if the command after until fails; that is, if the command returns an exit status of
nonzero. When the done keyword is reached, control is returned to the top of the loop
and the until command checks the exit status of the command again. Until the exit sta-
tus of the command being evaluated by until becomes 0, the loop continues. When the
exit status reaches 0, the loop exits, and program execution starts after the done keyword.

FORMAT

until command
do
command(s)
done

EXAMPLE 8.33

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
1 until who | grep linda
2 do
sleep 5
3 done
talk linda@dragonwings

EXPLANATION

1 The until loop tests the exit status of the last command in the pipeline, grep. The
who command lists who is logged on this machine and pipes its output to grep. The
grep command will return a 0 exit status (success) only when it finds user linda.

2 If user linda has not logged on, the body of the loop is entered and the program
sleeps for five seconds.

3 When linda logs on, the exit status of the grep command will be 0 and control will
go to the statements following the done keyword.

EXAMPLE 8.34

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
/ Scriptname: hour
1 hour=l
2 until [ $hour -gt 24 ]
do
358 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

EXAMPLE 8.34 (continued)

3 case "Shour" in
[0-9] |l[0-l])echo "Good morning!"

12) echo "Lunch time."

l[3-7])echo "Siesta time."

) J
*) echo "Good night."
> J
esac
4 hour=,expr Shour + 1'
5 done

(The Output)
$ hour
Good morning!
Good morning!

Lunch time.
Siesta time.

Good night.

EXPLANATION

l The variable hour is initialized to 1.

2 The test command tests if the hour is greater than 24. If the hour is not greater
than 24, the body of the loop is entered. The until loop is entered if the command
following it returns a nonzero exit status. Until the condition is true, the loop con-
tinues to iterate.

3 The case command evaluates the hour variable and tests each of the case statements
for a match.

4 The hour variable is incremented before control returns to the top of the loop.

5 The done command marks the end of the loop body.

8.6.5 Looping Control Commands

If some condition occurs, you may want to break out of a loop, return to the top of the
loop, or provide a way to stop an infinite loop. The Bourne shell provides loop control
commands to handle these kinds of situations.
8.6 Looping Commands 359

Th© shift Command. The shift command shifts the parameter list to the left a
specified number of times. The shift command without an argument shifts the parame-
ter list once to the left. Once the list is shifted, the parameter is removed permanently.
Often, the shift command is used in a while loop when iterating through a list of posi-
tional parameters.

FORMAT

shift [n]

EXAMPLE 8.35

(Without a loop)
(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
1 set joe mary torn sam
2 shift
3 echo
4 set date'
5 echo $*
6 shift 5
7 echo $*
8 shift 2

(The Output)
3 mary torn sam
5 Fri Sep 9 10:00:12 PDF 2004
7 2004
8 cannot shift

EXPLANATION

l The set command sets the positional parameters. $1 is assigned joe, $2 is assigned
mary, $3 is assigned torn, and $4 is assigned sam. S* represents all of the parameters.

2 The shift command shifts the positional parameters to the left; joe is shifted off.

3 The parameter list is printed after the shift.

4 The set command resets the positional parameters to the output of the UNIX date
command.

5 The new parameter list is printed.

6 This time the list is shifted 5 times to the left.

7 The new parameter list is printed.

8 By attempting to shift more times than there are parameters, the shell sends a mes-
sage to standard error.
360 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

EXAMPLE 8.36

(With a loop)
(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
# Name: doit
# Purpose: shift through command-line arguments
# Usage: doit [args]
1 while [ $# -gt 0 ]
do
2 echo $*
3 shift
4 done

(The Command Line)

$ doit a b c d e
a b c d e
b c d e
c d e
d e

EXPLANATION

1 The while command tests the numeric expression. If the number of positional pa-
rameters ($#) is greater than 0, the body of the loop is entered. The positional pa-
rameters are coming from the command line as arguments. There are five.

2 All positional parameters are printed.

3 The parameter list is shifted once to the left.

4 The body of the loop ends here; control returns to the top of the loop. Each time
the loop is entered, the shift command causes the parameter list to be decreased
by 1. After the first shift, $# (number of positional parameters) is four. When $#
has been decreased to zero, the loop ends.

EXAMPLE 8.37

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
# Scriptname: dater
# Purpose: set positional parameters with the set command
# and shift through the parameters.
8.6 Looping Commands 361

EXAMPLE 8.37 (continued)

1 set date"
2 while [ $# -gt 0 ]
do
3 echo $1
4 shift
done

(The Output)
$ dater
Sat
Oct
16
12:12:13
PDT
2004

EXPLANATION

1 The set command takes the output of the date command and assigns the output
to positional parameters $1 through $6.

2 The while command tests whether the number of positional parameters ($#) is
greater than 0. If true, the body of the loop is entered.

3 The echo command displays the value of $1, the first positional parameter.

4 The shift command shifts the parameter list once to the left. Each time through
the loop, the list is shifted until the list is empty. At that time, $# will be zero and
the loop terminates.

The break Cornmand. The built-in break command is used to force immediate exit
from a loop, but not from a program. (To leave a program, the exit command is used.)
After the break command is executed, control starts after the done keyword. The break
command causes an exit from the innermost loop, so if you have nested loops, the break
command takes a number as an argument, allowing you to break out of a specific outer
loop. If you are nested in three loops, the outermost loop is loop number 3, the next
nested loop is loop number 2, and the innermost nested loop is loop number 1. The break
is useful for exiting from an infinite loop.

FORMAT

break [n]
362 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

EXAMPLE 8.38

#!/bin/sh
1 while true; do
2 echo Are you ready to move on\?
read answer
3 if [ "Sanswer" = Y -o "Sanswer" = y ]
then
4 break
5 else
commands... \
fi
6 done
7 print "Here we are" ^

EXPLANATION

1 The true command is a UNIX command that always exits with 0 status. It is often
used to start an infinite loop. It is okay to put the do statement on the same line as
the while command, as long as a semicolon separates them. The body of the loop
is entered.

2 The user is asked for input. The user's input is assigned to the variable answer.

3 If Sanswer evaluates to Y or y, control goes to line 4.

4 The break command is executed, the loop is exited, and control goes to line 7. The
line Here we are is printed. Until the user answers with a Y or y, the program will
continue to ask for input. This could go on forever!

5 If the test fails in line 3, the else commands are executed. When the body of the
loop ends at the done keyword, control starts again at the top of the while at line 1.

6 This is the end of the loop body.

7 Control starts here after the break command is executed.

The Continue Command. The continue command returns control to the top of the
loop if some condition becomes true. All commands below the continue will be ignored.
If nested within a number of loops, the continue command returns control to the inner-
most loop. If a number is given as its argument, control can then be started at the top of
any loop. If you are nested in three loops, the outermost loop is loop number 3, the next
nested loop is loop number 2, and the innermost nested loop is loop number I.3

FORMAT

continue [n]

3. If the continue command is given a number higher than the number of loops, the loop exits.
8.6 Looping Commands 363

EXAMPLE 8.39

(The mailing List)

$ cat mail.list
ernie
John
richard
melanie
greg
robin

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
/ Scriptname: mail em
# Purpose: To send a list
1 for name in cat mailjist ^
do ]
2 if [ "Sname" = "richard" ] ; then J
3 continue —-—
else
4 mail Sname < memo
fi
5 done

EXPLANATION

1 After command substitution, cat mailjist, the for loop will iterate through the list
of names from the file called mailjist (i.e., ernie John richard melanie greg robin).

2 If the name matches richard, the continue command is executed and control goes
back to top of the loop where the loop expression is evalutated. Because ri chard
has already been shifted off the list, the next user, melanie, will be assigned to the
variable name. The string richard does not need to be quoted here because it is only
one word. But, it is good practice to quote the string after the test's = operator be-
cause if the string consisted of more than one word, for example, richard jones, the
test command would produce an error message:

test: unknown operator richard

3 The continue command returns control to the top of the loop, skipping any com-
mands in the rest of the loop body.

4 All users in the list, except richard, will be mailed a copy of the file memo.

5 This is the end of the loop body.

364 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

8.6.6 Nested Loops and Loop Control

When using nested loops, the break and conti nue commands can be given a numeric, inte-
ger argument so that control can go from the inner loop to an outer loop.

EXAMPLE 8.40

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
# Scriptname: months
1 for month in Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Auq Sep Oct Nov Dec ^
— do
2 for week in 1 2 3 4 ^ \
— do I
echo -n "Processing the month of Smonth. Okay? "
read ans
3 if [ "Sans" = n -o -z "Sans" ] \
then ^—-— \
4 continue 2 1
else /
echo -n "Process week Sweek of Smonth? " /
read ans /
if [ "Sans" = n -o -z "Sans" ] /
then
5 continue -
else
echo "Now processing week Sweek of Smonth."
sleep 1
# Commands go here
echo "Done processing..."
fi
fi
6 — done
7 — done

(The Output)
$ months
Processing the month of Jan. Okay?
Processing the month of Feb. Okay? y
Process week 1 of Feb? y
Now processing week 1 of Feb.
Done processing...
Processing the month of Feb. Okay? y
Process week 2 of Feb? y
Now processing week 2 of Feb.
Done processing...
Processing the month of Feb. Okay? n
Processing the month of Mar. Okay? n
Processing the month of Apr. Okay? n
Processing the month of May. Okay? n
8.6 Looping Commands 365

EXPLANATION

1 The outer for loop is started. The first time in the loop, ]an is assigned to month.

2 The inner for loop starts. The first time in this loop, 1 is assigned to week. The inner
loop iterates completely before going back to the outer loop.

3 If the user enters either an n or presses Enter, line 4 is executed.

4 The continue command with an argument of 2 starts control at the top of the sec-
ond outermost loop. The continue without an argument returns control to the top
of the innermost loop.

5 Control is returned to the innermost for loop.

6 This done terminates the innermost loop.

7 This done terminates the outermost loop.

8.6.7 I/O Redirection and Subshells

Input can be piped or redirected to a loop from a file. Output can also be piped or redi-
rected to a file from a loop. The shell starts a subshell to handle I/O redirection and
pipes. Any variables defined within the loop will not be known to the rest of the script
when the loop terminates.

Redirecting the Output Of O Loop to a File. See Example 8.41 for a demonstra-
tion of how to redirect the output of a loop to a file.

EXAMPLE 8.41

(The Command Line)

1 $ cat memo
abc
def
ghi

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
# Program name: numberit
# Put line numbers on all lines of memo
2 if [ $# -It 1 ]
then
3 echo "Usage: $0 filename " >&2
exit 1
fi
4 count=l # Initialize count
5 cat $1 | while read line # Input is coming from file on command line
do
366 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

EXAMPLE 8.41 (continued)

6 [ $count -eq 1 ] && echo "Processing file $1..." > /dev/tty

7 echo Scount $line
8 count=<expr Scount + T
9 done > tmp$$ # Output is going to a temporary file
10 mv tmp$$ $1

(The Command Line)

11 $ numberit memo
Processing file memo...

12 $ cat memo
1 abc
2 def
3 ghi

EXPLANATION

1 The contents of file memo are displayed.

2 If the user did not provide a command-line argument when running this script,
the number of arguments ($#) will be less than 1 and the error message appears.

3 The usage message is sent to stderr (>&2) if the number of arguments is less than 1.

4 The count variable is assigned the value 1.

5 The UNIX cat command displays the contents of the filename stored in $1, and the
output is piped to the while loop. The read command is assigned the first line of
the file the first time in the loop, the second line of the file the next time through
the loop, and so forth. The read command returns a 0 exit status if it is successful
in reading input and 1 if it fails.

6 If the value of count is 1, the echo command is executed and its output is sent to
/dev/tty, the screen.

7 The echo command prints the value of count, followed by the line in the file.

8 The count is incremented by 1.

9 The output of this entire loop, each line of the file in $1, is redirected to the file
tmp$$, with the exception of the first line of the file, which is redirected to the ter-
minal, /dev/tty.a

10 The tmp file is renamed to the filename assigned to $1.

11 The program is executed. The file to be processed is called memo.

12 The file memo is displayed after the script has finished, demonstrating that line
numbers have been prepended to each line.

a. $$ expands to the PID number of the current shell. By appending this number to the filename, the filename is made
unique.
8.6 Looping Commands 367

EXAMPLE 8.42

(The Input File)

$ cat testing
apples
pears
peaches

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
# This program demonstrates the scope of variables when
# assigned within loops where the looping command uses
# redirection. A subshell is started when the loop uses
# redirection, making all variables created within the loop
# local to the shell where the loop is being executed.
1 while read line
do
2 echo $1ine # This line will be redirected to outfile
3 naffle=]0E
4 done < testing > outfile # Redirection of input and output
5 echo Hi there Sname

(The Output)
5 Hi there

EXPLANATION

1 If the exit status of the read command is successful, the body of the while loop is
entered. The read command is getting input from the file testing, named after the
done on line 4. Each time through the loop, the read command reads another line
from the file testing.

2 The value of line will be redirected to outfile in line 4.

3 The variable name is assigned I0E. Because redirection is utilized in this loop, the
variable is local to the loop.

4 The done keyword consists of the redirection of input from the file testing, and
the redirection of output to the file outfile. All output from this loop will go to
outfile.

5 When out of the loop, name is undefined. It was local to the while loop and known
only within the body of that loop. Because the variable name has no value, only the
string Hi there is displayed.
368 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

Piping the Output of a Loop to a UNIX Command. Output can be either piped
to another command(s) or redirected to a file.

EXAMPLE 8.43

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
1 for i in 7 9 2 3 4 5
2 do
echo $i
3 done | sort -n

(The Output)
2
S
4
5
7
9

EXPLANATION

1 The for loop iterates through a list of unsorted numbers.

2 In the body of the loop, the numbers are printed. This output will be piped into
the UNIX sort command, a numerical sort.

3 The pipe is created after the done keyword. The loop is run in a subshell.

8.6.8 Running Loops in the Background

Loops can be executed to run in the background. The program can continue without
waiting for the loop to finish processing.

EXAMPLE 8.44

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
1 for person in bob jim joe sam
do
2 mail Sperson < memo
3 done &

EXPLANATION

1 The for loop shifts through each of the names in the wordlist: bob, jim, joe, and sam.
Each of the names is assigned to the variable person, in turn.

2 In the body of the loop, each person is sent the contents of the memo file.

3 The ampersand at the end of the done keyword causes the loop to be executed in
the background. The program will continue to run while the loop is executing.
8.6 Looping Commands 369

8.6.9 The exec Command and Loops

The exec command can be used to open or close standard input or output without cre-
ating a subshell. Therefore, when starting a loop, any variables created within the body
of the loop will remain when the loop completes. When using redirection in loops, any
variables created within the loop are lost.
The exec command is often used to open files for reading and writing, either by name
or by file descriptor number. Recall that file descriptors 0, 1, and 2 are reserved for stan-
dard input, output, and error. If a file is opened, it will receive the next available file
descriptor. For example, if file descriptor 3 is the next free descriptor, the new file will
be assigned file descriptor 3.

EXAMPLE 8.45

(The File)
1 $ cat tmp
apples
pears
bananas
pleaches
plums

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
# Scriptname: speller
# Purpose: Check and fix spelling errors in a file
2 exec < tmp # Opens the tmp file
3 while read line # Read from the tmp file
do
4 echo $11ne
5 echo -n "Is this word correct? [Y/N] "
6 read answer < /dev/tty # Read from the terminal
7 case "Sanswer" in
8 [Yy]*)
9 continue;;
*)
echo "What is the correct spelling? "
10 read word < /dev/tty
11 sed "s/$line/$word/g" tmp > error
12 mv error tmp
13 echo Sline has been changed to Sword,
esac
14 done
370 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

EXPLANATION

l The contents of the tmp file are displayed.

2 The exec command changes standard input (file descriptor 0) so that instead of
input coming from the keyboard, it is coming from the tmp file.

3 The while loop starts. The read command gets a line of input from the tmp file.

4 The value stored in the line variable is printed.

5 The user is asked if the word is correct.

6 The read gets the user's response from the terminal, /dev/tty. If the input is not re-
directed directly from the terminal, it will continue to be read from the file tmp,
still opened for reading.

7 The case command evalutates the user's answer.

8 If the variable answer evaluates to a string starting with a Y or y, the continue state-
ment on the next line will be executed.

9 The continue statement causes the program to go to the beginning of the while loop
on line 3.

10 The user is again asked for input (the correct spelling of the word). The input is
redirected from the terminal, /dev/tty.

11 The sed command will replace the value of line with the value of word wherever it
occurs in the tmp file, and send the output to the error file.

12 The error file will be renamed tmp, thus overwriting the old contents of tmp with
the contents of the error file.

13 This line is displayed to indicate that the change has been made.

14 The done keyword marks the end of the loop body.

8.6.10 IFS and Loops

The shell's internal field separator (IFS) evaluates to spaces, tabs, and the newline char-
acter. It is used as a word (token) separator for commands that parse lists of words, such
as read, set, and for. It can be reset by the user if a different separator will be used in a
list. Before changing its value, it is a good idea to save the original value of the IFS in
another variable. Then it is easy to return to its default value, if needed.

EXAMPLE 8.46

(The Script )
#/bin/sh
# Scriptname: runit
# IFS is the internal field separator and defaults to
# spaces, tabs, and newlines.
# In this script it is changed to a colon.
8.6 Looping Commands 371

EXAMPLE 8.46 (continued)

1 nanies=Toni: Di ck: Har ry: ]ohn

2 OLDIFS="$IFS" # Save the original value of IFS
3 IFSs":"
4 for persons in Snames
do
5 echo Hi Spersons
done
6 IFS="$OLDIFS" # Reset the IFS to old value
7 set Jill Jane Jolene # Set positional parameters
8 for girl in $*
do
9 echo Howdy $girl
done

(The! Output)
5 Hi Tom
Hi Dick
Hi Harry
Hi John
9 Howdy Jill
Howdy Jane
Howdy Jolene

EXPLANATION

1 The names variable is assigned the string Tom:Dick:Harry:John. Each of the words is
separated by a colon.

2 The value of IFS, whitespace, is assigned to another variable, OLDIFS. Because the
value of the IFS is whitespace, it must be quoted to preserve it.

3 The IFS is assigned a colon. Now the colon is used to separate words.

4 After variable substitution, the for loop will iterate through each of the names, us-
ing the colon as the internal field separator between the words.

5 Each of the names in the wordlist are displayed.

6 The IFS is reassigned its original value stored in OLDIFS.

7 The positional parameters are set. $1 is assigned Jill, $2 is assigned Jane, and $3 is
assigned Jolene.

8 $* evaluates to all the positional parameters, Jill, Jane, and Jolene. The for loop as-
signs each of the names to the gi rl variable, in turn, through each iteration of the
loop.

9 Each of the names in the parameter list is displayed.

372 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

8.7 Functions

Functions were introduced to the Bourne shell in AT&T's UNIX System VR2. A function
is a name for a command or group of commands. Functions are used to modularize your
program and make it more efficient. You may even store functions in another file and
load them into your script when you are ready to use them.
Here is a review of some of the important rules about using functions.

1. The Bourne shell determines whether you are using a built-in command, a
function, or an executable program found on the disk. It looks for built-in
commands first, then functions, and last, executables.
2. A function must be defined before it is used.
3. The function runs in the current environment; it shares variables with the script
that invoked it, and lets you pass arguments by assigning them as positional
parameters. If you use the exit command in a function, you exit the entire
script. If, however, either the input or output of the function is redirected or the
function is enclosed within backquotes (command substitution), a subshell is
created and the function and its variables and present working directory are
known only within the subshell. When the function exits, any variables set
there will be lost, and if you have changed directories, you will revert to the
directory you were in before invoking the function. If you exit the function, you
return to where the script left off when the function was invoked.
4. The return statement returns the exit status of the last command executed
within the function or the value of the argument given, and cannot exceed a
value of 255.
5. Functions exist only in the shell where they are defined; they cannot be
exported to subshells. The dot command can be used to execute functions
stored in files.
6. To list functions and definitions, use the set command.
7. Traps, like variables, are global within functions. They are shared by both the
script and the functions invoked in the script. If a trap is defined in a function,
it is also shared by the script. This could have unwanted side effects.
8. If functions are stored in another file, they can be loaded into the current script
with the dot command.

FORMAT

function.name () { commands ; commands; }

EXAMPLE 8.47

dir () { echo "Directories: " ; Is -1 | nawk '/W {print SNF}' ; }

8.7 Functions 373

EXPLANATION

The name of the function is di r. The empty parentheses are necessary syntax for nam-
ing the function but have no other purpose. The commands within the curly braces
will be executed when di r is typed. The purpose of the function is to list only the sub-
directories below the present working directory. The spaces surrounding the curly braces
are required.

8.7.1 Unsetting Functions

To remove a function from memory, the unset command is used.

FORMAT

unset functionjiame

8.7.2 Function Arguments and the Return Value

Because the function is executed within the current shell, the variables will be known to
both the function and the shell. Any changes made to your environment in the function
will also be made to the shell. Arguments can be passed to functions by using positional
parameters. The positional parameters are private to the function; that is, arguments to
the function will not affect any positional parameters used outside the function.
The return command can be used to exit the function and return control to the pro-
gram at the place where the function was invoked. (Remember, if you use exit anywhere
in your script, including within a function, the script terminates.) The return value of a
function is really just the value of the exit status of the last command in the script, unless
you give a specific argument to the return command. If a value is assigned to the return
command, that value is stored in the ? variable and can hold an integer value between 0
and 255. Because the return command is limited to returning only an integer between 0
and 255, you can use command substitution to capture the output of a function. Place
the entire function in backquotes and assign the output to a variable just as you would
if getting the output of a UNIX command.

EXAMPLE 8.48

(Using the return command)

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
# Scriptname: do_increment
1 increment () {
,
2 sum= expr $1 + 1'
3 return $suiti # Return the value of sum to the script.
}
374 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

EXAMPLE 8.48 (continued)

4 echo -n "The sum is "

5 increment 5 # Call function increment; pass 5 as a parameter.
# 5 becomes $1 for the increment function.
6 echo S? # The return value is stored in $?
7 echo $sum # The variable "sum" is known to the function,
# and is also known to the main script.

(The Output)
4,6 The sum is 6
7 6

EXPLANATION

1 The function called increment is defined.

2 When the function is called, the value of the first argument, $1, will be increment-
ed by 1 and the result assigned to sum.

3 The built-in return command, when given an argument, returns to the main script
after the line where the function was invoked. It stores its argument in the ? variable.

4 The string is echoed to the screen.

5 The increment function is called with an argument of 5.

6 When the function returns, its exit status is stored in the ? variable. The exit status
is the exit value of the last command executed in the function unless an explicit
argument is used in the return statement. The argument for return must be an in-
teger between 0 and 255.

7 Although sum was defined in the function i ncrement, it is global in scope, and there-
fore also known within the script that invoked the function. Its value is printed.

EXAMPLE 8.49

(Using command substitution)

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
# Scriptname: do_square
1 function square {
sq=>expr SI \* $r
echo "Number to be squared is $1."
2 echo "The result is Ssq "
1
3 echo "Give me a number to square. "
read number
8.7 Functions 375

EXAMPLE 8.49 (continued)

4 value_^etu^ned=,square Snumber' # Command substitution

5 echo Svalue_returned

(The Output)
3 Give me a number to square.
10
5 Number to be squared is 10. The result is 100

EXPLANATION

1 The function called square is defined. Its function, when called, is to multiply its
argument, SI, by itself.

2 The result of squaring the number is printed.

3 The user is asked for input. This is the line where the program starts executing.

4 The function square is called with a number (input from the user) as its argument.
Command substitution is performed because the function is enclosed in back-
quotes. The output of the function, both of its echo statements, is assigned to the
variable value_returned.

5 The command substitution removes the newline between the strings Number to be
squared is 10. and The result is 100.

8.7.3 Functions and the dot Command

Storing Functions. Functions are often defined in the .profile file, so that when you
log in, they will be defined. Functions cannot be exported, but they can be stored in a
file. Then, when you need the function, the dot command is used with the name of the
file to activate the definitions of the functions within it.

EXAMPLE 8.50

1 $ cat myfunctions
2 go() { # This file contains two functions
cd $HOME/bin/prog
PS1=''pwd1 > '
Is
}
3 greetings!) { echo "Hi $1! Welcome to my world." ; }

4 $ . myfunctions
5 $ greetings george
Hi george! Welcome to my world.
376 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

EXPLANATION

l The file myfunctions is displayed. It contains two function definitions.

2 The first function defined is called go. It sets the primary prompt to the present
working directory.

3 The second function defined is called greetings. It will greet the name of the user
passed in as an argument.

4 The dot command loads the contents of the file myfunctions into the shell's memory.
Now both functions are defined for this shell.

5 The greetings function is invoked and executed.

EXAMPLE 8.51

(The .dbfunctions file shown below contains functions to be used by the main program.)
1 $ cat .dbfunctions
2 addon () { # Function is named and defined in file .dbfunctions
3 while true
do
echo "Adding information "
echo "Type the full name of employee "
read name
echo "Type address for employee "
read address
echo "Type start date for employee (4/10/88 )
read startdate
echo $name:$address:$startdate
echo -n "Is this correct? "
read ans
case "Sans" in
[Yy]*)
echo "Adding info..."
echo Sname: Saddress:$startdate»datafi 1 e
sort -u datafile -o datafile
echo -n "Do you want to go back to the main menu? "
read ans
if [ Sans = Y -o Sans = y ]
then
4 return # Return to calling program
else
5 continue # Co to the top of the loop
fi
JJ
*)
echo "Do you want to try again? "
read answer
8.7 Functions

EXAMPLE 8.51 (continued)

case "Sanswer" in
[Yy]*) continue;;
*) exit;;
esac
JJ
esac
done
6 } # End of function definition

(The Script)
7 #!/bin/sh
# Scriptname: mainprog
# This is the main script that will call the function, addon

dataf i 1 e4H0ME/bou rne/dataf i 1 e

8 . .dbfunctions # The dot command reads the dbfunctions file into
if [ ! -f Sdatafile ]
then
echo "'basename Sdatafile1 does not exist" 1>&2
exit 1
fi
9 echo "Select one: "
cat «E0F
[1] Add info
[2] Delete info
[3] Exit
EOF
read choice
case "Schoice" in
10 1) addon # Calling the addon function
JJ
2) delete # Calling the delete function
JJ
3) update
JJ
4)
echo Bye
exit 0
1J
*) echo Bad choice
exit 2
>J
esac
echo Returned from function call
echo The name is Sname
# Variables set in the function are known in this shell.
378 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

EXPLANATION

1 The .dbfunctions file is displayed. It is not a script. It contains only functions.

2 The addon function is defined. Its function is to add new information to the file
datafile.

3 A while loop is entered. It will loop forever unless a loop control statement such
as break or continue is included in the body of the loop.

4 The return command sends control back to the calling program where the func-
tion was called.

5 Control is returned to the top of the while loop.

6 The closing curly brace ends the function definition.

7 This is the main script. The function addon will be used in this script.

8 The dot command loads the file .dbfunctions into the program's memory. Now the
function addon is defined for this script and available for use. It is as though you
had just defined the function right here in the script.

9 A menu is displayed with the here document. The user is asked to select a menu
item.

10 The addon function is invoked.

8.8 Trapping Signals

While your program is running, if you press Ctrl-C or Ctrl A, your program terminates
as soon as the signal arrives. There are times when you would rather not have the pro-
gram terminate immediately after the signal arrives. You could arrange to ignore the sig-
nal and keep running or perform some sort of cleanup operation before actually exiting
the script. The trap command allows you to control the way a program behaves when it
receives a signal.
A signal is defined as an asynchronous message that consists of a number that can be
sent from one process to another, or by the operating system to a process if certain keys
are pressed or if something exceptional happens.4 The trap command tells the shell to
terminate the command currently in execution upon the receipt of a signal. If the trap
command is followed by commands within quotes, the command string will be executed
upon receipt of a specified signal. The shell reads the command string twice, once when
the trap is set, and again when the signal arrives. If the command string is surrounded
by double quotes, all variable and command substitution will be performed when the
trap is set the first time. If single quotes enclose the command string, variable and com-
mand substitution do not take place until the signal is detected and the trap is executed.
Use the command kill -1 to get a list of all signals. Table 8.5 provides a list of signal
numbers and their corresponding names.

4. Morris I. Bolsky and David G. Korn, The New KomShell Command and Programming Language (Engle-
wood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall PIR, 1995), p. 327.
8.8 Trapping Signals 379

Table 8.5 Signal Numbers and Signals0, b

1) HUP 12) SYS 23) POLL

2) INT 13) PIPE 24) XCPU

3) QUIT 14) ALRM 25) XFSZ

4) ILL 15) TERM 26) VTALRM

5) TRAP 16) URG 27) PROF

6) I0T 17) STOP 28) WINCH

7) EMT 18) TSTP 29) LOST

8) FPE 19) CONT 30) USR1

9) KILL 20) CHLD 31) USR2

10) BUS 21) TTIN

11) SEGV 22) TTOU

a. The output of the kill command may differ depending on the OS and/or the shell.
b. For a complete list of UNIX signals and their meanings, go to www.cyberinagician.co.uk/
technet/unixsignals.htm. For Linux signals, go towww.coniptechdoc.org/os/linux/prograniniing/
linux.pgsignals.html.

FORMAT

trap 'command; command' signal-number

EXAMPLE 8.52

trap 'rm tmp^; exit 1' 1 2 15

EXPLANATION

When any of the signals 1 (hangup), 2 (interrupt), or 15 (software termination) arrive,

remove all the tmp files and exit.

If an interrupt signal comes in while the script is running, the trap command lets you
handle the signal in several ways. You can let the signal behave normally (default),
ignore the signal, or create a handler function to be called when the signal arrives.

8.8.1 Resetting Signals

To reset a signal to its default behavior, the trap command is followed by the signal name
or number.
380 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

EXAMPLE 8.53

trap 2

EXPLANATION

Resets the default action for signal 2, SIGINT, which is used to kill a process (i.e., Ctrl-C).

EXAMPLE 8.54

trap 'trap 2' 2

EXPLANATION

Sets the default action for signal 2 (SIGINT) to execute the command string within
quotes when the signal arrives. The user must press Ctrl-C twice to terminate the pro-
gram. The first trap catches the signal, the second trap resets the trap back to its default
action, which is to kill the process.

8.8.2 Ignoring Signals

If the trap command is followed by a pair of empty quotes, the signals listed will be
ignored by the process.

EXAMPLE 8.55

trap ""12

EXPLANATION

Signals 1 and 2 will be ignored by the shell.

8.8.3 Listing Traps

To list all traps and the commands assigned to them, type trap.

EXAMPLE 8.56

(The Script)
#/bin/sh
# Scriptname: trapping
# Script to illustrate the trap command and signals
1 trap 'echo "Ctrl-C will not terminate $0.'" 2
2 trap 'echo "Ctrl-\ will not terminate $0.'" 3
8.8 Trapping Signals 381

EXAMPLE 8.56 (continued)

3 echo "Enter any string after the prompt."

echo "When you are ready to exit, type \"stop\"."
4 while true
do
echo -n "Co ahead...> "
read reply
5 if [ "Sreply" = stop ]
then
6 break
fi
7 done

(The Output)
Enter any string after the prompt.
In/hen you are ready to exit, type "stop".
Go ahead...> this is itK
Ctrl-C will not terminate trapping.
Co ahead...> this is never it
Ctrl-\ will not terminate trapping.
Co ahead. ..> stop
$

EXPLANATION

1 The first trap catches the INT signal, Ctrl-C. If Ctrl-C is pressed while the program
is running, the command enclosed in quotes will be executed. Instead of aborting,
the program will print Ctrl-C will not terminate trapping., and continue to prompt
the user for input.

2 The second trap command will be executed when the user presses CtrlA, the QUIT
signal. The string Ctrl-\ will not terminate trapping, will be displayed, and the pro-
gram will continue to run. This signal, by default, kills the process and produces
a core file.

3 The user is prompted for input.

4 The while loop is entered and a prompt, Go ahead.. .>, is displayed.

5 The user input is assigned to the reply variable and, if its value matches stop, the
loop exits and the program terminates. This is the way we will get out of this pro-
gram unless it is killed with the kill command.

6 The break command causes the body of the loop to be exited with control starting
after line 7. In this case, the program is at its end.

7 This is the end of the while loop.

382 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

8.8.4 Traps in Functions

If you use a trap to handle a signal in a function, it will affect the entire script, once the
function is called. The trap is global to the script. In the following example, the trap is
set to ignore the interrupt key, Ctrl-C. This script had to be killed with the kill command
to stop the looping. It demonstrates potential undesirable side effects when using traps
in functions.

EXAMPLE 8.57

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
1 trapper () {
echo "In trapper"
2 trap 'echo "Caught in a trap!'" 2
# Once set, this trap affects the entire script. Anytime
# is entered, the script will ignore it.
}
3 while :
do
echo "In the main script"
4 trapper
5 echo "Still in main"
sleep 5
done

(The Output)
In the main script
In trapper
Still in main
ACCaught in a trap!
In the main script
In trapper
Still in main
ACCaught in a trap!
In the main script

EXPLANATION

1 The trapper function is defined. All variables and traps set in the function are glo-
bal to the script.

2 The trap command will ignore signal 2, the interrupt key (AC). If A
C is pressed,
the message Caught in a trap! is printed, and the script continues forever.

3 The main script starts a forever loop.

4 The function trapper is called.

5 When the function returns, execution starts here.

8.8 Trapping Signals 383

8.8.5 Debugging

By using the -n option to the sh command, you can check the sytnax of your scripts with-
out really executing any of the commands. If there is a syntax error in the script, the shell
will report the error. If there are no errors, nothing is displayed.
The most commonly used method for debugging scripts is to use the set command
with the -x option, or to use the -x option as an argument to the sh command, followed
by the script name. See Table 8.6 for a list of debugging options. These options allow an
execution trace of your script. Each command from your script is displayed after substi-
tution has been performed, and then the command is executed. When a line from your
script is displayed, it is preceded with a plus (+) sign.
With the verbose option turned on, or by invoking the Bourne shell with the -v
option (sh -v scriptname), each line of the script will be displayed just as it was typed in
the script, and then executed.

Table 8.6 Debugging Options

Command Option What It Does

sh -x scriptname Echo option Displays each line of script after variable

substitutions and before execution

sh -v scriptname Verbose option Displays each line of script before execution, just
as you typed it

sh -n scriptname Noexec option Interprets but does not execute commands

set -x Turns on echo Traces execution in a script

set +x Turns off echo Turns off tracing

EXAMPLE 8.58

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
1 # Scriptname: todebug
naine="]oe Blow"
if [ "Sname" = "Joe Blow" ]
then
echo "Hi Sname"
fi
num=l
while [ $num -It 5 ]
do
nuin=,expr Snum + T
done
echo The grand total is $num
384 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

EXAMPLE 8.58 (continued)

(The Command Line and Output)

2 $ sh -x todebug
+ name=Joe Blow
+ [ Joe Blow = Joe Blow ]
+ echo Hi Joe Blow

Hi Joe Blow
num=l
+ [ 1-lt 5 ]
+ expr 1 + 1
num=2
+ [ 2 -It 5 ]
+ expr 2 + 1
num=3
+ [3 -lt5]
+ expr 3 + 1
num=4
+ [ 4 -It 5 ]
+ expr 4 + 1
num=5
+ [ 5 -It 5 ]
+ echo The grand total is 5
The grand total is 5

EXPLANATION

1 The script is called todebug. You can watch the script run with the -x switch turned
on. Each iteration of the loop is displayed and the values of variables are printed
as they are set and when they change.

2 The sh command starts the Bourne shell with the -x option. Echoing is turned on.
Each line of the script will be displayed to the screen prepended with a plus sign
(+). Variable substitution is performed before the line is displayed. The result of
the execution of the command appears after the line has been displayed.

8.9 The Command Line

8.9.1 Processing Command-Line Options with getopts

If you are writing scripts that require a number of command-line options, positional
parameters are not always the most efficient. For example, the UNIX Is command takes
a number of command-line options and arguments. (An option requires a leading dash;
an argument does not.) Options can be passed to the program in several ways: Is -laFi,
Is -i -a -1 -h Is -ia -F; and so forth. If you have a script that requires arguments, positional
parameters might be used to process the arguments individually, such as Is -1 -i -F. Each
8.9 The Command Line 385

dash option would be stored in $1, $2, and $3, respectively. But what if the user listed all
of the options as one dash option, as in Is -liF? Now the -liF would all be assigned to $1
in the script. The getopts function makes it possible to process command-line options and
arguments in the same way they are processed by the Is program.5 The getopts function
will allow the runit program to process its arguments using any variety of combinations.

EXAMPLE 8.59

(The Command Line )

1 $ runit -x -n 200 filex

2 $ runit -xn200 filex

3 $ runit -xy

4 $ runit -yx -n 30

5 $ runit -n250 -xy filey

( any other combination of these arguments )

EXPLANATION

l The program runit takes four arguments; x is an option, n is an option requiring a

number argument after it, and filex is an argument that stands alone.

2 The program runit combines the options x and n and the number argument 200;
filex is also an argument.

3 The program runit is invoked with the x and y options combined.

4 The program runit is invoked with the y and x options combined; the n option is
passed separately, as is the number argument, 30.

5 The program runit is invoked with the n option combined with the number argu-
ment, the x and y options are combined, and the filey is separate.

Before getting into all the details of the runit program, we examine the line from the
program where getopts is used to see how it processes the arguments.

EXAMPLE 8.60

(A line from the script called "runit")

while getopts :xyn: name

5. See the UNIX manual pages (Section 3) for the C library function getopt.
386 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

EXPLANATION

• x, y, and n are the options. Options are the allowable arguments that can be passed
to this script from the command line; for example, runit -x -y -n.

• Options typed at the command line begin with a leading dash: -x -y -z, -xyz, -x
-yz, and so forth. If there is a colon after option, it means that the option requires
a named argument, such as -x filename, where -x is the option and filename is the
named argument.

• Any options that do not contain a dash tell getopts that the option list is at an end.

• Each time getopts is called, it places the next option it finds in the variable name.
(You can use any variable name here.) If an illegal argument is given, name is as-
signed a question mark.

• OPTIND is a special variable that is initialized to 1, and is incremented each time get-
opts completes processing a command-line argument to the number of the next ar-
gument getopts will process.

• If an option requires an argument, getopts puts it in the OPTARG variable. If the first
character in the option list is a colon, the shell variable, name, will be set to the colon
character, and the OPTARG variable will be set to the to the value of the illegal option.

QBtoptS Scripts. The following examples illustrate how getopts processes arguments.

EXAMPLE 8.61

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
# Program optsi
# Using getopts — First try —
1 while getopts xy options
do
2 case Soptions in
3 x) echo "you entered -x as an option";;
y) echo "you entered -y as an option";;
esac
done

(The Command Line)

4 $ optsl -x
you entered -x as an option
5 $ optsl -xy
you entered -x as an option
you entered -y as an option
6 $ optsl -y
you entered -y as an option
7 $ optsl -b
optsl: illegal option — b
8 $ optsl b
8.9 The Command Line 387

EXPLANATION

l The getopts command is used as a condition for the while command. The valid op-
tions for this program are listed after the getopts command; they are x and y. Each
option is tested in the body of the loop, one after the other. Each option will be
assigned to the variable options, without the leading dash. When there are no long-
er any arguments to process, getopts will exit with a nonzero status, causing the
while loop to terminate.

2 The case command is used to test each of the possible options found in the options
variable, either x or y.

3 If x was an option, the string You entered -x as an option is displayed.

4 At the command line, the optsl script is given an x option, a legal option to be pro-
cessed by getopts.

5 At the command line, the optsl script is given an xy option; x and y are legal op-
tions to be processed by getopts.

6 At the command line, the optsl script is given a y option, a legal option to be pro-
cessed by getopts.

7 The optsl script is given a b option, an illegal option. Getopts sends an error mes-
sage to stderr.

8 An option without a dash prepended to it is not an option and causes getopts to

stop processing arguments.

EXAMPLE 8.62

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
# Program opts?
# Using getopts — Second try —
1 while getopts xy options 2> /dev/null
do
2 case Soptions in
x) echo "you entered -x as an option";;
y) echo "you entered -y as an option";;
3 \?) echo "Only -x and -y are valid options" 1>&2;;
esac
done

(The Command Line)

$ opts2 -x
you entered -x as an option

$ opts2 -y
you entered -y as an option
388 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

EXAMPLE 8.62 (continued)

$ opts2 xy

$ opts2 -xy
you entered -x as an option
you entered -y as an option

4 $ opts2 -g
Only -x and -y are valid options

5 $ opts2 -c
Only -x and -y are valid options

EXPLANATION

1 If there is an error message from getopts, it is redirected to /dev/null.

2 If the option is a bad option, a question mark will be assigned to the options vari-
able. The case command can be used to test for the question mark, allowing you
to print your own error message to standard error.

3 If the options variable is assigned the question mark, the case statement is execut-
ed. The question mark is protected with the backslash so that the shell does not
see it as a wildcard and try to perform filename substitution.

4 g is not a legal option. A question mark is assigned to the variable options, and the
error message is displayed.

5 c is not a legal option. A question mark is assigned to the variable options, and the
error message is displayed.

EXAMPLE 8.63

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
# Program opts3
# Using getopts — Third try —
1 while getopts dq: options
do
case Soptions in
2 d) echo "-d is a valid switch
3 q) echo "The argument for -q is SOPTARC";;
\?) echo "Usage:opts3 -dq filename ..." 1>&2;;
esac
done
8.9 The Command Line 389

EXAMPLE 8.63 (continued)

(The Command Line)

4 $ optsB -d
-d is a valid switch

5 $ optsB -q foo
The argument for -q is foo

6 $ optsB -q
Usage:opts3 -dq filename ...

7 $ optsB -e
Usage:opts3 -dq filename ...

8 $ optsB e

EXPLANATION

1 The while command tests the exit status of getopts. If getopts can successfully pro-
cess an argument, it returns 0 exit status, and the body of the whi 1 e loop is entered.
The colon appended to the argument list means that the q option requires an ar-
gument. The argument will be stored in the special variable, OPTARG.

2 One of the legal options is d. If d is entered as an option, the d (without the dash)
is stored in the options variable.

3 One of the legal options is q. The q option requires an argument. There must be a
space between the q option and its argument. If q is entered as an option followed
by an argument, the q, without the dash, is stored in the options variable and the
argument is stored in the OPTARG variable. If an argument does not follow the q op-
tion, the question mark is stored in the variable options.

4 The d option is a legal option to optsB.

5 The q option with an argument is also a legal option to optsB.

6 The q option without an argument is an error.

7 The e option is invalid. A question mark is stored in the options variable if the op-
tion is illegal.

8 The option is prepended with neither a dash nor a plus sign. The getopts com-
mand will not process it as an option and returns a nonzero exit status. The while
loop is terminated.
390 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

EXAMPLE 8.64

(The Script)
#!/bin/sh
# Program opts4
# Using getopts — Fourth try —
1 while getopts xyz: arguments 2>/dev/null
do
case Sarguments in
2 x) echo "you entered -x as an option.";;
y) echo "you entered -y as an option.";;
3 z) echo "you entered -z as an option."
echo "\$OPTARG is SOPTARG.";;
4 \?) echo "Usage opts4 [-xy] [-z argument]"
exit 1;;
esac
done
5 echo "The initial value of \$OPTIND is 1.
The final value of \$OPTIND is SOPTIND.
Since this reflects the number of the next command-line argument,
the number of arguments passed was ^expr SOPTIND - 1\ "

(The Command Line)

$ opts4 -xyz foo
you entered -x as an option,
you entered -y as an option,
you entered -z as an option.
SOPTARG is foo.
The initial value of SOPTIND is 1.
The final value of SOPTIND is 3.
Since this reflects the number of the next command-line argument, the number of
arguments passed was 2.

$ opts4 -x -y -z boo
you entered -x as an option,
you entered -y as an option,
you entered -z as an option.
SOPTARC is boo.
The initial value of SOPTIND is 1.
The final value of SOPTIND is 5.
Since this reflects the number of the next command-line argument, the number of
arguments passed was 4.

$ opts4 -d
Usage: opts4 [-xy] [-z argument]
8.9 The Command Line 391

EXPLANATION

1 The while command tests the exit status of getopts. If getopts can successfully pro-
cess an argument, it returns 0 exit status, and the body of the whi 1 e loop is entered.
The colon appended to the z option tells getopts that an argument must follow the
-z option. If the option takes an argument, the argument is stored in the getopts
built-in variable OPTARG.

2 If x is given as an option, it is stored in the variable arguments.

3 If z is given as an option with an argument, the argument is stored in the built-in

variable OPTARG.

4 If an invalid option is entered, the question mark is stored in the variable argu-
ments, and an error message is displayed.

5 The special getopts variable, OPTIND, holds the number of the next option to be
processed. Its value is always one more than the actual number of command-line
arguments.

8.9.2 The eval Command and Parsing the Command Line

The eval command evaluates a command line, performs all shell substitutions, and then
executes the command line. Essentially, it parses the command line twice. It is used
when normal parsing of the command line is not enough.

EXAMPLE 8.65

l $ set a b c d
2 $ echo The last argument is \SS#
3 The last argument is $4
4 $ eval echo The last argument is \$$#
The last argument is d
5 $ set -x
$ eval echo The last argument is \$$#
+ eval echo the last argument is $4
+ echo the last argument is d
The last argument is d

EXPLANATION

l Four positional parameters are set.

2 The desired result is to print the value of the last positional parameter. The \$ will
print a literal dollar sign. The $# evaluates to 4, the number of positional parameters.
After the shell evaluates the $#, it does not parse the line again to get the value of $4.

3 $4 is printed instead of the last argument.

4 After the shell performs variable substitution, the eval command performs the
variable substitution and then executes the echo command.

5 Turn on the echoing to watch the order of parsing.

392 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

EXAMPLE 8.66

(From SVR4 Shutdown Program)

1 eval Vusr/bin/id | /usr/bin/sed 's/[Aa-z0-9=].*//'"
2 if [ "${uid:=0}" -ne 0 ]
then
3 echo $0: Only root can run $0
exit 2
fi

EXPLANATION

1 This is a tricky one. The id program's output is sent to sed to extract the uid part
of the string. The output for id is

uid=9496(ellie) gid=40 groups=40

uid=0(root) gid=l(daemon) groups=l(daemon)

The sed regular expression reads: Find any character that is not a letter, number,
or an equal sign and remove that character and all characters following it. The re-
sult is to substitute everything from the first opening parenthesis to the end of the
line with nothing. What is left is either uid=9496 or uid=0.
After eval evaluates the command line, it then executes the resulting command:

uid=9496
or
uid=0

For example, if the user's ID is root, the command executed would be ui d=0. This
creates a local variable in the shell called uid and assigns 0 to it.

2 The value of the uid variable is tested for 0, using command modifiers.

3 If the ui d is not 0, the echo command displays the script name (S0) and the message.

8.10 Shell Invocation Options

When the shell is started using the sh command, it can take options to modify its behav-
ior. See Table 8.7.

Table 8.7 Shell Invocation Options

Option Meaning

-i Shell is in the interactive mode. QUIT and INTERRUPT are ignored,

-s Commands are read from standard input and output is sent to standard error,

-c string Commands are read from string.

8.10 Shell Invocation Options 393

8.10.1 The set Command and Options

The set command can be used to turn shell options on and off, as well as for handling
command-line arguments. To turn an option on, the dash (-) is prepended to the option;
to turn an option off, the plus sign (+) is prepended to the option. See Table 8.8 for a list
of set options.

EXAMPLE 8.67

1 $ set -f
2 $ echo *
A
3 $ echo ??
??
4 $ set +f

EXPLANATION

1 The f option is turned on; filename expansion is disabled.

2 The asterisk is not expanded.

3 The question marks are not expanded.

4 The f is turned off; filename expansion is enabled.

Table 8.8 The set Command Options

Option Meaning

-a Marks variables that have been modified or exported

-e Exits the program if a command returns a nonzero status

-f Disables globbing (filename expansion)

-h Locates and remembers function commands as functions when they are defined,
not just when they are executed

-k Places all keyword arguments in the environment for a command, not just those
that precede the command name

-n Reads commands but does not execute them; used for debugging

-t Exits after reading and executing one command

-u Treats unset variables as an error when performing substitution

-v Prints shell input lines as they are read; used for debugging

-x Prints commands and their arguments as they are being executed; used for
debugging

Does not change any of the flags

394 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

8.10.2 Shell Built-in Commands

The shell has a number of commands that are built into its source code. Because the
commands are built-in, the shell doesn't have to locate them on disk, making execution
much faster. The built-in commands are listed in Table 8.9.

Table 8.9 Built-in Commands

Command What It Does

Do-nothing command; returns exit status 0

. file The dot command reads and executes command from file

break [n] See "The break Command" on page 361

cd Change directory

continue [n] See "The continue Command" on page 362

echo [ args ] Echo arguments

eval command Shell scans the command line twice before execution

exec command Runs command in place of this shell

exit [ n ] Exit the shell with status n

export [ var ] Make var known to subshells

hash Controls the internal hash table for quicker searches for commands

kill [ -signal process ] Sends the signal to the PID number or job number of the process; see
/usr/include/sys/signal .h for a list of signals

getopts Used in shell scripts to parse command line and check for legal
options

login [ username ] Sign onto the system

newgrp [ arg 1 Logs a user into a new group by changing the real group and effective
group ID

pwd Print present working directory

read [ var ] Read line from standard input into variable var

readonly [ var ] Make variable var read-only; cannot be reset

return [ n ] Return from a function where n is the exit value given to the return

set See Table 8.8

shift [ n ] Shift positional parameters to the left n times

8.10 Shell Invocation Options 395

Table 8.9 Built-in Commands (continued)

Command What It Does

stop pid Halt execution of the process number PID

suspend Stops execution of the current shell (but not if a login shell)

times Print accumulated user and system times for processes run from this
shell

trap 1 arg ] [ n ] When shell receives signal n ( 0, 1, 2, or 15 ), execute arg

type [ command ] Prints the type of command; for example, pwd has a built-in shell, in
ksh, an alias for the command whence -v

umask [ octal digits ] User file creation mode mask for owner, group, and others

unset [ name ] Unset value of variable or function

wait [ pid#n ] Wait for background process with PID number n and report
termination status

ulimit [ options size ] Set maximum limits on processes

umask [ mask ] Without argument, print out file creation mask for permissions

wait 1 pid#n 1 Wait for background process with PID number n and report
termination status

LAB 8: BOURNE SHELL—GETTING STARTED

1. What process puts the login prompt on your screen?

2. What process assigns values to HOME, LOGNAME, and PATH?

3. How do you know what shell you are using?

4. Where is your login shell assigned? (What file?)

5. Explain the difference between the /etc/profile and .profile file. Which one is executed first?

6. Edit your .profile file as follows:

a. Welcome the user.

b. Add your home directory to the path if it is not there.

c. Set the erase function to the Backspace key using stty.

d. Type: . .profile
What is the function of the dot command?
396 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

LAB 9: METACHARACTERS

1. Make a directory called wildcards, cd to that directory and type at the prompt;

touch ab abc al a2 a3 all al2 ba ba.l ba.2 filex filey AbC ABC ABc2 abc

2. Write and test the command that will do the following:

a. List all files starting with a.

b. List all files ending in at least one digit.

c. List all files starting with an a or A.

d. List all files ending in a period, followed by a digit.

e. List all files containing the letter a anywhere in the filename.

f. List three-character files where all letters are uppercase.

g. List files ending in 10,11, or 12.

h. List files ending in x or y.

i. List all files ending in a digit, an uppercase letter, or a lowercase letter,

j. List all files not starting with a letter b or B.

k. Remove two-character files starting with a or A.

LAB 10: REDIRECTION

1. What are the names of the three file streams associated with your terminal?

2. What is a file descriptor?

3. What command would you use to do the following:

a. Redirect the output of the Is command to a file called Isfile?

b. Redirect and append the output of the date command to Isfile?

c. Redirect the output of the who command to Isfile? What happened?

4. Perform the following:

a. Type cp all by itself. What happens?

b. Save the error message from the above example to a file.

c. Use the fi nd command to find all files, starting from the parent directory, of type
di rectory. Save the standard output in a file called found and any errors in a file called
found.errs.

d. Take the output of three commands and redirect the output to a file called gottem_all.

e. Use a pipe(s) with the ps and wc commands to find out how many processes you are
currently running.
8.10 Shell Invocation Options 397

LAB 11: FIRST SCRIPT

1. Write a script called greetme that will do the following:

a. Contain a comment section with your name, the name of this script, and the purpose of
this script.

b. Greet the user.

c. Print the date and the time.

d. Print a calendar for this month.

e. Print the name of your machine.

f. Print the name and release of this operating system, (cat /etc/motd).

g. Print a list of all files in your parent directory.

h. Print all the processes root is running.

i. Print the value of the TERM, PATH, and HOME variables,

j. Print your disk usage (du).

k. Use the id command to print your group ID.

1. Print Please, could you loan me $50.00?

m. Tell the user Good-bye and the current hour (see man pages for the date command).

2. Make sure your script is executable.

chmod +x greetme

3. What was the first line of your script? Why do you need this line?

LAB 12: COMMAND-LINE ARGUMENTS

1. Write a script called rename that will lake two arguments: the first argument is the name of
the original file and the second argument is the new name for the file. If the user does not
provide two arguments, a usage message will appear on the screen and the script will exit.
Here is an example of how the script works:

$ rename
Usage: rename oldfilename newfilename
$

$ rename filel file2

filel has been renamed file2
Here is a listing of the directory:
a file2
b file.bak
398 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

2. The following find command (SunOS) will list all files in the root partition that are larger
than 100K and that have been modified in the last week. (Check your man pages for the
correct find syntax on your system.)

find / -xdev -mtime -7 -size +200 -print

3. Write a script called bigfiles that will lake two arguments: One will be the mtime and one the
size value. An appropriate error message will be sent to stderr if the user does not provide
two arguments.

4. If you have time, write a script called vib that creates backup files for vi. The backup files
will have the extension .bak appended to the original name.

LAB 13: GETTING USER INPUT

1. Write a script called nosy that will do the following:

a. Ask the user's full name—first, last, and middle name.

b. Greet the user by his or her first name.

c. Ask the user's year of birth and calculate his or her age (use expr).

d. Ask the user's login name and print his or her user ID (from /etc/passwd).

e. Tell the user his or her home directory.

f. Show the user the processes he or she is running.

g. Tell the user the day of the week, and the current time in nonmilitary time. The output
should resemble

The day of the week is Tuesday and the current time is 04:07:38 PM.

2. Create a text file called datafile (unless this file has already been provided for you). Each
entry consists of fields separated by colons. The fields are as follows:

a. First and last name

b. Phone number

c. Address

d. Birth date

e. Salary

3. Create a script called lookup that will do the following:

a. Contain a comment section with the script name, your name, the date, and the reason
for writing this script. The reason for writing this script is to display the datafile in
sorted order.

b. Sort datafile by last names.

c. Show the user the contents of datafile.

d. Tell the user the number of entries in the file.

4. Try the -x and -v options for debugging your script. How did you use these commands? How
do they differ?
8.10 Shell Invocation Options 399

LAB 14: CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS

1. Write a script called checking that will do the following:

a. Take a command-line argument: a user's login name.

b. Test to see if a command-line argument was provided.

c. Check to see if the user is in the /etc/passwd file. If so, it will print

Found <user> in the /etc/passwd file.

d. Otherwise, it will print

No such user on our system.

2. In the lookup script, ask the user if he or she would like to add an entry to datafile. If the
answer is yes or y:

a. Prompt the user for a new name, phone, address, birth date, and salary. Each item will
be stored in a separate variable. You will provide the colons between the fields and
append the information to datafile.

b. Sort the file by last names. Tell the user you added the entry, and show him or her the
line preceded by the line number.

LAB 15: CONDITIONALS AND FILE TESTING

1. Rewrite checking. After checking whether the named user is in the /etc/passwd file, the
program will check to see if the user is logged on. If so, the program will print all the
processes that are running; otherwise, it will tell the user

<user> is not logged on.

2. The lookup script depends on datafile to run. In the lookup script, check to see if the datafile
exists and if it is readable and writable. Add a menu to the lookup script to resemble the
following:

[1] Add entry.

[2] Delete entry.
[3] View entry.
[4] Exit.

a. You already have the Add entry part of the script written. The Add entry routine should
now include code that will check to see if the name is already in datafile and if it is, tell
the user so. If the name is not there, add the new entry.

b. Now write the code for the Delete entry, View entry, and Exit functions.

c. The Delete part of the script should first check to see if the entry exists before trying to
remove it. If it does not exist, notify the user; otherwise, remove the entry and tell the
user you removed it. On exit, make sure that you use a digit to represent the
appropriate exit status.

d. How do you check the exit status from the command line?
400 Chapter 8 • Programming the Bourne Shell

LAB 16: THE case STATEMENT

1. The ps command is different on BSD and AT&T UNIX. On AT&T UNIX, the command to
list all processes is:

ps -ef

On BSD UNIX and Linux, the command is

ps -aux

Write a program called systype that will check for a number of different system types. The
cases to test for will be

AIX
Darwin (Mac OS X)
Free BSD
HP-UX
IRIX
Linux
OS
OSF1
SCO
SunOS (Solaris / SunOS)
ULTRIX

Solaris, HP-UX (10.x+) , SCO, and IRIX are AT&T-type systems. The rest are BSD-ish.

The version of UNIX/Linux you are using will be printed to stdout. The system name can be
found with the uname -s command or from the /etc/motd file.

LAB 17: LOOPS

Select one of the following:

1. Write a program called mchecker to check for new mail and write a message to the screen if
new mail has arrived.
The program will get the size of the mail spool file for the user. (The spool files are found
in /usr/mail/SLOGNAME on AT&T systems and /usr/spool/niail/$USER on UCB systems. Use the
find command if you cannot locate the file.) The script will execute in a continuous loop,
once every 30 seconds. Each time the loop executes, it will compare the size of the mail
spool file with its size from the previous loop. If the new size is greater than the old size, a
message will be printed on your screen, saying Username, You have new mail.
The size of a file can be found by looking at the output from Is -1, wc -c, or from the find
command.

2. Write a program called dusage that will mail a list of users, one at a time, a listing of the
number of blocks they are currently using. The list of users will be in a file called
potential _hogs. One of the users listed in the potential Jogs file will be admin.

a. Use file testing to check that potential_hogs file exists and is readable.
8.10 Shell Invocation Options 401

b. A loop will be used to iterate through the list of users. Only those users who are using
over 500 blocks will be sent mail. The user admin will be skipped over (i.e., he or she
does not get a mail message). The mail message will be stored in a here document in your
dusage script.

c. Keep a list of the names of each person who received mail. Do this by creating a log file.
After everyone on the list has been sent mail, print the number of people who received
mail and a list of their names.

LAB 18: FUNCTIONS

1. Rewrite the systype program from Lab 16 as a function that returns the name of the system.
Use this function to determine what options you will use with the ps command in the
checking program.

The ps command to list all processes on AT&T UNIX is

ps -ef

On BSD UNIX, the command is

ps -aux

2. Write a function called cleanup that will remove all temporary files and exit the script. If the
interrupt or hangup signal is sent while the program is running, the trap command will call
the cleanup function.

3. Use a here document to add a new menu item to the lookup script to resemble the following:

[11 Add entry

[21 Delete entry
[3] Change entry
[4] View entry
[5] Exit

Write a function to handle each of the items in the menu. After the user has selected a valid
entry and the function has completed, ask if the user would like to see the menu again. If an
invalid entry is entered, the program should print

Invalid entry, try again.

and the menu will be redisplayed.

4. Create a submenu under View entry in the lookup script. The user will be asked if he or she
would like to view specific information for a selected individual:

a) Phone
b) Address
c) Birthday
d) Salary

5. Use the trap command in a script to perform a cleanup operation if the interrupt signal is
sent while the program is running.
This page intentionally left blank
chapter

The Interactive

C and TC Shells

9.1 Introduction

An interactive shell is one in which the standard input, output, and errors are connected
to a terminal. The C shell (csh) and TC shell (tcsh) provide a number of convenient fea-
tures for interactive use that are not available with the Bourne shell, including filename
completion, command aliasing, history substitution, job control, and more. These shells
are almost identical when used as a programming language, but the TC shell has many
more interactive features than its predecessor, the C shell. This section covers the com-
mon features of the C shell and TC shell for interactive use. If you are looking for some
nice shortcuts at the command line, the new TC shell enhancements are covered in the
second half of this chapter, beginning with "New Features of the Interactive TC Shell"
on page 460.

9.1.1 C/TC Shell Startup

Before the shell displays a prompt, it is preceded by a number of processes. (See Figure
9.1.) After the system boots, the first process to run is called init; it is assigned process
identification number (PID) 1. It gets instructions from a file called inittab (System V)
or spawns a getty process (BSD). These processes are responsible for opening up the ter-
minal ports, for providing a place where input comes from (stdin), where standard out-
put (stdout) and error (stderr) go, and for putting a login prompt on your screen. The
/bin/login program is then executed. The login program prompts for a password,
encrypts and verifies your password, sets up an initial working environment, and then
initiates the shell, /bin/csh or bin/tcsh for the C or TC shell, respectively.
When the shell is a login shell, this is the sequence of invocations: The C/TC shell
looks in the /etc directory for system startup files, which are executed if they exist. For
the C shell, for example, these files are /etc/csh.cshrc and /etc/csh.login. (See Chapter 16,
"The System Administrator and the Shell," on page 1023 for details.) Then the C/TC
shell looks in the user's home directory for a file called .cshrc or .tcshrc, respectively,

403
404 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

Starting Up

ni login;

L \
getty
login: joe
passwd:

logi

csh login: joe

passwd: Welcome!

Figure 9.1 Starting the C shell.

which is an initialization file that allows you to customize the C/TC shell environment
in which you will be working. After executing commands in the .cshrc or .tcshrc file,
commands in the .login file are executed. The .cshrc or .tcshrc file will be executed every
time a new C/TC shell is started. The .login file is executed only once when the user logs
on, and also contains commands and variables to initialize the user's environment. After
executing commands from those files, the prompt appears on your screen and the C/TC
shell awaits commands. Most systems today start up with a graphical user interface, add-
ing to the steps just mentioned. When you are in the desktop, such as CDE, you will see
icons and menus. Once you select a terminal from the menu, the shell prompt will
appear and you can start typing commands.

9.2 The Environment

9.2.1 Initialization Files

After the csh/tcsh program starts, it is programmed to execute two files in the user's home
directory; the .cshrc or .tcshrc file, respectively, and the .login file. These files allow users
to initialize their own environments.
9.2 The Environment 405

Th© .cshrc and .tcshrc Files. The .cshrc file contains C shell variable settings and
is executed when you log in and every time a csh subshell is started. Likewise, the .tcshrc
file contains TC shell variable settings and is executed when you log in and every time
a tcsh subshell is started. These files share similar settings. For example, aliases and his-
tory are normally set here.

EXAMPLE 9.1

(The! .cshrc File)

1 if ( $?proinpt ) then
2 set prompt = "\! Stardust > "
3 set history = 32
4 set savehist = 5
5 set noclobber
6 set filec fignore = ( .o )
7 set cdpath = ( /home/jody/ellie/bin /usr/local/bin /usr/bin )
8 set ignoreeof
9 alias m more
alias status 'datejdu -s'
alias cd 'cd \!*;set prompt = "\! <$cwd>
endif

EXPLANATION

l If the prompt has been set ($?prompt), the shell is running interactively; that is, it
is not running in a script.

2 The primary prompt is set to the number of the current history event, the name
Stardust, and a > character. This will change the % prompt, the default.

3 The history variable is set to 32. This controls the number of history events that
will appear on the screen. The last 32 commands you entered will be displayed
when you type history (see "Command-Line History" on page 413).

4 Normally, when you log out, the history list is cleared. The savehi st variable allows
you to save a specified number of commands from the end of the history list. In
this example, the last 5 commands will be saved in a file in your home directory,
the .history file, so that when you log in again, the shell can check to see if that
file exists and put the history lines saved at the top of the new history list.

5 The noclobber variable is set to protect the user from inadvertently removing files
when using redirection. For example, sort myfile > myfile will destroy myfile. With
noclobber set, the message file exists will appear on the screen.

6 The filec variable is used for filename completion so that you only need to type
the first number of significant characters in a filename, press the Esc key, and the
A
shell will complete the rest of the filename. By pressing D (Ctrl-D) when typing
in the filename, the C shell will display a list of files that match that string. The
fignore variable allows you to exclude files that you do not want affected by file-
name completion. In this case, all the .0 filenames (object files) will not be affect-
ed by filec, even though filec is set (see "Filename Completion: The filec Vari-
able" on page 431).
406 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

EXPLANATION (continued)

7 The cdpath variable is assigned a list of path elements. When changing directories,
if you specify just the directory name, and that directory is not a subdirectory di-
rectly below the current working directory, the shell will search the cdpath direc-
tory entries to see if it can find the directory in any of those locations and then
will change the directory
A
8 The ignoreeof variable prevents you from logging out with D. UNIX utilities that
accept input from the keyboard, such as the mail program, are terminated by
A A
pressing D. Often, on a slow system, the user will be tempted to press D more
than once. The first time, the mail program would be terminated, the second time,
the user is logged out. By setting ignoreeof, you are required to type logout to log
out.

9 The aliases are set to give a shorthand notation for a single command or group of
commands. Now when you type the alias, the command(s) assigned to it will be ex-
ecuted. The alias for the more command is m. Every time you type m, the more com-
mand is executed. The status alias prints the date and a summary of the user's disk
usage. The cd alias creates a new prompt every time the user changes directory. The
new prompt will contain the number of the current history event (\!*) and the cur-
rent working directory, $cwd surrounded by < > (see "Aliases" on page 418).

The . 1 ogin File. The . 1 ogi n file is executed one time when you first log in. It normally
contains environment variables and terminal settings. It is the file where window appli-
cations are usually started. Because environment variables are inherited by processes
spawned from this shell and only need to be set once, and terminal settings do not have
to be reset for every process, those settings belong in the .login file.

EXAMPLE 9.2

(The .login File)

1 stty -istrip
2 stty erase Ah
3 stty kill Au
#
# If possible start the windows system.
# Give a user a chance to bail out
#
4 if ( $TERM == "linux" ) then
5 echo "Starting X windows. Press Ctrl-C \
to exit within the next 5 seconds "
sleep 5
6 startx
7 endif
8 set autologout=60
9.2 The Environment 407

EXPLANATION

1 The stty command sets options for the terminal. Input characters will not be
stripped to seven bits if -istrip is used.

2 The stty command sets Ctrl-H, the Backspace key, to erase.

3 Any line beginning with # is a comment. It is not an executable statement.

4 If the current terminal window (tty) is the console (linux), the next line is execut-
ed; otherwise, program control goes to the last endif.

5 This line is echoed to the screen, and if the user does not press Ctrl-C to kill the
process, the program will sleep (pause) for five seconds, and then the X Windows
program will start.

6 The startx program launches X Windows if this system is Linux.

7 The endif marks the end of the innermost if construct.

8 The autologout variable is set to 60 so that after 60 minutes of inactivity, the user
will automatically be logged out (from the login shell).

9.2.2 The Search Path

The path variable is used by the shell to locate commands typed at the command line.
The search is from left to right. The dot represents the current working directory. If the
command is not found in any of the directories listed in the path, or in the present work-
ing directory, the shell sends the message Command not found to standard error. It is recom-
mended that the path be set in the .login file.1 The search path is set differently in the
C/TC shell than it is in the Bourne and Korn shells. Each of the elements is separated by
whitespace.

set path = (/usr/bin /usr/ucb /bin /usr .)

echo Spath
/usr/bin /usr/ucb /bin /usr .

The environment variable PATH will display as

echo SPATH
/usr/bin:/usr/ucb:/bin:.

The C/TC shell internally updates the environment variable for PATH to maintain com-
patibility with other programs (such as the Bourne or Korn shells) that may be started
from this shell and will need to use the path variable.

1. Do not confuse the search path variable with the cdpath variable set in the .cshrc file.
408 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

9.2.3 The rehash Command

The shell builds an internal hash table consisting of the contents of the directories listed
in the search path. (If the dot is in the search path, the files in the dot directory, the cur-
rent working directory, are not put in the hash table.) For efficiency, the shell uses the
hash table to find commands that are typed at the command line, rather than searching
the path each time. If a new command is added to one of the directories already listed in
the search path, the internal hash table must be recomputed. This is done by typing

% rehash

(The % is the C shell prompt.) The hash table is also automatically recomputed when you
change your path at the prompt or start another shell.

9.2.4 The hashstat Command

The hashstat command displays performance statistics to show the effectiveness of its
search for commands from the hash table. The statistics are in terms of "hits" and
"misses." If the shell finds most of its commands you use at the end of your path, it has
to work harder than if they were at the front of the path, resulting in a higher number
of misses than hits. In such cases, you can put the most heavily hit directory toward the
front of the path to improve performance.

% hashstat
2 hits, 13 misses, 13%2

9.2.5 The source Command

The source command is a shell built-in command, that is, part of the shell's internal code.
It is used to execute a command or set of commands from a file. Normally, when a com-
mand is executed, the shell forks a child process to execute the command, so that any
changes made will not affect the original shell, called the parent shell. The source com-
mand causes the program to be executed in the current shell, so that any variables set
within the file will become part of the environment of the current shell. The source com-
mand is normally used to re-execute the .cshrc or .login if either has been modified. For
example, if the path is changed after logging in, type

% source .login or .cshrc

2. On systems without vfork, prints the number and size of hash buckets; for example, 1024 hash buckets of 16
bits each.
9.2 The Environment 409

9.2.6 The Shell Prompts

The C shell has two prompts: the primary prompt, a percent sign (%), and the secondary
prompt, a question mark (?). The TC shell uses a > as its primary default prompt. (See
"The Shell Prompts" on page 461 for coverage of the tcsh enhanced prompt settings.)
The primary prompt is the one displayed on the terminal after you have logged in; it
waits for you to type commands. The primary prompt can be reset. If you are writing
scripts at the prompt that require C/TC shell programming constructs, for example,
decision making or looping, the secondary prompt will appear so that you can continue
onto the next line. It will continue to appear after each newline, until the construct has
been properly terminated. The secondary prompt cannot be reset.

The Primary Prompt. When running interactively, the prompt waits for you to type
a command and press the Enter key. If you do not want to use the default prompt, reset
it in the .cshrc file and it will be set for this and all other C subshells. If you only want
it set for this login session, set it at the shell prompt.

EXAMPLE 9.3

M
1 % set prompt = $L0GNAME > "
2 ellie >

EXPLANATION

1 The primary prompt is assigned the user's login name, followed by a > symbol and
a space.

2 The new prompt is displayed.

The Secondary Prompt. The secondary prompt appears when you are writing
online scripts at the prompt. Whenever shell programming constructs are entered, fol-
lowed by a newline, the secondary prompt appears and continues to appear until the
construct is properly terminated. Writing scripts correctly at the prompt takes practice.
Once the command is entered and you press Enter, you cannot back up, and the C shell
history mechanism does not save commands typed at the secondary prompt.

EXAMPLE 9.4

1 % foreach pal (joe torn ann)

2 ? mail $pal < memo
3 ? end
4 %
410 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

EXPLANATION

1 This is an example of online scripting. Because the C shell is expecting further in-
put after the foreach loop is entered, the secondary prompt appears. The foreach
loop processes each word in the parenthesized list.

2 The first time in the loop, joe is assigned to the variable pal. The user joe is sent
the contents of memo in the mail. Then next time through the loop, torn is assigned
to the variable pal, and so on.

3 The end statement marks the end of the loop. When all of the items in the paren-
thesized list have been processed, the loop ends and the primary prompt is dis-
played.

4 The primary prompt is displayed.

9.3 The C/TC Shell Command Line

After logging in, the C/TC shell displays its primary prompt, a % or >, respectively. The
shell is your command interpreter. When the shell is running interactively, it reads com-
mands from the terminal and breaks the command line into words. A command line
consists of one or more words (or tokens) separated by whitespace (blanks and/or tabs)
and terminated with a newline, generated by pressing the Enter key. The first word is the
command, and subsequent words are the command's options and/or arguments. The
command may be a UNIX/Linux executable program such as Is or pwd, an alias, a built-
in command such as cd or jobs, or a shell script. The command may contain special char-
acters, called metacharacters, that the shell must interpret while parsing the command
line. If the last character in the command line is a backslash, followed by a newline, the
line can be continued to the next line.3

9.3.1 The Exit Status

After a command or program terminates, it returns an exit status to the parent process.
The exit status is a number between 0 and 255. By convention, when a program exits, if
the status returned is 0, the command was successful in its execution. When the exit sta-
tus is nonzero, the command failed in some way. The C/TC shell status variable is set to
the value of the exit status of the last command that was executed. Success or failure of
a program is determined by the programmer who wrote the program.

3. The length of the command line can be 256 characters or more; it can be even higher on different versions
of UNIX.
9.3 The C/TC Shell Command Line 411

EXAMPLE 9.5

1 % grep "ellie" /etc/passwd

e 7 77e:CgMyBsSJavdl6s:9496:40:El7ie Quig7ey:/home/jody/eHie
2 % echo $status
0
3 % grep "nicky" /etc/passwd
4 % echo Sstatus
1
5 % grep "scott" /etc/passsswd
grep: /etc/passsswd: No such file or directory
6 % echo Sstatus
2

EXPLANATION

1 The grep program searches for the pattern ellie in the /etc/passwd file and is suc-
cessful. The line from /etc/passwd is displayed.

2 The status variable is set to the exit value of the grep command; 0 indicates success.

3 The grep program cannot find user nicky in the /etc/passwd file.

4 The grep program cannot find the pattern, so it returns an exit status of 1.

5 The grep program fails because the file /etc/passsswd cannot be opened.

6 Grep cannot find the file, so it returns an exit status of 2.

9.3.2 Command Grouping

A command line can consist of multiple commands. Each command is separated by a

semicolon and the command line is terminated with a newline.

EXAMPLE 9.6

% Is; pwd; cal 2004

EXPLANATION

The commands are executed from left to right until the newline is reached.

Commands may also be grouped so that all of the output is either piped to another com-
mand or redirected to a file. The shell executes commands in a subshell.

EXAMPLE 9.7

1 % ( Is ; pwd; cal 2004 ) > outputfile

2 % pwd; ( cd / ; pwd ) ; pwd
/home/jody/e Hie
/
/home/jody/ellie
412 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

EXPLANATION

1 The output of each of the commands is sent to the file called outputfile. Without
the parentheses, the output of the first two commands would go to the screen, and
only the output of the cal command would be redirected to the output file.

2 The pwd command displays the present working directory. The parentheses cause
the commands enclosed within them to be processed by a subshell. The cd com-
mand is built into the shell. While in the subshell, the directory is changed to root
and the present working directory is displayed. When out of the subshell, the
present working directory of the original shell is displayed.

9.3.3 Conditional Execution of Commands

With conditional execution, two command strings are separated by two special meta-
characters, double ampersand and double vertical (&& and 11). The command on the
right of either of these metacharacters will or will not be executed based on the exit con-
dition of the command on the left.

EXAMPLE 9.8

% grep 'Atom:' /etc/passwd && mail torn < letter

EXPLANATION

If the first command is successful (has a 0 exit status), the second command, after the
&&, is executed. If the grep command successfully finds torn in the passwd file, the com-
mand on the right will be executed: The mail program will send torn the contents of the
letter file.

EXAMPLE 9.9

% grep 'Atom:' /etc/passwd || echo "torn is not a user here."

EXPLANATION

If the first command fails (has a nonzero exit status), the second command, after the | i,
is executed. If the grep command does not find torn in the passwd file, the command on the
right will be executed: The echo program will print torn is not a user here, to the screen.

9.3.4 Commands in the Background

Normally when you execute a command, it runs in the foreground, and the prompt does
not reappear until the command has completed execution. It is not always convenient
to wait for the command to complete. By placing an ampersand at the end of the com-
mand line, the shell will return the shell prompt immediately so that you do not have to
wait for the last command to complete before starting another one. The command run-
9.3 The C/TC Shell Command Line 413

ning in the background is called a background job and its output will be sent to the screen
as it processes. It can be confusing if two commands are sending output to the screen
concurrently. To avoid confusion, you can send the output of the job running in the
background to a file, or pipe it to another device such as a printer. It is often handy to
start a new shell window in the background, so you will have access to both the window
from which you started and the new shell window.

EXAMPLE 9.10

1 % man xview | lp&

2 [1] 1557
3 %

EXPLANATION

1 The output from the man pages for the xview program is piped to the printer. The
ampersand at the end of the command line puts the job in the background.

2 There are two numbers that appear on the screen; The number in square brackets
indicates that this is the first job to be placed in the background, and the second
number is the PID of this job.

3 The shell prompt appears immediately. While your program is running in the
background, the shell is prompting you for another command in the foreground.

9.3.5 Command-Line History

The history mechanism is built into the C/TC shell. (For tcsh enhancements to history
see "TC Shell Command-Line History" on page 466.) It keeps a numbered list of the
commands (called history events) that you have typed at the command line. You can
recall a command from the history list and re-execute it without retyping the command.
The history substitution character, the exclamation point, is often called the bang char-
acter. The history built-in command displays the history list.

EXAMPLE 9.II

(The Command Line)

% history
1 cd
2 Is
3 more /etc/fstab
4 /etc/mount
5 sort index
6 vi index

EXPLANATION

The history list displays the last commands that were typed at the command line. Each
event in the list is preceded with a number.
414 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

Setting History. The C shell history variable is set to the number of events you want
to save from the history list and display on the screen. Normally, this is set in the .cshrc
file, the user's initialization file.

EXAMPLE 9.12

set history=50

EXPLANATION

The last 50 commands typed at the terminal are saved and may be displayed on the
screen by typing the history command.

Saving History. To save history events across logins, set the savehist variable. This
variable is normally set in the .cshrc file, the user's initialization file.

EXAMPLE 9.13

set savehist=25

EXPLANATION

The last 25 commands from the history list are saved and will be at the top of the his-
tory list the next time you log in.

Displaying History. The history command displays the events in the history list. The
history command also has options that control the number of events and the format of
the events that will be displayed. The numbering of events does not necessarily start at
1. If you have 100 commands on the history list, and you have set the history variable
to 25, you will only see the last 25 commands saved. (The TC shell supports the use of
the arrow keys. See "Accessing Commands from the History File" on page 470.)

EXAMPLE 9.14

% history
1 Is
2 vi filel
3 df
4 ps -eaf
5 history
6 more /etc/passwd
7 cd
8 echo SUSER
9 set

EXPLANATION

The history list is displayed. Each command is numbered.

9.3 The C/TC Shell Command Line 415

EXAMPLE 9.15

% history -h # Print without line numbers

Is
vi filel
df
ps -eaf
history
more /etc/passwd
cd
echo SUSER
set
history -n

EXPLANATION

The history list is displayed without line numbers.

EXAMPLE 9.16

% history -r # Print the history list in reverse

11 history -r
10 history -h
9 set
8 echo SUSER
7 cd
6 more /etc/passwd
5 history
4 ps -eaf
8 df
2 vi filel
1 Is

EXPLANATION

The history list is displayed in reverse order.

EXAMPLE 9.17

% history 5 # Prints the last 5 events on the history list

7 echo SUSER
8 cd
9 set
10 history -n
11 history 5

EXPLANATION

The last five commands on the history list are displayed.

416 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

Re-executing Commands. To re-execute a command from the history list, the

exclamation point (bang) is used. If you type two exclamation points (!!), the last com-
mand is re-executed. If you type the exclamation point followed by a number, the num-
ber is associated with the command from the history list and the command is executed.
If you type an exclamation point and a letter, the last command that started with that
letter is executed. The caret (A) is also used as a shortcut method for editing the previous
command.

EXAMPLE 9.18

1 % date
A/on Apr 26 8 12:27:35 PST 2004
2 % !!
date
Mon Apr 26 12:28:25 PST 2004
3 % IB
date
Mon Apr 26 12:29:26 PST 2004
4 % Id
date
Mon Apr 26 12:30:09 PST 2004
5 % dare
dare: Command not found.
6 % ArAt
date
Mon Apr 26 12:33:25 PST 2004

EXPLANATION

1 The date command is executed at the command line. The history list is updated.
This is the last command on the list.

2 The 11 (bang bang) gets the last command from the history list; the command is
re-executed.

3 The third command on the history list is re-executed.

4 The last command on the history list that started with the letter d is re-executed.

5 The command is mistyped.

6 The carets are used to substitute letters from the last command on the history list.
The first occurrence of an r is replaced with a t.

EXAMPLE 9.19

1 % cat filel file2 fileB

<Contents of filel, file2, and file! are displayed here>
% vi 1:1
vi filel
9.3 The C/TC Shell Command Line 417

EXAMPLE 9.19 (continued)

2 % cat filel file2 file3

<Contents of filel, file2, and filel are displayed here>

% Is !:2
Is file2
file2

3 % cat filel file2 file3

%ls !:3
Is filel
filel

4 % echo a b c
a b c
% echo !$
echo c
c

5 % echo a b c
a b c
% echo !A
echo a
a

6 % echo a b c
a b c
% echo !*
echo a b c
a b c

7 % !!:p
echo a b c

EXPLANATION

1 The cat command displays the contents of filel, file2, and file3 to the screen. The
history list is updated. The command line is broken into words, starting with
word number 0. If the word number is preceded by a colon, that word can be ex-
tracted from the history list. The ! :1 notation means: get the first argument from
the last command on the history list and replace it in the command string. The
first argument from the last command is filel. (Word 0 is the command itself.)

2 The ! :2 is replaced with the second argument of the last command, file2, and giv-
en as an argument to Is. file2 is printed. (file2 is the third word.)

3 Is ! :3 reads; go to the last command on the history list and get the fourth word
(words start at 0) and pass it to the 1 s command as an argument (fi 1 e3 is the fourth
word).
418 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

EXPLANATION (continued)

4 The bang (!) with the dollar sign ($) refers to the last argument of the last com-
mand on the history list. The last argument is c.

5 The caret (A) represents the first argument after the command. The bang (!) with
the A refers to the first argument of the last command on the history list. The first
argument of the last command is a.

6 The asterisk (*) represents all arguments after the command. The bang (!) with
the * refers to all of the arguments of the last command on the history list.

7 The last command from the history list is printed but not executed. The history
list is updated. You could now perform caret substitutions on that line.

9.4 Aliases

An alias is a C/TC shell user-defined abbreviation for a command. (For tcsh enhance-
ments to the alias mechanism, see "TC Shell Aliases" on page 491.) Aliases are useful
when a command has a number of options and arguments or the syntax is difficult to
remember. Aliases set at the command line are not inherited by subshells. Aliases are
normally set in the .cshrc or .tcshrc file. Because the .cshrc or .tcshrc is executed when
a new shell is started, any aliases set there will get reset for the new shell. Aliases may
also be passed into shell scripts, but will cause potential portability problems unless they
are directly set within the script.

9.4.1 Listing Aliases

The alias built-in command lists all set aliases. The alias is printed first, followed by the
real command or commands it represents.

EXAMPLE 9.20

% alias
CO compress
cp cp -7
Isl enscript -B -r -Porange -f Couriers !* &
mailq /usr/1 ib/sendmai7 -bp
mroe more
mv mv -7
rn /us r/spoo 1/news/b i n/rnS
uc uncompress
uu uudecode
vg vgrind -t -sll 1:1 / Ipr -t
weekly (cd /home/jody/ellie/activity; ./weekly.report; echo Done)

EXPLANATION

The al i as command lists the alias (nickname) for the command in the first column and
the real command the alias represents in the second column.
9.4 Aliases 419

9.4.2 Creating Aliases

The alias command is used to create an alias. The first argument is the name of the alias,
the nickname for the command. The rest of the line consists of the command or com-
mands that will be executed when the alias is executed. Multiple commands are sepa-
rated by a semicolon, and commands containing spaces and metacharacters are
surrounded by single quotes.

EXAMPLE 9.21

1 % alias m more
2 % alias mroe more
3 % alias IF 'Is -alF'
4 % alias cd 'cd \!*; set prompt = "Scwd >",
% cd ..
/home/jody > cd / # New prompt displayed
/>

EXPLANATION

1 The nickname for the more command is set to m.

2 The alias for the more command is set to mroe. This is handy if you can't spell.

3 The alias definition is enclosed in quotes because of the whitespace. The alias IF
is a nickname for the command Is -alE

4 When cd is executed, the alias for cd will cause cd to go to the directory named as
an argument and will then reset the prompt to the current working directory fol-
lowed by the string >. The ! * is used by the alias in the same way it is used by the
history mechanism. The backslash prevents the history mechanism from evaluat-
ing the !* first before the alias has a chance to use it. The \ !* represents the argu-
ments from the most recent command on the history list.

9.4.3 Deleting Aliases

The unalias command is used to delete an alias. To temporarily turn off an alias, the alias
name is preceded by a backslash.

EXAMPLE 9.22

1 % unalias mroe
2 % \cd ..

EXPLANATION

1 The unalias command deletes the alias mroe from the list of defined aliases.

2 The alias cd is temporarily turned off for this execution of the command only.
420 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

9.4.4 Alias Loop

An alias loop occurs when an alias definition references another alias that references
back to the original alias.

EXAMPLE 9.23

1 % alias tn more
2 % alias mroe m
3 % alias m mroe # Causes a loop
4 % m datafile
Alias loop.

EXPLANATION

1 The alias is m. The alias definition is more. Every time m is used, the more command
is executed.

2 The alias is mroe. The alias definition is m. If mroe is typed, the alias m is invoked and
the more command is executed.

3 This is the culprit. If alias m is used, it invokes alias mroe, and alias mroe references
back to m, causing an alias loop. Nothing bad happens. You just get an error message.

4 Alias m is used. It is circular, m calls mroe and mroe calls m, then m calls mroe, and so
on. Rather than looping forever, the C shell catches the problem and displays an
error message.

9.5 Manipulating the Directory Stack

If you find that as you work, you cd up and down the directory tree into many of the
same directories, you can make it easy to access those directories by pushing them onto
a directory stack and manipulating the stack. The directory stack is often compared to
stacking trays in a cafeteria where the trays are stacked on top of each other, the first one
being at the bottom of the stack. The pushd built-in command pushes directories onto a
stack and the popd command removes them. (See following examples.) The stack is a
numbered list of directories with the top directory being the most recent directory
pushed onto the stack. The directories are numbered starting with the top directory at
0, the next one numbered 1, and so on. The built-in command, di rs, with a -v option,
displays the numbered directory stack.

9.5.1 The pushd and popd Commands

The pushd command with a directory as an argument causes the new directory to be
added to the directory stack and, at the same time, changes to that directory. If the argu-
ment is a dash (-), the dash refers to the previous working directory. If the argument is
a + and a number (n), pushd extracts the nth directory from the stack and pushes it onto
9.5 Manipulating the Directory Stack 421

the top, then changes to that directory. Without arguments, pushd exchanges the top two
elements of the directory stack, making it easy to switch back and forth between direc-
tories. There are a number of shell variables that control the way pushd works. (See "Set-
ting Local Variables" on page 441.)
To save a directory stack across login sessions, you must set the savedi rs variable in
one of the tcsh initialization files (e.g., ~/-tcshrc). The directory stack will be stored in a
file called ~/-Cshdi rs and will be automatically sourced when the shell starts up.
The popd command removes a directory from the top of the stack, and changes to that
directory.
See Table 9.1 for a list of directory stack variables.

Table 9.1 Directory Stack Variables

Variable What It Does

deextract If set, pushd +n extracts the nth directory from the directory stack before pushing it onto
the stack.

dirsfile Can be assigned a filename where the directory stack can be saved across logins.

di rstack Used to display the stack or assign directories to it.

dunique Before pushing a directory onto the stack, removes any directories with the same name.

pushdsilent Doesn't print the directory stack when pushd is executed.

pushdtohome If set, pushd without arguments, is same as pushd ~ or cd.

pushtohome Without arguments, pushes to ~, the user's home directory.

savedi rs Saves the directory stack across logins.

EXAMPLE 9.24

1 % pwd
/home/el lie

% pushd ..
/home ~

% pwd
/home

2 % pushd # swap the two top directories on the stack

~ /home

% pwd
/home/ellie
422 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

EXAMPLE 9.24 (continued)

3 % pushd perl class

~/perlclass ~ /home

4 % dirs -v
0 -/perlclass
1
2 /home

5 % popd
/home
% pwd
/home/ellie

6 % popd
/home

% pwd
/home

7 % popd
popd: Directory stack empty.

EXPLANATION

1 First the pwd command displays the present working directory, /home/ellie. Next
the pushd command with .. as its argument pushes the parent directory (..) onto
the directory stack. The output of pushd indicates that /home is at the top of the di-
rectory stack and the user's home directory (~), /home/ellie, is at the bottom of the
stack, pushd also changes the directory to the one that was pushed onto the stack;
that is, .. , which translates to /home. The new directory is displayed with the sec-
ond pwd command.

2 pushd, without arguments, exchanges the two top directory entries on the stack
and changes to the swapped directory; in this example, the directory is switched
back to the user's home directory, /home/ellie.

3 The pushd command will push its argument, -/perlclass, onto the stack, and
change to that directory.

4 The built-in di rs command displays the numbered directory stack, with 0 being
the top level.

5 The popd command removes a directory from the top of the stack, and changes to
that directory.

6 The popd command removes another directory from the top of the stack, and
changes to that directory.

7 The popd command cannot remove any more directory entries because the stack is
empty, and issues an error message saying so.
9.6 Job Control 423

9.6 Job Control

Job control is a powerful feature of the C/TC shell that allows you to run programs,
called jobs, in the background or foreground. Normally, a command typed at the com-
mand line runs in the foreground, and will continue until it has finished. If you have
windows, job control may not be necessary, because you can simply open another win-
dow to start a new task. On the other hand, with a single terminal, job control is a very
useful feature. For a list of job commands, see Table 9.2. (See "TC Shell Job Control" on
page 495 for TC shell enhancements for job control.)

Table 9.2 Job Control Commands

Command Meaning

jobs Lists all the jobs running

A
Z (Ctrl-Z) Stops (suspends) the job; the prompt appears on the screen

bg Starts running the stopped job in the background

fg Brings a background job to the foreground

kill Sends the kill signal to a specified job

9.6.1 The Ampersand and Background Jobs

If you expect a command to take a long time to complete, you can append the command
with an ampersand and the job will execute in the background. The C/TC shell prompt
returns immediately and now you can type another command. Now the two commands
are running concurrently, one in the background and one in the foreground. They both
send their standard output to the screen. If you place a job in the background, it is a good
idea to redirect its output either to a file or pipe it to a device such as a printer.

EXAMPLE 9.25

1 % find . -name core -exec rm {} \; &

2 [1] 543
3 %

EXPLANATION

1 The find command runs in the background. (Without the -print option, the find
command does not send any output to the screen).3

2 The number in square brackets indicates this is the first job to be run in the back-
ground and the PID for this process is 543.

3 The prompt returns immediately. The shell waits for user input.

a. The find syntax requires a semicolon at the end of an exec statement. The semicolon is preceded by a backslash to
prevent the shell from interpreting it.
424 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

9.6.2 The Suspend Key Sequence and Background Jobs

To suspend a program, the suspend key sequence, Ctrl-Z, is issued. The job is now sus-
pended (stopped), the shell prompt is displayed, and the program will not resume until
the fg or bg commands are issued. (When using the vi editor, the ZZ command writes
and saves a file. Do not confuse this with Ctrl-Z, which would suspend the vi session.)
If you try to log out when a job is suspended, the message There are stopped jobs appears
on the screen.

9.6.3 The jobs Command

The C/TC shell jobs built-in command displays the programs that are currently active
and either running or suspended in the background. Running means the job is executing
in the background. When a job is stopped, it is suspended; it is not in execution. In both
cases, the terminal is free to accept other commands.

EXAMPLE 9.26

(The Command Line)

1 % jobs
2 [1] + Stopped vi fi lex
[2] - Running sleep 25

3 % jobs -1
[1] + 355 Stopped vi filex
[2] - 356 Running sleep 25

4 [2] Done sleep 25

EXPLANATION

l The jobs command lists the currently active jobs.

2 The notation [1] is the number of the first job; the plus sign indicates that the job
is not the most recent job to be placed in the background; the dash indicates that
this is the most recent job put in the background; Stopped means that this job was
A
suspended with Z and is not currently active.

3 The -1 option (long listing) displays the number of the job as well as the PID of
the job. The notation [2] is the number of the second job, in this case, the last job
placed in the background. The dash indicates that this is the most recent job. The
sleep command is running in the background.

4 After sleep has been running for 25 seconds, the job will complete and a message
saying that it has finished appears on the screen.
9.6 Job Control 425

9.6.4 The Foreground and Background Commands

The fg command brings a background job into the foreground. The bg command starts
a suspended job running in the background. A percent sign and the number of a job can
be used as arguments to the fg and bg commands if you want to select a particular job
for job control.

EXAMPLE 9.27

l % jobs
2 [1] + Stopped vi filex
[2] - Running cc prog.c -o prog

3 % fg %1
vi filex
(vi session starts)

4 % kill %2
[2] Terminated cc prog.c -o prog

5 % sleep 15
(Press Az)
Stopped

6 % bg
[1] sleep 15 &
[1] Done sleep 15

EXPLANATION

1 The jobs command lists currently running processes, called jobs.

2 The first job stopped is the vi session, the second job is the cc command.

3 The job numbered [1] is brought to the foreground. The number is preceded with
a percent sign.

4 The kill command is built-in. It sends the TERM (terminate) signal, by default, to a
process. The argument is either the number or the PID of the process.
A
5 The sleep command is stopped by pressing Z. The sleep command is not using
the CPU and is suspended in the background.

6 The bg command causes the last background job to start executing in the back-
ground. The sleep program will start the countdown in seconds before execution
resumes.
426 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

9.7 Shell Metacharacters

Metacharacters are special characters that are used to represent something other than
themselves. As a rule of thumb, characters that are neither letters nor numbers may be
metacharacters. Like grep, sed, and awk, the shell has its own set of metacharacters, often
called shell wildcards4 Shell metacharacters can be used to group commands together,
to abbreviate filenames and pathnames, to redirect and pipe input/output, to place
commands in the background, and so forth. Table 9.3 presents a partial list of shell
metacharacters.

Table 9.3 Shell Metacharacters

Metacharacter Purpose Example Meaning

$ Variable substitution set name=Tom echo Sets the variable name to Tom;
Sname displays the value stored there.
Tom

i History substitution !3 Re-executes the third event from

the history list.

* Filename substitution rm * Removes all files.

? Filename substitution Is ?? Lists all two-character files.

1 1 Filename substitution cat f[123] Displays contents of fl, f2, f3.

» Command separator ls:date;pwd Each command is executed in

turn.

& Background processing Ip mbox& Printing is done in the

background. Prompt returns
immediately.

> Redirection of output Is > file Redirects standard output to file.

< Redirection of input Is < file Redirects standard input from

file.

>& Redirection of output and Is >& file Redirects both output and errors
error to file.

>! If noclobber is set, Is >! file If file exists, truncate and

override it overwrite it, even if noclobber is set.

»! If noclobber is set, Is »! file If file does not exist, create it;

override it even if noclobber is set.

4. Programs such as grep, sed, and awk have a set of metacharacters, called regular expression metacharacters,
for pattern matching. These should not be confused with shell metacharacters.
9.8 Filename Substitution 427

Table 9.3 Shell Metacharacters (continued)

Metacharacter Purpose Example Meaning

( ) Groups commands to be (Is ; pwd) >tmp Executes commands and sends

executed in a subshell output to tmp file.

{ } Groups commands to be { cd /; echo $cwd } Changes to root directory and

executed in this shell displays current working
directory.

9.8 Filename Substitution

When evaluating the command line, the shell uses metacharacters to abbreviate filena-
mes or pathnames that match a certain set of characters. The filename substitution meta-
characters listed in Table 9.4 are expanded into an alphabetically listed set of filenames.
The process of expanding a metacharacter into filenames is also called globbing. Unlike
the other shells, when the C shell cannot substitute a filename for the metacharacter it
is supposed to represent, the shell reports No match.

Table 9.4 Shell Metacharacters and Filename Substitution

Metacharacter Meaning

* Matches zero or more characters

? Matches exactly one character

[abc] Matches one character in the set: a, b, or c

[a-z] Matches one character in the range a to z

{a, ile,ax} Matches for a character or set of characters

Substitutes the user's home directory for tilde

\ Escapes or disables the metacharacter

The shell performs filename substitution by evaluating its metacharacters and replacing
them with the appropriate letters or digits in a filename.

9.8.1 The Asterisk

The asterisk matches zero or more characters in a filename.

428 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

EXAMPLE 9.28

1 % Is
a.c b.c abc ab3 filel file! file3 file4 fileS
2 % echo &
a.c b.c abc ab3 filel file? file? file4 fileS
3 % Is ft.c
a.c b.c
4 % rin Zftp
No match.

EXPLANATION

1 All the files in the current directory are listed.

2 The echo program prints all its arguments to the screen. The asterisk (also called
a splat) is a wildcard that means; match for zero or more of any characters found
in a filename. All the files in the directory are matched and echoed to the screen.

3 Filenames ending in .c are listed.

4 Because none of the files in the directory start with z, the shell reports No match.

9.8.2 The Question Mark

The question mark matches exactly one character in a filename.

EXAMPLE 9.29

1 % Is
a.c b.c abc ab3 filel file? file? file4 fileS
2 % Is ???
abc ab3
3 % echo How are you?
No match.
4 % echo How are you\?
How are you?

EXPLANATION

1 All the files in the current directory are listed.

2 The question mark matches for a single-character filename. Any filenames con-
sisting of three characters are listed.

3 The shell looks for a filename spelled y-o-u followed by one character. There is not
a file in the directory that matches these characters. The shell prints No match.

4 The backslash preceding the question mark is used to turn off the special meaning
of the question mark. Now the shell treats the question mark as a literal character.
9.8 Filename Substitution 429

9.8.3 The Square Brackets

The square brackets match a filename for one character from a set or range of characters.

EXAMPLE 9.30

1 % Is
a.c b.c abc ab3 filel file! file3 file4 fileS fileW filell fileU
2 % Is file[123]
filel file2 fileS
3 % Is [A-Za-z][a-z][1-5]
abS
4 % Is filel[0-2]
filelO filell fileU

EXPLANATION

1 All the files in the current directory are listed.

2 Filenames starting with file and followed by a 1,2, or 3 are matched and listed.

3 Filenames starting with a letter (either uppercase or lowercase) followed by a low-

ercase letter, and followed by a number between 1 and 5 are matched and listed.

4 Filenames starting with filel and followed by a 0,1, or 2 are listed.

9.8.4 The Curly Braces

The curly braces ({}) match for a character or string of characters in a filename.

EXAMPLE 9.31

1 % Is
a.c b.c abc ab3 ab4 ab5 filel file2 file3 file4 fileS foo faa fumble
2 % Is f{oo,aa,umble}
foo faa fumble
3 % Is a{.c,c,b[3-5]}
a.c ab3 ab4 abS

EXPLANATION

1 All the files in the current directory are listed.

2 Files starting with f and followed by the strings oo, aa, or umble are listed. Spaces
inside the curly braces will cause the error message Missing }.

3 Files starting with a followed by .c, c, or b3, b4, or b5 are listed. (The square brack-
ets can be used inside the curly braces.)
430 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

9.8.5 Escaping Metacharacters

The backslash is used to escape the special meaning of a single character. The escaped
character will represent itself.

EXAMPLE 9.32

1 % gotta light?
No match.
2 % gotta light\?
gotta: Command not found.

EXPLANATION

1 This is a little UNIX joke. The question mark is a file substitution metacharacter
and evaluates to a single character. The shell looks for a file in the present working
directory that contains the characters 1-i-g-h-t, followed by a single character. If
the shell cannot find the file, it reports No match. This shows you something about
the order in which the shell parses the command line. The metacharacters are
evaluated before the shell tries to locate the gotta command.

2 The backslash protects the metacharacter from interpretation, often called escap-
ing the metacharacter. Now the shell does not complain about a No match, but
searches the path for the gotta command, which is not found.

9.8.6 Tilde Expansion

The tilde character by itself expands to the full pathname of the user's home directory.
When the tilde is prepended to a username, it expands to the full pathname of that user's
home directory. When prepended to a path, it expands to the home directory and the
rest of the pathname.

EXAMPLE 9.33

1 % echo ~
/home/jody/ellie
2 % cd ~/desktop/perlstuff
% pwd
/home/jody/e 11ie/desktop/per 1 stuff
3 % cd ~]oe
% pwd
/home/bambi/joe

EXPLANATION

1 The tilde expands to the user's home directory.

2 The tilde followed by a pathname expands to the user's home directory, followed
by /desktop/perl stuff.
3 The tilde followed by a username expands to the home directory of the user. In
this example, the directory is changed to that user's home directory.
9.8 Filename Substitution 431

9.8.7 Filename Completion: The filec Variable

When running interactively, the C/TC shell provides a shortcut method for typing a file-
name or username. The built-in filec variable, when set, is used for what is called file-
name completion. If you type the first few significant characters of a file in the current
working directory and press the Esc key, the shell fills in the rest of the filename, pro-
vided that there are not a number of other files beginning with the same characters. If
you type Ctrl-D after the partial spelling of the file, the shell will print out a list of files
that match those characters. The terminal beeps if there are multiple matches. If the list
begins with a tilde, the shell attempts to expand that list to a username.

EXAMPLE 9.34

1 % set filec
2 % Is
rum rumple rumplestilsken run2
3 % Is ru[ESC]a # terminal beeps
4 % Is rumAD
rum rumple rumplestilsken
5 % Is ruinp[ESC]
rumple
6 % echo -ell[ESC]
/home/jody/e Hie

a. [ESC] stands for Esc key.

EXPLANATION

1 The special C shell variable filec is set. Filename completion can be used.

2 The files in the present working directory are listed.

3 Filename completion is attempted. The letters r and u are not unique; that is, the
shell does not know which one to pick, so it causes the terminal to beep.
A
4 After the letters r-u-m are typed, D is pressed. A list of all filenames beginning
with rum are displayed.

5 The first filename starting with rump is completed and displayed.

6 If a tilde precedes a partially spelled username, the shell will attempt to complete
the spelling of the user's name and display the user's home directory.

9.8.8 Turning Off Metacharacters with noglob

If the noglob variable is set, filename substitution is turned off, meaning that all meta-
characters represent themselves; they are not used as wildcards. This can be useful when
searching for patterns in programs like grep, sed, or awk, which may contain metacharac-
ters that the shell may try to expand.
432 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

EXAMPLE 9.35

1 % set noglob
2 % echo * ?? [] ~
. ?? [] ~

EXPLANATION

1 The variable noglob is set. It turns off the special meaning of the wildcards.

2 The metacharacters are displayed as themselves without any interpretation.

9.9 Redirection and Pipes

Normally, standard output (stdout) from a command goes to the screen, standard input
(stdin) comes from the keyboard, and error messages (stderr) go to the screen. The shell
allows you to use the special redirection metacharacters to redirect the input/output to
or from a file. The redirection operators (c, >, », >&) are followed by a filename. This file
is opened by the shell before the command on the left-hand side is executed.
Pipes, represented by a vertical bar (|) symbol, allow the output of one command to
be sent to the input of another command. The command on the left-hand side of the
pipe is called the writer because it writes to the pipe. The command on the right-hand
side of the pipe is the reader because it reads from the pipe. See Table 9.5 for a list of
redirection and pipe metacharacters.

Table 9.5 Redirection Metacharacters

Metacharacter Meaning

command < file Redirects input from file to command.

command > file Redirects output from command to file.

command >& file Redirects output and errors to file.

command » file Redirects output of command and appends it to file.

command »& file Redirects and appends output and errors of command to file.

command « WORD Redirects input from first WORD to terminating WORD to command; start of here document.
<input> User input goes here. It will be treated as a doubly quoted string of text.
WORD WORD marks the termination of input to command; end of here document.

command I command Pipes output of first command to input of second command.

command |& command Pipes output and errors of first command to input of second command.

command >! file If the noclobber variable is set, override its effects for this command and either open
or overwrite file.
9.9 Redirection and Pipes 433

Table 9.5 Redirection Metacharacters (continued)

Metacharacter Meaning

command »! file Override noclobber variable; if file does not exist, it is created and output from
command is appended to it.

command »&! file Override noclobber variable; if file does not exist, it is created and both output and
errors are appended to it.

9.9.1 Redirecting Input

Instead of the input coming from the terminal keyboard, it can be redirected from a file.
The shell will open the file on the right-hand side of the < symbol and the program on
the left will read from the file. If the file does not exist, the error No such file or di rectory
will be reported by the C shell.

FORMAT

command < file

EXAMPLE 9.36

mail bob < memo

EXPLANATION

The file memo is opened by the shell, and the input is redirected to the mail program.
Simply, the user bob is sent a file called memo by the mail program.

9.9.2 The here document

The here document is another way to redirect input to a command. It is used in shell scripts
for creating menus and processing input from other programs. Normally, programs that
accept input from the keyboard are terminated with Ctrl-D (AD). The here document pro-
vides an alternate way of sending input to a program and terminating the input without
A
typing D. The « symbol is followed by a user-defined word, often called a terminator.
Input will be directed to the command on the left-hand side of the « symbol until the
user-defined terminator is reached. The final terminator is on a line by itself, and cannot
be surrounded by any spaces. Variable and command substitution are performed within
the here document. (Normally, a here document is used in shell scripts to create menus and
provide input to commands such as mail, be, ex, ftp, etc.)
434 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

FORMAT

command « MARK
... input ...
MARK

EXAMPLE 9.37

(Without the here document)

(The Command Line)
1 % cat
2 Hello There.
How are you?
I'm tired of this.
3 AD

(The Output)
4 Hello There.
How are you?
I'm tired of this.

EXPLANATION

1 The cat program, without arguments, waits for keyboard input.

2 The user types input at the keyboard.

A
3 The user types D to terminate input to the cat program.

4 The cat program sends its output to the screen.

EXAMPLE 9.38

(With the here document)

(The Command Line)
1 % cat « DONE
2 Hello There.
How are you?
I'm tired of this.
3 DONE

(The Output)
4 Hello There.
How are you?
I'm tired of this.

EXPLANATION

1 The cat program will receive input from the first DONE to the terminating DONE. The
words are user-defined terminators.

2 These lines are input. When the word DONE is reached, no more input is accepted.
9.9 Redirection and Pipes 435

EXPLANATION (continued)

3 The final terminator marks the end of input. There cannot be any spaces on either
side of this word.

4 The text between the first word DONE and the final word DONE is the output of the
cat command (from "here" to "here") and is sent to the screen. The final DONE must
be against the left margin with no space or other text to the right of it.

EXAMPLE 9.39

(The Command Line)

1 % set name = steve
2 % mail $name « EOF
3 Hello there, $name
4 The hour is now 'date +%H'
5 EOF

EXPLANATION

1 The shell variable name is assigned the username steve. (Normally, this example
would be included in a shell script.)

2 The variable name is expanded within the here document.

3 The mail program will receive input until the terminator EOF is reached.

4 Command substitution is performed within the here document; that is, the corn-
mand within the backquotes is executed and the output of the command is re-
placed within the string.

5 The terminator EOF is reached, and input to the mail program is stopped.

9.9.3 Redirecting Output

By default, the standard output of a command or commands goes to the terminal screen.
To redirect standard output from the screen to a file, the > symbol is used. The command
is on the left-hand side of the > symbol, and a filename is on the right-hand side. The
shell will open the file on the right-hand side of the > symbol. If the file does not exist,
the shell will create it; if it does exist, the shell will open the file and truncate it. Often
files are inadvertently removed when using redirection. (A special C/TC shell variable,
called noclobber, can be set to prevent redirection from clobbering an existing file. See
Table 9.6 on page 439.)

FORMAT

command > file

436 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

EXAMPLE 9.40

cat filel file2 > fileB

EXPLANATION

The contents of filel and file? are concatenated and the output is sent to fileB. Re-
member that the shell opens fileB before it attempts to execute the cat command. If
fileB already exists and contains data, the data will be lost. If fileB does not exist, it
will be created.

9.9.4 Appending Output to an Existing File

To append output to an existing file, the » symbol is used. If the file on the right-hand
side of the » symbol does not exist, it is created; if it does exist, the file is opened and
output is appended to the end of the file.

FORMAT

command » file

EXAMPLE 9.41

date » outfile

EXPLANATION

The standard output of the date command is redirected and appended to outfile.

9.9.5 Redirecting Output and Error

The >& symbol is used to redirect both standard output and standard error to a file. Nor-
mally, a command is either successful and sends its output to stdout, or fails and sends
its error messages to stderr. Some recursive programs, such as find and du, send both
standard output and errors to the screen as they move through the directory tree. By
using the >& symbol, both standard output and standard error can be saved in a file and
examined. The C/TC shell does not provide a symbol for redirection of only standard
error, but it is possible to get just the standard error by executing the command in a sub-
shell. See Example 9.42 and Figure 9.2.

EXAMPLE 9.42

1 % date
Tue Aug 9 10:31:56 POT 2004
2 % date >& outfile
3 % cat outfile
Tue Aug 9 10:31:56 PDT 2004
9.9 Redirection and Pipes 437

EXPLANATION

1 The output of the date command is sent to standard output, the screen.

2 The output and errors are sent to outfi 1 e.

3 Because there were no errors, the standard output is sent to outfi le and the con-
tents of the file are displayed.

Parent Child
/bin/csh /bin/csh /bin/date

1358 1360 1360

fork exec
W

0 stdin-term 0 stdin-form 0 stdin-term

1 stdout-term 1 stdout-outfile 1 stdout-outfile
2 stderr-term 2 stderr-outfile 2 stderr-outfile

Figure 9.2 Redirecting stdout and stderr. See Example 9,42,

EXAMPLE 9.43

1 % cp filel file2
2 % cp filel
Usage: cp [-ip] fl f2; or: cp [-ipr] fl ... fn d2
3 % cp filel >& errorfile
4 % cat errorfile
Usage: cp [-ip] fl f2; or: cp [-ipr] fl ... fn d2

EXPLANATION

l To copy a file, the cp command requires both a source file and a destination file.
The cp command makes a copy of filel and puts the copy in file2. Because the cp
command is given the correct syntax, nothing is displayed to the screen. The copy
was successful.

2 This time the destination file is missing and the cp command fails, sending an er-
ror to stderr, the terminal.

3 The >& symbol is used to send both stdout and stderr to errorfile. Because the only
output from the command is the error message, that is what is saved in errorfile.

4 The contents of errorfile are displayed, showing that it contains the error message
produced by the cp command.
438 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

9.9.6 Separating Output and Errors

Standard output and standard error can be separated by enclosing the command in
parentheses. When a command is enclosed in parentheses, the C/TC shell starts up a
subshell, handles redirection from within the subshell, and then executes the command.
By using the technique shown in Example 9.44, the standard output can be separated
from the errors.

EXAMPLE 9.44

(The Command Line)

1
1 % find . -name 4;.c' -print >& outputfile
2 % (find . -name -print > goodstuff) >& badstuff

EXPLANATION

The find command will start at the current directory, searching for all files ending
in .c, and will print the output to outputfile. If an error occurs, that will also go
into outputfile.

The find command is enclosed within parentheses. The shell will create a subshell
to handle the command. Before creating the subshell, the words outside the pa-
rentheses will be processed; that is, the badstuff file will be opened for both stan-
dard output and error. When the subshell is started, it inherits the standard input,
output, and errors from its parent. The subshell then has standard input coming
from the keyboard, and both standard output and standard error going to the bad-
stuff file. Now the subshell will handle the > operator. The stdout will be assigned
the file goodstuff. The output is going to goodstuff, and the errors are going to bad-
stuff. See Figure 9.3.

Parent Child Grandchild

/bin/csh /bin/csh /bin/csh /usr/bin/find

1267 1268 1269 1269

fork fork exec

—► —► <—

0 stdin-term 0 stdin-term 0 stdin-form 0 stdin-term

stdout-term stdout-badstuff stdout-goodstuff stdout-goodstuff
stderr-term stderr-badstuff stderr-outfile stderr-badstuff

Figure 9.3 Separating stdout and stderr.

9.9 Redirection and Pipes 439

9.9.7 The noclobber Variable

The special shell built-in variable noclobber, when set, protects you from clobbering files
with redirection. See Table 9.6.

Table 9.6 The noclobber Variable and Redirection

noclobber Is Not Set If File Exists If File Does Not Exist

command > file fi 1 e is overwritten fi 1 e is created

command » file file is appended to fi 1 e is created

noclobber Is Set

command > file Error message fi 1 e is created

command » file file is appended to Error message

Overwriting noclobber

command >! file If the noclobber variable is set, override its effects for this command and
either open or truncate file, redirecting output of command to file.

command »! file Override noclobber variable; if file does not exist, it is created and
output from command is appended to it. (See Example 9.45.)

EXAMPLE 9.45 |

1 % cat filex
abc
123
2 % date > filex
3 % cat filex
Wed Aug 5 11:51:04 PDT 2004
4 % set noclobber
5 % date > filex
filex: File exists.
6 % Is >! filex # Override noclobber for this command only
% cat filex
abc
abl
dir
filex
plan.c
7 % Is > filex
filex: File exists.
8 % unset noclobber # Turn off noclobber permanently
440 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

EXPLANATION

l The contents of filex are displayed on the screen.

2 The output of the date command is redirected to filex. The file is truncated and
its original contents overwritten.
3 The contents of filex are displayed.

4 The noclobber variable is set.

5 Since filex already exists and noclobber is set, the shell reports that the file exists
and will not allow it to be overwritten.

6 The output of Is is redirected to filex because the >! operator overrides the effects
of noclobber.

7 The effects of the >! symbol were temporary. It does not turn off noclobber. It sim-
ply overrides noclobber for the command where it is implemented.
8 The noclobber variable is unset.

9.10 Variables

C/TC shell variables hold only strings or a set of strings. Some variables are built into the
shell and can be set by turning them on or off, such as the noclobber or fi lec variable. Oth-
ers are assigned a string value, such as the path variable. You can create your own variables
and assign them to strings or the output of commands. Variable names are case sensitive
and may contain up to 20 characters consisting of numbers, letters, and the underscore.
There are two types of variables: local and environment. Local variables are created
with the set command. Global variables are created with the setenv command. The scope
of a variable is its visibility. A local variable is visible to the shell where it is defined. The
scope of environment variables is often called global. Their scope is for this shell and all
processes spawned (started) from this shell.
The dollar sign (S) is a special metacharacter that, when preceding a variable name,
tells the shell to extract the value of that variable. The echo command, when given the
variable as an argument, will display the value of the variable after the shell has pro-
cessed the command line and performed variable substitution.
The special notation $?, when prepended to the variable name, lets you know whether
the variable has been set. If a one is returned, it means true, the variable has been set. If
a zero is returned, it means false, the variable has not been set.

EXAMPLE 9.46

1 % set filec
2 % set history = 50
3 % set name = George
4 % set machine = "uname -n"
5 % echo $?machine
1
6 % echo $?blah
0
9.10 Variables 441

EXPLANATION

1 Sets the built-in variable filec for filename completion. It is either on or off.

2 Sets the built-in variable history to 50 to control the number of events displayed.

3 Sets the user-defined variable name to George.

4 Sets the user-defined variable machine to the output of the UNIX command. The
command is in backquotes, telling the shell to perform command substitution.

5 Because $? is prepended to the variable name to test whether the variable has been
set. Since the test yields a 1 (true), the variable has been set.

6 The $? yields 0 (false). The variable has not been set.

9.10.1 Curly Braces

Curly braces insulate a variable from any characters that may follow it.

EXAMPLE 9.47

1 % set var = net

% echo $var
net
2 % echo Svarwork
varwork: Undefined variable.
3 % echo ${var}work
network

EXPLANATION

1 The curly braces surrounding the variable name insulate the variable from char-
acters that follow it.

2 A variable called varwork has not been defined. The shell prints an error message.

3 The curly braces shield the variable from characters appended to it. Svar is ex-
panded and the string work is appended.

9.10.2 Local Variables

Local variables are known only in the shell where they were created. If a local variable
is set in the .cshrc file, the variable will be reset every time a new C shell is started. By
convention, local variables are named with lowercase letters.

Setting Local Variables. If the string being assigned contains more than one word,
it must be quoted; otherwise, only the first word will be assigned to the variable. It does
not matter if there are spaces around the equal sign, but if there is a space on one side
of the equal sign, there must be one on the other side.
442 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

EXAMPLE 9.48

l % set round = world

2 % set name = "Santa Claus"
3 % echo $round
world
4 % echo Sname
Santa Claus
5 % csh # Start a subshell
6 % echo $name
name: Undefined variable.

EXPLANATION

l The local variable round is assigned the value world.

2 The local variable name is assigned the value Santa Claus. The double quotes keep
the shell from evaluating the whitespace between Santa and Claus.

3 The dollar sign prepended to the variable allows the shell to perform variable sub-
stitution, that is, to extract the value stored in the variable.

4 Variable substitution is performed.

5 A new C shell (called a subshell) process is started.

6 In the subshell, the variable name has not been defined. It was defined in the parent
shell as a local variable.

The set Command. The set command prints all local variables set for this shell.

EXAMPLE 9.49

(The Command Line--Linux/tcsh)

> set
addsuffix
argv ()
cwd /home/jody/meta
dirstack /home/ellie/meta
echo_style both
edit
gid 501
group elh'e
history 500
home /home/ellie
7 /etc/profile.d/mc. csh
owd /home/ellie
noclobber
path (/usr/sbin /shin /usr/Ioca 1/bin /bin /usr/bin /usr/XllRS/bin )
9.10 Variables 443

EXAMPLE 9.49 (continued)

prompt [%n@%m %c]#

prompt 2 %R?
prompts CORRECTOR (yln/ela)?
savedirs
shell /bin/tcsh
shlvl 2
status 0
tcsh 6.07.09
term xterm
user ellie
version tcsh 6.07.09 (Astron) 2004-07-07 (i386-intel-linux)
options 8b,nls,dl,al,rh,color

EXPLANATION

All of the local variables set for this shell are printed. Many of these variables, such as
history, dirstack, and noclobber, are set in the .tcshrc file. Others, such as argv, cwd, shell,
term, user, version, and status variables are preset, built-in variables.

EXAMPLE 9.50

(The Command Line--UNIX/csh)

% set
argv 0
cwd /home/ jody/ellie
fignore .0
filec
history 500
home /home/ jody/ellie
hostname jody
ignoreeof
noclobber
noti fy
path (/home/jody/eHie /bin /usr/local /usr/usr/bin/usr/etc .)
prompt jody%
shell /bin/csh
status 0
term sun-cmd
user ellie

EXPLANATION

All of the local variables set for this shell are printed. Most of these variables are set in
the .cshrc file. The argv, cwd, shell, term, user, and status variables are preset, built-in
variables.
444 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

Read-Only Variables (tcsh). Read-only variables are local variables that, once set,
cannot be changed or unset or an error message will result. Environment variables can-
not be made read-only. If using the C shell, the following example will cause the error:
set: Syntax error.

EXAMPLE 9.51

1 > set -r name = Tommy

2 > unset name
unset: Sname is read-only.
3 > set name = Danny
set: Sname is read-only

Built-in Local Variables. The shell has a number of predefined variables with their
own definitions. Some of the variables are either on or off. For example, if you set noclob-
ber, the variable is on and effective, and when you unset noclobber, it is turned off. Some
variables require a definition when set. Built-in variables are usually set in the .cshrc file
for the C shell and the .tschrc file for the TC shell if they are to be effective for different
C/TC shells. Some of the built-in variables already discussed include noclobber, cdpath,
history, filec, and noglob. For a complete list, see Table 9.26 on page 514.

9.10.3 Environment Variables

Environment variables are often called global variables. They are defined in the shell
where they were created and inherited by all shells spawned from that shell. Although
environment variables are inherited by subshells, those defined in subshells are not
passed back to parent shells. Inheritance is from parent to child, not the other way
around (like real life). By convention, environment variables are named with uppercase
letters.

EXAMPLE 9.52

(The Command Line)

1 % setenv TERM wyse
2 % setenv PERSON "Joe Jr."
3 % echo $TERM
wyse
4 % echo $PERS0N
Joe Jr.
5 % echo $$ # S$ evaluates to the PID of the current shell
206
6 % csh # Start a subshell
7 % echo $S
211
9.10 Variables 445

EXAMPLE 9.52 (continued)

8 % echo $PERS0N
Joe Jr.
9 % setenv PERSON "Nelly Nerd"
10 % echo $PERS0N
% Nelly Nerd
11 % exit # Exit the subshell
12 % echo $$
206
13 % echo $PERS0N # Back in parent shell
Joe Jr.

EXPLANATION

l The shell environment variable TERM is set to a wyse terminal.

2 The user-defined variable PERSON is set to loe Jr.. The quotes are used to protect
the space.

3 The dollar sign (S) prepended to the variable name allows the shell to evaluate the
contents of the variable, called variable substitution.

4 The value of the environment variable PERSON is printed.

5 The $$ variable contains the PID of the current shell. The PID is 206.

6 The csh command starts a new C shell, called a subshell.

7 The PID of the current shell is printed. Because this is a new C shell, it has a dif-
ferent PID number. The PID is 211.

8 The environment variable PERSON was inherited by the new shell.

9 The PERSON variable is reset to Nelly Nerd. This variable will be inherited by any
shells spawned from this shell.

10 The new value of the PERSON variable is printed.

11 This C shell is exited.

12 The original C shell is running; to attest to that, the PID 206 is printed. It is the
same as it was before the subshell was started.

13 The PERSON variable contains its original value.

Printing Environment Variables. The printenv (BSD) and env (SVR4) commands
(both work in Linux) print all the environment variables set for this shell and its sub-
shells. The setenv command prints variables and their values on both the BSD and SVR4
versions of the C shell.
446 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

EXAMPLE 9.53

(Linux/tcsh Example)

> env or printenv or setenv

USERNAME=root
COL OR TERM=rxvt-xpm
HISTSIZE-1000
HOSTNAME=homebound
LOCNAME=ellie
HISTFILESIZE=1000
MAIL=/var/spoo 1/ma i 1/e Hie
MACHTYPE=i386
COLORFCBC=0; default; 15
TERM=xterm
HOSTTYPE=i386-1inux
PA TH=/usr/sb i n :/sb i n :/usr/loca 1/b in :/b in :/usr/b i n :/usr/
XllR6/b 7 n :/home/e 11 i e/b i n ;/roo t/bash-2.03/:/usr/XllR6/b in :/home/
elli e/b in; /roo t/ba sh-2.03/:/usr/XllR6/b in
HOME=/root
SHELL=/b in/bash
PSl=[\u@\h \M]\$
USER=ellie
VENDORS ntel
CROUP=ellie
H0STDI5PLA Y=homebound:0.0
DISPLAY=:0.0
HOST=homebound
OSTYPE=linux
mmomo=37748738
PW=/home/e Hie
SHLVL=6
_=/usr/bin/env

EXPLANATION

The environment variables are set for this session and all processes that are started
from this shell are displayed by using either one of the built-in commands: env or pri nt-
env. Many applications require the setting of environment variables. For example, the
mail command has a MAIL variable set to the location of the user's mail spooler and the
xterm program has a DISPLAY variable that determines which bit map display terminal to
use. When any of these programs are executed, the values in their respective variables
are passed on to them.
9.10 Variables 447

EXAMPLE 9.54

(UNIX/Solaris/csh Example)

% env
FONTPA TH=/usr/loca 1/0M3/1 ib/fonts
HEL PPA TH=/us r/1 oca 1/0I//3/1 ib/loca le:/usr/loca 1/0W3/1 ib/he Ip
H0ME=/home/jody/e Hie
LD_LIBRARY_PA TH=/usr/loca 1/0M3/1 ib
L0CNAME=ellie
MANPATH=/ur/loca 1/man:/usr/1 oca l/man:/usr/loca 1/doctoo Is/man:/usr/man
NOSUNVIEW=0
0PEMNH0ME=/usr/loca 1/0W3
PA TH=/bi n:/us r/1 oca 1 :/usr:/usr/b im/usr/e tc:/home/5b in:/usr/
doctools:/usr:.
PW=/home/jody/e Hie
SHELL=/bin/csh
TERM=sun-cmd
USER=eHie
mmOM_PARENT=/dev/win0
nmOM_TTYPARMS=
mCR_ENV_PLACEH0LDER=/dev/win3

9.10.4 Arrays

In the C shell, an array is simply a list of words, separated by spaces or tabs, and enclosed
in parentheses. The elements of the array are numbered by subscripts starting at 1. If
there is not an array element for a subscript, the message Subscript out of range is dis-
played. Command substitution will also create an array. If the $# notation precedes an
array name, the number of elements in the array is displayed.

EXAMPLE 9.55

1 % set fruit = ( apples pears peaches plums )

2 % echo $fruit
apples pears peaches plums
3 % echo $fruit[l] # Subscripts start at 1
apples
4 % echo $fruit[2-4] # Prints the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th elements
pears peaches plums
5 $ echo Sfruit[6]
Subscript out of range.
6 % echo SfruitH # Prints all elements of the array
apples pears peaches plums
7 % echo $#fruit # Prints the number of elements
4
448 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

EXAMPLE 9.55 (continued)

8 % echo $fruit[$#fruit] # Prints the last element

plums
9 % set fruit[2] = bananas # Reassigns the second element
% echo $fruit
apples bananas peaches plums
10 % set path = ( ~ /usr/bin /usr /usr/local/bin . )
% echo $path
/home/jody/eHie /usr/bin /usr /usr/local/bin .
11 % echo $path[l]
/home/jody/e Hie

EXPLANATION

l The wordlist is enclosed within parentheses. Each word is separated by

whitespace. The array is called fruit.

2 The words in the fruit array are printed.

3 The first element of the fruit array is printed. The subscripts start at 1.

4 The second, third, and fourth elements of the wordlist are printed. The dash al-
lows you to specify a range.

5 The array does not have six elements. The subscript is out of range.

6 All elements of the fruit array are printed.

7 The $# preceding the array is used to obtain the number of elements in the array.
There are four elements in the fruit array.

8 Because the subscript $#fruit evaluates to the total number of elements in the ar-
ray, if that value is used as an index value of the array, that is, [$#fruit], the last
element of the fruit array is printed.

9 The second element of the array is assigned a new value. The array is printed with
its replaced value, bananas.

10 The path variable is a special C shell array of directories used to search for com-
mands. By creating an array, the individual elements of the path can be accessed
or changed.

11 The first element of path is printed.

The shift Command and Arrays. If the built-in shift command takes an array
name as its argument, it shifts off (to the left) the first element of the array. The length
of the array is decreased by one. (Without an argument, the shift command shifts off the
first element of the built-in argv array. See "Command-Line Arguments" on page 534.)
9.10 Variables 449

EXAMPLE 9.56

l % set names = ( Mark Tom Liz Dan Jody )

2 % echo Snames
Mark Tom Liz Dan Jody
3 % echo Snames[1]
Mark
4 % shift names
5 % echo Snames
Tom Liz Dan Jody
6 % echo Snames[1]
Tom
7 % set days = ( Monday Tuesday )
8 % shift days
9 % echo Sdays
Tuesday
10 % shift days
11 % echo Sdays
12 % shift days
shift: no more words.

EXPLANATION

l The array is called names. It is assigned the list of words in parentheses. Each word
is separated by whitespace.

2 The array is printed.

3 The first element of the array is printed.

4 The array is shifted to the left by one element. The word Mark is shifted off.

5 The array was decreased by one element after the shift.

6 The first element of the array, after the shift, is Tom.

7 An array called days is created. It has two elements, Monday and Tuesday.

8 The array days is shifted one to the left.

9 The array is printed. Tuesday is the only element left.

10 The array days is shifted again. The array is empty.

11 The days array is empty.

12 This time, attempting to shift causes the shell to send an error message indicating
that it cannot shift elements from an empty array.

Creating an Array from a String. You may want to create a wordlist out of a
quoted string. This is accomplished by placing the string variable within a set of paren-
theses.
450 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

EXAMPLE 9.57

l % set name = "Thomas Ben Savage"

% echo $name[l]
Thomas Ben Savage
2 % echo $name[2]
Subscript out of range.
3 % set name = ( $name )
4 % echo $name[l] $name[2] $name[3]
Thomas Ben Savage

EXPLANATION

1 The variable name is assigned the string Thomas Ben Savage.

2 When treated as an array, there is only one element, the entire string.

3 The variable is enclosed in parentheses, creating an array of words, called name.

4 The three elements of the new array are displayed.

9.10.5 Special Variables

Built into the C shell are several variables consisting of one character. The $ preceding
the character allows variable interpretation. See Table 9.7.

Table 9.7 Variables and Their Meanings

Variable Example Meaning

$?var echo $?nanie Returns 1 if variable has been set, 0 if not.

$#var echo $#fruit Prints the number of elements in an array.

$$ echo $$ Prints the PID of the current shell.

$< set name = $< Accepts a line of input from user up to newline.

EXAMPLE 9.58

1 % set num
% echo $?nuni
1
2 % echo Spath
/home/jody/e Hie /usr/bin/ usr/local/bin
% echo $#path
3
9.10 Variables 451

EXAMPLE 9.58 (continued)

3 % echo $$
245
% csh # Start a subshell
% echo $S
248
4 % set name = $<
Christy Campbell
% echo $name
Christy Campbell

EXPLANATION

l The variable num is set to null. The S? preceding the variable evaluates to one if the
variable has been set (either to null or some value), and to zero if the variable has
not been set.

2 The path variable is printed. It is an array of three elements. The $# preceding the
variable extracts and prints the number of elements in the array.

3 The $$ is the PID of the current process, in this case, the C shell.

4 The $< variable accepts a line of input from the user up to, but not including, the
newline, and stores the line in the name variable. The value of the name variable is
displayed.

Pathname Variable Modifiers. If a pathname is assigned to a variable, it is possible

to manipulate the pathname variable by appending special C shell extensions to it. The
pathname is divided into four parts: head, tail, root, and extension. See Table 9.8 for
examples of pathname modifiers and what they do.

Table 9.8 Pathname Modifiers

set pn = /home/ellie/prog/check.c

Modifier Meaning Example Result

:r Root echo $pn:r /home/el 1i e/prog/check

:h Head echo $pn:h /home/el lie/prog

:t Tail echo $pn:t check.c

:e Extension echo $pn:e c

:g Global echo $p:gt (See Example 9.59)

452 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

EXAMPLE 9.59

l % set pathvar = /home/danny/program.c

2 % echo $pathvar:r
/home/danny/program
3 % echo $pathvar:h
/home/danny
4 % echo $pathvar:t
program.c
5 % echo $pathvar:e
r
C
6 % set pathvar = ( /home/* )
echo $pathvar
/home/jody /home/local /home/1 ost+found /home/perl /home/tmp
7 % echo $pathvar:gt
jody local 1 ost+found perl imp

EXPLANATION

l The variable pathvar is set to /home/danny/program.c.

2 When : r is appended to the variable, the extension is removed when displayed.

3 When :h is appended to the variable, the head of the path is displayed; that is, the
last element of the path is removed.

4 When :t is appended to the variable, the tail end of the path (the last element) is
displayed.

5 When :e is appended to the variable, the extension is displayed.

6 The variable is set to /home/*. The asterisk expands to all the pathnames in the cur-
rent directory starting in /home/.

7 When :gt is appended to the variable, the tail end of each (global) of the path el-
ements is displayed.

9.11 Command Substitution

A string or variable can be assigned the output of a UNIX command by placing the com-
mand in backquotes. This is called command substitution. (On the keyboard, the back-
quote is normally below the tilde character.) If the output of a command is assigned to
a variable, it is stored as a wordlist (see "Arrays" on page 447), not a string, so that each
of the words in the list can be accessed separately. To access a word from the list, a sub-
script is appended to the variable name. Subscripts start at 1.
9.11 Command Substitution 453

EXAMPLE 9.60

l % echo The name of my machine is "uname -n'.

The name of my machine is Stardust.
2 % echo The present working directory is pwd".
The present working directory is /home/stardust/john.
3 % set d = "date'
% echo $d
Sat Jun 20 14:24:21 PDT 2004
4 % echo Sd[2] Sd[6]
Jun 2004
5 % set d = "' date "
% echo $d[l]
Sat Jun 20 14:24:21 PDT 2004

EXPLANATION

1 The UNIX command uname -n is enclosed in backquotes. When the shell encoun-
ters the backquotes, it will execute the enclosed command, uname -n, and substi-
tute the output of the command, Stardust, into the string. When the echo command
prints its arguments to standard output, the name of the machine will be one of
its arguments.

2 The UNIX command pwd is executed by the shell and the output is substituted in
place within the string.

3 The local variable d is assigned the output of the date command. The output is
stored as a list of words (an array).

4 Elements 2 and 6 of the d array are printed. The subscripts start at 1.

5 Because the output is enclosed in double quotes, it is a single string rather than a
wordlist.

9.11.1 Wordlists and Command Substitution

When a command is enclosed in backquotes and assigned to a variable, the resulting

value is an array (wordlist). Each element of the array can be accessed by appending a
subscript to the array name. The subscripts start at 1. If a subscript that is greater than
the number of words in the array is used, the C shell prints Subscript out of range. If the
output of a command consists of more than one line, the newlines are stripped from
each line and replaced with a single space.

EXAMPLE 9.61

1 % set d = "date'
% echo $d
Fri Aug 27 14:04:49 PDF 2004
454 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

EXAMPLE 9.61 (continued)

2 % echo $d[l-3]
Fri Aug 27
3 % echo $d[6]
2004
4 % echo $d[7]
Subscript out of range.
5 % echo "The calendar for the month of November is cal 11 2004 "
The calendar for month of November is November 2004 S M Tu M
Th F S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

EXPLANATION

l The variable d is assigned the output of the UNIX date command. The output is
stored as an array. The value of the variable is displayed.

2 The first three elements of the array are displayed.

3 The sixth element of the array is displayed.

4 There are not seven elements in the array. The shell reports that the subscript is
out of range.

5 The output spans more than one line. Each newline is replaced with a space. This
may not be the output you expected.

EXAMPLE 9.62

1 % set machine = "rusers | awk '/tom/iprint $1}''

2 % echo Smachine
dumbo bambi dolphin
3 % echo $#machine
3
4 % echo $machine[S#machine]
dolphin
5 % echo Smachine
dumbo bambi dolphin
6 % shift Smachine
% echo Smachine
bambi dolphin
7 % echo $machine[l]
bambi
8 % echo $#machine
2
9.12 Quoting 455

EXPLANATION

l The output of the rusers command is piped to awk. If the regular expression torn is
found, awk prints the first field. The first field, in this case, is the name of the ma-
chine(s) where user torn is logged on.

2 User torn is logged on three machines. The names of the machines are displayed.

3 The number of elements in the array is accessed by preceding the array name with
$#. There are three elements in the array.

4 The last element of the array is displayed. The number of elements in the array
($#niachine) is used as a subscript.

5 The array is displayed.

6 The shift command shifts the array to the left. The first element of the array is
dropped and the subscripts are renumbered, starting at 1.

7 The first element of the array after the shift is displayed.

8 After the shift, the length of the array has decreased by one.

9.12 Quoting

The C/TC shell has a whole set of metacharacters that have some special meaning. In
fact, almost any character on your keyboard that is not a letter or a number has some
special meaning for the shell. Here is a partial list:

* ? [ ] $ ~ ! A & { } ( ) > < I ; : %

The backslash and quotes are used to escape the interpretation of metacharacters by
the shell. Whereas the backslash is used to escape a single character, the quotes can be
used to protect a string of characters. There are some general rules for using quotes:

1. Quotes are paired and must be matched on a line. The backslash character can
be used to escape a newline so that a quote can be matched on the next line.
2. Single quotes will protect double quotes, and double quotes will protect single
quotes.
3. Single quotes protect all metacharacters from interpretation, with the exception
of the history character (!).
4. Double quotes protect all metacharacters from interpretation, with the excep-
tion of the history character (!), the variable substitution character ($), and the
backquotes (used for command substitution).

9.12.1 The Backslash

The backslash is used to escape the interpretation of a single character and, in the C
shell, is the only character that can be used to escape the history character, the exclama-
tion point (also called the bang). Often the backslash is used to escape the newline char-
acter. Backslash interpretation does not take place within quotes.
456 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

EXAMPLE 9.63

l % echo Who are you?

echo: No match.
2 % echo Who are you\?
kZ/jo are you?
3 % echo This is a very,very long line and this is where \
break the line.
This is a very, very long line and this is where
I break the line.
4 % echo "Wabc"
\\abc
% echo 'VXabc'
\\abc
% echo \\abc
\abc
5 % echo Wow\!
Now!

EXPLANATION

l The question mark is used for filename expansion. It matches for a single charac-
ter. The shell is looking for a file in the current directory that is spelled y-o-u, fol-
lowed by a single character. Because there is not a file by that name in the direc-
tory, the shell complains that it could not find a match with No match.

2 The shell will not try to interpret the question mark, because it is escaped with
the backslash.

3 The string is continued to the next line by escaping the newline with a backslash.

4 If the backslash is enclosed in either single or double quotes, it is printed. When

not enclosed in quotes, the backslash escapes itself.

5 The exclamation point must be escaped with a backslash. Otherwise the C shell
will perform history substitution.

9.12.2 Single Quotes

Single quotes must be matched on the same line and will escape all metacharacters with
the exception of the history (bang) character (!). The history character is not protected
because the C shell evaluates history before it does quotes, but not before backslashes.

EXAMPLE 9.64

1 % echo 'I need $5.00'

I need $5.00
1 % echo 'I need $500.00 nowW
I need $500.00 now!!
9.12 Quoting 457

EXAMPLE 9.64 (continued)

3 % echo 'This is going to be a long line so

Unmatched
4 % echo 'This is going to be a long line so \
I used the backslash to suppress the newline'
This is going to be a long line so
I used the backslash to suppress the newline

EXPLANATION

1 The string is enclosed in single quotes. All characters, except the history (bang)
character (!), are protected from shell interpretation.

2 The !! must be protected from shell interpretation by using the backslash character.

3 The quotes must be matched on the same line, or the shell reports Unmatched '.

4 If the line is to be continued, the backslash character is used to escape the newline
character. The quote is matched at the end of the next line. Even though the shell
ignored the newline, the echo command did not.

9.12.3 Double Quotes

Double quotes must be matched, will allow variable and command substitution, and
hide everything else except the history (bang) character (!). The backslash will not
escape the dollar sign when enclosed in double quotes.

EXAMPLE 9.65

1 % set name = Bob

% echo "Hi $name"
Hi Bob
2 % echo "1 don't have time."
I don't have time.
3 % echo "WOW!" # Watch the history metacharacter!
Event not found.
4 % echo "Whoopie\!"
Whoopie!
5 % echo "1 need \S5.00"
I need \.00

EXPLANATION

l The local variable name is assigned the value Bob. The double quotes allow the dol-
lar sign to be used for variable substitution.

2 The single quote is protected within double quotes.

458 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

EXPLANATION (continued)

3 Double or single quotes will not protect the exclamation point from shell inter-
pretation. The built-in history command is looking for the last command that be-
gan with a double quote and that event was not found.

4 The backslash is used to protect the exclamation point.

5 The backslash does not escape the dollar sign when used within double quotes.

9.12.4 The Quoting Game

As long as the quoting rules are adhered to, double quotes and single quotes can be used
in a variety of combinations in a single command. (See Chapter 15, "Debugging Shell
Scripts," on page 967 for a complete discussion on quoting.)

EXAMPLE 9.66

1 % set name = Tom

2 % echo "1 can't give Sname" ' $5.00\!'
I can't give Tom $5.00!
3 % echo She cried, V'Oh help me\!' $name.
She cried, "Oh help me!", Tom.

EXPLANATION

l The local variable name is assigned Tom.

2 The single quote in the word can't is protected when enclosed within double
quotes. The shell would try to perform variable substitution if the dollar sign in
$5.00 were within double quotes. Therefore, the string $5.00 is enclosed in single
quotes so that the dollar sign will be a literal. The exclamation point is protected
with a backslash because neither double nor single quotes can protect it from shell
interpretation.

3 The first conversational quotes are protected by the backslash. The exclamation
point is also protected with a backslash. The last conversational quotes are en-
closed in a set of single quotes. Single quotes will protect double quotes.

Quoting with the ;q Modifier. The :q modifier is used to replace double quotes.

EXAMPLE 9.67

1 % set name = "Daniel Savage"

2 % grep $name:q database
same as
3 % grep "$name" database
4 % set food = "apple pie"
9.12 Quoting 459

EXAMPLE 9.67 (continued)

5 % set dessert = ( $food "ice cream")

6 % echo $#dessert
3
7 % echo Sdessert[l]
apple
8 % echo $dessert[2]
pie
9 % echo $dessert[B]
ice cream
10 % set dessert = ($food:q "ice cream")
11 % echo S#dessert
2
12 % echo $dessert[l]
apple pie
13 % echo $dessert[2]
ice cream

EXPLANATION

1 The variable is assigned the string Daniel Savage.

2 When :q is appended to the variable, the variable is quoted. This is the same as
enclosing the variable in double quotes.

3 The double quotes surrounding the variable $name allow variable substitution to
take place, but protect any whitespace characters. Without the double quotes, the
grep program will search for Daniel in a file called Savage and a file called database.

4 The variable food is assigned the string apple pie.

5 The variable dessert is assigned an array (wordlist) consisting of apple pie and ice
cream.

6 The number of elements in the dessert array is three. When the food variable was
expanded, the quotes were removed. There are three elements, apple, pie, and ice
cream.

7 The first element of the array is printed. The variable expands to separated words
if not quoted.

8 The second element of the array is printed.

9 Because "ice cream" is quoted, it is treated as one word.

10 The dessert array is assigned apple pie and ice cream. The :q can be used to quote
the variable in the same way double quotes quote the variable; that is, $food:q is
the same as "$food".

11 The array consists of two strings, apple pie and ice cream.

12 The first element of the array, apple pie, is printed.

13 The second element of the array, ice cream, is printed.

460 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

Quoting with the :x Modifier. If you are creating an array and any of the words in
the list contain metacharacters, :x prevents the shell from interpreting the metacharac-
ters when performing variable substitution.

EXAMPLE 9.68

1 % set things = "-v.c a?? fi1e[l-5]"

% echo $#things
1
2 % set newthings = ( $things )
set: No match.
3 % set newthings = ( $things:x )
4 % echo $#newthings
3
5 % echo "$newthings[l] $newthings[2] $newthings[3] "
*.c a?? file[1-5]
6 % grep $newthings[2]:q filex
The question marks in a?? would be used for filename expansion
it is not quoted

EXPLANATION

1 The variable thi ngs is assigned a string. Each string contains a wildcard. The num-
ber of elements in the variable is one, one string.

2 When attempting to create an array out of the string thi ngs, the C shell tries to ex-
pand the wildcard characters to perform filename substitution within things and
produces a No match.

3 The :x extension prevents the shell from expanding the wildcards in the things
variable.

4 The array newthings consists of three elements.

5 To print the elements of the array, they must be quoted or, again, the shell will try
to expand the wildcards.

6 The :q quotes the variable just as though the variable were surrounded by double
quotes. The grep program will print any lines containing the pattern a?? in file
filex.

9.13 New Features of the Interactive TC Shell

The TC shell is a public domain enhanced version of its predecessor, the Berkeley UNIX
C shell. If you are using Linux, you will have this available to you rather than the tradi-
tional C shell. Although tcsh is included in most Linux distributions, it can also be ported
to a number of other operating systems, including Solaris, Windows NT, HP-UX, QNX,
and more. There are an assortment of new features in the TC shell. The remainder of this
chapter covers these additional features, most of them shortcuts, including command-
line editing, fancy prompts, programmable completions (filenames, commands, and
variables), spelling correction, and so forth.
9.13 New Features of the Interactive TC Shell 461

This section focuses only on the new features added to the TC shell. The topics cov-
ered in the last section apply to both the C shell and TC shell.

9.13.1 Versions of tcsh

To find out what version of tcsh you are using, type at the shell prompt:

which tcsh

To tell you in what directory tcsh is installed (normally /bin), and to print the version
information, type:

/directory_path/tcsh -c 'echo Sversion'

EXAMPLE 9.69

1 which tcsh
/bin/tcsh
2 /bin/tcsh -c 'echo Sversion'
tcsh 6.07.09 (Astron) 1998-07-07 (i386-intel-linux) options
8b,nls,dl ,al ,rh,color

9.13.2 The Shell Prompts

The TC shell has three prompts: the primary prompt, a > symbol; the secondary prompt,
a question mark (?) followed by a tcsh command such as while, foreach, or if; and a third
prompt used for the spelling correction feature. The primary prompt is the prompt that
is displayed on the terminal after you have logged in. It can be reset. If you are writing
scripts at the prompt that require tcsh programming constructs, for example, decision
making or looping, the secondary prompt will appear so that you can continue on to the
next line. It will continue to appear after each newline, until the construct has been
properly terminated. The third prompt appears to confirm automatic spelling correction
if spelling correction is turned on. (See "TC Shell Spelling Correction" on page 490.) It
contains the string CORRECT > corrected command (y|n|e|a)?. The prompts can be customized
by adding special formatting sequences to the prompt string. See Table 9.9.

Table 9.9 Prompt Strings

String Description

%/ The current working directory

%~ The current working directory, where ~ represents the user's home directory
and other users' home directories are represented by -user

%c[[0]n], The trailing component of the current working directory, or if n (a digit) is

%.[[0]n] given, n trailing components
462 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

Table 9.9 Prompt Strings (continued)

String Description

%C Like %c, but without ~ substitution

%h, %!, ! The current history event number

m The full hostname

0
/m The hostname up to the first

%S (%s) Start (stop) standout mode

%B (%b) Start (stop) boldfacing mode

%U (%u) Start (stop) underline mode

The time of day in 12-hour AM/PM format

"/O" Like %t, but in 24-hour format

%p The "precise" time of day in 12-hour AM/PM format, with seconds

%P Like %p, but in 24-hour format

Ac c is parsed as in bindkey

\c c is parsed as in bindkey

%% A single %

%n The user name

%d The weekday in "Day" format

%D The day in "dd" format

%w The month in "Mon" format

%W The month in "mm" format

%y The year in "yy" format

%Y The year in "yyyy" format

%1 The shell's tty

1—

Clears from the end of the prompt to the end of the display or the end of the line

Expands the shell or environment variable name immediately after the $

%# > (or the first character of the promptchars shell variable) for normal users, # (or
the second character of promptchars) for the superuser

%{string%} Includes string as a literal escape sequence; should be used only to change
terminal attributes and should not move the cursor location; cannot be the
last sequence in prompt

%? The return code of the command executed just before the prompt

%R In promptZ, the status of the parser; in prompts, the corrected string; in history,
the history string
9.13 New Features of the Interactive TC Shell 463

The Primary Prompt. When running interactively, the prompt waits for you to type
a command and press the Enter key If you do not want to use the default prompt, reset
it in the .tcshrc file and it will be set for this and all TC shells subsequently started. If
you only want it set for this login session, set it at the shell prompt.

EXAMPLE 9.70

0
1 > set prompt = '[ /on@0/om %c]# '
2 [ ellie@homebound -]# cd ..
3 [ ellie@homebound /home]# cd ..

EXPLANATION

1 The primary prompt is assigned the user's login name (%n), followed by the host-
name (%m), a space, and the current working directory. The string is enclosed in
square brackets, followed by a #.

2 The new prompt is displayed. The ~ appearing in the prompt represents the user's
home directory. The cd command changes directory to the parent directory.

3 The new prompt indicates the current working directory, /home. In this way the
user always know what directory he or she is in.

The Secondary Prompt. The secondary prompt appears when you are writing
online scripts at the prompt. The secondary prompt can be changed. Whenever shell
programming constructs are entered, followed by a newline, the secondary prompt
appears and continues to appear until the construct is properly terminated. Writing
scripts correctly at the prompt takes practice. Once the command is entered and you
press Enter, you cannot back up, and the tcsh history mechanism does not save com-
mands typed at the secondary prompt.

EXAMPLE 9.71

1 > foreach pal (joe torn ann)

2 foreach? echo Hi $pal
3 foreach? end
Hi joe
Hi torn
Hi ann
4 >

EXPLANATION

1 This is an example of online scripting. Because the TC shell is expecting further

input after the foreach loop is entered, the secondary prompt appears. The foreach
loop processes each word in the parenthesized list.
464 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

EXPLANATION (continued)

2 The first time in the loop, joe is assigned to the variable pal. The user joe is sent
the contents of memo in the mail. Then next time through the loop, torn is assigned
to the variable pal, and so on.

3 The end statement marks the end of the loop. When all of the items in the parenthe-
sized list have been processed, the loop ends and the primary prompt is displayed.

4 The primary prompt is displayed.

EXAMPLE 9.72

l > set prompt2=,0/oR %% '

2 > foreach name ( joe torn ann )
3 foreach % echo Hi $name
4 foreach % end
Hi joe
Hi torn
Hi ann
5 >

EXPLANATION

1 The secondary prompt, prompt?, is reset to the formatted string where %R is the
name of the conditional or looping construct entered in line 2 at the primary
prompt. The two percent signs will evaluate to one percent sign.

2 The foreach command has been started. This is a looping construct that must end
with the keyword end. The secondary prompt will continue to appear until the
loop is properly terminated.

3 The secondary prompt is foreach %.

4 After the end keyword is typed, the loop executes.

5 The primary prompt reappears awaiting user input.

9.14 The TC Shell Command Line

9.14.1 The Command Line and Exit Status

After logging in, the TC shell displays its primary prompt, by default a > symbol. The
shell is your command interpreter. When the shell is running interactively, it reads com-
mands from the terminal and breaks the command line into words. A command line
consists of one or more words (or tokens) separated by whitespace (blanks and/or tabs)
and terminated by a newline, generated by pressing the Enter key. The first word is the
command, and subsequent words are the command's options and/or arguments. The
command may be a Linux executable program such as Is or pwd, an alias, a built-in com-
mand such as cd or jobs, or a shell script. The command may contain special characters,
9.14 The TC Shell Command Line 465

called metacharacters, that the shell must interpret while parsing the command line. If
the last character in the command line is a backslash, followed by a newline, the line can
be continued to the next line.5

Exit Status and the printexitvalue Variable. After a command or program ter-
minates, it returns an exit status to the parent process. The exit status is a number
between 0 and 255. By convention, when a program exits, if the status returned is 0,
the program was successful in its execution. When the exit status is nonzero, then it
failed in some way. If the program terminated abnormally, then 0200 is added to the sta-
tus. Built-in commands that fail return an exit status of 1; otherwise, they return a status
of 0.
The tcsh status variable or ? variable is set to the value of the exit status of the last
command that was executed. Success or failure of a program is determined by the pro-
grammer who wrote the program. By setting the tcsh variable, printexitvalue, any time a
program exits with a value other than 0, its status will automatically be printed.

EXAMPLE 9.73

1 > grep "ellie" /etc/passwd

el lie: CgMyBsSJa vdl 6s: 501:40:E Quigl ey./home/jody/e 1 lie :/b i n/tcsh
2 > echo $status or echo $?
0
3 > grep "nicky" /etc/passwd
4 > echo Sstatus
1
5 > grep "scott" /etc/passsswd
grep: /etc/passsswd: No such file or directory
6 > echo Sstatus
2
7 > set printexitvalue
> grep "XXX" /etc/passwd
Exit 1
>

EXPLANATION

1 The grep program searches for the pattern "ellie" in the /etc/passwd file and is suc-
cessful. The line from /etc/passwd is displayed.

2 The status variable is set to the exit value of the grep command; 0 indicates success.
The ? variable also holds the exit status. This is the variable used by the bash and
ksh shells for checking exit status. (It is not used by csh.)

3 The grep program cannot find user nicky in the /etc/passwd file.

4 The grep program cannot find the pattern, so it returns an exit status of 1.

5. The length of the command line can be at least 256 characters.

466 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

5 The grep fails because the file /etc/passsswd cannot be opened.

6 Grep cannot find the file, so it returns an exit status of 2.

7 The special tcsh variable printexitvalue is set. It will automatically print the exit
value of any command that exits with a nonzero value.

9.14.2 TC Shell Command-Line History

The history mechanism is built into the TC shell. It keeps in memory a sequentially
numbered list of the commands, called events, that you have typed at the command line.
As well as the number of the history event, it also keeps track of the time the event was
entered at the terminal. When the shell reads a command from the terminal, it breaks
the command line into words (using whitespace to designate a word break), saves the
line to the history list, parses it, and then executes it. The previous command typed is
always saved. You can recall a command at any time from the history list and re-execute
it without retyping the command. During a login session, the commands you type are
appended to the history list until you exit, at which time they can be saved in a file in
your home directory, called .history.6 The terms history list and history file can be some-
what confusing. The history list consists of the command lines currently held in the
shell's memory. The history file, normally called .history, is the text file where those com-
mands are saved for future use. The built-in variable, savehist, saves the history list to
the .history file when you log out, and loads its contents into memory when you start
up. (See -S and -L options to the history command in Table 9.10.) The history built-in
command displays the history list. It supports a number of arguments to control how
the history is displayed.

Table 9.10 The hi story Command and Options

Option Meaning

-c Clears the history list in memory, not the history file

-h Prints history list without numbers

-L [filename] Appends history file (.history or filename) to the history list

-M [filename] Like -L, except merges contents of history file with current history list

n n is a number, for example, history 5, controlling the number of lines displayed

-r Prints history list in reverse

-S [filename] Saves history list to .history or filename if given

-T Prints timestamps in comment form

6. The name of the .history file can be changed by assigning the new name to the histfile shell variable.
9.14 The TC Shell Command Line 467

Although the default name for the history file is .history, its name can be changed by
assigning an alternative name to the built-in shell variable, histfile. The history shell
variable is set to a number specifying how many commands to display and the histdup
variable can be set so that duplicate entries are not added to the history file.

EXAMPLE 9.74

(The Command Line)

> history
1 17:12 cd
2 17:13 Is
3 17:13 more /etc/fstab
4 17:24 /etc/mount
5 17:54 sort index
6 17:56 vi index

EXPLANATION

The history list displays the last commands that were typed at the command line. Each
event in the list is preceded with a number (called an event number) and the time that
it was entered at the command line.

The history Variable. The TC shell history variable can be set to the number of
events from the history list that will be displayed on the terminal. Normally, this is set
in the /etc/.cshrc or ~/-tcshrc file, the user's initialization file. It is set to 100 by default.
You can also provide an optional second value for the hi story variable to control the way
the history is formatted. This value uses the same formatting sequences as the prompt
variable. (See Table 9.10.) The default format string for history is %h\t%T\t%R\n.

EXAMPLE 9.75

1 set history=1000
2 set history= ( 1000 "mh "/oRXn1 )
3 history
136 history
137 set history = ( 1000 '%B%h %R\n' )
138 history
139 Is
140 pwd
141 cal
141 pwd
142 cd

EXPLANATION

1 The last 1,000 commands typed at the terminal can be displayed on the screen by
typing the history command.
468 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

EXPLANATION (continued)

2 The last 1,000 commands typed at the terminal are displayed. The format string
causes the history list to be displayed in bold text (%B) first with the event number
(%h), then a space, and finally the command that was typed (%R) at the command
line followed by a newline (\n).

3 When you type hi story, the new format is shown. This is only a selected section of
the real history list.

Saving History and the savehist Variable. To save history events across logins,
set the savehist variable. This variable is normally set in the .tcshrc file, the user's initial-
ization file. If the first value assigned to savehist is a number, it cannot exceed the num-
ber set in the history variable, if the history variable is set. If the second value is set to
merge, the history list is merged with the existing history file instead of replacing it. It is
sorted by timestamp, and the most recent events saved.

EXAMPLE 9.76

1 set savehist
2 set savehist = 1000
3 set savehist = 1000 merge

EXPLANATION

1 The commands from the history list are saved in the history file and will be at the
top of the history list the next time you log in.

2 The history file is replaced with the last 1,000 commands from the history list, and
saved. It will be displayed when you next log in.

3 Rather than replacing the existing history file, the current history list will be
merged with the existing history file when you log out, and loaded into memory
after you log in.

Displaying History. The history command displays the events in the history list. The
history command also has options that control the number of events and the format of
the events that will be displayed. The numbering of events does not necessarily start at
one. If you have 100 commands on the history list, and you have set the hi story variable
to 25, you will only see the last 25 commands saved.

EXAMPLE 9.77

1 > set history = 10

2 > history
1 Is
2 vi filel
3 df
9.14 The TC Shell Command Line 469

EXAMPLE 9.77 (continued)

4 ps -eaf
5 history
6 more /etc/passwd
7 cd
8 echo SUSER
9 set
10 Is

EXPLANATION

1 The history variable is set to 10. Only the last 10 lines of the history list will be
displayed, even if there are many more.

2 The last 10 events from the history are displayed. Each command is numbered.

EXAMPLE 9.78

1 > history -h # print without line numbers

Is
vi filel
df
ps -eaf
history
more /etc/passwd
cd
echo SUSER
set
history -n
2 > history -c

EXPLANATION

1 With the h option, the history list is displayed without line numbers.

2 With the c option, the history list is cleared.

EXAMPLE 9.79

> history -r # print the history list in reverse

11 history -r
10 history -h
9 set
8 echo SUSER
7 cd
6 more /etc/passwd
5 history
4 ps -eaf
3 df
2 vi filel
1 Is
470 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

EXPLANATION

The history list is displayed in reverse order.

EXAMPLE 9.80

> history 5 # prints the last 5 events on the history list

7 echo SUSER
8 cd
9 set
10 history -n
11 history 5

EXPLANATION

The last five commands on the history list are displayed.

Accessing Commands from the History File. There are several ways to access
and repeat commands from the history list. A nice new feature is included with tcsh: You
can use the arrow keys with history. They allow you to scroll up and down the history
list, and to move left and right across lines, editing as you go; you can use a mechanism
called history substitution to re-execute and fix spelling mistakes; or you can use the
built-in emacs or vi editors to retrieve, edit, and execute previous commands. We'll step
through each of these procedures and then you can choose whatever way works best for
you.

1. The Arrow Keys

To access commands from the history list, you can use the arrow keys on the
keyboard to move up and down through the history list, and from left to right.
You can edit any of the lines in the history list by using the standard keys for
deleting, backspacing, and so on. As soon as you have edited the line, pressing
the carriage return (Enter key) will cause the command line to re-execute. You
can also use standard emacs or vi commands to edit the history list. (See
Table 9.13 on page 475 and Table 9.14 on page 476.) The arrow keys behave
the same way for both the vi and emacs keybindings. (See Table 9.11.)

Table 9.11 The Arrow Keys

Key What It Does

T Up arrow moves up the history list

i Down arrow moves down the history list

—> Right arrow moves cursor to the right of history command

<— Left arrow moves cursor to the left of history command

9.14 The TC Shell Command Line 471

2. Re-executing and Bang! Bang!

To re-execute a command from the history list, use the exclamation point
(bang) to start history substitution. The exclamation point can begin anywhere
on the line and can be escaped with a backslash. If the ! is followed by a space,
tab, or newline, it will not be interpreted. There are a number of ways to use
history substitution to designate what part of the history list you want to redo.
(See Table 9.12 on page 474.) If you type two exclamation points (!!), the last
command is re-executed. If you type the exclamation point followed by a num-
ber, the number is associated with the command from the history list and the
command is executed. If you type an exclamation point and a letter, the last
command that started with that letter is executed. The caret (a) is also used as a
shortcut method for editing the previous command.
After history substitution is performed, the history list is updated with the
results of the substitution shown in the command. For example, if you type !! the
last command will be re-executed and saved in the history list in its expanded
form. If you want the last command to be added to the history list in its literal
form; that is, !!, then set the histlit shell variable.

| EXAMPLE <9.81 1

1 > date
Mon Feb 8 12:27:35 PST 2004
2 > !!
date
Mon Aug 10 12:28:25 PST 2004
3 > !3
date
Mon Aug 10 12:29:26 PST 2004
4 > !d
date
Mon Aug 10 12:30:09 PST 2004
5 > dare
dare: Command not found.
6 > ArAt
date
Mon Apr 10 16:15:25 PDT 2004
7 > history
1 16:16 Is
2 16:16 date
3 16:17 date
4 16:18 date
5 16:18 dare
6 16:18 date
472 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

EXAMPLE 9.81 (continued)

8 > set histlit

9 > history
1 16:18 Is
2 16:19 date
3 16:19 !!
4 16:20 !3
5 16:21 dare
6 16:21 /W

EXPLANATION

1 The date command is executed at the command line. The history list is updated.
This is the last command on the list.

2 The !! (bang bang) gets the last command from the history list; the command is
re-executed.

3 The third command on the history list is re-executed.

4 The last command on the history list that started with the letter d is re-executed.

5 The command is mistyped.

6 The carets are used to substitute letters from the last command on the history list.
The first occurrence of an r is replaced with a t.

7 The history command displays the history list, after history substitution has been
performed.

8 By setting histlit, the shell will perform history substitution, but will put the lit-
eral command typed on the history list; that is, just as it was typed.

9 When histlit is set, the output of the history command shows what commands
were literally typed before history substitution took place. (This is just a demo;
the history numbers are not accurate.)

EXAMPLE 9.82

1 % cat filel file2 fileB

<Contents of files displayed here>
> vi !:1
vi filel
2 > cat filel file2 fileB
<Contents of file, file2, and filel are displayed here>
> Is !:2
Is file2
file2
3 > cat filel file2 fileB
> Is !:3
7s file!
file!
9.14 The TC Shell Command Line 473

EXAMPLE 9.82 (continued)

4 > echo a b c
a b c
> echo !$
echo c
Cs~
5 > echo a b c
a b c
> echo !A
echo a
a
6 > echo a b c
a b c
> echo !*
echo a b c
a b c
7 > !! :p
echo a b c

EXPLANATION

1 The cat command displays the contents of filel to the screen. The history list is
updated. The command line is broken into words, starting with word number ze-
ro. If the word number is preceded by a colon, that word can be extracted from
the history list. The ! :1 notation means: get the first argument from the last com-
mand on the history list and replace it in the command string. The first argument
from the last command is filel. (Word 0 is the command itself.)

2 The ! :2 is replaced with the second argument of the last command, file2, and giv-
en as an argument to Is. File2 is printed. (FileZ is the third word.)

3 Is ! ;3 reads: go to the last command on the history list and get the fourth word
(words start at zero) and pass it to the Is command as an argument. (FileB is the
fourth word.)

4 The bang (!) with the dollar sign ($) refers to the last argument of the last com-
mand on the history list. The last argument is c.

5 The caret (A) represents the first argument after the command. The bang (!) with
the A refers to the first argument of the last command on the history list. The first
argument of the last command is a.

6 The asterisk (*) represents all arguments after the command. The bang (!) with
the * refers to all of the arguments of the last command on the history list.

7 The last command from the history list is printed but not executed. The history
list is updated. You could now perform caret substitutions on that line.
474 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

Table 9.12 Substitution and History

Event
Designators Meaning

I Indicates the start of history substitution

!! Re-executes the previous command

!N Re-executes the Nth command from the history list

! -N Re-executes the Nth command back from present command

!string Re-executes the last command starting with string

!?string? Re-executes the last command containing string

!?string?% Re-executes the most recent command-line argument from the history list containing
string

!A Uses the first argument of the last history command in the current command line

!* Uses all of the arguments from the last hi story command in the current command line

!$ Uses the last argument from the last history command in the current command line

!! string Appends string to the previous command and executes

!N string Appends string to Nth command in history list and executes

!N:s/old/new/ In previous Nth command, substitutes the first occurrence of old string with new string

!N:gs/old/new/ In previous Nth command, globally substitutes old siring with new string

AoldAnewA in last history command, substitutes old string with new string

command !N:wn Executes current command appending an argument (wn) from the Nth previous
command; wn is a number starting at 0, 1, 2, . . . designating the number of the word
from the previous command; word 0 is the command itself, and 1 is its first argument,
and so on

!N:p Puts the command at the bottom of the history list and prints it, but doesn't execute it

9.14.3 The Built-in Command-Line Editors

The command line can be edited by using the same type of key sequences that you use
in either the emacs or vi editors. You can use editor commands to scroll up and down the
history list. Once the command is found, it can be edited, and by pressing the Enter key,
re-executed. When the shell was compiled, it was given a default set of keybindings for
the emacs editor.
9.14 The TC Shell Command Line 475

Th© bindkey Built-in Command. The built-in bindkey command is used to select
either vi or emacs for command-line editing and to list and set keybindings for the respec-
tive editors. To use vi as your command-line editor, use bindkey with the -v option;

bindkey -v

and to go back to emacs, type

bindkey -e

To see a list of editor commands and a short description of what each does, type

bindkey -1

To see the actual keys and how they are bound, type

bindkey

To actually bind keys to commands, see "Binding Keys" on page 477.

The vi Built-in Editor. To edit the history list, go to the command line and press the
Esc key. Then press the K key if you want to scroll upward in the history list, and the J key
to move downward, just like standard vi motion keys. When you find the command that
you want to edit, use the standard keys that you would use in vi for moving left and right,
deleting, inserting, and changing text. (See Table 9.13.) After making the edit, press the
Enter key. The command will be executed and added to the bottom of the history list. If
you want to add or insert text, then use any of the insertion commands (i, e, o, 0, etc.).
Remember, vi has two modes: the command mode and the insert mode. You are always in
the insert mode when you are actually typing text. To get back to the command mode,
press the Esc key.

Table 9.13 vi Commands

Command Function

Moving Through the History File

Esc K or + Move up the history list

Esc J or - Move down the history list

G Move to first line in history file

5G Move to fifth command in history file

/string Search upward through history file

? String search downward through history file

476 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

Table 9.13 vi Commands (continued)

Command Function

Moving Around on a Line

h Move left on a line

1 Move right on a line

b Move backward a word

e or w Move forward a word

a or 0 Move to beginning of first character on the line

$ Move to end of line

Editing with vi

a A Append text

i I Insert text

dd dw x Delete text into a buffer (line, word, or character)

cc C Change text

u U Undo

yy Y Yank (copy a line into buffer)

P P Put yanked or deleted line down below or above the line

r R Replace a letter or any amount of text on a line

The emacs Built-in Editor. If you are using the emacs built-in editor, like vi, start at the
A
command line. To start moving upward through the history file, press P. To move down,
A
press N. Use emacs editing commands to change or correct text, then press Enter, and
the command will be re-executed. See Table 9.14.

Table 9.14 emacs Commands

Command Function

Ctrl-P Move up history file

Ctrl-N Move down history file

Esc < Move to first line of history file

Esc > Move to last line of history file

Ctrl-B Move backward one character

9.14 The TC Shell Command Line 477

Table 9.14 emacs Commands (continued)

Command Function

Ctrl-R Search backward for string

Esc B Move back one word

Ctrl-F Move forward one character

Esc F Move forward one word

Ctrl-A Move to the beginning of the line

Ctrl-E Move to the end of the line

Esc < Move to the first line of the history file

Esc > Move to the last line of the history file

Editing with emacs

Ctrl-U Delete the line

Ctrl-Y Put the line back

Ctrl-K Delete from cursor to the end line

Ctrl-D Delete a letter

Esc D Delete one word forward

Esc H Delete one word backward

Esc (space) Set a mark at cursor position

Ctrl-X Ctrl-X Exchange cursor and mark

Ctrl-P Ctrl-Y Push region from cursor to mark into a buffer (Ctrl-P) and put it down
(Ctrl-Y)

Binding Keys. The bindkey built-in command lists all the standard keybindings
including keybindings for emacs and vi. The keybindings are divided up into four groups:
the standard key bindings, alternative key bindings, multicharacter key bindings, and
the arrow key bindings. The bindkey command also allows you to change the current
bindings of keys.
478 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

EXAMPLE 9.83

1 > bindkey
Standard key bindings
"A@" -> is undefined
"M" -> beginning-of- line
"AB" -> backward-char
'•AQ" -> tty-sigintr
"AD" -> list-or-eof
"AE" -> end-of-line
"AF" -> forward-char
"AL " -> clear-screen
"AM" -> newline

Alternative key bindings

"A§" -> is undefined
"AA" -> beginning-of-line
"AB" -> is undefined
"AC" -> tty-sigintr
"AD" -> list-choices
"AE" -> end-of-line
"AF" -> is undefined

Multi-character bindings
"A [[A" -> up-hi story
"A[[B" -> down-history
"A[[C" -> forward-char
"A[[D" -> backward-char
"A [OA" -> up-history
"A [OB" -> down-history

Arrow key bindings

down -> down-history
up -> up-history
left -> backward-char
right -> forward-char

The -1 option to bindkey lists the editor commands and what they do. See Example 9.84.

EXAMPLE 9.84

> bindkey -1

backward-char
Move back a character
backward-delete-char
Delete the character behind cursor
9.14 The TC Shell Command Line 479

backward-delete-word
Cut from beginning of current word to cursor - saved in cut buffer
backward-kill-line
Cut from beginning of line to cursor - save in cut buffer
backward-word
Move to beginning of current word
beginning-of-line
Move to beginning of line
capitalize-word
Capitalize the characters from cursor to end of current word
change-case
Vi change case of character under cursor and advance one character
change-til1-end-of-line
Vi change to end of line
clear-screen
Standard key bindings

The bindkey command can also display the values for individual key bindings as
shown in Example 9.85. The emacs mappings are shown by default, but with the -a option
to bindkey, the alternate mappings for vi keys are displayed. The arguments to bindkey are
specified as a sequence of special characters to represent the key sequences followed by
the editing command key to which the key will be bound. See Table 9.15 for a list of
these keybinding characters. You can bind keys not only to emacs or vi editor commands,
but also to Linux commands and strings.

Table 9.15 Keybinding Characters

Characters Meaning

AC Ctrl-C

A
[ Escape

A? Delete

\a Ctrl-G (bell)

\b Ctrl-H (backspace)

\e Esc (escape)

\f Formfeed

\n Newline

\r Return
480 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

Table 9.16 Keybinding Characters (continued)

Characters Meaning

\t Tab

\v Ctrl-K (vertical tab)

\nnn ASCII octal number

Table 9.16 bi ndkey Options

bindkey Lists All Key Bindings

bi ndkey -a Allow alternate key mapping

bi ndkey -d Restore default bindings

bindkey -e Use emacs bindings

bi ndkey -1 Display all editing commands and what they mean

bi ndkey -u Display usage message

bi ndkey -v Use vi key bindings

bi ndkey key Display binding for key

bi ndkey key command Bind key to emacs or vi command

bi ndkey -c key command Bind key to UNIX/Linux command

bindkey -s key string Bind key to string

bindkey -r key Remove keybinding

EXAMPLE 9.85

l > bindkey al
"AL" -> clear-screen
2 > bindkey ac
"AC" -> tty-sigintr
3 > bindkey "j"
T self-insert-command
4 > bindkey -v
i
5 > bindkey -a "j"
"j" down-history

EXPLANATION

1 The bindkey command with a Ctrl key (AL) displays to what command the Ctrl key
A
is bound. L causes the screen to be cleared.
9.14 The TC Shell Command Line 481

EXPLANATION (continued)

2 Ctrl-C (AC) is bound to the interrupt signal, which normally terminates a process.

3 Lowercase "j" is an emacs self-insert command, which does nothing but insert that
letter into the buffer.

4 In order to see the alternate vi key bindings, be sure you have set the vi command-
line editor with bindkey -v as shown here.

5 With the -a option, bindkey displays the alternate key mapping for "j"; that is, the
vi key for moving down the history list.

EXAMPLE 9.86

1 > bindkey "AT" clear-screen # Create a new key bin ding

2 > bindkey "AT"
"AT" -> clear-screen
3 > bindkey -a "AT" # Alternate keybinding undefined
"AT" -> undefined-key
4 > bindkey -a [Ctrl-v Control t] clear-screen # Create an alternate keybinding
Press keys one after the other
5 > bindkey -a [Ctrl-v Control t]
"AT" -> clear-screen
6 > bindkey -s 'Xehi' 'Hello to youlXn' # Bind a key to a string
> echo [Escjhi Press escape followed by 'h' and 'i'
Hello to you!
>
7 > bindkey ^[hi1
"A[hi" -> "Hello to you!"
8 > bindkey -r '\[hi' # Remove keybinding
9 > bindkey 'Xehi'
Unbound extended key "A[hi"
10 > bindkey -c '\ex' 'Is | more' # Bind a key to a command

EXPLANATION

1 Ctrl-T is bound to the command to clear the screen, a default emacs key mapping.
This key sequence was not originally bound to anything. Now when the Ctrl and
T keys are pressed together, the screen will be cleared.

2 The bindkey command, with the key sequence as an argument, will display the
mapping for that sequence, if there is one.

3 With the -a option and a key sequence, bindkey displays the value of the alternate
key map, vi. In this example, bindkey with the -a option and the key sequence
shows that the alternate mapping (vi) does not have this sequence bound to any-
thing.
482 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

EXPLANATION (continued)

4 With the -a option, bi ndkey can bind keys to the alternate key map, vi. By pressing
Ctrl-V followed by Ctrl-T, the key sequence is created and assigned the value
clear-screen. Ctrl-V/Ctrl-T can also be represented as "AT" as shown in the previ-
ous example.
A
5 The bi ndkey function displays the alternate mapping for T and its command.

6 With the -s command, bi ndkey will bind a literal string to a key sequence. Here the
string "Hello to you!\n" is bound to the escape sequence hi. By pressing the Esc key
and then an h and an i, the string will be sent to standard output.
A
7 The bi ndkey command displays the binding for the escape sequence hi. The [ is
another way to represent Esc (escape).

8 With the -r option, bi ndkey removes a key binding.

9 Because the keybinding was removed, the output says that this extended key se-
quence is not bound.

10 With the -c option, bi ndkey can bind a key sequence to a Linux command. In this
example, pressing the Esc key, followed by the "x" key, will cause the command
Is to be piped to more.

9.15 TC Shell Command, Filename,

and Variable Completion

To save typing, tcsh has a mechanism called completion that allows you to type part of a
command, filename, or variable, and then by pressing the Tab key, have the rest of the
word completed for you.
If you type the first few letters of a command, and press the Tab key, tcsh will attempt
to complete the command name. If tcsh cannot complete the command, because it
doesn't exist, the terminal will beep and the cursor will stay at the end of the command.
If there is more than one command starting with those characters, by pressing Ctrl-D,
all commands that start with those characters will be listed.
Filename and variable completion work the same as command completion. With file-
name completion, if there are several files starting with the same letters, tcsh will com-
plete the shortest name that matches, expand out the filename until the characters differ,
and then flash the cursor for you to complete the rest. See Example 9.87.

9.15.1 The autol i st Variable

If the autol i st variable is set, and there are a number of possible completions, all of the
possible commands, variables, or filenames will be listed depending on what type of
completion is being performed when the Tab key is entered.
9.15 TC Shell Command, Filename, and Variable Completion 483

EXAMPLE 9.87

1 > Is
filel file? foo foobarckle fumble
2 > Is fuftab] # expands to filename to fumble
3 > Is f\[tab] # terminal beeps, nothing happens
4 > Is fi[tab] # expands to file_ (_ is a cursor)
5 > set autolist
6 > Is fftab] # lists all possibilities
filel file? foo foobarckle fumble
7 > Is foo\)[tab] # expands to foobarckle
8 > da[tab] # completes the date command
date
Fri Aug 9 21:15:38 PDF 2004
9 > ca[tab] # lists all commands starting with ca
cal captoinfo case cat
10 > echo $\\o[tab]me # expands shell variables
/home/el lie/
11 > echo $h[tab]
history home

EXPLANATION

1 All files are listed for the current working directory.

2 After fu is typed, the Tab key is pressed, causing the filename to be completed to
fumble, and listed.

3 Because none of the files start with fx, the terminal beeps and the cursor remains
but does nothing.

4 There are a number of files starting with fi; the filenames are completed until the
letters are no longer the same. When you press Ctrl-D, all files with that spelling
are listed.

5 The autolist variable is set. If there are a number of choices, when you press the
Tab key, autolist displays all the possibilities.

6 After you press the Tab key, a list of all files beginning with f are printed.

7 When the Tab key is pressed, the filename is expanded to foobarckle.

8 When the Tab key is pressed after da, the only command that begins with da is the
date command. The command name is expanded and executed.

9 Because autol i st is set, when the Tab key is pressed after ca, all commands starting
with ca are listed. If autolist is not set, type Ctrl-D to get a list.

10 The leading $ on a word indicates that the shell should perform variable expan-
sion when the Tab key is pressed to complete the word. The variable home is
completed.

11 Variable completion is ambiguous in this example. When completion is attempted

by pressing the Tab key, all possible shell variables are listed.
484 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

9.15.2 The fignore Variable

The shell variable, fignore, can be set to ignore certain filename extensions when file-
name completion is in use. For example, you may not want to expand files that end in
.0 because they are unreadable object files. Or maybe you don't want the .gif files to be
accidently removed when filenames are expanded. For whatever reason, the fignore vari-
able can be assigned a list of extensions for files that will be excluded from filename
expansion.

EXAMPLE 9.88

1 > Is
baby box. gif file2 prog.c
baby, gif filel fileS prog.o
2 > set fignore = (.o .gif )
3 > echo baftab] # Completes baby but ignores baby.gif
baby
4 > echo boxftab].gif # fignore is ignored if only one completion is possible
box.gif
5 > vi proqftab] # expands to prog.c
Starts vi with prog.c as its argument

EXPLANATION

1 The files in the current working directory are listed. Note that some of the files
have extensions on their names.

2 The fi gnore variable allows you to list those filename extensions that should be ig-
nored when filename completion is performed. All filenames ending in either .0
or .gif will be ignored.

3 By pressing the Tab key, only the file baby is listed, not baby.gif. The .gif files are
ignored.

4 Even though .gif is listed as a suffix to be ignored, fignore will not take effect
when there are no other possible completions, such as the same filename without
the .gif extension as in line 3.

5 When the vi editor is invoked, prog is expanded to prog.c.

9.15.3 The compl ete Shell Variable

This is a variable that does a lot! It is a little tricky trying to decipher all it can do from
the tcsh man page, but you may find some of these examples helpful for a start. You can
control what kind of completion you are doing. For example, maybe you only want
completion to expand directory names, or a filename depending on its position in the
command line, or maybe you would like certain commands to be expanded and others
excluded, or even create a list of possible words that can be expanded. Whatever it is
you want to do with completion the complete shell variable will no doubt accommodate
you.
9.15 TC Shell Command, Filename, and Variable Completion 485

Filename completion can be even more sophisticated if the complete shell variable is
set to enhance. This causes Tab completion to ignore case; to treat hyphens, periods, and
underscores as word separators; and to consider hyphens and underscores as equivalent.

EXAMPLE 9.89

i > set complete=enhance

2 > '\s q.. [tab] # expands to gawk-3.0.3
gawk-3.0.3
3 > '\s QM[tab] # expands to gawk-3.0.3
gawk-3.0.3

EXPLANATION

1 By setting the complete shell variable to enhance, Tab completion will ignore case;
will treat hyphens, periods, and underscores as word separators; and will consider
hyphens and underscores as equivalent.

2 With enhance set, filename completion expands g.. to any files starting with a g,
followed by any two characters (..), and any characters to complete the filename,
including hyphens, periods, and so forth.

3 With enhance set, filename completion expands GAW to any files starting with CAW,
where GAW can be any combination of uppercase and lowercase letters, and the re-
maining characters can be any characters even if they contain hyphens, periods,
and underscores.

9.15.4 Programming Completions

To customize completions to a more specific functionality, you can program the comple-
tions, and then store them in the ~/.tcshrc file, making them part of your tcsh environ-
ment each time you start a new TC shell. The purpose of programming completions is
to improve efficiency and select types of commands and arguments that will be affected.
(The Tab key for word completion and Ctrl-D to list possible completions still work the
same way as they did for simple completions.)

Types Of Completions. There three types of completions; p, n, and c. A p-type com-

pletion is position-dependent. It rules the way a completion is performed based on the
position of a word in the command line, where position 0 is the command, position 1 is
the first argument, position 2 is the second argument, and so on. Suppose, for example,
you wanted to guarantee that any time a completion is performed for the built-in cd com-
mand, the first (and only) argument to cd is completed only if it is a directory name,
nothing else; then you can program the completion as shown in the following example:

complete cd 'p/l/d/'
486 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

The complete command is followed by the cd command and what is called the comple-
tion rule. The p stands for the word position in the command line. The command, cd, is
position 0 and its first argument is position 1. The pattern part of the rule is enclosed in
slashes (p/1/ means position 1, the first argument to cd), and will be affected by the com-
pletion rule. The d part of the pattern is called a word type. See Table 9.17 on page 487
for a complete list of word types. The d word type means that only directories are to be
affected by the completion. A filename or alias, for example, would not be completed if
given as the first argument to cd. The rule states that whenever Tab completion is per-
formed on the cd command, it will only take place if the first argument is a directory, and
Ctrl-D will only list directories if the match is ambiguous; that is, there is more than one
possible completion. See Example 9.90 for p-type completions.

EXAMPLE 9.90

# p-type completions (positional completion)

1 > complete
alias 'p/1/a/'
cd 'p/l/d/'
ftp 'p/l/( owl ftp.funet.fi prep.ai.mit.edu )'
man 'pA/c/'
2 > complete vi 'pA/t/'
3 > complete vi
vi 'pAA/'
4 > set autolist
5 > man fin[tab] # Completes command names
find find2perl findaffix findsmb finger
6 > vi b[tab] # Completes only filenames, not directories
bashtest binded bindings bindit
7 > vi na[tab]mes
8 > cd s\\ [tab] ell solutions/
9 > set hosts = ( netcom.com 192.100.1.10 192.0.0.200 )
10 > complete telnet 'p/l/Shosts/'
11 > telnet net[tab]com.com
telnet netcom.com
12 > alias m/ta/jj # Completes alias names
mc mroe mv
13 > ftp prep[tab]

EXPLANATION

l The complete built-in command, without arguments, lists all programmed comple-
tions. The following examples (lines 2 through 11) use these completion rules.

2 This rule states that if Tab completion is used when typing arguments to the vi
command, that all arguments (*), must be of type "t" (i.e., plain text files) for
completion to performed.
9.15 TC Shell Command, Filename, and Variable Completion 487

EXPLANATION (continued)

3 The compl ete command, with the name of a command as its argument, displays the
completion rule for that command. The completion rule for vi is displayed.

4 By setting the built-in command, autol i st, all possible Tab completions will auto-
matically be printed. (You don't have to press Ctrl-D.)

5 The man command has a programmed completion: complete man 'p/l/c/'. This rule
states that the first argument given to the man command must be a command, be-
cause c is defined as a command word type. In this example, completion is at-
tempted with the letters fin as the argument to man. All manual commands starting
with fi n will be displayed.

6 Only filenames will be completed, because the vi editor completion was pro-
grammed to complete only text files, not directories.

7 According to the vi completion rule, only text filenames will be completed, no

matter how many arguments are passed.

8 When filename completion is performed on the first argument to the built-in cd

command, the only word that will be completed must be the name of a directory
as stated in the completion rule. The argument in this example will expand to a
directory called shell solutions.

9 The variable hosts is set to a list of IP addresses or hostnames.

10 The completion rule for tel net states that completion will be performed if position
1 contains one of the hostnames set in the hosts variable. This is a list word type
completion.

11 The telnet command is executed and the word beginning with net, followed by
pressing the Tab key, is completed to netcom.coin, which is one of the hostnames in
the hosts variable, previously set.

12 The alias completion is performed if the user types the word alias followed by a
word that will be expanded to all aliases that contain that word. Word type a
means only aliases are expanded for p, position 1.

Table 9.17 Completion Word Types

Word Type

a Alias

b Editor keybinding commands

c Commands (built-in or external commands)

C External commands that begin with the supplied path prefix

d Directory

D Directories that begin with the supplied path prefix

e Environment variables
488 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

Table 9.17 Completion Word Types (continued)

Word Type

f Filenames (not directory)

F Filenames that begin with the supplied path prefix

g Groupnames

i Jobs

i Limits

n Nothing

s Shell variables

S Signals

t Plain ("text") files

T Plain ("text") files beginning with the supplied path prefix

V Any variables

u Usernames

X Command names for which completions have been defined

X Like n, but prints a message if AD is typed

C, D, F, T Like c, d, f, t, but selects completions from a given directory

(list) Selects completions from words in a list

A c-type completion is used to complete a pattern in the current word. The current
word refers to the pattern enclosed in forward slashes. It rules that if the pattern is
matched, any completion performed will finish the pattern.

EXAMPLE 9.91

# c-type completions

1 > complete
stty 'c/-/(raw xcase noflsh)/'
bash 'c/-no/(profile rc braceexpansion)/'
find 'c/-/(user name type exec)/'
man 'c/perl/(delta faq toe data modlib locale)/'
2 > stty -r[tab]aw
stty -raw
3 > bash -r\op[tab]rofile
bash -noprofile
4 > find / -n[tab]ame .tcshrc -\)[tab]rint
find / -name . tcshrc -print
9.15 TC Shell Command, Filename, and Variable Completion 489

EXAMPLE 9.91 (continued)

5 > man perl <\e[tab] Ita

man perl delta
6 > uncomplete stty
> complete
bash 'c/-no/(profile rc braceexpansion)/'
find 'c/-/(user name type exec)/'
man 'c/perl/(delta faq toe data modlib locale)/'
7 > uncomplete *

EXPLANATION

1 These examples demonstrate a c-type completion. If the pattern in the first set of for-
ward slashes is typed, that pattern will be completed by one of the words listed in
the parentheses when a character(s) from that list is typed, followed by the Tab key.

2 When the stty command is typed, followed by a dash (-) character, the word will
be completed to -raw if a dash, an r, and the Tab key are entered. One of the words
from the rule list in parentheses (raw xcase noflsh) can be completed.

3 When the bash command is typed, followed by the pattern, -no, that pattern will
be completed to -noprofile if the pattern -no is followed by a p and the Tab key.
Completion is performed from one of the words in the rule list (profile rc brace-
expansion); in this example, resulting in -noprofile.

4 Arguments to the find command are completed if the dash (-) character is com-
pleted by typing significant characters from any of the words in the fi nd rule list
(user name type exec).

5 When the man command is typed, the pattern perl is completed to perl delta because
the pattern is followed by one of the words from the list (delta faq toe data modlib
locale).

6 The uncomplete built-in command removes the completion rule for stty. The other
completion rules remain.

7 The uncomplete built-in command, with the asterisk as its argument, removes all
completion rules.

N-type completions match the first word and complete the second one.

EXAMPLE 9.92

# n-type completions (next word completion)

1 > complete
rm 'n/-r/d/'
find 'n/-exec/c/'
2 > Is -Id testing
drwxr-sr-x 2 ellie root 1024 Aug 29 11:02 testing
3 > rm -r te[tab]sting
490 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

EXPLANATION

1 These examples demonstrate an n-type completion. If the word in the first set of
forward slashes is typed (the current word) and matched, the next word (in the
second set of forward slashes) will be completed according to the word type. The
complete command lists two n-type completions, one for the rm command and one
for the find command. When the rm command is executed with the -r switch, the
word following -r must be of type directory if completion is to be performed. The
rule for the find command is: if the -exec option is given, any words following it
must be commands if completion is to be performed.

2 The output of the Is command shows that testing is a directory.

3 Filename completion is successful for the rm command because word completion

is attempted for a directory named testing. If testing were a plain file, the comple-
tion would not have been performed.

9.16 TC Shell Spelling Correction

Spelling correction, a feature added to the TC shell, is the ability to correct spelling
errors in filenames, commands, and variables. If using the emacs built-in editor, the spell-
ing error can be corrected by using the spelling correction keys, bound to the Meta-s or
Meta-S keys (use the Alt or Esc key if you don't have Meta) and Meta-$ to correct an
entire line. The value of the prompt, prompts, displays the spelling correction prompt.7
If you are using the vi built-in editor, set the built-in variable correct, and the shell
will prompt you to fix the spelling.

Table 9.18 The correct Variable Arguments

Argument What It Does

all Spell-corrects entire command line

cmd Spell-corrects commands

complete Completes commands

EXAMPLE 9.93

1 > fimger/'/l7t-s7 # Replaces fimger with finger

2 > set correct=all
3 > dite
CORRECT>date (ylnle/a)? yes
Wed Aug 8 19:26:27 PDT 2004

7. From the tcsh man page: "Beware; Spelling correction is not guaranteed to work the way one intends, and
is provided as an experimental feature. Suggestions and improvements are welcome."
9.17 TC Shell Aliases 491

EXAMPLE 9.93 (continued)

4 > dite
CORRECT>date (y/nlela)? no
dite: Command not found.
>
5 > dite
CORRECT>date (y In/el a)? edit
> dite # Waits for user to edit and then executes command
6 > dite
CORRECTS date (yln/e/a)? abort
>

EXPLANATION

1 By pressing the Meta (or Alt or Esc) key together with an s, the spelling of a com-
mand, filename, or variable can be corrected. This does not work if you are using
the built-in vi editor.

2 By setting correct to all, tcsh will attempt to correct all spelling errors in the com-
mand line. This feature is available for both emacs and vi keybindings.

3 Because the command was incorrectly spelled, the third prompt, prompts, "COR-
RECT>date (y|n|e a)?" appears on the screen, and the user is supposed to type the
letter y if he or she wants the spelling corrected, an n if not, an e if he or she wants
to edit the line, or an a if he or she wants to abort the whole operation.

4 If the user wants the command to be unchanged, he types an n for no.

5 If the user wants to edit the correction, he or she types an e, and will be prompted
to fix or enhance the command.

6 If the correction is incorrect or not wanted, the user types an a, and the spelling
correction is aborted.

9.17 TC Shell Aliases

An alias is a TC shell user-defined abbreviation for a command. Abases are useful if a

command has a number of options and arguments or the syntax is difficult to remember.
Aliases set at the command line are not inherited by subshells. Aliases are normally set
in the .tcshrc file. Because the .tcshrc is executed when a new shell is started, any aliases
set there will get reset for the new shell. Aliases may also be passed into shell scripts but
will cause potential portability problems, unless they are directly set within the script.
The TC shell has some additional preset aliases, which remain undefined until you
define them. They are: beepcmd, cwdcmd, periodic, and precomd. These aliases are listed and
defined in "Special tcsh Aliases" on page 494.

9.17.1 Listing Aliases

The alias built-in command lists all set aliases. The alias is printed first, followed by the
real command or commands it represents.
492 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

EXAMPLE 9.94

> alias
apache SHOME/apache/httpd -f SHOME/apache/conf/httpd.conf
CO compress
cp cp -7
Isl enscript -B -r -Porange -f Couriers !* &
mailq /usr/1 ib/sendmai1 -bp
mc setenv MC '/usr/bin/mc -P !*'; cd SMC; unsetenv MC
mroe more
mv mv -7
uc uncompress
uu uudecode
vg vgrind -t -sll !:1 / Ipr -t
weekly (cd /home/jody/ellie/activity; ./weekly^report; echo
Done)

EXPLANATION

The al i as command lists the alias (nickname) for the command in the first column and
the real command the alias represents in the second column.

9.17.2 Creating Aliases

The alias command is used to create an alias. The first argument is the name of the alias,
the nickname for the command. The rest of the line consists of the command or com-
mands that will be executed when the alias is executed. Multiple commands are sepa-
rated by a semicolon, and commands containing spaces and metacharacters are
surrounded by single quotes.

FORMAT

alias
alias aliasname command
alias aliasname 'command command(s)'
unalias aliasname

EXAMPLE 9.95

1 > alias m more

2 > alias mroe more
3 > alias If Is-F
4 > alias cd 'cd \!*; set prompt = "%/ >
5 > cd ..
6 /home/jody > cd / # new prompt displayed
/>
9.17 TC Shell Aliases 493

EXAMPLE 9.95 (continued)

7 > set tperiod = 60

> alias periodic 'echo You have worked an hour, nonstop'
8 > alias Usage 'echo "Error: \!* " ; exit 1'

EXPLANATION

1 The nickname for the more command is set to m.

2 The alias for the more command is set to mroe. This is handy if you can't spell.

3 The alias If is a nickname for the tcsh built-in command Is-R It lists files like
Is -F, but is faster.

4 When cd is executed, the alias for cd will cause cd to go to the directory named as
an argument and will then reset the prompt to the current working directory (%/)
followed by the string "%/ > ". The U- is used by the alias in the same way it is used
by the history mechanism. The backslash prevents the history mechanism from
evaluating the !* first before the alias has a chance to use it. The \ !* represents the
arguments from the most recent command on the history list. The alias definition
is enclosed in quotes because of the whitespace.

5 After the cd command changes to the parent directory, the prompt is expanded to
the current working directory (%/) and a > symbol.3

6 The new directory is /home/jody, which is reflected in the prompt; after changing
directory to root (/), the prompt again reflects the change.

7 The tperiod variable is set to 60 minutes.The alias, periodic, is a preset alias. Every
60 minutes, the echo statement will be displayed.

8 This alias is useful in scripts to produce a diagnostic message and to then exit the
script. For an example of this alias in use, see Example 10.20 on page 545.

a. If using /bin/csh as your shell, replace %/ with $cwd when setting the prompt.

9.17.3 Deleting Aliases

The unalias command is used to delete an alias. To temporarily turn off an alias, precede
the alias name by a backslash.

EXAMPLE 9.96

1 > unalias mroe

2 > \cd ..

EXPLANATION

1 The unalias command deletes the alias mroe from the list of defined aliases.

2 The alias cd is temporarily turned off for this execution of the command only.
494 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

9.17.4 Alias Loop

An alias loop occurs when an alias definition references another alias that references
back to the original alias.

EXAMPLE 9.97

l > alias m more

2 > alias mroe m
3 > alias m mroe # Causes a loop
4 > m datafile
Alias loop.

EXPLANATION

l The alias is m. The alias definition is more. Every time m is used, the more command
is executed.

2 The alias is mroe. The alias definition is m. If mroe is typed, the alias m is invoked and
the more command is executed.

3 This is the culprit. If alias m is used, it invokes alias mroe, and alias mroe referenc-
es back to m, causing an alias loop. Nothing bad happens. You just get an error
message.

4 Alias m is used. It is circular. M calls mroe and mroe calls m, then m calls mroe, and so
on. Rather than looping forever, the TC shell catches the problem and displays
an error message.

9.17.5 Special tcsh Aliases

If set, each of the TC shell aliases executes automatically at the indicated time. They are
all initially undefined.

Table 9.19 tcsh Aliases

Alias What It Does

beepcmd Runs when the shell wants to ring the terminal bell

cwdcmd Runs after every change of working directory

periodic Runs every tperiod minutes; e.g., > set tperiod = 30

> alias periodic date

precmd Runs just before each prompt is printed; e.g., alias precmd date
9.18 TC Shell Job Control 495

9.18 TC Shell Job Control

Job control is a powerful feature of the TC shell that allows you to run programs, called
jobs, in the background or foreground. Normally, a command typed at the command line
is running in the foreground and will continue until it has finished. If you have a win-
dowing program, job control may not be necessary, because you can simply open
another window to start a new task. On the other hand, with a single terminal, job con-
trol is a very useful feature. For a list of job commands, see Table 9.20.

Table 9.20 Job Control Commands

Command Meaning

jobs Lists all the jobs running

(Ctrl-Z) Stops (suspends) the job; the prompt appears on the screen

bg Starts running the stopped job in the background

fg Brings a background job to the foreground

kill Sends the kill signal to a specified job

Argument to jobs Command

%n Job number n

%string Job name starting with string

%?string Job name containing string

%% Current job

%+ Current job

%- Previous job, before current job

9.18.1 The jobs Command and the listjobs Variable

The tcsh built-in jobs command displays the programs that are currently active and
either running or suspended in the background. Running means the job is executing in
the background. When a job is suspended, it is stopped; it is not in execution. In both
cases, the terminal is free to accept other commands. If you attempt to exit the shell
while jobs are stopped, the warning, "There are suspended jobs" will appear on the screen.
When you attempt to exit immediately a second time, the shell will go ahead and termi-
nate the suspended jobs. You set the tcsh built-in listjobs variable if you want to auto-
matically print a message when you suspend a job.
496 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

EXAMPLE 9.98

(The Command Line)

1 > jobs
2 [1] + Suspended vi filex
[2] - Running sleep 25
3 > jobs -1
[1] + 355 Suspended vi filex
[2] - 356 Running sleep 25
4 [2] Done sleep 25
5 > set listjobs = long
> sleep 1000
Press Ctrl-Z to suspend job
[1] + 3337 Suspended sleep 1000
>
6 > set notify

EXPLANATION

1 The jobs command lists the currently active jobs.

2 The notation [1] is the number of the first job; the plus sign indicates that the job
is not the most recent job to be placed in the background; the dash indicates that
this is the most recent job put in the background; Suspended means that this job was
A
stopped with Z and is not currently active.

3 The -1 option (long listing) displays the number of the job as well as the P1D of
the job. The notation [2] is the number of the second job, in this case, the last job
placed in the background. The dash indicates that this is the most recent job. The
sleep command is running in the background.

4 After sleep has been running for 25 seconds, the job will complete and a message
saying that it has finished appears on the screen.

5 The tcsh list jobs variable, when set to long, will print the number of a job as well
as its process id number when it is suspended. (See Table 9.26 on page 514 for a
list of built-in tcsh variables.).

6 Normally the shell notifies you if a job is stopped just before it prints a prompt,
but if the shell variable notify is set, the shell will notify you immediately if there
is any change in the status of a background job. For example, if you are working
in the vi editor, and a background job is terminated, a message will appear imme-
diately in your vi window like this;
[1] Terminated sleep 20
9.18 TC Shell Job Control 497

9.18.2 Foreground and Background Commands

The fg command brings a background job into the foreground. The bg command starts
a suspended job running in the background. A percent sign and the number of a job can
be used as arguments to fg and bg if you want to select a particular job for job control.

EXAMPLE 9.99

l > jobs
2 [1] + Suspended vi filex
[2] - Running cc prog.c -o prog
0
3 > fg /ol
1/7 filex
(vi session starts)
4 > kill %2
[2] Terminated c prog, c -o prog
5 > sleep 15
(Press Az)
Suspended
6 > bg
[1] sleep 15 &
[1] Done sleep 15

EXPLANATION

l The jobs command lists currently running processes, called jobs.

2 The first job stopped is the vi session, the second job is the cc command.

3 The job numbered [1] is brought to the foreground. The number is preceded with
a percent sign.

4 The kill command is built-in. It sends the TERM (terminate) signal, by default, to a
process. The argument is either the number or the PID of the process.
A
5 The sleep command is stopped by pressing Z. The sleep command is not using
the CPU and is suspended in the background.

6 The bg command causes the last background job to start executing in the back-
ground. The sleep program will start the countdown in seconds before execution
resumes.

a. Programs such as grep, sed, and awk have a set of metacharacters, called regular expression metacharacters, for pattern
matching. These should not be confused with shell metacharacters.

9.18.3 Scheduling Jobs

The sched built-in command allows you to create a list of jobs that will be scheduled to
run at some specific time. The sched command, without arguments, displays a numbered
list of all the scheduled events. It sets times in the form hh:inni (hour:minute) where hour
498 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

can be in military or 12-hour AM/PM format. Time can also be specified as a relative to
the current time with a + sign. With a - sign, the event is removed from the list.8

FORMAT

sched
sched [+]hh:mm command
sched -n

EXAMPLE 9.100

1 > sched 14:30 echo 'AG Time to start your lecture!'

2 > sched 5PM echo Time to go home.
3 > sched +1:30 /home/ellie/scripts/logfile.sc
4 > sched
1 17:47 /home/scripts/logfile.sc
2 5PM echo Time to go home.
S 14:30 echo 'AG Time to start your lecture!'
5 > sched -2
> sched
1 17:47 /home/scripts/logfile.sc
2 14:30 echo 'AC Time to start your lecture!'

EXPLANATION

l The sched command schedules the echo command to be executed at 14:30. At that
time a beep will sound (Ctrl-G)a and the message will be displayed.

2 The sched command will schedule the echo command to be executed at 5 PM.

3 The script, logfile.sc, is scheduled to be executed 1 hour and 30 minutes from

now.

4 The sched command displays the scheduled events, in numeric order, the last one
first.

5 With a numeric argument, sched will remove the numbered job from the sched-
uled list. Job number 2 was removed, as shown in the output of sched.

a. To get the AG into the echo statement, type Ctrl-M, followed by Ctrl-V, followed by Ctrl-G.

8. From the tcsh man page; "A command in the scheduled-event list is executed just before the first prompt
is printed after the time when the command is scheduled. It is possible to miss the exact time when the
command is to be run, but an overdue command will execute at the next prompt."
9.19 Printing the Values of Variables in the TC Shell 499

9.19 Printing the Values of Variables in the TC Shell

9.19.1 The echo Command

The built-in echo command prints its arguments to standard output. The echo allows the
use of numerous escape sequences that are interpreted and displayed as tabs, newlines,
form feed, and so on. Table 9.21 lists the echo options and escape sequences.
The TC shell uses the style of both BSD and SVR4, but allows you to modify the
behavior of the echo command by using the built-in echo_style variable; for example, set
echo_style=bsd. See Table 9.22, and the manual page for echo.

Table 9.21 echo Options and Escape Sequences

Option Meaning

-n Suppresses newline at the end of a line of output

Escape Sequences

\a Alert (bell)

\b Backspace

\c Print the line without a newline

\f Form feed

\n Newline

\r Return

\t Tab

\v Vertical tab

\\ Backslash

\nnn The character whose ASCII code is nnn (octal)

Table 9.22 The echo.style Variable (SVR4 and BSD)

System Behavior

bsd If the first argument is -n, the newline is suppressed

both Both -n and escape sequences are in effect (the default)

none Recognizes neither sysv or bsd

sysv Expands escape sequences in echo strings

500 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

EXAMPLE 9.101

l > echo The username is $L0GNAME.

The username is el lie.
2 > echo "\t\tHello there\c"
Hello there>
3 > echo -n "Hello there"
Hello thereS
4 > set echo_style=none
5 > echo "\t\tHello there\c"
-n \t\tHello there\c

EXPLANATION

1 The echo command prints its arguments to the screen. Variable substitution is per-
formed by the shell before the echo command is executed.

2 The echo command by default, supports escape sequences similar to those of the
C programming language and used in the SVR4 version of echo. The > is the shell
prompt.

3 With the -n option, echo displays the string without the newline.

4 The echo.style variable is assigned the value none. Neither the BSD -n switch nor
the SVR4 escape sequences are in effect.

5 With the new echo style, the string is displayed.

9.19.2 The printf Command

The GNU version of printf can be used to format printed output. It prints the formatted
string, in the same way as the C printf function. The format consists of a string that may
contain formatting instructions to describe how the printed output will look. The for-
matting instructions are designated with a % followed by specifiers (diouxXfeEgGcs), where
%f would represent a floating-point number and %d would represent a whole (decimal)
number.
To see a complete listing of printf specifiers and how to use them, type at the com-
mand-line prompt printf --help. (See Table 9.23.) To see what version of printf you are
using, type printf --version.

FORMAT

printf format [argument...]

EXAMPLE 9.102

printf "%10.2f%5d\n" 10.5 25

9.19 Printing the Values of Variables in the TC Shell 501

Table 9.23 Format Specifiers for the pri ntf Command

Format Specifier Value

\" Double quote

\0NNN An octal character in which NNN represents 0 to 3 digits

\\ Backslash

\a Alert or beep

\b Backspace

\c Produce no further output

\f Form feed

\n Newline

\r Carriage return

\t Horizontal tab

\v Vertical tab

\xNNN Hexadecimal character in which NNN is 1 to 3 digits

%% Single %

%b ARGUMENT as a string with \ escapes interpreted

EXAMPLE 9.103

1 > printf —version

printf (GNU sh-utils) 1.16
2 > printf "The number is %.2f\n" 100
The number is 100.00
3 > printf "%-20s%-15s%10.2f\n" "Jody" "Savage" 28
Jody Savage 28.00
4 > printf "|%-20s|%-15s|%10.2f|\n" "Jody" "Savage" 28
IJody 1 Savage / 28.00/

EXPLANATION

l The GNU version of the printf command is printed. It is found in /usr/bin.

2 The argument 100 is printed as a floating-point number with only two places to
the right of the decimal point printing, designated by the format specification
%.2f in the format string. Note that unlike C, there are no commas separating
the arguments.
502 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

EXPLANATION (continued)

3 This time the format string specifies that three conversions will take place: the
first one is %-20s (a left-justified, 20-character string), next is %-15s (a left-justified,
15-character string), and last is %10.2f (a right-justified 10-character floating-
point number; one of those characters is the period and the last two characters are
the two numbers to the right of the decimal point). Each argument is formatted
in the order of the corresponding % signs, so that string "Jody" corresponds to first
%, string "Savage" corresponds to the second %, and the number 28 to the last % sign.
The vertical bars are used to demonstrate the width of the fields.

9.19.3 Curly Braces and Variables

Curly braces insulate a variable from any characters that may follow it. They can be used
to concatenate a string to the end of the variable.

EXAMPLE 9.104

l > set var = net

> echo $var
net
2 > echo $varwork
varwork: Undefined variable.
3 > echo ${var}work
network

EXPLANATION

1 The curly braces surrounding the variable name insulate the variable from char-
acters that follow it.

2 A variable called varwork has not been defined. The shell prints an error message.

3 The curly braces shield the variable from characters appended to it. Svar is ex-
panded and the string work is appended.

9.19.4 Uppercase and Lowercase Modifiers

A special history modifier can be used to change the case of letters in a variable.

Table 9.24 TC Shell Case Modifiers

Modifier What It Does

:a Apply a modifier as many times as possible to a single word.

:g Apply a modifier once to each word.

:1 Lowercase the first uppercase letter in a word.

:u Uppercase the first lowercase letter in a word.

9.20 TC Shell Built-in Commands 503

EXAMPLE 9.105

1 > set name = nicky

> echo $name:u
Nicky
2 > set name = ( nicky jake )
> echo $name:gu
Nicky Jake
3 > echo $name:agu
NICKY JAKE
4 > set name = ( TOMMY DANNY )
> echo Sname:agl
tommy danny
5 > set name = "Snameiagu"
> echo Sname
TOMMY DANNY

EXPLANATION

l When :u is appended to the variable, the first letter in its value is uppercased.

2 When :gu is appended to the variable, the first letter in each word in the list of
values is uppercased.

3 When :agu is appended to the variable, all letters in its value are uppercased.

4 When :agl is appended to the variable, all letters in its value are lowercased.

5 The variable is reset with all letters in its list uppercased.

9.20 TC Shell Built-in Commands

Rather than residing on disk like UNIX/Linux executable commands, built-in commands
are part of the C/TC shell's internal code and are executed from within the shell. If a built-
in command occurs as any component of a pipeline except the last, it is executed in a sub-
shell. The tcsh built-in command aptly called bull tins lists all the built-in commands.

EXAMPLE 9. 106

1 > builtins
■ & alias alloc bindkey break
bg
breaksw builtins case cd chdir complete continue
default dirs echo echoic else end end if
endsw eval exec exit fg filetest foreach
glob goto has hs tat history hup if jobs
kill limit log login logout Is-F nice
nohup notify onintr popd printenv pushd rehash
repeat sched set setenv settc setty shift
source stop suspend switch telltc time umask
unalias uncomplete unhash unlimit unset unsetenv wait
where which while
504 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

See Table 9.25 for a list of built-in commands.

Table 9.25 tcsh Built-in Commands and Their Meanings

Command Meaning

■ Interprets null command, but performs no action.

alias [name [wordlist]] A nickname for a command. Without arguments, prints all aliases;
with a name, prints the name for the alias; and with a name and
wordlist, sets the alias.

alloc Displays amount of dynamic memory acquired, broken down into

used and free memory. Varies across systems.

bg [%job] Runs the current or specified jobs in the background.

%]ob & A synonym for the bg built-in command.

bindkey [-1|-d|-e|-v|-u] (+) Without options, the first form lists all bound keys and the editor
command to which each is bound; the second form lists the editor
bindkey [-a] [-b] [-k] [-r] [—] key command to which key is bound; and the third form binds the
editor command command to key. Options include:
bindkey [-a] [-b] [-k] [-c|-s] [--]
-a Lists or changes keybindings in the alternative key map. This
key command
is the key map used in vi command mode.
-b This key is interpreted as a control character written as
A A
character (e.g., A) or C-character (e.g., C-A), a meta-
character written M-character (e.g., M-A), a function key
written F-string (e.g., F-string), or an extended prefix key
written X-character (e.g., X-A).
-c This command is interpreted as a built-in or external
command, instead of an editor command.
-d Binds all keys to the standard bindings for the default editor,
-e Binds all keys to the standard GNU emacs-like bindings,
-k This key is interpreted as a symbolic arrow key name, which
may be one of "down," "up," "left," or "right."
-1 Lists all editor commands and a short description of each,
-r Removes key's binding. Be careful: bindkey-r does not bind key
to self-insert command (q.v), it unbinds key completely,
-s This command is taken as a literal string and treated as
terminal input when key is typed. Bound keys in commands
are themselves reinterpreted, and this continues for 10 levels
of interpretation.
-u (or any invalid option) Prints a usage message. This key may
be a single character or a string. If a command is bound to a
string, the first character of the string is bound to sequence-
lead-in and the entire string is bound to the command,
-v Binds all keys to the standard vi(l)-like bindings.
-- Forces a break from option processing, so the next word is
taken as a key even if it begins with a hyphen (-).
9.20 TC Shell Built-in Commands 505

Table 9.25 tcsh Built-in Commands and Their Meanings (continued)

Command Meaning

bindkey (continued) Control characters in key can be literal (they can be typed by
preceding them with the editor command quoted-insert, normally
A A
bound to V), or written caret-character style (e.g., A). Delete is
A
written ? (caret-question mark). Key and command can contain
backslashed escape sequences (in the style of System V echo(l))
as follows:
\a Bell
\b Backspace
\e Escape
\f Form feed
\n Newline
\r Carriage return
\t Horizontal tab
\v Vertical tab
\nnn The ASCII character corresponding to the octal number nnn
\ nullifies the special meaning of the following character, if it has
any, notably backslash (\) and caret (a).

break Breaks out of the innermost foreach or while loop.

breaksw Breaks from a switch, resuming after the endsw

builtins Prints the names of all built-in commands.

bye A synonym for the logout built-in command. Available only if the
shell was so compiled; see the version shell variable.

case label: A label in a switch statement.

cd [ dir ] Changes the shell's working directory to dir. If no argument is

given, changes to the home directory of the user.

cd [-p] [-1] [-n|-v] [name] If a directory name is given, changes the shell's working directory
to name. If not, changes to home. If name is it is interpreted as
the previous working directory.
-p prints the final directory stack, just like dirs.
-1, -n, and -v flags have the same effect on cd as on dirs, and they
imply -p.

chdir A synonym for the cd built-in command.

complete [command [word/pattern/ Without arguments, lists all completions. With command, lists
list[:select]/[[suffix]/] ...]] completions for command. With command and word etc., defines
completions. (See "Programming Completions" on page 485.)

continue Continues execution of the nearest enclosing while or foreach.

506 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

Table 9.25 tcsh Built-in Commands and Their Meanings (continued)

Command Meaning

default: Labels the default case in a switch statement. The default should
come after all case labels.

dirs [-1] [-n|-v] The first form prints the directory stack. The top of the stack is at
the left and the first directory in the stack is the current directory.
dirs -S|-L [filename] -1, or ~name in the output is expanded explicitly to home or the
pathname of the home directory for username.
dirs -c
(+) -n, entries are wrapped before they reach the edge of the
screen.
(+) -v, entries are printed one per line preceded by their stack
postions.
-S, the second form saves the directory stack to filename as a
series of cd and pushd commands.
-L, the shell source's filename, which is presumably a directory
stack file saved.
In either case di rsfi 1 e is used if filename is not given and ~/. cshdi rs
is used if dirsfile is unset.
With -c, form clears the directory stack.

echo [ -n ] list Writes the words in list to the shell's standard output, separated
by space characters. The output is terminated with a newline
unless the -n option is used.

echo [-n] word ... Writes each word to the shell's standard output, separated by
spaces and terminated with a newline. The echo_style shell
variable may be set to emulate (or not) the flags and escape
sequences of the BSD and/or System V versions of echo.

echotc [-sv] arg ... Exercises the terminal capabilities (see term-cap(5)) in args. For
example, echotc home sends the cursor to the home position. If arg
is baud, cols, lines, meta, or tabs, prints the value of that capability.
With -s, nonexistent capabilities return the empty string rather
than causing an error. With -v, messages are verbose.

else if (expr2) then See "Conditional Constructs and Flow Control" on page 535.

else See the description of the foreach, if, switch, and while statements
end below.
endif
endsw

end Executes the commands between the while and the matching end
while expr evaluates nonzero, while and end must appear alone on
their input lines, break and continue may be used to terminate or
continue the loop prematurely. If the input is a terminal, the user
is prompted the first time through the loop as with foreach.
9.20 TC Shell Built-in Commands 507

Table 9.25 tcsh Built-in Commands and Their Meanings (continued)

Command Meaning

eval arg ... Treats the arguments as input to the shell and executes the
resulting command(s) in the context of the current shell. This is
usually used to execute commands generated as the result of
command or variable substitution, as parsing occurs before these
substitutions.

eval coniniand Runs command as standard input to the shell and executes the
resulting commands. This is usually used to execute commands
generated as the result of command or variable substitution, as
parsing occurs before these substitutions (e.g., eval 'tset -s
options').

exec command Executes command in place of the current shell, which terminates.

exit [ (expr) ] Exits the shell, either with the value of the status variable or with
the value specified by expr.

fg [% job ] Brings the current or specified job into the foreground.

%]ob A synonym for the fg built-in command.

filetest -op file ... Applies op (which is a file inquiry operator) to each file and
returns the results as a space-separated list.

foreach name (wordlist) See "Looping Control Commands" on page 566.

end

foreach van (wordlist) See "The foreach Loop" on page 561.

getspath Prints the system execution path.

getxvers Prints the experimental version prefix.

glob wordlist Performs filename expansion on wordlist. Like echo, but no

escapes (\) are recognized. Words are delimited by null characters
in the output.

goto label See "The goto" on page 547.

goto word word is filename and command-substituted to yield a string of the

form "label." The shell rewinds its input as much as possible,
searches for a line of the form "label:", possibly preceded by
blanks or tabs, and continues execution after that line.

hashstat Prints a statistics line indicating how effective the internal hash
table has been at locating commands (and avoiding execs). An exec
is attempted for each component of the path where the hash
function indicates a possible hit, and in each component that does
not begin with a backslash.
508 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

Table 9.25 tcsh Built-in Commands and Their Meanings (continued)

Command Meaning

history [-hTr] [n] The first form prints the history event list. If n is given, only the n
most recent events are printed or saved. With -h, the history list is
history -S|-L|-M [filename] printed without leading numbers. If-T is specified, timestamps are
printed also in comment form. (This can be used to produce files
history -c
suitable for loading with hi story -L or source -h.) With -r, the order
of printing is most recent first rather than oldest first. (See "TC
Shell Command-Line History" on page 466.) With -c, clears the
history list.

hup [command] With command, runs command such that it will exit on a hangup
signal and arranges for the shell to send it a hangup signal when
the shell exits. Note that commands may set their own response
to hangups, overriding hup. Without an argument (allowed only in
a shell script), causes the shell to exit on a hangup for the
remainder of the script.

if (expr) command If expr evaluates true, then command is executed. Variable

substitution on command happens early, at the same time it does
for the rest of the i f command. Command must be a simple
command, not an alias, a pipeline, a command list, or a
parenthesized command list, but it may have arguments.
Input/output redirection occurs even if expr is false and command
is thus not executed; this is a bug.

if (expr) then If the specified expr is true then the commands to the first else are
executed; otherwise if expr2 is true then the commands to the
else if (expr2) then second else are executed, and so on. Any number of else if pairs
are possible; only one endif is needed. The else part is likewise
else
optional. (The words else and endif must appear at the beginning
of input lines; the if must appear alone on its input line or after
endif
an else.)

inlib shared-library ... Adds each shared library to the current environment. There is no
way to remove a shared library. (Domain/OS only)

jobs [ -1 ] Lists the active jobs under job control. With -1, lists IDs in
addition to the normal information.

kill [ -sig ] [ pid ] [ %job ] ... Sends the TERM (terminate) signal, by default or by the signal
specified, to the specified ID, the job indicated, or the current job.
kill -1 Signals are given either by number or name. There is no default.
Typing kill does not send a signal to the current job. If the signal
being sent is TERM (terminate) or HUP (hangup), then the job or
process is sent a CONT (continue) signal as well. With -1 lists the
signal names that can be sent.
9.20 TC Shell Built-in Commands 509

Table 9.25 tcsh Built-in Commands and Their Meanings (continued)

Command Meaning

limit [ -h ] [ resource [ max-use ] ] Limits the consumption by the current process or any process it
spawns, each not to exceed max-use on the specified resource. If max-
use is omitted, print the current limit; if resource is omitted, display
all limits. With -h, uses hard limits instead of the current limits.
Hard limits impose a ceiling on the values of the current limits.
Only the superuser may raise the hard limits. Resource is one of:
cputime, maximum CPU seconds per process; filesize, largest
single file allowed; datasize, maximum data size (including stack)
for the process; stacks! ze, maximum stack size for the process;
coredump, maximum size of a core dump; and descriptors,
maximum value for a file descriptor.

log Prints the watch shell variable and reports on each user indicated
in watch who is logged in, regardless of when they last logged in.
See also watchlog.

login Terminates a login shell, replacing it with an instance of /bi n/1 ogi n.

login [ username|-p ] Terminates a login shell and invokes login(l). The .logout file is
not processed. If username is omitted, login prompts for the name of
a user. With -p, preserves the current environment (variables).

logout Terminates a login shell.

Is-F [-switch ...] [file ...] Lists files like Is -F, but much faster. It identifies each type of
special file in the listing with a special character:
/ Directory
* Executable
# Block device
% Character device
I Named pipe (systems with named pipes only)
= Socket (systems with sockets only)
© Symbolic link (systems with symbolic links only)
+ Hidden directory (AIX only) or context-dependent
(HP-UX only)
: Network special (HP-UX only)

If the 1 i stl i nks shell variable is set, symbolic links are identified in
more detail (only, of course, on systems that have them);
@ Symbolic link to a nondirectory
> Symbolic link to a directory
& Symbolic link to nowhere

The Is-F built-in can list files using different colors depending on
the filetype or extension.
510 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

Table 9.25 tcsh Built-in Commands and Their Meanings (continued)

Command Meaning

migrate [-site] pid|%]obid ... The first form migrates the process or job to the site specified or
the default site determined by the system path. The second form
migrate -site is equivalent to migrate -site $$. It migrates the current process to
the specified site. Migrating the shell itself can cause unexpected
behavior, because the shell does not like to lose its tty.

The first form prints the values of all shell variables. The second
form assigns the value of expr to name. The third form assigns the
@ name = expr value of expr to the index'th component of name; both name and its
index'th component must already exist. The fourth and fifth forms
@ name[index] = expr
increment (++) or decrement (--) name or its index'th component.

® name++| —

@ name[index]++| —

newgrp [-] group Equivalent to exec newgrp; see newgrp(l). Available only if the shell
was so compiled; see the version shell variable.

nice [+number] [command] Sets the scheduling priority for the shell to number, or, without
number, to 4. With command, runs command at the appropriate priority.
The greater the number, the less CPU the process gets. The
superuser may specify negative priority by using nice -number.
Command is always executed in a subshell, and the restrictions placed
on commands in simple if statements apply.

nohup [ command ] Runs command with HUPs (hangups) ignored. With no arguments,
ignores HUPs throughout the remainder of a script.

notify [ %job ] Notifies the user asynchronously when the status of the current or
of a specified job changes.

onintr [ - | label] Controls the action of the shell on interrupts. With no arguments,
onintr restores the default action of the shell on interrupts. (The
shell terminates shell scripts and returns to the terminal
command input level.) With the minus sign argument, the shell
ignores all interrupts. With a label argument, the shell executes a
goto label when an interrupt is received or a child process
terminates because it was interrupted.

popd [+n] Pops the directory stack and cd to the new top directory. The
elements of the directory stack are numbered from zero, starting at
the top. With +n, discard the nth entry in the stack.

printenv [name] Prints the names and values of all environment variables or, with
name, the value of the environment variable name.
9.20 TC Shell Built-in Commands 511

Table 9.25 tcsh Built-in Commands and Their Meanings (continued)

Command Meaning

pushd [+n | dir] Pushes a directory onto the directory stack. With no arguments,
exchanges the top two elements. With +n, rotates the nth entry to
the top of the stack and cd to it. With di r, pushes the current
working directory onto the stack and changes to di r.

rehash Recomputes the internal hash table of the contents of directories

listed in the path variable to account for new commands added.

repeat count command Repeats command count times.

rootnode //nodename Changes the rootnode to //nodename, so that / will be interpreted as

//nodename. (Domain/OS only)

sched The first form prints the scheduled-event list. The sched shell
variable may be set to define the format in which the scheduled-
sched [+]hh:mni command sched -n event list is printed. The second form adds a command to the

scheduled-event list.

set The first form of the command prints the value of all shell
variables. Variables that contain more than a single word print as
set name ... a parenthesized word list. The second form sets name to the null
string. The third form sets name to the single word. The fourth
set name=word ...
form sets name to the list of words in wordlist. In all cases the
value is command and filename expanded. If -r is specified, the
set [-rl [-f|-l] name=(wordlist) ...
value is set read-only. If -f or -1 are specified, set only unique
(+)
words keeping their order, -f prefers the first occurrence of a
set name[index]=word ... word, and -1 the last occurrence of the word. The fifth form sets
the index'th component of name to word; this component must
set -r already exist. The sixth form lists the names (only) of all shell
variables that are read-only. The seventh form makes name read-
set -r name ... only, whether or not it has a value. The eighth form is the same as
the third form, but makes name read-only at the same time .
set -r name=word ...

set [var [ = value ] ] See "Variables" on page 440.

setenv [ VAR [ word ] ] See "Variables" on page 440. The most commonly used
environment variables, USER, TERM, and PATH, are automatically
imported to and exported from the csh variables, user, term, and
path; there is no need to use setenv for these. In addition, the shell
sets the PWD environment variable from the csh variable cwd
whenever the latter changes.

setenv [name [value]] Without arguments, prints the names and values of all
environment variables. Given name, sets the environment variable
name to value or, without value, to the null string.

setpath path Equivalent to setpath(l). (Mach only)

512 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

Table 9.25 tcsh Built-in Commands and Their Meanings (continued)

Command Meaning

setspath LOCAL|site|cpu ... Sets the system execution path.

settc cap value Tells the shell to believe that the terminal capability cap (as
defined in termcap(5)) has the value value. No sanity checking is
done. Concept terminal users may have to settc xn no to get proper
wrapping at the rightmost column.

setty [-d|-q|-x] [-a] [[+|-]mode] Controls which tty modes the shell does not allow to change, -d,
-q, or -x tells setty to act on the edit, quote, or execute set of tty
modes, respectively; without -d, -q, or -x, execute is used.
Without other arguments, setty lists the modes in the chosen set
that are fixed on (+mode) or off (-mode). The available modes, and
thus the display, vary from system to system. With -a, lists all tty
modes in the chosen set whether or not they are fixed. With +mode,
-mode, or mode, fixes mode on or off or removes control from mode
in the chosen set. For example, setty +echok echoe fixes echok mode
on and allows commands to turn echoe mode on or off, both when
the shell is executing commands.

setxvers [string] Sets the experimental version prefix to string, or removes it if

string is omitted.

shift [ variable ] The components of argv, or variable, if supplied, are shifted to the
left, discarding the first component. It is an error for variable not
to be set, or to have a null value.

source [ -h ] name Reads commands from name. Source commands may be nested, but
if they are nested loo deeply, the shell may run out of file
descriptors. An error in a sourced file at any level terminates all
nested source commands. Commonly used to re-execute the .login
or .cshrc files to ensure variable settings are handled within the
current shell, i.e., shell does not create a child shell (fork). With
-h, places commands from the filename on the history list without
executing them.

stop [%job] ... Stops the current or specified background job.

suspend Stops the shell in its tracks, much as if it had been sent a stop
A
signal with Z. This is most often used to stop shells started by su.

switch (string) See "The switch Command" on page 557.

telltc Lists the values of all terminal capabilities (see termcap(5)).

time [ command ] With no argument, prints a summary of time used by this shell and
its children. With an optional command, executes command and prints
a summary of the time it uses.
9.20 TC Shell Built-in Commands 513

Table 9.25 tcsh Built-in Commands and Their Meanings (continued)

Command Meaning

umask [ value ] Displays the file creation mask. With value, sets the file creation
mask. Value, given in octal, is XORed with the permissions of 666
for files and 777 for directories to arrive at the permissions for
new files. Permissions cannot be added via umask.

unalias pattern Removes all aliases whose names match pattern, unalias * thus
removes all aliases. It is not an error for nothing to be unaliased.

uncomplete pattern Removes all completions whose names match pattern.

uncomplete * thus removes all completions.

unhash Disables the internal hash table.

universe universe Sets the universe to universe. (Masscomp/RTU only)

unlimit [-h] [resource] Removes the limitation on resource or, if no resource is specified, all
resource limitations. With -h, the corresponding hard limits are
removed. Only the superuser may do this.

unsetenv pattern Removes all environment variables whose names match pattern.
unsetenv * thus removes all environment variables; this is a bad
idea. If there is no pattern to be unsetenved, no error will result
from this built-in.

unsetenv variable Removes variable from the environment. Pattern matching, as

with unset, is not performed.

® [ var =expr ] With no arguments, displays the values for all shell variables.
With arguments, the variable var, or the nth word in the value of
® [ var[n] =expr ] van, is set to the value that expr evaluates to.

ver [systype [command]] Without arguments, prints SYSTYPE. With systype, sets SYSTYPE to
systype. With systype and command, executes command under systype.
systype may be bsd4.3 or sys5.3. (Domain/OS only)

wait Waits for background jobs to finish (or for an interrupt) before
prompting.

warp universe Sets the universe to universe. (Convex/OS only)

watch!og An alternate name for the log built-in command (q.v.). Available
only if the shell was so compiled; see the version shell variable.

where command Reports all known instances of command, including aliases, built-ins,
and executables in path.
514 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

Table 9.25 tcsh Built-in Commands and Their Meanings (continued)

Command Meaning

which command Displays the command that will be executed by the shell after
substitutions, path searching, etc. The built-in command is just
like which(l), but it correctly reports tcsh aliases and built-ins and
is 10 to 100 times faster.

while (expr) See "Looping Control Commands" on page 566.

9.20.1 Special Built-in T/TC Shell Variables

The built-in shell variables have special meaning to the shell and are used to modify and
control the way many of the shell commmands behave. They are local variables and
therefore most of them are set in the .tcshrc file for the TC shell, and the .cshrc file for
the C shell if they are to be passed on to and affect child C/TC shells.
When the shell starts up, it automatically sets the following variables: addsuffix, argv,
autologout, command, echo.style, edit, gid, group, home, loginsh, oid, path, prompt, prompt2,
prompts, shell, shlvl, tcsh, term, tty, uid, user, and version. Unless the user decides to change
them, these variables will remain fixed. The shell also keeps track of and changes special
variables that may need period updates, such as cwd, dirstack, owd, and status, and when
the user logs out, the shell sets the logout variable.
Some of the local variables have a corresponding environment variable of the same
name. If one of the environment or local variables is affected by a change in the user's
environment, the shell will synchronize the local and environment variables9 so that
their values always match. Examples of cross-matched variables are afuser, group, home,
path, shlvl, term, and user. (Although cwd and PWD have the same meaning, they are not
cross-matched. Even though the syntax is different for the path and PATH variables, they
are automatically cross-matched if either one is changed.)

Table 9.26 Special C/TC Shell Variables01 b

Variable Meaning

addsufix (+) For filename completion, adds slashes at the end of directories and space to the end
of normal files if they are matched. Set by default.

afsuser (+) If set, autologout's autolock feature uses its value instead of the local username for
Kerberos authentication.

ampm (+) If set, all times are shown in 12-hour AM/PM format.

argv An array of command-line arguments to the shell; also represented as $1, $2, and
so on.

9. This is true unless the variable is a read-only variable, and then there will be no synchronization.
9.20 TC Shell Built-in Commands 515

Table 9.26 Special C/TC Shell Variables0, b

(continued)

Variable Meaning

autocorrect (+) Invokes the spell checker before each attempt at filename, command, or variable
completion.

autoexpand (+) If set, the expand-history editor command is invoked automatically before each
completion attempt.

autolist (+) If set, possibilities are listed after an ambiguous completion. If set to ambiguous,
possibilities are listed only when no new characters are added by completion.

autologout (+) Its argument is the number of minutes of inactivity before automatic logout; the
second optional argument is the number of minutes before automatic locking
causes the screen to lock.

backslash.quote (+) If set, a backslash will always quote itself, a single quote or a double quote.

cdpath A list of directories in which cd should search for subdirectories if they aren't found
in the current directory.

color (+) Enables color display for the built-in command Is-F and passes --color=auto to Is.

complete (+) If set to enhance, completion ignores case, considers periods, hyphens, and
underscores to be word separators, and hyphens and underscores to be equivalent.

correct (+) If set to cmd, commands are automatically spelling-corrected. If set to complete,
commands are automatically completed. If set to all, the entire command line is
corrected.

cwd The full pathname of the current working directory.

dextract (+) If set, pushd +n extracts the nth directory from the directory stack rather than rotating
it to the top.

dirsfile (+) The default location in which di rs -S and di rs -L look for a history file. If unset,
-/•cshdirs is used.

dirstack (+) A list of all directories on the directory stack.

dunique (+) Will not allow pushd to keep duplicate directory entries on the stack.

echo If set, each command with its arguments is echoed just before it is executed. Set by
the -x command-line option.

echo-style (+) Sets the style for echo. If set to bsd will not echo a newline if the first argument is -n;
if set to sysv, recognizes backslashed escape sequences in echo strings; if set to both,
recognizes both the -n flag and backslashed escape sequences; the default, and if set
to none, recognizes neither.

edit (+) Sets the command-line editor for interactive shells; set by default.
516 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

Table 9.26 Special C/TC Shell Variables0, b

(continued)

Variable Meaning

ellipsis (+) If set, the %c, %., and %C prompt sequences (see the "The Shell Prompts" on page 461)
indicate skipped directories with an ellipsis (...) instead of /<skipped>.

fignore Lists filename suffixes to be ignored by completion.

filec (+) In tcsh, completion is always used and this variable is ignored. If set in csh, filename
completion is used.

gid (+) The user's read group ID number.

group (+) The user's group name.

hardpaths If set, pathnames in the directory stack are resolved to contain no symbolic-link
components.

histchars A string value determining the characters used in history substitution. The first
character of its value is used as the history substitution character to replace the
default character, !. The second character of its value replaces the character a in
quick substitutions.

histdup (+) Controls handling of duplicate entries in the history list. Can be set to all (removes
all duplicates), prev (removes the current command if it duplicates the previous
command), or erase (inserts the current event for an older duplicate event).

histfile (+) The default location in which history -S and history -L look for a history file. If
unset, -/• hi story is used.

histlit (+) Enters events on the history list literally; that is, unexpanded by history
substitution.

history The first word indicates the number of history events to save. The optional second
word (+) indicates the format in which history is printed.

home The home directory of the user; same as ~.

ignoreeof If logging out by pressing Ctrl-D, prints Use "exit" to leave tcsh. Prevents
inadvertently logging out.

implicited (+) If set, the shell treats a directory name typed as a command as though it were a
request to change to that directory and changes to it.

inputmode (+) If set to insert or overwrite, puts the editor into that input mode at the beginning of
each line.

listflags (+) If set to x, a, or A, or any combination (e.g., xA), values are used as flags to Is-F,
making it act like Is -xF, Is -Fa, Is -FA, or any combination of those flags.

listjobs (+) If set, all jobs are listed when a job is suspended. If set to long, the listing is in long
format.
9.20 TC Shell Built-in Commands 517

Table 9.26 Special C/TC Shell Variables0, b

(continued)

Variable Meaning

listlinks (+) If set, the Is -F built-in command shows the type of file to which each symbolic link
points.

listmax (+) The maximum number of items the list-choices editor command will list without
asking first.

listmaxrows (+) The maximum number of rows of items the list-choices editor command will list
without asking first.

loginsh (+) Set by the shell if it is a login shell. Setting or unselting it within a shell has no effect.
See also shlvl.

logout (+) Set by the shell to normal before a normal logout, automatic before an automatic
logout, and hangup if the shell was killed by a hangup signal.

mail The names of the files or directories to check for incoming mail. After 10 minutes
if new mail has come in, will print You have new mail.

matchbeep (+) If set to never, completion never beeps; if set to nomatch, completion beeps only when
there is no match; and when set to ambiguous, beeps when there are multiple matches.

nobeep Disables all beeping.

noclobber Safeguards against the accidental removal of existing files when redirection is used;
for example, Is > file.

noglob If set, inhibits filename and directory stack substitutions when using wildcards.

nokanji (+) If set and the shell supports Kanji (see the version shell variable), it is disabled so
that the Meta key can be used.

nonomatch If set, a filename substitution or directory stack substitution that does not match
any existing files is left untouched rather than causing an error.

nostat (+) A list of directories (or glob patterns that match directories) that should not be
stat(2)ed during a completion operation. This is usually used to exclude directories
that take too much time to stat(2).

notify If set, the shell announces job completions asynchronously instead of waiting until
just before the prompt appears.

oid (+) The user's real organization ID. (Domain/OS only)

owd (+) The old or previous working directory.

path A list of directories in which to look for executable commands, path is set by the
shell at startup from the PATH environment variable or, if PATH does not exist, to a
system-dependent default, something like /usr/local/bin /usr/bsd /bin /usr/bin.
518 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

Table 9.26 Special C/TC Shell Variables0, b

(continued)

Variable Meaning

printexitvalue (+) If set and an interactive program exits with a nonzero status, the shell prints Exit
status.

prompt The string that is printed before reading each command from the terminal; may
include special formatting sequences (see "The Shell Prompts" on page 461).

promptZ (+) The string with which to prompt in while and foreach loops and after lines ending in
\. The same format sequences may be used as in prompt; note the variable meaning
of %R. Set by default to %R? in interactive shells.

prompts (+) The string with which to prompt when confirming automatic spelling correction.
The same format sequences may be used as in prompt; note the variable meaning of
%R. Set by default to C0RRECT>%R (y|n|e|a)? in interactive shells.

promptchars (+) If set (to a two-character string), the %# formatting sequence in the prompt shell
variable is replaced with the first character for normal users and the second
character for the superuser.

pushtohome (+) If set, pushd without arguments does pushd like cd.

pushdsilent (+) If set, pushd and popd to not print the directory stack.

recexact (+) If set, completion completes on an exact match even if a longer match is possible.

recognize_only_ If set, command listing displays only files in the path that are executable.
executables (+)

rmstar (+) If set, the user is prompted before rm * is executed.

rprompt (+) The string to print on the right-hand side of the screen (after the command input)
when the prompt is being displayed on the left. It recognizes the same formatting
characters as prompt. It will automatically disappear and reappear as necessary, to
ensure that command input isn't obscured, and will only appear if the prompt,
command input, and itself will fit together on the first line. If edit isn't set, then
rprompt will be printed after the prompt and before the command input.

savedirs (+) If set, the shell does di rs -S before exiting.

savehist If set, the shell does history -S before exiting. If the first word is set to a number, at
most that many lines are saved. (The number must be less than or equal to history.)
If the second word is set to merge, the history list is merged with the existing history
file instead of replacing it (if there is one) and sorted by timestamp and the most
recent events are retained.

sched (+) The format in which the sched built-in command prints scheduled events; if not
given, %h\t%T\t%R\n is used. The format sequences are described above under prompt;
note the variable meaning of %R.
9.20 TC Shell Built-in Commands 519

Table 9.26 Special C/TC Shell Variables0, b

(continued)

Variable Meaning

shell The file in which the shell resides. This is used in forking shells to interpret files
that have execute bits set, but are not executable by the system. (See the description
of built-in and non-built-in command execution.) Initialized to the (system-
dependent) home of the shell.

shlvl (+) The number of nested shells. Reset to 1 in login shells. See also loginsh.

status The status returned by the last command. If it terminated abnormally, then 0200 is
added to the status. Built-in commands that fail return exit status 1, all other built-
in commands return status 0.

symlinks (+) Can be set to several different values to control symbolic link (symlink) resolution.
(See tcsh man page for examples.)

tcsh (+) The version number of the shell in the formal R.VV.PP, where R is the major release
number, W the current version, and PP the patch level.

term (+) The terminal type. Usually set in -/-"login as described under "C/TC Shell Startup"
on page 403.

time If set to a number, then the time built-in executes automatically after each command
that takes more than that many CPU seconds. If there is a second word, it is used
as a format string for the output of the time built-in. The following sequences may
be used in the format string;

%c The number of involuntary context switches.

%D The average amount in (unshared) data/stack space used in KB.
%E The elapsed (wall clock) time in seconds.
%F The number of major page faults (page needed to be brought from disk).
%I The number of input operations.
%K The total space used (%X + %D) in KB.
%k The number of signals received.
%M The maximum memory the process had in use at any time in KB.
%0 The number of output operations.
%P The CPU percentage computed as (%U + %S) / %E.
%R (+) The number of minor page faults.
%r The number of socket messages received.
%S The time the process spent in kernel mode in CPU seconds.
%s The number of socket messages sent.
%U The time the process spent in user mode in CPU seconds.
%W Number of times the process was swapped.
%w The number of voluntary context switches (waits).
%X The average amount in (shared) text space used in KB.

Only the %U, %S, %F, and %P sequences are supported on systems without BSD resource
limit functions. The default time format is %Uu %Ss %E %P %X+%Dk %I+%0io %Fpf+%Ww for
systems that support resource usage reporting and %Uu %Ss %E %P for systems that do
not.
520 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

Table 9.26 Special C/TC Shell Variables0, b

(continued)

Variable Meaning

time (continued) Under Sequenl's DYNIX/plx, %X, %D, %K, %r, and %s are not available, but the following
additional sequences are:

%Y The number of system calls performed.

%Z The number of pages that are zero-filled on demand.
%i The number of times a process's resident set size was increased by the kernel.
%d The number of times a process's resident set size was decreased by the kernel.
%1 The number of read system calls performed.
%m The number of write system calls performed.
%p The number of reads from raw disk devices.
%q The number of writes to raw disk devices.

The default time format is %Uu %Ss $E %P %I+%0io %Fpf+%Ww. Note that the CPU
percentage can be higher than 100 percent on multiprocessors.

tperiod (+) The period, in minutes, between executions of the periodic special alias.

tty (+) The name of the tty, or empty if not attached to one.

uid (+) The user's real user ID.

user (+) The user's login name.

verbose If set, causes the words of each command to be printed, after history substitution
(if any). Set by the -v command-line option.

version (+) The version ID stamp. It contains the shell's version number (see tcsh), origin,
release date, vendor, operating system, and so forth.

a. Variables with a (+) are TC shell only. All others are built in for both TC and C shells.
b. Descriptions taken from tcsh manual pages.

9.20.2 TC Shell Command-Line Switches

The TC shell can take a number of command-line switches (also called flag arguments)
to control or modify its behavior. The command-line switches are listed in Table 9.27.

Table 9.27 TC Shell Command-Line Switches

Switch Meaning

Specifies the shell is a login shell.

-b Forces a "break" from option processing. Any shell arguments thereafter will not be
treated as options. The remaining arguments will not be interpreted as shell options.
Must include this option if shell is set-user id.

-c If a single argument follows the -c; commands are read from the argument (a
filename). Remaining arguments are placed in the argv shell variable.
9.20 TC Shell Built-in Commands 521

Table 9.27 TC Shell Command-Line Switches (continued)

Switch Meaning

-d The shell loads the directory slack from ~/-cshdirs.

-Dname[=value] Sets the environment variable name to value.

-e The shell exits if any invoked command terminates abnormally or yields a nonzero
exit status.

-f Called the fast startup because the shell ignores -/-tcshrc, when starting a new TC
shell.

-F The shell uses fork(2) instead of vfork(2) to spawn processes. (Convex/OS only)

-i The shell is interactive and prompts input, even if it appears to not be a terminal.
This option isn't necessary if input and output are connected to a terminal.

-1 The shell is a login shell if -1 is the only flag specified.

-m The shell loads -/■ tcshrc even if it does not belong to the effective user.

-n Used for debugging scripts. The shell parses commands but does not execute them.

-q The shell accepts the SICQUIT signal and behaves when it is used under a debugger.
Job control is disabled.

-s Command input is taken from the standard input.

-t The shell reads and executes a single line of input. A backslash (\) may be used to
escape the newline at the end of this line and continue on to another line.

-V Sets the verbose shell variable, so that command input is echoed after history
substitution. Used to debug shell scripts.

-X Sets the echo shell variable, so that commands are echoed before execution and after
history and variable substitution. Used to debug shell scripts.

-V Sets the verbose shell variable before executing the ~/-tcshrc file.

-X Sets the echo shell variable before executing the ~/.tcshrc file.
522 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

LAB 19: THE TC SHELL—GETTING STARTED

1. What does the init process do?

2. What is the function of the login process?

3. How do you know what shell you are using?

4. How can you change your login shell?

5. Explain the difference between the .tcshrc, .cshrc, and .login files. Which one is executed
first?

6. Edit your .tcshrc or .cshrc file as follows:

a. Create three of your own aliases.

b. Reset your prompt with the host machine name, time, username.

c. Set the following variables and put a comment after each variable explaining what it
does: noclobber, history, ignoreof, savehist, prompt.

7. Type the following:

source .tcshrc or source .cshrc

What does the source command do?

8. Edit your .login file as follows:

a. Welcome the user.

b. Add your home directory to the path if it is not there.

c. Source the .login file.

9. What is the difference between path and PATH?

LAB 20: HISTORY

1. In what file are history events stored when you log out? What variable controls the number
of history events to be displayed? What is the purpose of the savehi st variable?

2. Print your history list in reverse.

3. Print your history list without line numbers.

4. Type the following commands:

a. Is -a

b. date ,+%T,

c. cal 2004

d. cat /etc/passwd

e. cd
9.20 TC Shell Built-in Commands 523

5. Type history. What is the output?

a. How do you re-execute the last command?

b. Now type: echo a b c

Use the history command to re-execute the echo command with only its last argument, c.

6. Use history to print and execute the last command in your history list that started with the
letter d.

7. Execute the last command that started with the letter c.

8. Execute the echo command and the last argument from the previous command.

9. Use the history substitution command to replace the T in the date command with an H.

10. How do you use the bindkey command to start the vi editor for command-line editing?

11. How do you list the editor commands and what they do?

12. How do you see how the editing keys are actually bound?

13. Describe what the fignore variable does.

LAB 21: SHELL METACHARACTERS

1. Type at the prompt:

touch ab abc al a2 aB all al2 ba ba.l ba.2 filex filey AbC ABC ABc2 abc

Write and test the command that will:

a. List all files starting with a.

b. List all files ending in at least one digit.

c. List all files not starting with an a or A.

d. List all files ending in a period, followed by a digit.

e. List all files containing just two alphas.

f. List three character files where all letters are uppercase.

g. List files ending in 11 or 12.

h. List files ending in x or y

i. List all files ending in a digit, an uppercase letter, or a lowercase letter,

j. List all files containing a b.

k. Remove two-character files starting with a.

524 Chapter 9 • The Interactive C and TC Shells

LAB 22: REDIRECTION

1. What are the names of the three file streams associated with your terminal?

2. What is a file descriptor?

3. What command would you use to:

a. Redirect the output of the Is command to a file called Isfile?

b. Redirect and append the output of the date command to Isfile?

c. Redirect the output of the who command to Isfile? What happened?

d. What happens when you type cp all by itself?

e. How do you save the error message from the above example to a file?

f. Use the find command to find all files, starting from the parent directory, and of type
"directory." Save the standard output in a file called found and any errors in a file called
found.errs.

g. What is noclobber? How do you override it?

h. Take the output of three commands and redirect the output to a file called gottemall.

i. Use a pipe(s) with the ps and wc commands to find out how many processes you are
currently running.

LAB 23: VARIABLES AND ARRAYS

1. What is the difference between a local variable and an environment variable?

2. How do you list all local variables? Environmental variables?

3. In what initialization file would you store local variables? Why?

4. Create an array called fruit. Put five kinds of fruit in the array.

a. Print the array.

b. Print the last element of the array.

c. Print the number of elements in the array.

d. Remove the first element from the array.

e. If you store an item that isn't fruit in the array, is it okay?

5. Describe the difference between a wordlist and a string.

chapter

'C"-

10

TC
Programming the

C and TC Shells

10.1 Introduction

10.1.1 The Steps in Creating a Shell Script

A shell script is normally written in an editor and consists of commands interspersed

with comments. Comments are preceded by a pound sign (#) and consist of text used to
document what is going on.

The First Line. At the top left corner, the line preceded by #! (often called shbang)
indicates the program that will be executing the lines in the script.

#!/bin/csh or #!/bin/tcsh

The #!, also called a magic number, is used by the kernel to identify the program that
should be interpreting the lines in the script. When a program is loaded into memory,
the kernel will examine the first line. If the first line is binary data, the program will be
executed as a compiled program; if the first line contains the #!, the kernel will look at
the path following the #! and start that program as the interpreter. If the path is /bin/csh,
the C shell will interpret the lines in the program. If the path is /bin/tcsh, the TC shell
will interpret the lines in the program. This line must be the top line of your script or
the line will be treated as a comment line.
When the script starts, the .cshrc file (for csh) or .tcshrc file (for tcsh) is read first and
executed, so that anything set within that file will become part of your script. You can
prevent the .cshrc or .tcshrc file from being read into your script by using the -f (fast)
option to the C shell program. This option is written as

#!/bin/csh -f or #!/bin/tcsh -f

Note; In all the following examples, if you are using tcsh, change the shbang line to

#!/bin/tcsh -f

525
526 Chapter 10 • Programming the C and TC Shells

Comments. Comments are lines preceded by a pound sign. They are used to docu-
ment your script. It is sometimes difficult to understand what the script is supposed to
do if it is not commented. Although comments are important, they are often too sparse
or not even used at all. Try to get used to commenting what you are doing not only for
someone else, but also for yourself. Two days from now you may not remember exactly
what you were trying to do.

Making the Script Executable. When you create a file, it is not given execute per-
mission. You need this permission to run your script. Use the chmod command to turn on
execute permission.

EXAMPLE 10.l

1 % chmod +x myscript
2 % Is -IF myscript
-rwxr—xr—x 1 ellie 0 Jul 13:00 myscript*

EXPLANATION

1 The chmod command is used to turn on execute permission for the user, the group,
and others.

2 The output of the 1 s command indicates that all users have execute permission on
the myscript file. The asterisk at the end of the filename (resulting from the -F op-
tion) also indicates that this is an executable program.

An Example Scripting Session. In the following example, the user will create the
script in the editor. After saving the file, the execute permissions are turned on with the
chmod command, and the script is executed. If there are errors in the program, the C shell
will respond immediately.

EXAMPLE 10.2

(The Script - info)

#!/bin/csh -f
# Script name: info
1 echo Hello ${L0GNAME}!
2 echo The hour is "date +9^"
3 echo "This machine is 'uname -n""
4 echo The calendar for this month is
5 cal
6 echo The processes you are running are:
7 ps -ef | grep "a *$L0CNAME"
8 echo "Thanks for coming. See you soon\!\!"

(The Command Line)

% chmod +x info
% info
10.2 Reading User Input 527

EXAMPLE 10.2 (continued)

1 Hello ellie!
2 The hour is 09
3 This machine is jody
4 The calendar for this month is
5 July 2004
S M Tu if/ Th F 5
1 2 3
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17
18 19 20 21 22 23 24
25 26 27 28 29 30 31
7 The processes you are running are:
< output of ps prints here >
8 Thanks for coming. See you soon!!

EXPLANATION

1 The user is greeted. The variable LOGNAME holds the user's name. On BSD systems,
USER is used. The curly braces shield the variable from the exclamation point. The
exclamation point does not need to be escaped because it will not be interpreted
as a history character unless there is a character appended to it.

2 The date command is enclosed in backquotes. The shell will perform command
substitution and the date's output, the current hour, will be substituted into the
echo string.

3 The uname -n command displays the machine name.

4, 5 The cal command is not enclosed in backquotes because when the shell performs
command substitution, the newlines are all stripped from the output. This pro-
duces a strange-looking calendar. By putting the ca! command on a line by itself,
the formatting is preserved. The calendar for this month is printed.

6, 7 The user's processes are printed. Use ps -aux for BSD or ps au with Linux.a

8 The string is printed. Note that the two exclamation points are prepended with
backslashes. This is necessary to prevent history substitution.

a. Linux supports a variety of different style options, including UN1X98, BSD and GNU. See your man page for ps.

10.2 Reading User Input

10.2.1 The $< Variable

To make a script interactive, a special C shell variable is used to read standard input into
a variable. The S< symbol reads a line from standard input up to but not including the
newline, and assigns the line to a variable.1

1. Another way to read one line of input is setvariable = 'head -1'.

528 Chapter 10 • Programming the C and TC Shells

EXAMPLE 10.3

(The Script - greeting)

#/bin/csh -f
# The greeting script
1 echo -n "What is your name? "
2 set name = $<
3 echo Greetings to you, Sname.

(The Command Line)

% chmod +x greeting
% greeting
1 What is your name? Dan Savage
3 Greetings to you, Dan Savage.

EXPLANATION

1 The string is echoed to the screen. The -n option causes the echo command to sup-
press the newline at the end of the string. On some versions of echo, use a \c at the
end of the string to suppress the newline; for example, echo heno\c.

2 Whatever is typed at the terminal, up to a newline, is stored as a string in the name

variable.

3 The string is printed after variable substitution is performed.

10.2.2 Creating a Wordlist from the Input String

Because the input from the $< variable is stored as a string, you may want to break the
string into a wordlist.

EXAMPLE 10.4

1 % echo What is your full name\?

2 % set name = $<
Lola Justin Lue
3 % echo Hi $name[l]
Hi Lola Justin Lue
4 % echo Sname[2]
Subscript out of range.
5 % set name = ( Sname )
6 % echo Hi Sname[l]
Hi Lola
7 % echo $name[2] $name[3]
Justin Lue
10.3 Arithmetic 529

1 The user is asked for input.

2 The special variable $< accepts input from the user in a string format.

3 Because the value Lola Justin Lue is stored as a single string, the subscript [1] dis-
plays the whole string. Subscripts start at 1.

4 The string consists of one word. There are not two words, so by using a subscript
of [2], the shell complains Subscript out of range.

5 To create a wordlist, the string is enclosed in parentheses. An array is created. The

string is broken up into a list of words and assigned to the variable name.

6 The first element of the array is printed.

7 The second and third elements of the array are printed.

10.3 Arithmetic

There is not really a need to do math problems in a shell script, but sometimes arithmetic
is necessary, for instance, to increment or decrement a loop counter. The C shell sup-
ports integer arithmetic only. The @ symbol is used to assign the results of calculations
to numeric variables.

10.3.1 Arithmetic Operators

The following operators shown in Table 10.1 are used to perform integer arithmetic
operations. They are the same operators as found in the C programming language. See
Table 10.6 on page 538 for operator precedence. Also borrowed from the C language are
shortcut assignment operators, shown in Table 10.2.

Table 10.1 Integer Arithmetic Operators

Operator Function

+ Addition

Subtraction

/ Division

Multiplication

% Modulus

« Left shift

» Right shift
530 Chapter 10 • Programming the C and TC Shells

Table 10.2 Shortcut Operators

Operator Example Equivalent To

+= @ num += 2 @ num = $num + 2

-= @ num -= 4 @ num = $num - 4

*= @ num *= 3 @ num = $num * 3

/= @ num /= 2 @ num = $num / 2

++ @ num++ ® num = $num + 1

— (a num— ® num = $num - 1

EXAMPLE 10.5

1 % © sum = 4 + 6
echo $sum
10
2 % © sum++
echo Ssum
11
3 % © sum += 3
echo $sum
14
4 % © sum-
echo $sum
13
5 % © n = 3+4
&: Badly formed number

EXPLANATION

l The variable sum is assigned the result of adding 4 and 6. (The space after the © is
required.)

2 The variable sum is incremented by 1.

3 The variable sum is incremented by 3.

4 The variable sum is decremented by 1.

5 Spaces are required after the © symbol and surrounding the operator.

10.3.2 Floating-Point Arithmetic

Because floating-point arithmetic is not supported by this shell, if you should need more
complex mathematical operations, you can use UNIX utilities.
The be and nawk utilities are useful if you need to perform complex calculations.
10.4 Debugging Scripts 531

EXAMPLE 10.6

(The Command Line)

1 set n=,echo "scale=3; 13 / 2" | be'
echo $n
6.500

2 set product^nawk -v x=2.45 -v y=3.124 'BEGINiX

printf "%.2f\n", x * y
% echo Sproduct
7.65

EXPLANATION

1 The output of the echo command is piped to the be program. The scale is set to 3;
that is, the number of significant digits to the right of the decimal point that will
be printed. The calculation is to divide 13 by 2. The entire pipeline is enclosed in
backquotes. Command substitution will be performed and the output assigned to
the variable n.

2 The nawk program gets its values from the argument list passed in at the command
line. Each argument passed to nawk is preceded by the -v switch; for example, -v
x=2.45 and -v y=3.124. After the numbers are multiplied, the pri ntf function formats
and prints the result with a precision of 2 places to the right of the decimal point.
The output is assigned to the variable product.

10.4 Debugging Scripts

C/TC shell scripts often fail because of some simple syntax error or logic error. Options
to the csh command to help you debug your programs are provided in Table 10.3.

Table 10.3 echo (-x) and verbose (-v)

Option What It Does

As Options to csh and tcsh

csh -x sen' ptname Display each line of script after variable substitution and before execution,
tcsh -x scriptname

csh -v scri ptname Display each line of script before execution, just as you typed it.
tcsh -v scriptname

csh -n scri ptname Interpret but do not execute commands,

tcsh -n scriptname

As Arguments to the set Command

set echo Display each line of script after variable substitution and before execution,

set verbose Display each line of script before execution, just as you typed it.
532 Chapter 10 • Programming the C and TC Shells

Table 10.3 echo (-x) and verbose (-v) (continued)

Option What It Does

As the First Line in a Script

#!/bin/csh -xv Turns on both echo and verbose. These options can be invoked separately or
#!/bin/tcsh -xv combined with other csh invocation arguments.

EXAMPLE 10.7

(The -v and -x Options)

1 % cat practice
#!/bin/csh
echo Hello SLOCNAME
echo The date is 'date'
echo Your home shell is SSHELL
echo Cood-bye SLOCNAME

2 % csh -v practice
echo Hello SLOCNAME
Hello ellie
echo The date is 'date'
The date is Sun May 23 12:24:07 POT 2004
echo Your login shell is SSHELL
Your login shell is /bin/csh
echo Good-bye SLOCNAME
Good-bye ellie

3 % csh -x practice
echo Hello ellie
Hello ellie
echo The date is 'date'
date
The date is Sun May 23 12:24:15 POT 2004
echo Your login shell is /bin/csh
Your login shell is /bin/csh
echo Good-bye ellie
Good-bye ellie

EXPLANATION

1 The contents of the C shell script are displayed. Variable and command substitu-
tion lines are included so that you can see how echo and verbose differ.

2 The -v option to the csh command causes the verbose feature to be enabled. Each line
of the script is displayed as it was typed in the script, and then the line is executed.

3 The -x option to the csh command enables echoing. Each line of the script is dis-
played after variable and command substitution are performed, and then the line is
executed. Because this feature lets you examine what is being replaced as a result of
command and variable substitution, it is used more often than the verbose option.
10.4 Debugging Scripts 533

EXAMPLE 10.8

(Echo and Verbose)

1 % cat practice
#!/bi n/csh
echo Hello SLOCNAME
echo The date is 'date'
set echo
echo Your home shell is SSHELL
unset echo
echo Good-bye SLOCNAME

% chtnod +x practice

2 % practice
Hello ellie
The date is Sun May 26 12:25:16 PDT 2004
--> echo Your login shell is /bin/csh
--> Your login shell is /bin/csh
--> unset echo
Good-bye ellie

EXPLANATION

1 The echo option is set and unset within the script. This enables you to debug cer-
tain sections of your script where you have run into a bottleneck, rather than
echoing each line of the entire script.

2 The ~> marks where the echoing was turned on. Each line is printed after variable
and command substitution and then executed.

EXAMPLE 10.9

1 % cat practice
#!/bi n/csh
echo Hello SLOCNAME
echo The date is 'date'
set verbose
echo Your home shell is $SHELL
unset verbose
echo Good-bye SLOCNAME

2 % practice
Hello ellie
The date is Sun May 23 12:30:09 PDT 2004
—> echo Your login shell is $ SHELL
--> Your login shell is /bin/csh
—> unset verbose
Good-bye ellie
534 Chapter 10 • Programming the C and TC Shells

EXPLANATION

1 The verbose option is set and unset within the script.

2 The —> marks where verbose was turned on. The lines are printed just as they were
typed in the script and then executed.

10.5 Command-Line Arguments

Shell scripts can take command-line arguments. Arguments are used to modify the
behavior of the program in some way. The C shell assigns command-line arguments to
positional parameters and enforces no specific limit on the number of arguments that
can be assigned (the Bourne shell sets a limit of nine positional parameters). Positional
parameters are number variables. The script name is assigned to $0, and any words fol-
lowing the scriptname are assigned to $1, $2, $3 . . . ${10}, ${11}, and so on. $1 is the first
command-line argument. In addition to using positional parameters, the C shell pro-
vides the argv built-in array.

10.5.1 Positional Parameters and argv

If using the argv array notation, a valid subscript must be provided to correspond to the
argument being passed in from the command line or the error message Subscript out of
range is sent by the C shell. The argv array does not include the script name. The first
argument is $argv[l], and the number of arguments is represented by $#argv. (There is no
other way to represent the number of arguments.) See Table 10.4.

Table 10.4 Command-Line Arguments

Argument Meaning

$0 The name of the script.

$1, $2, . . . ${10} . . . The first and second positional parameters are referenced by the
number preceded by a dollar sign. The curly braces shield the
number 10 so that it does not print the first positional parameter
followed by a 0.

$>v All the positional parameters.

$argv[0] Not valid; nothing is printed. C shell array subscripts start at 1.

$argv[l] $argv[2]... The first argument, second argument, and so on.

$argv[*] All arguments.

Sargv All arguments.

$#argv The number of arguments.

$argv[$#argv] The last argument.

10.6 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 535

EXAMPLE IO.IO

(The Script)
#!/bin/csh -f
# The greetings script
# This script greets a user whose name is typed in at the command line.
1 echo $0 to you $1 $2 S3
2 echo Welcome to this day ^date | awk '{print $1, S2, $3},1
3 echo Hope you have a nice day, $argv[l]\!
4 echo Good-bye $argv[l] $argv[2] $argv[3]

(The Command Line)

% chmod +x greetings
% greetings Guy Quigley
1 greetings to you Cuy Quigley
2 Welcome to this day Fri Aug 28
3 Hope you have a nice day, Guy!
4 Subscript out of range

EXPLANATION

l The name of the script and the first three positional parameters are to be dis-
played. Because there are only two positional parameters coming in from the com-
mand line, Guy and Quigley, $1 becomes Guy, $2 becomes Quigley, and $3 is not de-
fined.

2 The awk command is quoted with single quotes so that the shell does not confuse
awk's field numbers $1, $2, and $3 with positional parameters. (Do not confuse awk's
field designators $1, $2, and $3 with the shell's positional parameters.)

3 The argv array is assigned values coming in from the command line. Guy is assigned
to argv[l] and its value is displayed. You can use the argv array to represent the
command-line arguments within your script, or you can use positional parame-
ters. The difference is that positional parameters do not produce an error if you
reference one that has no value, whereas an unassigned argv value causes the
script to exit with the Subscript out of range error message.

4 The shell prints the error Subscript out of range because there is no value for
argv[3].

10.6 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control

When making decisions, the if, if/else, if/else if, and switch commands are used. These
commands control the flow of the program by allowing decision making based on
whether an expression is true or false.
536 Chapter 10 • Programming the C and TC Shells

10.6.1 Testing Expressions

An expression consists of a set of operands separated by operators. Operators and pre-

cedence are listed in Tables 10.5 and 10.6, respectively. To test an expression, the expres-
sion is surrounded by parentheses. The C shell evaluates the expression, resulting in
either a zero or nonzero numeric value. If the result is nonzero, the expression is true; if
the result is zero, the expression is false.

Table 10.5 Comparison and Logical Operators

Operator Meaning Example

==

X
Equal to

II
II
!=

X
Not equal to

II
> Greater than $x > $y

>= Greater than or equal to $x >= $y

< Less than $x < $y

<= Less than or equal to $x <= $y

=~ String matches Sans =~ [Yy]*

!~ String does not match Sans !~ [Yy]*

! Logical NOT ! $x

II Logical OR $x || $y

&& Logical AND $x && $y

When evaluating an expression with the logical AND (&&), the shell evaluates from
left to right. If the first expression (before the &&) is false, the shell assigns false as the
result of the entire expression, never checking the remaining expressions. Both expres-
sions surrounding a logical && operator must be true for the entire expression to evaluate
to true.

( 5 && 6 ) Expression is true

( 5 && 0 ) Expression is false
( 0 && 3 && 2 ) Expression is false

When evaluating an expression with the logical OR (| I), if the first expression to the
left of the 11 is true, the shell assigns true to the entire expression and never checks fur-
ther. In a logical 11 expression, only one of the expressions must be true.
10.6 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 537

( 5 || 6 ) Expression is true
( 5 || 0 ) Expression is true
( 0 11 0 ) Expression is false
( 0 11 4 11 2 ) Expression is true

The logical NOT is a unary operator; that is, it evaluates one expression. If the expres-
sion to the right of the NOT operator is true, the expression becomes false. If it is false,
the expression becomes true.

! 5 Expression is false
! 0 Expression is true

10.6.2 Precedence and Associativity

Like C, the C shell uses precedence and associativity rules when testing expressions. If
you have an expression with a mix of different operators, such as the following, the shell
reads the operators in a certain order:

(a x = 5 + 3 * 2
echo $x
11

Precedence refers to the order of importance of the operator. Associativity refers to

whether the shell reads the expression from left to right or right to left when the prece-
dence is equal.2 Other than in arithmetic expressions (which you will not readily need
in shell scripts anyway), the order of associativity is from left to right if the precedence
is equal. You can change the order by using parentheses. (See Table 10.6.)

0 x = { 5 + 3 ) * 2
echo $x
16

Expressions can be numeric, relational, or logical. Numeric expressions use the fol-
lowing arithmetic operators:

+ - * / ++ - %

Relational expressions use the operators that yield either a true (nonzero) or false
(zero) result:

> < >= <= == !=

Logical expressions use these operators that also yield true or false:

! && ||

2. Associativity in arithmetic expressions is right to left in cases of equal precedence.

538 Chapter 10 • Programming the C and TC Shells

Table 10.6 Operator Precedence

Operator Precedence Meaning

() High Change precedence; group

rj Complement

! Logical NOT, negation

* / % Multiply, divide, modulo

+ - Add, subtract

« » Bitwise left and right shift

> >= < <= Relational operators: greater than, less than

Equality: equal to, not equal to

Pattern matching: matches, does not match

& Bitwise AND

A Bitwise exclusive OR

I Bitwise inclusive OR

&& * Logical AND

Low Logical OR

10.6.3 The i f Statement

The simplest form of conditional is the if statement. After the if expression is tested,
and if the expression evaluates to true, the commands after the then keyword are exe-
cuted until the endif is reached. The endif keyword terminates the block. The if state-
ment may be nested as long as every single if statement is terminated with a matching
endif. The endif goes with the nearest enclosing if.

FORMAT

if ( expression ) then
command
command
endif
10.6 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 539

EXAMPLE ion

(In the Script: Checking for Arguments)

1 if ( $#argv != 1 ) then
2 echo "$0 requires an argument"
3 exit 1
4 endif

EXPLANATION

1 This line reads: If the number of arguments ($#argv) passed in from the command
line is not equal to one, then . . .

2 If the first line is true, this line and line 3 are executed.

3 The program exits with a value of 1, meaning it failed.

4 Every i f block is closed with an endi f statement.

10.6.4 Testing and Unset or Null Variables

The $? special variable is used to test if a variable has been set. It will return true if the
variable is set to some value, including null.

EXAMPLE 10.12

(From .cshrc/.tcshrc File)

if ( $?prompt ) then
set history = 32
endif

EXPLANATION

The .cshrc file is executed every time you start a new csh program. $? is used to check
to see if a variable has been set. In this example, the shell checks to see if the prompt
has been set. If the prompt is set, you are running an interactive shell, not a script. The
prompt is only set for interactive use. Because the history mechanism is only useful
when running interactively, the shell will not set history if you are running a script.

EXAMPLE 10.13

(The Script)
echo -n "What is your name? "
1 set name = $<
,m
2 if ( "Sname" != ) then
grep "Sname" datafile
endif
540 Chapter 10 • Programming the C and TC Shells

EXPLANATION

1 The user is asked for input. If the user just presses Enter, the variable name is set,
but it is set to null.

2 The variable is double quoted so that if the user enters more than one word in name,
the expression will still be evaluated. If the quotes were removed and the user en-
tered first and last name, the shell would exit the script with the error message if:
Expression syntax. The empty double quotes represent a null string.

10.6.5 The i f/el se Statement

The if/else construct is a two-way branching control structure. If the expression follow-
ing the if is true, the statements following it are executed; otherwise, the statements after
the else are executed. The endif matches the innermost if statement and terminates the
statement.

FORMAT

if ( expression ) then
command
else
command
endif

EXAMPLE 10.14

1 if ( $answer =~ [Yy]* ) then

2 mail bob < message
3 else
4 mail John < datafile
5 endif

EXPLANATION

1 This line reads: If the value of Sanswer matches a Y or a y, followed by zero or more
characters, then go to line 2; otherwise, go to line 3. (The * is a shell metacharacter.)

2 The user bob is mailed the contents of the file message.

3 The commands under the else are executed if line 1 is not true.

4 The user John is mailed the contents of the file datafile.

5 The endi f block ends the i f block.

10.6.6 Logical Expressions

The logical operators are &&, 11, and !. The AND operator, &&, evaluates the expression
on the left-hand side of &&; if true, the expression on the right side of && is tested and
must also be true. If one expression is false, the expression is false. The OR operator, | j,
10.6 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 541

evaluates the expression on the left-hand side of 11; if true, the expression is true; if false,
the expression on the right side of the 11 operator is tested. If it is true, the expression
is true. If both expressions are false, the expression is false. The NOT operator, !, is a
unary operator. It evaluates the expression on the right and if that expression is true, it
becomes false, and if it is false, it becomes true. If one expression is false, the expression
is false.
The -x option (called echoing) to the C/TC shell allows you to trace what is going on
in your script as it executes. (See Chapter 15, "Debugging Shell Scripts," on page 967.)

EXAMPLE 10.15

(The Script: Using Logical Expressions and Checking Values)

#!/bin/csh -f
# Scriptname: logical
set x = 1
set y = 2
set z = 3
1 if ( ( "Sx" && "$y" ) || ! "Sz" ) then
# Note: grouping and parentheses
2 echo TRUE
else
echo FALSE
endif

(The Output)
3 % csh -x logical
set x = 1
set y = 2
set z = 3
if (( 1&& 2 ) II ! 3 ) then
echo TRUE
TRUE
else
%

EXPLANATION

l The logical expression is being evaluated. The first expression is enclosed in pa-
rentheses (not necessary because && is of higher precedence than |). The paren-
theses do not require spaces when nested, but the negation operator (!) must have
a space after it.

2 If the expression evaluates true, this line is executed.

3 The csh program is executed with the -x switch. This turns on echoing. Every line
in your script is echoed back to you after variable substitution has been per-
formed.
542 Chapter 10 • Programming the C and TC Shells

10.6.7 The i f Statement and a Single Command

If an expression is followed by a single command, the then and endif keywords are not
necessary.

FORMAT

if ( expression ) single command

EXAMPLE 10.16

if ($#argv == 0) exit 1

EXPLANATION

The expression is tested. If the number of command-line arguments, $#argv, is equal to

0, the program is exited with a status of 1.

10.6.8 The if/else if Statement

The if/else if construct offers a multiway decision-making mechanism. A number of

expressions can be tested, and when one of the expressions evaluated is true, the block
of statements that follow is executed. If none of the expressions is true, the else block is
executed.

FORMAT

if ( expression ) then
command
command
else if ( expression ) then
command
command
else
command
endif

EXAMPLE 10.17

(The Script: grade)

#!/bin/csh -f
# Scriptname: grade
echo -n "What was your grade? "
set grade = S<
1 if ( $grade >= 90 && Sgrade <= 100 ) then
echo "You got an K\\"
10.6 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 543

EXAMPLE 10.17 (continued)

2 else if ( Sgrade > 79 ) then

echo "You got a B"
3 else if ( Sgrade > 69 ) then
echo "You're average"
else
4 echo "Better study"
5 endif

EXPLANATION

1 If grade is greater than or equal to 90 and grade is less than or equal to 100, then You
got an A! is printed. Both expressions surrounding the && must be true or program
control will go to the else if on line 2.

2 If line 1 is false, test the expression (line 2), and if it is true, You got a B is printed.

3 If line 1 and 2 are both false, try this one. If this expression is true, then You're
average is printed.

4 If all of the above expressions test false, the statements in the el se block are executed.

5 The endif ends the entire if construct.

10.6.9 Exit Status and the Status Variable

Every UNIX/Linux command returns an exit status. If the command was successful, it
returns an exit status of zero. If the command failed, it returns a nonzero exit status. You
can test to see whether the command succeeded or failed by looking at the value of the
C shell status variable. The status variable contains the exit status of the last command
executed.

EXAMPLE 10.18

1 % grep ellie /etc/passwd

e11ie: pHAZk66gA:9496:41:El 1ie:/home/jody/e 11ie:/bin/csh
2 % echo $status
0 # Zero shows that grep was a success

3 % grep joe /etc/passwd

4 % echo Sstatus
1 # Nonzero shows that grep failed

EXPLANATION

1 The grep program found ellie in the /etc/passwd file.

2 The grep program, if it finds the pattern ellie, returns a zero status when it exits.

3 The grep program did not find joe in the /etc/passwd file.

4 The grep program returns a nonzero status if the pattern is not found.
544 Chapter 10 • Programming the C and TC Shells

10.6.10 Exiting from a Shell Script

In your shell script, the exit command will take you back to the shell prompt. The exit
command takes an integer value to indicate the type of exit. A nonzero argument indi-
cates failure; zero indicates success. The number must be between 0 and 255.

EXAMPLE 10.19

(The checkon Shell Script)

#!/bin/csh -f
1 if ( $#argv != 1 ) then
2 echo "$0 requires an argument"
3 exit 2
4 endif

(At the command line)

5 % checkon
checkon requires an argument
6 % echo Sstatus
2 ^

EXPLANATION

1 If the number of arguments passed in from the command line ($#argv) is not equal
to 1, then go to line 2.

2 The echo prints the script name (S0) and the string requi res an argument.

3 The program exits back to the prompt with a value of 2. This value will be stored
in the status variable of the parent shell.

4 The end of the conditional if.

5 At the command line, the program checkon is executed without an argument.

6 The program exits with a value of 2, which is stored in the status variable.

10.6.11 Using an Alias to Create an Error Message

You may want to create a customized diagnostic message when exiting from a script due
to some error condition. This can be accomplished with an alias, as shown in Example
10.20.
10.6 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 545

EXAMPLE 10.20

(The Script)
#!/bin/tcsh -f
# Scriptname: filecheck
# Usage: filecheck filename
1 alias Usage 'echo " Usage: $0 filename\!-v" ; exit 1'
2 alias Error 'echo " Error: \!* exit 2'
3 set file=$l
4 if ( $#argv == 0 ) then
Usage
endif
5 if ( ! -e $file ) then
Error "Sfile does not exist"
endif

(The Command Line)

% filecheck
Usage: filecheck filename
% echo status
1

% filecheck xyzfile
Error: xyzfile does not exist
% echo Sstatus
2

10.6.12 Using the Status Variable in a Script

The status variable can be used in a script to test the status of a command. The status
variable is assigned the value of the last command that was executed.

EXAMPLE 10.21

(The Script)
#!/bin/csh -f
1 ypmatch $1 passwd >& /dev/null
2 if ( $status == 0 ) then
3 echo Found $1 in the NIS database
endif

EXPLANATION

1 The ypmatch program checks the NIS database to see if the name of the user, passed
in as the first argument, is in the database.

2 If the status returned from the last command is 0, the then block is executed.

3 This line is executed if the if test expression evaluated to be true.

546 Chapter 10 • Programming the C and TC Shells

10.6.13 Evaluating Commands Within Conditionals

The C shell evaluates expressions in conditionals. To evaluate commands in conditionals,

curly braces must enclose the command. If the command is successful, that is, returns an
exit status of zero, the curly braces tell the shell to evaluate the expression as true (I)3 If
the command fails, the exit status is nonzero, and the expression is evaluated as false (0).
It is important, when using a command in a conditional, to know the exit status of
that command. For example, the grep program returns an exit status of 0 when it finds
the pattern it is searching for, 1 when it cannot find the pattern, and 2 when it cannot
find the file. When awk or sed are searching for patterns, those programs return 0 whether
or not they are successful in the pattern search. The criterion for success with awk and
sed is based on whether the syntax is correct; that is, if you typed the command correctly,
the exit status of awk and sed is 0.
If the exclamation mark is placed before the expression, it NOTs the entire expression
so that if true, it is now false, and vice versa. Make sure a space follows the exclamation
mark, or the C shell will invoke the history mechanism.

FORMAT

if { ( command ) } then
command
command
endif

EXAMPLE 10.22

#!/bin/csh -f
1 if { ( who | grep $1 >& /dev/null ) } then
2 echo $1 is logged on and running:
3 ps -ef | grep "a -41" # ps -aux for BSD
4 endif

EXPLANATION

1 The who command is piped to the grep command. All of the output is sent to
/dev/null, the UNIX/Linux "bit bucket." The output of the who command is sent to
grep; grep searches for the name of the user stored in the $1 variable (the first com-
mand-line argument). If grep is successful and finds the user, an exit status of 0 is
returned. The shell will then invert the exit status of the grep command to yield 1,
or true. If the shell evaluates the expression to be true, it executes the commands
between the then and endif.

2 If the C/TC shell evaluates the expression in line 1 to be true, lines 2 and 3 are
executed.

3 All the processes running and owned by $1 are displayed.

4 The endif ends the if statements.

3. The command's exit status is inverted by the shell so that the expression yields a true or false result.
10.6 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 547

FORMAT

if ! { (command) } then

EXAMPLE 10.23

1 if ! { ( ypmatch $user passwd >& /dev/null ) } then

2 echo $user is not a user here,
exit 1
3 endif

EXPLANATION

1 The ypmatch command is used to search the NIS passwd file, if you are using a network.
If the command succeeds in finding the user (Suser) in the passwd file, the expression
evaluates to be true. The exclamation point (!) preceding the expression NOTs or
complements the expression; that is, makes it false if it is true, and vice versa.

2 If the expression is not true, the user is not found and this line is executed.

3 The endi f ends this i f block.

10.6.14 The goto

A goto allows you to jump to some label in the program and start execution at that point.
Although gotos are frowned on by many programmers, they are sometimes useful for
breaking out of nested loops.

EXAMPLE 10.24

(The Script)
#!/bin/csh -f
1 startover:
2 echo "What was your grade? "
set grade = S<
3 if ( "Sgrade" < 0 || "Sgrade" > 100 ) then
4 echo "Illegal grade"
5 goto startover
endif
if ( Sgrade >= 89 ) then
echo "A for the genius\!"
else if ( Sgrade >= 79 ) then
.. < Program continues >

EXPLANATION

l The label is a user-defined word with a colon appended. The label is called start-
over. During execution of the program, the label is ignored by the shell, unless the
shell is explicitly directed to go to the label.
548 Chapter 10 • Programming the C and TC Shells

EXPLANATION (continued)

2 The user is asked for input.

3 If the expression is true (the user entered a grade less than 0 or greater than 100),
the string Illegal grade is printed, and the goto starts execution at the named label,
startover. The program continues to execute from that point.

4 The if expression tested false, so this line is printed.

5 The goto sends control to line 1 and execution starts after the label, startover.

10.6.15 File Testing with the C Shell

Both the C and TC shells have a built-in set of options for testing attributes of files, such
as whether it is a directory, a plain file (not a directory), a readable file, and so forth. The
TC shell adds a few more features in this area, which will be discussed in "File Testing
with the TC Shell" on page 551. For other types of file tests, the UNIX/Linux test com-
mand is used. The built-in options for file inquiry are listed in Table 10.7.

Table 10.7 File Testing with the C Shell

Test Flag (What It Tests) True If

-d File is a directory

-e File exists

-f File is a plain file

-o Current user owns the file

-r Current user can read the file

-w Current user can write to the file

-X Current user can execute the file

-z File is zero length

EXAMPLE 10.25

#!/bin/csh -f
1 if ( -e file ) then
echo file exists
endif
2 if ( -d file ) then
echo file is a directory
endif
10.6 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 549

EXAMPLE 10.25 (continued)

3 if ( ! -z file ) then
echo file is not of zero length
endif
4 if ( -r file && -w file ) then
echo file is readable and writable
endif

EXPLANATION

l The statement reads: if the file exists, then . . .

2 The statement reads: if the file is a directory, then . . .

3 The statement reads: if the file is not of zero length, then . . .

4 The statement reads: if the file is readable and writable, then .... The file-testing
flags cannot be stacked, as in -rwx file. A single option precedes the filename (e.g.,
-r file && -w file && -x file).

10.6.16 The test Command and File Testing

The UNIX/Linux test command includes options that were built into the C shell, as well
as a number of options that were not. See Table 10.8 for a list of test options. You may
need these additional options when testing less common attributes of files such as block
and special character files, or setuid files. The test command evaluates an expression and
returns an exit status of either 0 for success or 1 for failure. When using the test com-
mand in an if conditional statement, curly braces must surround the command so that
the shell can evaluate the exit status properly.4

Table 10.8 File Testing with the test Command

Option Meaning—Tests True If

-b File is a block special device file

-c File is a character special device file

-d File exists and is a directory file

-f File exists and is a plain file

-9 File has the set-group-ID bit set

-k File has the sticky bit set

4. A common error is to name your script test. If your search path contains the UNIX test command first, it
will execute it instead of your script. The test command either displays an error or nothing at all if the
syntax is correct.
550 Chapter 10 • Programming the C and TC Shells

Table 10.8 File Testing with the test Command (continued)

Option Meaning—Tests True If

-P File is a named pipe

-r Current user can read the file

-s File exists and is not empty

-t n n is file descriptor for terminal

-u File has the set-user-ID bit set

-w Current user can write to the file

-x Current user can execute the file

EXAMPLE 10.26

1 if { test -b file } echo file is a block special device file

2 if { test -u file } echo file has the set-user-id bit set

EXPLANATION

1 The statement reads; if the file is a block special device file (found in /dev), then ...

2 The statement reads: if the file is a setuid program (set user ID), then . . .

10.6.17 Nesting Conditionals

Conditional statements can be nested. Every if must have a corresponding endif (else if
does not have an endif). It is a good idea to indent nested statements and line up the ifs
and endi fs so that you can read and test the program more effectively.

EXAMPLE 10.27

(The Script)
#!/bin/csh -f
# Scriptname: filecheck

# Usage: filecheck filename

set file=$l
1 — if ( ! -e $file ) then
echo "$file does not exist"
exit 1
^endif
10.6 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 551

EXAMPLE 10.27 (continued)

2 ( -d Sfile ) then
echo "Sfile is a directory"
3 else if (-f Sfile) then
4 nif ( -r Sfile && -x Sfile ) then # Nested if construct
echo "You have read and execute permission on Sfile"
L
endif
else
print "Sfile is neither a plain file nor a directory."
6 ^ endif

(The Command Line)

$ filecheck testing
You have read and execute permission of file testing.

EXPLANATION

l If file (after variable substitution) is a file that does not exist (note the NOT op-
erator, !), the commands under the then keyword are executed. An exit value of 1
means that the program failed.

2 If the file is a directory, print testing is a directory.

3 If the fi 1 e is not a directory, el se if the file is a plain file, then... the next statement
is executed, another if.

This if is nested in the previous if. If file is readable, writable, and executable,
then .... This if has its own endif and is lined up to indicate where it belongs.

5 The endif terminates the innermost if construct.

6 The endif terminates the outermost if construct.

10.6.18 File Testing with the TC Shell

The TC shell, like the C shell, has a built-in set of options for testing attributes of files,
such as whether the file is a directory, a plain file (not a directory), a readable file, and
so forth. But the TC shell provides additional techniques for file testing as listed below.
The operators listed in Table 10.9 return 1 for true and 0 for false after testing an
attribute of a file or directory in terms of the real user. The built-in options for file
inquiry are listed in Table 10.10 on page 554. The TC shell allows these operators to be
bound together (the C shell does not). The form -rwx is the same as -r && -w && -x.

Table 10.9 File Testing with the TC Shell

Test Flag (What It Tests) True If

-b File is a block special file

-c File is a character special file

552 Chapter 10 • Programming the C and TC Shells

Table 10.9 File Testing with the TC Shell (continued)

Test Flag (What It Tests) True If

-d File is a directory

-e File exists

-f File is a plain file

-g Set-group-ID bit is set

-k Sticky bit is set

-1 File is a symbolic link

-L Applies subsequent operators in a multiple-operator list to a symbolic link

rather than to the file to which it is linked

-o Current user owns the file

-p File is named pipe (fifo)

-r Current user can read the file

-R Has been migrated (convex only)

-s File is nonzero size

-S File is a socket special file

-t file file (must be a digit) is an open file descriptor for a terminal device

-w Current user can write to the file

-x Current user can execute the file

-z File is zero length

EXAMPLE 10.28

(The Script)
#!/bin/tcsh -f
# Scriptname: filetestl
1 if ( -e file ) then
echo file exists
endif
2 if ( -d file ) then
echo file is a directory
endif
3 if ( ! -z file ) then
echo file is not of zero length
endif
10.6 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 553

EXAMPLE 10.28 (continued)

4 if { -r file && -w file && -x file) then

echo file is readable and writable and executable.
endif
5 if ( -rwx file ) then
echo file is readable and writable and executable.
endif

EXPLANATION

l The statement reads: if the file exists, then . . .

2 The statement reads: if the file is a directory then . . .

3 The statement reads: if the file is not of zero length, then . . .

4 The statement reads: if the file is readable and writable, then ... A single option
precedes the filename (e.g., -r file && -w file && -x file).

5 The file-testing flags can be stacked (only with tcsh), as in -rwx file.

EXAMPLE 10.29

(The Script)
#!/bin/tcsh -f
# Scriptname: filetest2
1 foreach file ("Is")
2 if ( -rwf $file ) then
3 echo "S{file}: readable/writable/plain file"
endif
end

(Output)
3 complete: readable/writable/plain file
dirstack: readable/writable/plain file
file.sc: readable/writable/plain file
filetest: readable/writable/plain file
glob: readable/writable/plain file
modifiers: readab1e/writable/plain fi 1e
env: readable/writable/plain file

EXPLANATION

1 The foreach loop iterates through the list of files produced by the UNIX/Linux Is
program, one file at a file, assigning each filename to the variable file.

2 If the file is readable, writable, and a plain file (-rwf), line number 3 is executed.
The stacking of these file-testing options is legal in tcsh, but not in csh.

3 This line is executed if the filename being tested is readable, writable, and execut-
able.
554 Chapter 10 • Programming the C and TC Shells

10.6.19 The filetest Built-in (tcsh)

The tcsh built-in filetest command applies one of the file inquiry operators to a file or
list of files and returns a space-separated list of numbers; 1 for true and 0 for false.

EXAMPLE 10.30

1 > filetest -rwf dirstack file.sc xxx

1 1 0
2 > filetest -b hdd
1
3 > filetest -Irx /dev/fd
1

EXPLANATION

1 Each of the files, dirstack, file.sc, and xxx, are tested to see if they are readable,
writable, plain files. For the first two files the test returns true (1 1), and for the
last the test returns false (0).

2 The filetest command returns 1 if the file, hdd, is a block special device file. It is.
Otherwise, 0 is returned.

3 The filetest command returns 1 if the file, fd, is a symbolic link and is readable
and executable. It is. Otherwise, 0 is returned.

10.6.20 Additional TC Shell File-Testing Operators

There is an additional set of file-testing operators (tcsh only), shown in Table 10.10, that
return information about files. Because the returned values are not true/false values, a -1
indicates failure (except F, which returns a :).

Table 10.10 Additional tcsh File Tests

Operator What It Does

-A Last file access time, as the number of seconds since the epoch (Jan- 1, 1970)

-A: Like A, but in timestamp format, e.g., Fri. Aug. 27 16:36:10 2004

-M Last file modification time

-M: Like M, but in timestamp format

-C Last inode modification time

-C: Like C, but in timestamp format

-F Composite file identifier, in the form device:inode

-G Numeric group ID
10.6 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 555

Table 10.10 Additional tcsh File Tests (continued)

Operator What It Does

-G: Group name or numeric group ID if the group name is unknown

-L The name of the file pointed to by a symbolic link

-N Number of (hard) links

-P Permissions, in octal, without a leading zero

-P: Like P, with leading a zero

-Pmode Equivalent to -P file & mode; e.g., -P22 file returns 22 if file is writable by group
and other, 20 if by group only, and 0 if by neither

-Mode: Like PMode:, with leading zero

-U Numeric user ID

-U: Username, or the numeric user ID if the username is unknown

-Z Size, in bytes

EXAMPLE 10.31

l > date
Wed Apr 22 13:36:11 PST 2004
2 > filetest -A myfile
934407771
3 > filetest -A: myfile
Wed Apr 22 14:42:51 2004
4 > filetest -U myfile
501
5 > filetest -P: myfile
0600
> filetest -P myfile
600

EXPLANATION

l Today's date is printed.

2 With the -A option, the filetest built-in prints the date (in epoch form) when myfile
was last accessed.

3 With the -A: option, the filetest built-in prints the date in timestamp format.

4 With the -U option, the filetest built-in prints the numeric user ID for the owner
of myfile.

5 With the -P: option, the filetest built-in prints the octal permission mode with a
leading 0. Without the colon, the leading 0 is removed.
556 Chapter 10 • Programming the C and TC Shells

EXAMPLE 10.32

(The Script)
#!/bin/tcsh -f
# Scriptname: filecheck
# Usage: filecheck filename
1 alias Usage 'echo " Usage: $0 filenameVU" ; exit 1'
2 alias Error 'echo " Error: \!* exit 2'
3 set file=Sl # The first argument, $1, is assigned
4 if ( S#argv == 0 ) then # to a variable called
file
Usage
endif
5 if ( ! -e Sfile ) then
Error "Sfile does not exist"
endif
6 if ( -d Sfile ) then
echo "Sfile is a directory"
7 else if {-f Sfile) then
8 if ( -rx Sfile ) then # njsted if construct
echo "You have read and exe/ute permission on Sfile"
9 endif
else
print "Sfile is neither a pl^in file nor a directory."
10 endif

(The Command Line)

% filecheck testingl
You have read and execute permission on file testingl.

EXPLANATION

1 This alias, Usage, can be used to produce an error message and exit the program.

2 This is an alias called Error that will produce an error message followed by any ar-
guments passed when called.

3 The variable file is set to the first argument passed in from the command line, $1
(i.e., testingl).

4 If the number of arguments passed is 0, that is, no arguments were provided, the
alias Usage will print its message to the screen.

5 If file (after variable substitution) is a file that does not exist (note the NOT op-
erator, !), the alias, Error, under the then keyword displays its message.

6 If the file is a directory, print "testingl is a directory."

7 If the file is not a directory, else if the file is a plain file, then . . . the next state-
ment is executed, another if.

8 This if is nested in the previous if. If file is readable and executable, then ... This
if has its own endif and is lined up to indicate where it belongs.
10.6 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 557

EXPLANATION (continued)

9 The endif terminates the innermost if construct.

10 The endif terminates the outermost if construct.

10.6.21 The switch Command

The switch command is an alternative to using the if-then-else if construct. Sometimes

the switch command makes a program clearer to read when handling multiple options.
The value in the switch expression is matched against the expressions, called labels, fol-
lowing the case keyword. The case labels will accept constant expressions and wildcards.
The label is terminated with a colon. The default label is optional, but its action is taken
if none of the other cases match the swi tch expression. The breaksw is used to transfer exe-
cution to the endsw If a breaksw is omitted and a label is matched, any statements below
the matched label are executed until either a breaksw or endsw is reached.

FORMAT

switch (variable)
case constant:
commands
breaksw
case constant:
commands
breaksw
endsw

EXAMPLE 10.33

(The Script)
#!/bin/csh -f
# Scriptname: colors
1 echo -n "Which color do you like? "
2 set color = $<
3 switch ("Scolor")
4 case bl*:
echo I feel Scolor
echo The sky is Scolor
5 breaksw
6 case red: # Is is red or is it yellow?
7 case yellow:
8 echo The sun is sometimes Scolor.
9 breaksw
10 default:
11 echo Scolor is not one of the categories.
12 breaksw
13 endsw
558 Chapter 10 • Programming the C and TC Shells

EXAMPLE 10.33 (continued)

(The Command Line)

% colors

(The Output)
1 Which color do you like? red
8 The sun is sometimes red.
1 Which color do you like? Doesn't matter
11 Doesn't matter is not one of the categories.

EXPLANATION

l The user is asked for input.

2 The input is assigned to the color variable.

3 The switch statement evaluates the variable. The switch statement evaluates a sin-
gle word or string of words if the string of words is held together with double
quotes.

4 The case label is bl *, meaning that the swi tch expression will be matched against any
set of characters starting with b, followed by an 1. If the user entered blue, black,
blah, blast, and so forth, the commands under this case label would be executed.

5 The breaksw transfers program control to the endsw statement.

6 If the switch statement matches this label, red, the program starts executing state-
ments until the breaksw on line 9 is reached. Line 8 will be executed. The sun is
sometimes red. is displayed.

7 If line 6 is not matched (i.e., the color is not red), case yellow is tested.

8 If either label, red or yellow, is matched, this line is executed.

9 The breaksw transfers program control to the endsw statement.

10 The default label is reached if none of the case labels matches the switch expres-
sion. This is like the if/else if/else construct.

11 This line is printed if the user enters something not matched in any of the above
cases.

12 This breaksw is optional because the switch will end here. It is recommended to
leave the breaksw here so that if more cases are added later, they will not be over-
looked.

13 The endsw terminates the switch statement.

Nesting Switches. Switches can be nested; that is, a switch statement and its cases
can be contained within another switch statement as one of its cases. There must be an
endsw to terminate each switch statement. A default case is not required.
10.6 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 559

EXAMPLE 10.34

(The Script)
#!/bin/csh -f
# Scriptname: systype
# Program to determine the type of system you are on.
echo "Your system type is: "
1 set release = Tuname -r")
2 switch ( uname -s1)
3 case SunOS:
4 switch ("$release")
5 case 4.*:
echo "SunOS Srelease"
breaksw
6 case [5-9].*:
echo "Solaris Srelease"
breaksw
7 endsw
breaksw
case HP*:
echo HP-UX
breaksw
case Linux:
echo Linux
breaksw
8 endsw

(The Output)
Your system type:
SunOS 4.1.2

EXPLANATION

l The variable release is assigned the output of uname -r, the release number for the
version of the operating system.

2 The switch command evaluates the output of uname -s, the name of the operating
system.

3 If the system type is SunOS, the case command on line 3 is executed.

4 The value of the variable release is evaluated in each of the cases for a match.

5 The case for all release versions 4 are tested.

6 The case for all release versions 5-9 are tested.

7 The inner switch statement is terminated.

8 The outer switch statement is terminated.

560 Chapter 10 • Programming the C and TC Shells

10.6.22 The here document and Menus

The here document (discussed in "The here document" on page 433) is used in shell scripts
to produce a menu. It is often used in conjunction with the switch statement. Once the
user has seen the menu, he or she selects an item, and then the choice is matched in the
switch statement to the case that corresponds to the choice. The here document reduces the
number of echo statements that would otherwise be needed and makes the program eas-
ier to read.

EXAMPLE 10.35

(The Script)
#! /bin/tcsh
1 echo "Select from the following menu;"
2 cat « EOF
1) Red
2) Green
3) Blue
4) Exit
3 EOF
4 set choice = $<
5 switch ("Schoice")
6 case 1:
echo Red is stop.
7 breaksw
case 2:
echo Green is go\!
breaksw
case 3:
echo Blue is a feeling...
breaksw
case 4:
exit
breaksw
default:
echo Not a choice\!\!
endsw
8 echo Good-bye

(The Output)
Select from the following menu:
1) Red
2) Green
3) Blue
4) Exit
2
Green is go!
Good-bye
10.7 Looping Commands 561

EXPLANATION

1 The user is asked to select from the menu produced by the here document on line 2.

2 The here document is used to display a list of color choices.

3 EOF marks the end of the here document.

4 The user input is assigned to the variable choice.

5 The switch statement evaluates the variable choice and proceeds to match the us-
er's choice to one of the cases.

6 If the user selected 1, Red is stop is displayed and the breaksw command on line 7
causes the program to exit the switch and go to line 8. If the user didn't select 1,
then the program starts at case 2, and so on.

10.7 Looping Commands

Looping constructs allow you to execute the same statements a number of times. The C
shell supports two types of loops: foreach and while. The foreach loop is used when you
need to execute commands on a list of items, one item at a time, such as a list of files or
a list of usernames. The whi 1 e loop is used when you want to keep executing a command
until a certain condition is met.

10.7.1 The foreach Loop

The foreach command is followed by a variable and a wordlist enclosed in parentheses.

The first time the loop is entered, the first word in the list is assigned to the variable. The
list is shifted to the left by one and the body of the loop is entered. Each command in
the loop body is executed until the end statement is reached. Control returns to the top
of the loop. The next word on the list is assigned to the variable, the commands after the
foreach line are executed, the end is reached, control returns to the top of the foreach
loop, the next word in the wordlist is processed, and so on. When the wordlist is empty,
the loop ends.

FORMAT

foreach variable (wordlist)

commands
end

EXAMPLE 10.36

1 foreach person (bob sam sue fred)

2 mail Sperson < letter
3 end
562 Chapter 10 • Programming the C and TC Shells

EXPLANATION

1 The foreach command is followed by a variable, person, and a wordlist enclosed in

parentheses. The variable person will be assigned the value bob the first time the
foreach loop is entered. Once bob has been assigned to person, bob is shifted off (to
the left) and sam is at the beginning of the list. When the end statement is reached,
control starts at the top of the loop, and sam is assigned to the variable person. This
procedure continues until fred is shifted off, at which time the list is empty and
the loop is over.

2 The user bob will be mailed the contents of the file letter the first time through the
loop.

3 When the end statement is reached, loop control is returned to the foreach, and the
next element in the list is assigned to the variable person.

EXAMPLE 10.37

(The Command Line)

% cat maillist
torn
dick
harry
dan

(The Script)
#!/bin/csh -f
# Scriptname: mailtomaillist
1 foreach person ("cat maillist")
2 mail Sperson «E0F
Hi Sperson,
How are you? I've missed you. Come on over
to my place.
Your pal,
$LOCNAME@"uname -n"
EOF
3 end

EXPLANATION

1 Command substitution is performed within the parentheses. The contents of the

file maillist become the wordlist. Each name in the wordlist (torn, dick, harry, dan)
is assigned, in turn, to the variable person. After the looping statements are execut-
ed and the end is reached, control returns to the foreach, a name is shifted off from
the list, and assigned to the variable person. The next name in the list replaces the
one that was just shifted off. The list therefore decreases in size by one. This pro-
cess continues until all the names have been shifted off and the list is empty.
10.7 Looping Commands 563

EXPLANATION (continued)

2 The here document is used. Input is sent to the mail program from the first EOF to
the terminating EOF (It is important that the last EOF is against the left-hand mar-
gin and has no surrounding whitespaee.) Each person in the list will be sent the
mail message.

3 The end statement for the foreach loop marks the end of the block of lines that is
executed within this loop. Control returns to the top of the loop.

EXAMPLE 10.38

1 foreach file Cv.c)

2 cc Sfile -o $file:r
end

EXPLANATION

1 The wordlist for the foreach command is a list of files in the current directory end-
ing in .c (i.e., all the C source files).

2 Each file in the list will be compiled. If, for example, the first file to be processed
is program.c, the shell will expand the cc command line to

cc program.c -o program

The :r causes the .c extension to be removed.

EXAMPLE 10.39 |

(The Command Line)

1 % runit fl f2 f3 dir2 dir3

(The Script)
#!/bin/csh -f
# Scriptname: runit
# It loops through a list of files passed as arguments.

2 foreach arg ($*)

3 if ( -e $arg ) then
Program code continues here

else
Program code continues here
endif
4 end
5 echo "Program continues here"
564 Chapter 10 • Programming the C and TC Shells

EXPLANATION

1 The script name is runit; the command-line arguments are fl, f2, f3, di r2, and di r3.

2 The U variable evaluates to a list of all the arguments (positional parameters)

passed in at the command line. The foreach command processes, in turn, each of
the words in the wordlist, fl, f2, f3, di r2, and di r3. Each time through the loop, the
first word in the list is assigned to the variable arg. After a word is assigned, it is
shifted off (to the left) and the next word is assigned to arg, until the list is empty.

3 The commands in this block are executed for each item in the list until the end
statement is reached.

4 The end statement terminates the loop after the wordlist is empty.

5 After the loop ends, the program continues to run.

10.7.2 The while Loop

The while loop evaluates an expression, and as long as the expression is true (nonzero),
the commands below the while command will be executed until the end statement is
reached. Control will then return to the while expression, the expression will be evalu-
ated, and if still true, the commands will be executed again, and so on. When the while
expression is false, the loop ends and control starts after the end statement.

EXAMPLE 10.40

(The Script)
#!/bin/csh -f
1 set num = 0
2 while ($num < 10)
3 echo $num
4 @ nuin++ # See arithmetic.
5 end
6 echo "Program continues here"

EXPLANATION

l The variable num is set to an initial value of 0.

2 The whi 1 e loop is entered and the expression is tested. If the value of num is less than
10, the expression is true, and lines 3 and 4 are executed.

3 The value of num is displayed each time through the loop.

4 The value of the variable num is incremented. If this statement were omitted, the
loop would continue forever.

5 The end statement terminates the block of executable statements. When this line
is reached, control is returned to the top of the while loop and the expression is
evaluated again. This continues until the while expression is false (i.e., when $num
is 10).

6 Program execution continues here after the loop terminates.

10.7 Looping Commands 565

EXAMPLE 10.41

(The Script)
#!/bin/csh -f
1 echo -n "Who wrote V'War and PeaceV?"
2 set answer = $<
3 while ("Sanswer" != "Tolstoy")
echo "Wrong, try again\!"
4 set answer = $<
5 end
6 echo Yeah!

EXPLANATION

l The user is asked for input.

2 The variable answer is assigned whatever the user inputs.

3 The while command evaluates the expression. If the value of Sanswer is not equal
to the string Tolstoy exactly, the message Wrong, try again! is printed and the pro-
gram waits for user input.

4 The variable answer is assigned the new input. This line is important. If the value
of the variable answer never changes, the loop expression will never become false,
thus causing the loop to spin infinitely.

5 The end statement terminates the block of code inside the while loop.

6 If the user enters Tolstoy, the loop expression tests false, and control goes to this
line. Yeah! is printed.

10.7.3 The repeat Command

The repeat command takes two arguments, a number and a command. The command is
executed that number of times.

EXAMPLE 10.42

% repeat 3 echo hello

hello
hello
hello

EXPLANATION

The echo command is executed three times.

566 Chapter 10 • Programming the C and TC Shells

10.7.4 Looping Control Commands

The shi ft Command. The shift command, without an array name as its argument,
shifts the argv array by one word from the left, thereby decreasing the size of the argv
array by one. Once shifted off, the array element is lost.

EXAMPLE 10.43

(The Script)
#!/bin/csh -f
# Scriptname: loop.args
1 while ($#argv)
2 echo Sargv
3 shift
4 end

(The Command Line)

5 % loop.args a b c d e
a b c d e
b c d e
c d e
d e
e

EXPLANATION

l $#argv evaluates to the number of command-line arguments. If there are five com-
mand-line arguments, a, b, c, d, and e, the value of $#argv is 5 the first time in the
loop. The expression is tested and yields 5, true.

2 The command-line arguments are printed.

3 The argv array is shifted one to the left. There are only four arguments left, starting
with b.

4 The end of the loop is reached, and control goes back to the top of the loop. The
expression is re-evaluated. This time, $#argv is 4. The arguments are printed, and
the array is shifted again. This goes on until all of the arguments are shifted off.
At that time, when the expression is evaluated, it will be 0, which is false, and the
loop exits.

5 The arguments a, b, c, d, and e are passed to the script via the argv array.

The break Command. The break command is used to break out of a loop so that con-
trol starts after the end statement. It breaks out of the innermost loop. Execution contin-
ues after the end statement of the loop.
10.7 Looping Commands 567

EXAMPLE 10.44

#!/bin/csh -f
# Scriptname: baseball
1 echo -n "What baseball hero died in August 1995? "
2 set answer = $<
3 while ("Sanswer" !~ [Mm]*)
4 echo "Wrong\! Try again."
set answer = $<
5 if ( "Sanswer" =~ [Mm]* ) break
6 end )
7 echo "You are a scholar."

EXPLANATION

l The user is asked for input.

2 The input from the user is assigned to the variable answer (answer: Mickey Mantle).

3 The while expression reads: While the value of answer does not begin with a big M
or little m, followed by zero or more of any character, enter the loop.

4 The user gets to try again. The variable is reset.

5 If the variable answer matches M or m, break out of the loop. Go to the end statement
and start executing statements at line 7.

6 The end statement terminates this block of statements after the loop.

7 After the loop exits, control starts here and this line is executed.

EXAMPLE 10.45

#!/bin/csh -f
# Scriptname: database
l while (1)
echo "Select a menu item"
2 cat « EOF
1) Append
2) Delete
3) Update
4) Exit
EOF
3 set choice = $<
4 switch ($choice)
case 1:
echo "Appending"
5 break # Break out of loop; not a breaksw
case 2:
echo "Deleting"
break
568 Chapter 10 • Programming the C and TC Shells

EXAMPLE 10.45 (continued)

case 3:
echo "Updating"
break
case 4:
exit 0
default:
6 echo "Invalid choice. Try again,
endsw
7 end
8 echo "Program continues here"

EXPLANATION

1 This is called an infinite loop. The expression always evaluates to 1, which is true.

2 This is a here document. A menu is printed to the screen.

3 The user selects a menu item.

4 The switch command evaluates the variable.

5 If the user selects a valid choice, between 1 and 4, the command after the appro-
priate matching case label is executed. The break statement causes the program to
break out of the loop and start execution on line 8. Don't confuse this with the
breaksw statement, which merely exits the switch at endsw.

6 The def aul t is selected when none of the cases above it are matched. After the echo
message is displayed, control goes to the end of the loop and then starts again at
the top of the while. Because the expression after the while always evaluates true,
the body of the loop is entered and the menu is displayed again.
7 End of the while loop statements.

8 After the loop is exited, this line is executed.

Nested Loops and the repeat Command. Rather than a goto, the repeat com-
mand can be used to break out of nested loops. The repeat command will not do this
with the continue command.

EXAMPLE 10.46

(Simple Script)
#!/bin/csh -f
1 —while (1)
echo "Hello, in 1st loop"
2 ^while (1)
echo "In 2nd loop"
3 — while (1)
echo "In 3rd loop"
4 repeat 3 break ^
—end
end
— end 3
5 echo "Out of all loops" ** —"
10.7 Looping Commands 569

EXAMPLE 10.46 (continued)

(The Output)
Hello, in 1st loop
In 2nd loop
In 3rd loop
Out of all loops

EXPLANATION

1 Start the first while loop.

2 Enter the second nested while loop.

3 Enter the third nested while loop.

4 The repeat command will cause break to be executed three times; it will break first
out of this innermost loop, then the second loop, and last, the first loop. Control
continues at line 5.

5 Program control starts here after loop terminates.

The continue Command. The continue statement starts execution at the top of the
innermost loop.

EXAMPLE 10.47

1 set done = 0
2 while ( ! Sdone )
echo "Are you finished yet?" \
set answer = $< J
3 if ("Sanswer" =~ [Nn]*) continue ^
4 set done = 1
5 end

EXPLANATION

l The variable done is assigned 0.

2 The expression is tested. It reads: while (! 0). Not 0 is evaluated as true (logical
NOT).

3 If the user entered No, no, or nope (anything starting with N or n), the expression is
true and the continue statement returns control to the top of the loop where the
expression is re-evaluated.

4 If answer does not start with N or n, the variable done is reset to one. When the end
of the loop is reached, control starts at the top of the loop and the expression is
tested. It reads: while (! 1). Not 1 is false. The loop exits.

5 This marks the end of the while loop.

570 Chapter 10 • Programming the C and TC Shells

EXAMPLE 10.48

(The Script)
#!/bin/csh -f
1 if ( ! -e memo ) then
echo "memo file non existent"
exit 1
endif
2 foreach person (anish bob don karl jaye) )
3 if ("Sperson" =~ [Kk]arl) continue ^ ^
4 mail -s "Party time" Sperson < memo
end

EXPLANATION

l A file check is done. If the file memo does not exist, the user is sent an error message
and the program exits with a status of 1.

2 The loop will assign each person in the list to the variable person, in turn, and then
shift off the name in the list to process the next one.

3 If the person's name is Karl or karl, the continue statement starts execution at the
top of the foreach loop (Karl is not sent the memo because his name was shifted off
after being assigned to person.) The next name in the list is assigned to person.

4 Everyone on the mailing list is sent the memo, except karl.

10.8 Interrupt Handling

If a script is interrupted with the Interrupt key, it terminates and control is returned to
the C shell; that is, you get your prompt back. The onintr command is used to process
interrupts within a script. It allows you to either ignore the interrupt (AC) or transfer
control to another part of the program before exiting. Normally, the interrupt command
is used with a label to "clean up" before exiting. The onintr command without arguments
restores the default action.

EXAMPLE 10.49

(The Script)
1 onintr finish
2 < Script continues here >
3 finish:
4 onintr - # Disable further interrupts
5 echo Cleaning temp files
6 rm SStmp-i ; exit 1
10.9 setuid Scripts 571

EXPLANATION

1 The oni ntr command is followed by a label name. The label fi ni sh is a user-defined
label; control will be transferred to the finish label if an interrupt occurs. Usually
this line is at the beginning of the script. It is not in effect until it is executed in
the script.
A
2 The rest of the script lines are executed unless C (Interrupt key) is pressed while
the program is in execution, at which time, control is transferred to the label.

3 This is the label; when the interrupt comes in, the program will continue to run,
executing the statements below the label.
A
4 To shield this part of the script from further interrupts, the oni ntr - is used. If C
is entered now, it will be ignored.

5 This line is echoed to the screen.

6 All tmp files are removed. The tmp files are prefixed with the shell's PID ($$) number
and suffixed with any number of characters. The program exits with a status of 1.

10.9 setuid Scripts

Whoever runs a setuid program temporarily (as long as he or she is running the setuid
program) becomes the owner of that program and has the same permissions as the
owner. The passwd program is a good example of a setuid program. When you change
your password, you temporarily become root, but only during the execution of the passwd
program. That is why you are able to change your password in the /etc/passwd (or
/etc/shadow) file, which normally is off-limits to regular users.
Shell programs can be written as setuid programs. You might want to do this if you
have a script that is accessing a file containing information that should not be accessible
to regular users, such as salary or other personal information. If the script is a setuid
script, the person running the script can have access to the data, but it is still restricted
from others. A setuid program requires the following steps;

1. In the script, the first line is

#!/bin/csh -feb

where the -feb options are

-f fast start up; don't execute .cshrc

-e abort immediately if interrupted
-b this is a setuid script

2. Next, change the permissions on the script so that it can run as a setuid program:

% chmod 4755 script.name

or
% chmod +srx script.name
% Is -1
-rwsr-xr-x 2 ellie 512 Oct 10 17:18 script_name
572 Chapter 10 • Programming the C and TC Shells

10.10 Storing Scripts

After creating successful scripts, it is customary to collect them in a common script

directory and change your path so that the scripts can be executed from any location.

EXAMPLE 10.50

1 % mkdir -/bin
2 % mv myscript -/bin
3 % vi .login

(In .login reset the path to add -/bin.)

4 set path = ( /usr/ucb /usr /usr/etc -/bin . )

5 (At command line)

% source .login

EXPLANATION

l Make a directory under your home directory called bin, or any other name you
choose.

2 Move any error-free scripts into the bi n directory. Putting buggy scripts here will
just cause problems.

3 Go into your .login file and reset the path.

4 The new path contains the directory -/bin, which is where the shell will look for
executable programs. Because it is near the end of the path, a system program that
may have the same name as one of your scripts will be executed first.

5 By sourcing the .login, the path changes are affected; it is not necessary to log out
and back in again.

10.11 Built-in Commands

Rather than residing on disk like UNIX/Linux commands, built-in commands are part
of the C/TC shell's internal code and are executed from within the shell. If a built-in
command occurs as any component of a pipeline except the last, it is executed in a sub-
shell. See Table 10.11 for a list of built-in commands that apply to both the C and TC
shells. For an extended list of TC shell only built-in commands, see Table 9.25 on
page 504.
10.11 Built-in Commands 573

Table 10.11 C and TC Shell Built-in Commands and Their Meanings

Command Meaning

'■ Interprets null command, but performs no action.

alias A nickname for a command.

bg [%job] Runs the current or specified jobs in the background.

break Breaks out of the innermost foreach or while loop.

breaksw Breaks from a switch, resuming after the endsw

case label: A label in a switch statement.

cd [dir] Changes the shell's working directory to di r. If no argument is given,

chdir [dir] change to the home directory of the user.

continue Continues execution of the nearest enclosing while or foreach.

default: Labels the default case in a switch statement. The default should come
after all case labels.

dirs [-1] Prints the directory stack, most recent to the left; the first directory
shown is the current directory. With the -1 argument, produces an
unabbreviated printout; use of the ~ notation is suppressed.

echo [-n] list Writes the words in list to the shell's standard output, separated by
space characters. The output is terminated with a newline unless the -n
option is used.

eval command Runs command as standard input to the shell and executes the resulting
commands. This is usually used to execute commands generated as the
result of command or variable substitution, as parsing occurs before
these substitutions (e.g., eval 'tset -s options').

exec command Executes command in place of the current shell, which terminates.

exit [(expr)] Exits the shell, either with the value of the status variable or with the
value specified by expr.

fg [% job] Brings the current or specified job into the foreground.

foreach var (wordlist) See "The foreach Loop" on page 561.

glob wordlist Performs filename expansion on wordlist. Like echo, but no escapes (\)
are recognized. Words are delimited by null characters in the output.

goto label See "The goto" on page 547.

574 Chapter 10 • Programming the C and TC Shells

Table 10.11 C and TC Shell Built-in Commands and Their Meanings (continued)

Command Meaning

hashstat Prims a statistics line indicating how effective the internal hash table has
been at locating commands (and avoiding execs). An exec is attempted
for each component of the path where the hash function indicates a
possible hit, and in each component that does not begin with a
backslash.

history [-hr] [n] Displays the hi story list; if n is given, display only the n most recent
events.
-r Reverses the order of the printout to be most recent first rather than
oldest first.
-h Displays the history list without leading numbers. This is used to
produce files suitable for sourcing using the -h option to source.

if (expr) See "Conditional Constructs and Flow Control" on page 535.

else if (expr2) then See "Conditional Constructs and Flow Control" on page 535.

jobs [-1] Lists the active jobs under job control.

-1 Lists IDs in addition to the normal information.

kill [-sig] [pid][%job] ... Sends the TERM (terminate) signal, by default or by the signal specified,
kill ~1 to the specified ID, the job indicated, or the current job. Signals are
given either by number or name. There is no default. Typing kill does
not send a signal to the current job. If the signal being sent is TERM
(terminate) or HUP (hangup), then the job or process is sent a CONT
(continue) signal as well.
-1 List the signal names that can be sent.

limit [-h] [resource [max-use]] Limit the consumption by the current process or any process it spawns,
each not to exceed max-use on the specified resource. If max-use is omitted,
print the current limit; if resource is omitted, display all limits.
-h Uses hard limits instead of the current limits. Hard limits impose a
ceiling on the values of the current limits. Only the superuser may
raise the hard limits. Resource is one of: cputime, maximum CPU
seconds per process; filesize, largest single file allowed; datasize,
maximum data size (including stack) for the process; stacks!ze,
maximum stack size for the process; coredump, maximum size of a core
dump; and descriptors, maximum value for a file descriptor.

login [username|-p3 Terminates a login shell and invokes login(l). The .logout file is not
processed. If username is omitted, login prompts for the name of a user,
-p Preserves the current environment (variables).

logout Terminates a login shell.

10.11 Built-in Commands 575

Table 10.11 C and TC Shell Built-in Commands and Their Meanings (continued)

Command Meaning

nice [+n|-n] [command] Increments the process priority value for the shell or command by n. The
higher the priority value, the lower the priority of a process and the
slower it runs. If command is omitted, nice increments the value for the
current shell. If no increment is specified, nice sets the nice value to 4.
The range of nice values is from -20 through 19. Values of n outside this
range set the value to the lower or higher boundary, respectively.
+n Increments the process priority value by n.
-n Decrements by n. This argument can be used only by the superuser.

nohup [command] Runs command with HUPs (hangups) ignored. With no arguments, ignores
HUPs throughout the remainder of a script.

notify [%job] Notifies the user asynchronously when the status of the current or of a
specified job changes.

onintr [- | label] Controls the action of the shell on interrupts. With no arguments, onintr
restores the default action of the shell on interrupts. (The shell
terminates shell scripts and returns to the terminal command input
level.) With the minus sign argument, the shell ignores all interrupts.
With a label argument, the shell executes a goto label when an interrupt
is received or a child process terminates because it was interrupted.

popd [+n] Pops the directory stack and cd to the new top directory. The elements
of the directory stack are numbered from zero, starting at the top.
+n Discard the nth entry in the stack.

pushd [+n | dir] Pushes a directory onto the directory stack. With no arguments,
exchange the top two elements.
+n Rotates the nth entry to the top of the stack and cd to it.
di r Pushes the current working directory onto the stack and change
to di r.

rehash Recomputes the internal hash table of the contents of directories listed
in the path variable to account for new commands added.

repeat count command Repeat command count times.

set [var [= value]] See "Variables" on page 440.

setenv [VAR [word]] See "Variables" on page 440. The most commonly used environment
variables, USER, TERM, and PATH, are automatically imported to and
exported from the csh variables, user, term, and path; there is no need to
use setenv for these. In addition, the shell sets the PWD environment
variable from the csh variable cwd whenever the latter changes.

shift [variable] The components of argv, or variable, if supplied, are shifted to the left,
discarding the first component. It is an error for variable not to be set, or
to have a null value.
576 Chapter 10 • Programming the C and TC Shells

Table 10.11 C and TC Shell Built-in Commands and Their Meanings (continued)

Command Meaning

source [-h] name Reads commands from name. Source commands may be nested, but if they
are nested too deeply, the shell may run out of file descriptors. An error
in a sourced file at any level terminates all nested source commands.
Used commonly to re-execute the .login or .cshrc files to ensure variable
settings are handled within the current shell, that is, to make sure the
shell does not create (fork) a child shell.
-h Places commands from the filename on the history list without
executing them.

stop [%job] ... Stops the current or specified background job.

suspend Stops the shell in its tracks, much as if it had been sent a stop signal
A
with Z. This is most often used to stop shells started by su.

switch (string) See "The switch Command" on page 557.

time [command] With no argument, print a summary of time used by this shell and its
children. With an optional command, execute command and print a summary
of the time it uses.

umask [value] Displays the file creation mask. With value, sets the file creation mask.
Value, given in octal, is XORed with the permissions of 666 for files and
777 for directories to arrive at the permissions for new files. Permissions
cannot be added via umask.

unalias pattern Discards aliases that match (filename substitution) pattern. All aliases
are removed by unalias *.

unhash Disables the internal hash table.

unlimit [-h] [resource] Removes a limitation on resource. If no resource is specified, all resource
limitations are removed. See the description of the limit command for
the list of resource names.
-h Removes corresponding hard limits. Only the superuser may do
this.

unset pattern Removes variables whose names match (filename substitution) pattern.
All variables are removed by unset 4; this has noticeably distasteful side
effects.

unsetenv variable Removes variable from the environment. Pattern matching, as with unset.
is not performed.

wait Waits for background jobs to finish (or for an interrupt) before
prompting.

while (expr) See "The while Loop" on page 564.

10.11 Built-in Commands 577

LAB 24: C/TC SHELLS—GETTING STARTED

1. What does the init process do?

2. What is the function of the login process?

3. How do you know what shell you are using?

4. How can you change your login shell?

5. Explain the difference between the .cshrc/.tcshrc and .login files. Which one is executed first?

6. Edit your .cshrc/.tcshrc file as follows:

a. Create three of your own aliases.

b. Reset your prompt.

7. Set the following variables and put a comment after each variable explaining what it does;

noclobber # Protects clobbering files from redirection overwriting

history

ignoreeof
savehi st

filec

8. Type the following: source .cshrc source .tcshrc. What does the source command do?

9. Edit your .login file as follows:

a. Welcome the user.

b. Add your home directory to the path if it is not there.

c. Source the .login file.

10. Type history. What is the output?

a. How do you re-execute the last command?

b. Now type echo a b c. Use the history command to re-execute the echo command with
only its last argument, c.

LAB 25: SHELL METACHARACTERS

1. Type the following at the prompt:

touch ab abc al a2 a3 all al2 ba ba.l ba.2 filex filey AbC ABC ABc2 abc

Write and test the command that will do the following:

a. List all files starting with a.

b. List all files ending in at least one digit.

c. List all files starting with an a or A.

578 Chapter 10 • Programming the C and TC Shells

d. List all files ending in a period, followed by a digit.

e. List all files containing just two of the letter a.

f. List three-character files where all letters are uppercase.

g. List files ending in 11 or 12.

h. List files ending in x or y.

i. List all files ending in a digit, an uppercase letter, or a lowercase letter,

j. List all files containing the letter b.

k. Remove two-character files starting with an a.

LAB 26: REDIRECTION

1. What are the names of the three file streams associated with your terminal?

2. What is a file descriptor?

3. What command would you use to do the following:

a. Redirect the output of the Is command to a file called Isfile.

b. Redirect and append the output of the date command to Isfile.

c. Redirect the output of the who command to Isfile. What happened?

4. What happens when you type cp all by itself?

a. How do you save the error message from the above example to a file?

5. Use the find command to find all files, starting from the parent directory, of type di rectory.
Save the standard output in a file called found and any errors in a file called found.errs.

6. What is noclobber? How do you override it?

7. Take the output of three commands and redirect the output to a file called gotemail.

8. Use a pipe(s) with the ps and wc commands to find out how many processes you are
currently running.

LAB 27: FIRST SCRIPT

1. Write a script called greetme that will do the following:

a. Greet the user.

b. Print the date and time.

c. Print a calendar for this month.

d. Print the name of your machine.

e. Print a list of all files in your parent directory.

10.11 Built-in Commands 579

f. Print all the processes you are running.

g. Print the value of the TERM, PATH, and HOME variables.

h. Print Please, could you loan me $50.00?

i. Tell the user Good-bye and the current hour. (See man pages for the date command.)

2. Make sure your script is executable.

chmod +x greetme

3. What was the first line of your script?

LAB 28: GETTING USER INPUT

1. Write a script called nosy that will do the following:

a. Ask the user's full name—first, last, and middle name.

b. Greet the user by his or her first name.

c. Ask the user's year of birth and calculate the user's age.

d. Ask the user's login name and print the user's ID (from /etc/passwd).

e. Tell the user his or her home directory.

f. Show the user the processes he or she is running.

g. Tell the user the day of the week, and the current time in nonmilitary time.

The output should resemble the following:

The day of the week is Tuesday and the current time is 04:07:38 PM.

2. Create a text file called datafile (unless this file has already been provided for you).
Each entry consists of fields separated by colons. The fields are as follows:

a. First and last name

b. Phone number

c. Address

d. Birth date

e. Salary

3. Create a script called lookup that will do the following:

a. Contain a comment section with the script name, your name, the date, and the reason
for writing this script. The reason for writing this script is to display datafile in sorted
order.

b. Sort datafi 1 e by last names.

c. Show the user the contents of datafile.

d. Tell the user the number of entries in the file.

 Chapter 10 • Programming the C and TC Shells

4. Try the echo and verbose commands for debugging your script. How did you use these
commands?

LAB 29: COMMAND-LINE ARGUMENTS

1. Write a script called rename that will do the following:

a. Take two filenames as command-line arguments; the first file is the old file and the
second file is the new one.

b. Rename the old filename with the new filename.

c. List the files in the directory to show the change.

2. Write a script called checking that will do the following:

a. Take a command-line argument, a user's login name.

b. Test to see if a command-line argument was provided.

c. Check to see if the user is in the /etc/passwd file. If so, print the following:

Found <user> in the /etc/passwd file.

Otherwise, print the following:

No such user on our system.

LAB 30: CONDITIONALS AND FILE TESTING

1. In the lookup script, ask the user if he or she would like to add an entry to the datafile. If yes
or y:

a. Prompt the user for a new name, phone, address, birth date, and salary. Each item will
be stored in a separate variable. You will provide the colons between the fields and
append the information to datafile.

b. Sort the file by last names. Tell the user you added the entry, and show the added line
preceded by the line number.

2. Rewrite checking from Lab 29. After checking whether the named user is in the /etc/passwd
file, the program will check to see if he or she is logged on. If so, the program will print all
the processes that are running; otherwise it will tell the user the following;

<user> is not logged on.

3. The lookup script depends on datafile in order to run. In the lookup script, check to see if
datafile exists and if it is readable and writable.

4. Add a menu to the lookup script to resemble the following:

[11 Add entry

[2] Delete entry
[31 View entry
[41 Exit
10.11 Built-in Commands 581

5. You already have the Add entry part of the script written. The Add entry routine should now
include code that will check to see if the name is already in datafile and if it is, tell the user
so. If the name is not there, add the new entry.

6. Now write the code for the Delete entry, View entry, and Exit functions.

7. The Delete entry part of the script should first check to see if the entry exists before trying to
remove it. If the entry does not exist, notify the user; otherwise, remove the entry and tell the
user you removed it. On Exit, make sure that you use a digit to represent the appropriate exit
status.

8. How do you check the exit status from the command line?

LAB 31: THE switch STATEMENT

1. Rewrite the following script using a switch statement:

#!/bin/csh -f
# Grades program
echo -n "What was your grade on the test? "
set score = $<
if ( Jgrade >= 90 && Sgrade <= 100 ) then
echo You got an A\!
else if ( Sgrade >= 80 && Sgrade <= 89 ) then
echo You got a B.
else if ( Sgrade >= 70 && Sgrade <= 79 ) then
echo "You're average."
else if ( Sgrade >= 60 && Sgrade <= 69 ) then
echo Better study harder
else
echo Better luck next time,
endif

2. Rewrite the lookup script using switch statements for each of the menu items.

LAB 32: LOOPS

1. Write a program called picnic that will mail a list of users, one at a time, an invitation to a
picnic. The list of users will be in a file called friends. One of the users listed in the friends
file will be Popeye.

a. The invitation will be in another file, called invite.

b. Use file testing to check that both files exist and are readable.

c. A loop will be used to iterate through the list of users. When Popeye is reached, he will
be skipped over (i.e., he does not get an invitation), and the next user on the list sent
an invitation, and so forth.

d. Keep a list with the names of each person who received an invitation. Do this by
building an array. After everyone on the list has been sent mail, print the number of
people who received mail and a list of their names.
582 Chapter 10 • Programming the C and TC Shells

Bonus: If you have time, you may want to customize your invite file so that each user
receives a letter containing his or her name. For example, the message might start;
Dear John,
I hope you can make it to our picnic

To do this your i nvi te file may be written:

Dear XXX,
I hope you can make it to our picnic....

With sed or awk, you could then substitute XXX with the user name. (It might be tricky putting
the capital letter in the user name, as user names are always lowercase.)

2. Add a new menu item to the lookup script to resemble the following:

[1] Add entry

[2] Delete entry
[3] Change entry
[4] View entry
[5] Exit

After the user has selected a valid entry, when the function has completed, ask the user if he
or she would like to see the menu again. If an invalid entry is entered, the program should
print the following:

Invalid entry, try again.

The menu will be redisplayed.

3. Create a submenu under View entry in the lookup script. The user will be asked if he or she
would like to view specific information for a selected individual;

a) Phone
b) Address
c) Birth date
d) Salary

4. Add the onintr command to your script using a label. When the program starts execution at
the label, any temporary files will be removed, the user will be told Good-bye, and the
program will exit.
chapter

The Interactive

Korn Shell

11.1 Introduction

With an interactive shell, the standard input, output, and error are tied to a terminal.
When using the Korn (ksh) shell interactively, you type UNIX/Linux commands at the
ksh prompt and wait for a response. The interactive Korn shell combined the best of the
UNIX Bourne and C shells to provide you with a large assortment of built-in commands
and command-line shortcuts, such as history, aliases, file and command completion, and
so forth. David Korn expanded his shell to include a lot more, such as command-line
editing with vi and emacs, new metacharacters, coprocessing, and error handling. The
Korn shell is very popular and, although it started at AT&T, has been adapted to run on
most operating systems.
This chapter focuses on how you interact with ksh at the command line and how to
customize your working environment. You will learn how to take advantage of all short-
cuts and built-in features in order to create an efficient and fun working environment.
Chapter 12 takes you a step further. At that point, you will be ready to write ksh shell
scripts to further tailor the working environment for yourself by automating everyday
tasks and developing sophisticated scripts, and if you are an administrator, doing the
same not only for yourself but also for whole groups of users.

11.1.1 Startup

Before the Korn shell displays a prompt, it is preceded by a number of processes. (See
Figure 11.1.) The first process to run is called init, PID 1. It gets instructions from a file
called inittab (System V) or spawns a getty (BSD) process. These processes open up the
terminal ports, provide a place where input comes from (stdi n) and the place where stan-
dard output (stdout) and standard error (stderr) go, and put a login prompt on your
screen. The /bin/login program is then executed. The login program prompts you for a
password, encrypts and verifies the password, sets up an initial environment, and starts
up the login shell, /bin/ksh, the last entry in the passwd file. The ksh program looks for the

583
584 Chapter 11 • The Interactive Korn Shell

system file, /etc/profile, and executes its commands. It then looks in the user's home
directory for an initialization file called .profile, and an environment file, conventionally
called . kshrc. After executing commands from those files, the dollar sign prompt appears
on your screen and the Korn shell awaits commands.

Starting Up

ni login:

L
getty
login: joe
passwd:

ogi

£ £

ksh login: joe

passwd: Welcome!

£ £

Figure 11.1 Starting the Korn shell.

11.2 The Environment

11.2.1 The Initialization Files

After executing the commands in /etc/profile, the initialization files in the user's home
directory are executed. The .profile is executed, followed by the ENV file, commonly
called the .kshrc file.

The /etc/profile File. The /etc/profile is a systemwide readable file set up by the
system administrator to perform tasks when the user logs on and the Korn shell starts
up. It is available to all Bourne and Korn shell users on the system, and normally per-
forms such tasks as checking the mail spooler for new mail and displaying the message
of the day from the /etc/motd file. The following text is an example of the /etc/profile.
See Chapter 8, "Programming the Bourne Shell," on page 321 for a complete explanation
of each line of /etc/profile.
11.2 The Environment 585

EXAMPLE ll.l

# The profile that all logins get before using their own .profile
trap ""23
export LOGNAME PATH # Initially set by /bin/login
if [ "STERM" = " " ]
then
if /bin/i386
then # Set the terminal type
TERM=AT386
else
TERM=sun
fi
export TERM
fi
# Login and -su shells get /etc/profile services.
# -rsh is given its environment in the .profile.
case "$0" in
-sh | -ksh | -jsh )
if [ ! -f .hushlogin ]
then
/usr/sbin/quota
# Allow the user to break the Message-Of-The-Day only.
1
trap "trap • 2" 2
/bin/cat -s /etc/motd
# Display the message of the day
trap " " 2
/bin/mail -E
case $? in
0) # Check for new mail
echo "You have new mail. "

2) echo "You have mail. "

J)
esac
fi
esac
umask 022
trap 2 3

The .profile File. The .profile file is a user-defined initialization file that is executed
once at login (by the Bourne and Korn shells) and is found in your home directory. It
gives you the ability to customize and modify your working environment. Environment
variables and terminal settings are normally set here, and if a window application or dbm
is to be initiated, it is started here. If the .profile file contains a special variable called
ENV, the filename that is assigned to that variable will be executed next. The ENV file is
586 Chapter 11 • The Interactive Korn Shell

often named .kshrc; it contains aliases and set -o commands. The ENV file is executed
every time a ksh subshell is spawned. The lines from the following files may not be mean-
ingful to you now, but all of the concepts, such as exporting variables, history, the search
path, and so on, will be discussed in detail throughout the text of this book.

EXAMPLE 11.2

1 set -o all export

2 TERM=vtl02
3 HOSTNAME=$(unanie -n)
4 HISTSIZE=50
5 EDITOR=/usr/ucb/vi
6 ENV=$H0ME/.kshrc
7 PATH=$HOME/bi n:/us r/ucb:/us r/bi n:\
/us r/1ocal:/etc:/bi n:/us r/bi n:/usr/1ocal\
/bi n:/us r/hosts:/us r/5bi n:/us r/etc:/usr/bi n:.
8 PS1="$H0STNAME ! $ "
9 set +o all export
10 alias openwin=/usr/openwin/bin/openwin
11 trap 'SHOME/.logout' EXIT
12 clear

EXPLANATION

1 By setting the al 1 export option, all variables created will automatically be exported
(made available to subshells).

2 The terminal is set to vtl02.

3 The variable HOSTNAME is assigned the name of this machine, $(unanie -n).

4 The HISTSIZE variable is assigned 50; 50 lines from the history file will be displayed
on the terminal when the user types history.

5 The EDITOR variable is assigned the pathname for the vi editor. Programs such as
mai 1 allow you to select an editor in which to work.

6 The ENV variable is assigned the path to the home directory ($H0ME) and the name of
the file that contains further Korn shell customization settings. After the .profile
is executed, the ENV file is executed. The name of the ENV file is your choice; it is
commonly called .kshrc.

7 The search path is defined. It is a colon-separated list of directories used by the

shell in its search for commands typed at the prompt or in a script file. The shell
searches each element of the path from left to right for the command. The dot at
the end represents the current working directory. If the command cannot be found
in any of the listed directories, the shell will look in the current directory.

8 The primary prompt, by default a dollar sign ($), is set to the name of the host
machine, the number of the current command in the history file, and a dollar sign
($).

9 The all export option is turned off.

11.2 The Environment 587

EXPLANATION (continued)

10 An alias is a nickname for a command. The alias for openwin is assigned the full
pathname of the openwin command, which starts Sun's window application.

11 The trap command will execute the .logout file when you exit this shell, that is,
when you log out. The .logout file is a user-defined file containing commands that
are executed at the time of logging out. For example, you may want to record the
time you log out, clean up a temporary file, or simply say So long.

12 The clear command clears the screen.

The ENV File. The ENV variable is assigned the name of a file that will be executed every
time an interactive ksh or a ksh program (script) is started. The ENV variable is set in the
.profile and is assigned the name of the file that will contain special ksh variables and
aliases. The name is conventionally .kshrc, but you can call it anything you want. (The
ENV file is not processed when the privileged option is on. See Table 11.1.)

EXAMPLE 11.3

1 $ export ENV=.kshrc
2 S cat .kshrc
# The .kshrc file
3 set -o trackall
4 set -o vi
5 alias Vis -laF'
alias ls=,ls -af
alias hVfc -11
alias c=clear
6 function pushd { pwd > $HOME/.lastdir.SS ; }
function popd { cd $(< $HOME/.lastdir.$$) ;
rm $HOME/.lastdir.$$; pwd; }
function psg { ps -ef | egrep SI | egrep -v egrep; }
function vg { vgrind -sll -t $* | Ipr -t ; }

EXPLANATION

l The ENV variable is assigned the name of the file that will be exectued every time
the Korn shell is invoked. Exporting ENV makes it available to all subshells.

2 The contents of the .kshrc file are displayed.

3 The set option for tracked aliases is turned on. (For a complete description, see
"Aliases" on page 604.)

4 The set option for the vi editor is turned on for in-line editing of the history file.
(See "Command-Line History" on page 595.)

5 The aliases (nicknames) for the commands are defined.

6 The functions are named and defined. (See "Functions" on page 639.)
588 Chapter 11 • The Interactive Korn Shell

Th© set -0 Options. The set command, used by itself, sets positional parameters
(see "Positional Parameters" on page 633), but with the -o switch, it can be used to turn
on and turn off ksh options that allow you to customize the shell environment. The
options are either on or off, and are normally set in the ENV file. (See Table 11.1 for a list
of shell set options.)

FORMAT

set -o option Turns on the option.

set +o option Turns off the option
set -[a-z] Abbreviation for an option; the minus turns it on
set +[a-z] Abbreviation for an option; the plus turns it off

EXAMPLE II.4

1 set -o allexport
2 set +o allexport
3 set -a
4 set +a

EXPLANATION

1 Sets the allexport option. This option causes all variables to be automatically ex-
ported to subshells.

2 Unsets the allexport option. All variables will now be local to the current shell.

3 Sets the allexport option. Same as 1. Not every option has an abbreviation (see
Table 11.1).

4 Unsets the allexport option. Same as 2.

Table 11.1 Korn Shell set Options

Name of Option Abbreviation What It Does

allexport -a Causes set variables to be automatically exported.

bgnice Runs background jobs with a lower priority.

emacs For command-line editing, uses the emacs built-in editor.

errexit -e If a command returns a nonzero exit status (fails), executes

the ERR trap, if set, and exits. Not set when reading
initialization files.

gmacs For command-line editing, uses the gmacs built-in editor.

ignoreeof A
Prevents logout with D; must type exit to exit the shell.

markdirs Puts a trailing backslash (/) on directory names when

filename expansion is used.
11.2 The Environment 589

Table 11.1 Korn Shell set Options (continued)

Name of Option Abbreviation What It Does

monitor Allows job control.

noclobber Protects files from being overwritten when redirection is

used.

noexec -n Reads commands, but does not execute them. Used to check
the syntax of scripts. Not on when running interactively.

noglob Disables pathname expansion; that is, turns off wildcards.

nolog Does not store function definitions in the history file.

noti fy Notifies user when background job finishes.

nounset Displays an error when expanding a variable that has not

been set.

privileged -P When set, the shell does not read the .profile or ENV file; used
with setuid scripts.

trackall Enables alias tracking.

verbose -v Turns on the verbose mode for debugging.

vi For command-line editing, uses the vi built-in editor.

xtrace -x Turns on the echo mode for debugging.

11.2.2 The Prompts

The Korn shell provides four prompts. The primary and secondary prompts are used
when the Korn shell is running interactively. You can change these prompts. The vari-
able PS1 is the primary prompt, set initially to a dollar sign ($). It appears when you log
on and waits for you to type commands. The variable PS2 is the secondary prompt, ini-
tially set to the > character. It appears if you have partially typed a command and then
pressed Enter. You can change the primary and secondary prompts.

The Primary Prompt. $ is the default primary prompt. You can change your prompt.
Normally, prompts are defined in .profile.

EXAMPLE II.5

1 S PSl="$(uname -n) ! $ "

2 jody 1141 $
590 Chapter 11 • The Interactive Korn Shell

EXPLANATION

1 The default primary prompt is a $. The PS1 prompt is being reset to the name of
the machine $(uname -n), the number of the current history number, and the $. The
exclamation point evaluates to the current history number. (To print an exclama-
tion point, type two exclamation points (!!) in the PS1 definition.)

2 The new prompt is displayed.

The Secondary Prompt. The PS2 prompt is the secondary prompt. Its value is dis-
played to standard error (the screen). This prompt appears when you have not com-
pleted a command and have pressed the carriage return.

EXAMPLE 11.6

l $ print "Hello
2 > there"
3 Hello
there
4 $

5 $ PS2=" > "

6 $ print "Hi
7 >
>
> there"
Hi

there
$

EXPLANATION

l The double quotes must be matched after the string "Hello.

2 When a newline is entered, the secondary prompt appears. Until the closing dou-
ble quotes are entered, the secondary prompt will be displayed.

3 The output of the print command is displayed.

4 The primary prompt is displayed.

5 The secondary prompt is reset.

6 The double quotes must be matched after the string "Hi.

7 When a newline is entered, the new secondary prompt appears. Until the closing
double quotes are entered, the secondary prompt will be displayed.
11.2 The Environment 591

11.2.3 The Search Path

To execute a command typed at the command line or within a shell script, the Korn shell
searches the directories listed in the PATH variable. The PATH is a colon-separated list of
directories, searched by the shell from left to right. The dot in the PATH represents the cur-
rent working directory. If the command is not found in any of the directories listed in
the path, the shell sends the message ksh: filename: not found to standard error. It is rec-
ommended that the path be set in the .profile file. To speed up the searching process,
the Korn shell has implemented tracked aliases. See "Tracked Aliases" on page 606.

EXAMPLE 11.7

$ echo $PATH
/home/gsaU/b in :/usr/ucb :/u5r/bin:/usr/loca 1/bin:.

EXPLANATION

The Korn shell will search for commands starting in /home/gsal2/bin. If the command
is not found there, /usr/ucb is searched, then /usr/bin, /usr/local/bin, and finally the us-
er's current working directory represented by the period.

11.2.4 The dot Command

The dot command (.) is a built-in Korn shell command. It takes a script name as an argu-
ment. The script will be executed in the environment of the current shell. A child pro-
cess will not be started. The dot command is normally used to re-execute the . profi 1 e file
or the ENV file, if either of those files has been modified. For example, if one of the set-
tings in either file has been changed after you have logged on, you can use the dot com-
mand to re-execute the initialization files without logging out and then logging back in.

EXAMPLE II.8

$ . .profile
$ . .kshrc
$ . $ENV

EXPLANATION

Normally a child process is started when commands are executed. The dot command
executes each of the initialization files, .profile and the ENV file (.kshrc), in the current
shell. Local and global variables in these files are defined within this shell. Otherwise,
the user would have to log out and log back in to cause these files to be executed for
the login shell. The dot command makes that unnecessary.
592 Chapter 11 • The Interactive Korn Shell

11.3 The Command Line

After logging in, the Korn shell displays its primary prompt. The shell is your command
interpreter. When the shell is running interactively, it reads commands from the termi-
nal and breaks the command line into words. A command line consists of one or more
words (or tokens), separated by whitespace (blanks and/or tabs), and terminated with a
newline, generated by pressing Enter. The first word is the command, and subsequent
words are the command's arguments. The command may be a UNIX executable program
such as Is or pwd, a built-in command such as cd or jobs, or a shell script. The command
may contain special characters, called metacharacters, which the shell must interpret
while parsing the command line. If a command line is too long, the backslash character,
followed by a newline, will allow you to continue typing on the next line. The secondary
prompt will appear until the command line is terminated.

11.3.1 The Order of Processing Commands

The first word on the command line is the command to be executed. The command may
be a keyword, a special built-in command or utility, a function, a script, or an executable
program. The command is executed according to its type in the following order:1

1. Keywords (such as if, while, until)

2. Aliases (see typeset -f)
3. Built-in commands
4. Functions
5. Scripts and executables

The special built-in commands and functions are defined within the shell, and there-
fore are executed from within the current shell, making them much faster in execution.
Scripts and executable programs such as 1 s and pwd are stored on disk, and the shell must
locate them within the directory hierarchy by searching the PATH environment variable;
the shell then forks a new shell that executes the script. To find out the type of command
you are using, use the built-in command, whence -v, or its alias, type. (See Example 11.9.)

EXAMPLE 11.9

$ type print
print is a shell builtin
$ type test
test is a shell builtin
$ type Is
Is is a tracked alias for /usr/bin/Is

1. A built-in command will override a function; therefore, an alias must be defined to the name of the func-
tion. (See "Aliases" on page 604.) In the 1994 version of the Korn shell, the order of processing functions
and built-ins was reversed, thus alleviating this problem.
11.3 The Command Line 593

EXAMPLE II.9 (continued)

$ type type
type is an exported alias for whence -i/
$ type be
be is /usr/bin/bc
$ type if
if is a keyword

11.3.2 The Exit Status

After a command or program terminates, it returns an exit status to the parent process.
The exit status is a number between 0 and 255. By convention, when a program exits, if
the status returned is 0, the command was successful in its execution. When the exit sta-
tus is nonzero, the command failed in some way. The Korn shell status variable ? is set
to the value of the exit status of the last command that was executed. Success or failure
of a program is determined by the programmer who wrote the program. In shell scripts,
you can explicitly control the exit status by using the exit command.

EXAMPLE 11.10

1 $ grep "ellie" /etc/passwd

e11ie:CgMyBsSJavdl6s:9496:40:El 1ie Quig1ey:/home/jody/e 11ie
2 $ echo $?
0

3 $ grep "nicky" /etc/passwd

4 S echo $?
1

5 $ grep "scott" /etc/passsswd

grep: /etc/passsswd: No such file or directory
6 $ echo $?
2

EXPLANATION

l The grep program searches for the pattern ellie in the /etc/passwd file and is suc-
cessful. The line from /etc/passwd is displayed.

2 The ? variable is set to the exit value of the grep command. Zero indicates success.

3 The grep program cannot find user nicky in the /etc/passwd file.

4 If the grep program cannot find the pattern, it returns an exit status of 1.

5 The grep fails because the file /etc/passsswd cannot be opened.

6 If grep cannot find the file, it returns an exit status of 2.

594 Chapter 11 • The Interactive Korn Shell

11.3.3 Multiple Commands and Command Grouping

A command line can consist of multiple commands. Each command is separated by a

semicolon, and the command line is terminated with a newline.

EXAMPLE 11.11

$ Is; pwd; date

EXPLANATION

The commands are executed from left to right until the newline is reached. Com-
mands may also be grouped so that all of the output is either piped to another com-
mand or redirected to a file.

EXAMPLE 11.12

$ ( Is ; pwd; date ) > outputfile

EXPLANATION

The output of each of the commands is sent to the file called outputfile.

11.3.4 Conditional Execution of Commands

With conditional execution, two command strings are separated by two special meta-
characters, && and 11. The command on the right of either of these metacharacters will
or will not be executed, based on the exit condition of the command on the left.

EXAMPLE 11.13

$ cc prgml.c -o prgml && prgml

EXPLANATION

If the first command is successful (has a 0 exit status), the command after the && is
executed.

EXAMPLE 11.14

$ cc prog.c >& err M mail bob < err

EXPLANATION

If the first command/ails (has a nonzero exit status), the command after the II is
executed.
11.3 The Command Line 595

11.3.5 Commands in the Background

Normally, when you execute a command, it runs in the foreground and the prompt does
not reappear until the command has completed execution. It is not always convenient
to wait for the command to complete. By placing an ampersand (&) at the end of the
command line, the shell will return the shell prompt immediately and execute the com-
mand in the background concurrently. You do not have to wait to start up another com-
mand. The output from a background job will be sent to the screen as it processes.
Therefore, if you intend to run a command in the background, the output of that com-
mand should be redirected to a file or piped to another device such as a printer so that
the output does not interfere with what you are doing.

EXAMPLE II.15

1 $ man ksh | lp&

2 [1] 1557
3 $

EXPLANATION

1 The output of the manual pages for the Korn shell is piped to the printer. The am-
persand at the end of the command line puts the job in the background.

2 Two numbers appear on the screen: The number in square brackets indicates that
this is the first job to be placed in the background; the second number is the PID,
the process identification number, of this job.

3 The Korn shell prompt appears immediately. While your program is running in
the background, the shell is waiting for another command in the foreground.

11.3.6 Command-Line History

The history mechanism keeps a numbered record of the commands that you have typed
at the command line in a history file. You can recall a command from the history file and
re-execute it without retyping the command. The hi story built-in command displays the
history list. The default name for the history file is .sh_hi story, and it is located in your
home directory.
The HISTSIZE variable, accessed when ksh first accesses the history file, specifies how
many commands can be accessed from the history file. The default size is 128. The HIST-
FILE variable specifies the name of the command history file (~/- sh_hi story is the default)
where commands are stored. The history file grows from one login session to the next;
it becomes very large unless you clean it out. The history command is a preset alias for
the fc -1 command.
596 Chapter 11 • The Interactive Korn Shell

EXAMPLE 11.16

(The ~/sh_history File)

(This file contains a list of the commands the user has typed at the command line)

netscape&
Is
mkdir javascript
cd javascript
&cp ../javapdf.zip .
gunzip javapdf.zip
unzip javapdf.zip
Is
more chapterW*
Is -1
rm chapter9.pdf
Is
Is -1

... continues ...

1 S history -1 -5 # List last 5 commands, preceding this one in reversed order.

13 history -3
12 history 8
11 history -n
10 history
9 set
2 $ history -5 -1 # Print last 5 commands, preceding this one in order.
10 history
11 history -n
12 history 8
13 history -3
14 history -1 -5
3 $ history # (Different history list)
78 date
79 Is
80 who
81 echo hi
82 history
4 $ history Is echo # Display from most recent Is command to
79 Is # most recent echo command.
80 who
81 echo hi
5 $ history -r Is echo # -r reverses the list
81 echo hi
80 who
79 Is
11.3 The Command Line 597

The history Command/Redisplay Commands. The built-in history command

lists previously typed commands preceded by a number. The command can take argu-
ments to control the display.

EXAMPLE 11.17

1 $ history # Same as fc -1
1 Is
2 vi filel
3 df
4 ps -eaf
5 history
6 more /etc/passwd
7 cd
8 echo SUSER
9 set
10 history
2 $ history -n # Print without line numbers
Is
vi filel
df
ps -eaf
history
more /etc/passwd
cd
echo SUSER
set
history
history -n
3 $ history 8 # List from 8th command to present
8 echo SUSER
9 set
10 history
11 history -n
12 history 8
4 $ history -3 # List this command and the 3 preceding it
10 history
11 history -n
12 history 8
13 history -3
5 $ history -1 -5 # List last 5 commands, preceding this one in reversed order.
13 history -3
12 history 8
11 history -n
10 history
9 set
598 Chapter 11 • The Interactive Korn Shell

EXAMPLE 11.17 (continued)

6 $ history -5 -1 # Print last 5 commands, preceding this one in order.

10 history
11 history -n
12 history 8
13 history -3
14 history -1 -5
7 $ history # (Different history list)
78 date
79 Is
80 who
81 echo hi
82 history

Re-executing Commands with the r Command. The r command redoes the

last command typed at the command line. If the r command is followed by a space and
a number, the command at that number is re-executed. If the r command is followed by
a space and a letter, the last command that began with that letter is executed. Without
any arguments, the r command re-executes the most previous command on the history
list.

EXAMPLE 11.18

$ r date
date
Mon May 15 12:27:35 PST 2004
2 $ r 3 redo command number 3
df
Filesystem kbytes used avail capacity Mounted on
/dev/sd0a 7735 6282 680 90% /
/dev/sd0g 144613 131183 0 101% /usr
/dev/sd2c 388998 211395 138704 /home.
3 r vi # Redo the last command that began with pattern vi.
4 r vi filel=file2 # Redo last command that began with vi and substitute the
# first occurrence of filel with file2.

EXPLANATION

1 The last command, date, is re-executed.

2 The third command in the history file is executed.

3 The last command, starting with the string vi, is executed.

4 The string filel is replaced with the string file2. The last command, vi filel, is
replaced with vi file2.
11.3 The Command Line 599

11.3.7 Command-Line Editing

The Korn shell provides two built-in editors, emacs and vi, that allow you to interactively
edit your history list. To enable the vi editor, add the set command listed below and put
this line in your .profile file. The emacs built-in editor works on lines in the history file
one line at a time, whereas the vi built-in editor works on commands consisting of more
than one line. To set vi, type

set -o vi or VISUAL=vi or EDITOR=/usr/bin/vi

If using emacs, type

set -o emacs or VISUAL=emacs or EDITOR=/usr/bin/emacs

Note that set -o vi overrides VISUAL, and VISUAL overrides EDITOR.

The vi Built-in Editor. To edit the history list, press the Esc key and use the standard
keys that you would use in vi for moving up and down, left and right, deleting, inserting,
and changing text. See Table 11.2. After making the edit, press the Enter key. The com-
mand will be executed and added to the bottom of the history list. To scroll upward in
the history file, press the Esc key and then the K key.

Table 11.2 vi Commands

Command Function

Moving Through the History File

Esc k or + Move up the history list

Esc j or - Move down the history list

Esc G Move to first line in history file

Esc 5G Move to fifth command in history file for string

/string Search upward through history file

? String search downward through history file

Moving Around on a Line (Press the Esc Key First)

h Move left on a line

1 Move right on a line

b Move backward a word

e or w Move forward a word

600 Chapter 11 • The Interactive Korn Shell

Table 11.2 vi Commands (continued)

Command Function

A
or 0 Move to beginning of first character on the line

$ Move to end of line

Editing with vi

a A Append text

i I Insert text

dd dw x Delete text into a buffer (line, word, or character)

cc C Change text

u U Undo

yy Y Yank (copy a line into buffer)

P P Put yanked or deleted line down below or above the line

r R Replace a letter or any amount of text on a line

The emacs Built-in Editor. To start moving backward through the history file, press
A A
P. To move forward, press N. Use emacs editing commands to change or correct text,
then press Enter and the command will be re-executed. See Table 11.3.

Table 11.3 emacs Commands

Command Function

Moving Through the History File

Ctrl-P Move up history file

Ctrl-N Move down history file

Ctrl-B Move backward one character

Ctrl-R Search backward for string

Esc B Move back one word

Ctrl-F Move forward one character

Esc F Move forward one word

Ctrl-A Move to the beginning of the line

Ctrl-E Move to the end of the line

11.3 The Command Line 601

Table 11.3 emacs Commands (continued)

Command Function

Esc < Move to the first line of the history file

Esc > Move to the last line of the history file

Editing with emacs

Ctrl-U Delete the line

Ctrl-Y Put the line back

Ctrl-K Delete from cursor to the end line

Ctrl-D Delete a letter

Esc D Delete one word forward

Esc H Delete one word backward

Esc space Set a mark at cursor position

Ctrl-X Ctrl-X Exchange cursor and mark

Ctrl-P Ctrl-Y Push region from cursor to mark into a buffer (Ctrl-P) and put it down
(Ctrl-Y)

FCEDIT and Editing Commands. The fc command is a built-in command that can
be used with the FCEDIT2 variable (typically set in the .profile file) to invoke the editor
of your choice for editing the history file. This can be any editor on your system. The
FCEDIT variable is set to the full pathname of your favorite editor. If FCEDIT is not set, the
default editor, /bin/ed, is invoked when you type the fc command.
The FCEDIT variable should be set to the chosen editor. You can specify a number of
items from the history list that you want to edit. After you edit the commands, the Korn
shell will execute the whole file. Any commands that are preceded by a pound sign (#)
will be treated as comments and will not be executed. See Table 11.4 on page 603 for
more on commenting and filename expansion.

2. On versions of the Korn shell newer than 1988, the FCEDIT variable has been renamed HISTEDIT, and the fc
command has been renamed hist.
602 Chapter 11 • The Interactive Korn Shell

EXAMPLE 11.19

l $ FCEDIT=/usr/bin/vi
2 $ pwd
3 $ fc
<5tarts up the full-screen vi editor with the pwd command on line 1>

pwd

rsi

vi editor

rv
fSJ

4 $ history
1 date
2 Is -1
3 echo "hello"
4 pwd

5 $ fc -3 -■1 # Start vi, edit, write/quit, and execute last 3 commands.

EXPLANATION

l The FCEDIT variable can be assigned the pathname for any of the UNIX text editors
you have on your system, such as vi, emacs, textedit, and so on. If not set, the ed
editor is the default.

2 The pwd command is typed at the command line. It will be placed in the hi story file.

3 The fc command caused the editor (set in FCEDIT) to be invoked with the last com-
mand typed in the editor window. If the user writes and quits the editor, any com-
mands typed there will be executed.

4 The history command lists recently typed commands.

5 The fc command is used to start up the editor with the last three commands from
the history file in the editor's buffer.

11.4 Commenting and Filename Expansion

Filename expansion is a mechanism that allows the user to type part of a filename and
press the Esc key to see the rest of the filename(s). In the following examples, [Esc] rep-
resents the Esc key.
11.4 Commenting and Filename Expansion 603

Table 11.4 Using the Esc Key and Filename Expansion

Combination Result

command [Esc]# # precedes command with a #; puts it on the history list commented;
command will not be executed.

command [Esc]_ Underscore inserts the last word of the last command at the cursor.

command [Esc] 2_ Inserts the second word of the last command at the cursor position.

word[Esc] * * replaces the current word with all files matched.

word[Esc] \ \ replaces the current word with the first filename that starts with the
same characters; filename expansion.

word[Esc]= Displays all filenames beginning with the same character as the
current word and displays them in a numbered list.

EXAMPLE 11.20

(Press the Esc Key for [Esc].

1 $ Is a[Esc]=
1) abc
2) abcl
3) abcl22
4) abcl23
5) abc2
2 $ Is a[Esc]*
Is abc abcl abcl22 abcl23 abc2
abc abcl abcl22 abcl23 abc2
3 S print apples pears peaches
apples pears peaches
4 $ print [Esc]_
print peaches
peaches
5 $ print apples pears peaches plums
apples pears peaches
6 $ print [Esc]2_
print pears
pears

EXPLANATION

1 By typing an a, followed by the Esc key and an equal sign (=), all files starting with
an a are numbered and listed. (The numbers do not serve any special purpose.)

2 By typing an a, then the Esc key and an asterisk (*), the filenames starting with an
a are displayed.
604 Chapter 11 • The Interactive Korn Shell

EXPLANATION (continued)

3 The print command displays its arguments: apples, pears, and peaches.

4 The Esc key, followed by an underscore (_), is replaced with the last argument.

5 The print command displays its arguments: apples, pears, and peaches.

6 The Esc key, followed by the number 2 and an underscore, is replaced by the sec-
ond argument. The command (print) is the first argument, starting at word zero.

11.5 Aliases

An alias is a Korn shell or user-defined abbreviation for a command. The alias name con-
tains alphanumeric characters. Default aliases are provided by the shell and can be rede-
fined or unset. Unlike the C shell aliases, the Korn shell does not support passing
arguments. (If you need to use arguments, see "Functions" on page 639.)
Aliases can be exported to subshells by storing them in the ENV file. (The commands
in the ENV file are executed every time a new shell is spawned.) Starting with the 1988
version of the Korn shell, the -x option allows aliases to be exported to subshells as long
as the new shell is not a separate invocation of ksh. Tracked aliases are provided by the
Korn shell to speed up the time it takes the shell to search the path. Aliases can alias
themselves; that is, they are recursive.

11.5.1 Listing Aliases

The alias built-in command lists all set aliases.

EXAMPLE 11.21

1 $ alias
2 autoload=typeset -fu
3 false=let 0
4 functions=typeset -f
5 hash=alias -t
6 history=fc -1
7 integer=typeset -i
8 r=fc -e -
9 stop=kill -STOP
10 suspend=kill -STOP $$
11 true=:
12 type=whence -v

EXPLANATION

1 The alias command, without arguments, lists all aliases. This is a list of preset
aliases, including those you have set.

2 The autoload alias is used for invoking functions dynamically.

3 The false alias is used in expressions testing for a false condition.

11.5 Aliases 605

EXPLANATION (continued)

4 The functions alias lists all functions and their definitions.

5 The hash alias lists all tracked aliases.

6 The history alias lists and numbers all commands in the history file, .sh_history.

7 The integer alias allows you to create integer-type variables.

8 The r alias lets you redo a previous command from the history list.

9 The stop alias causes a process to be suspended if a job number or PID is provided
to the kill command. The job can be resumed in the foreground by typing fg.

10 The suspend alias suspends the current job by sending the STOP signal and the PID
($$) of this process to the kill command.

11 The true alias is set to the do-nothing command, often used to start an infinite loop.

12 The type alias indicates the type of command you are executing; an alias, a binary
executable, and so forth.

11.5.2 Creating Aliases

The user can create aliases in the Korn shell. An alias is a nickname for an existing com-
mand or commands. The real command(s) is substituted for the alias when the shell
evaluates the command line.

EXAMPLE 11.22

1 $ alias cVclear"
2 $ alias Vis -laF'
3 $ alias ls='ls -aF'
4 $ \ls ..

EXPLANATION

l The alias cl is an alias for clear.

2 The alias is 1. The letter 1 is a nickname for the command Is -laF.

3 The alias Is is assigned the command Is -aF.

4 The backslash turns off the meaning of the alias for the execution of this line. The
real Is command, not the alias, is executed.

11.5.3 Deleting Aliases

The unalias command deletes an alias.

EXAMPLE 11.23

unalias cl

EXPLANATION

The alias cl is removed from the list of set aliases.

606 Chapter 11 • The Interactive Korn Shell

11.5.4 Tracked Aliases

To reduce the amount of time needed to do a search of the path, the Korn shell creates
an alias when a command is first encountered and sets the alias equal to the full path-
name of the command. This is called a tracked alias3
The Korn shell has some preset tracked aliases that are defined when it is installed.
To use tracked aliases, the set -o trackall command is issued; it is normally set in the ENV
file. To see all tracked aliases, type alias -t.

EXAMPLE 11.24

$ alias -t
chinod=/bi n/chmod
ls=/bin/ls
vi=/usr/ucb/vi
who=/bin/who

EXPLANATION

The -t option to the built-in alias command displays those commands that have been
aliased via the tracking mechanism. When the user types any of these commands, the
shell will not search the path, but use the alias definition to invoke the command.

11.6 Job Control

Job control is used to control the execution of background and foreground jobs.
To use Korn shell job control, the monitor option (set -o monitor) must be set on sys-
tems that do not support job control. See Table 11.5 for job control commands.

Table 11.5 Job Control Commands

Command Function

jobs Lists all unfinished processes in a numerically ordered list where the
number of the job is enclosed in brackets

jobs -1 Same as jobs, but includes the P1D number of the job

A
Z Stops the current job

fg %n Runs background job in foreground

bg %n Runs job in background

wait %n Waits for job number n to finish

kill %n Kills job number n

3. Tracked aliases will be undefined if the PATH variable is reset.

11.7 Metacharacters 607

EXAMPLE 11.25

1 $ vi
[1] + Stopped # vi
2 $ sleep 25&
[2] 4538
3 $ jobs
[2] + Running # sleep 25&
[1] - Stopped # vi
4 $ jobs -1
[2] + 4538 Running # sleep 25&
[1] - 4537 Stopped # vi
5 $ fg %1

EXPLANATION
A
1 After the vi editor is invoked, you can press Z (Ctrl-Z) to suspend the vi session.
The editor will be suspended in the background, and after the message Stopped ap-
pears, the shell prompt will appear immediately.

2 The ampersand at the end of the command causes the sleep command, with an
argument of 25, to execute in the background. The notation [2] means that this is
the second job to be run in the background and the PID of this job is 4538.

3 The jobs command displays the jobs currently in the background.

4 The jobs command with the -1 option displays the processes (jobs) running in the
background and the PID numbers of those jobs.

5 The fg command followed by a percent sign and the job number will bring that
numbererd job into the foreground. Without a number, fg brings the most recent-
ly backgrounded job back into the foreground.

11.7 Metacharacters

Metacharacters are special characters used to represent something other than them-
selves. Table 11.6 lists some common Korn shell metacharacters and their functions.

Table 11.6 Korn Shell Metacharacters

Command Function

\ Literal interpretation of the following character

& Background processing

Command separator

Variable substitution

Match for a single character

608 Chapter 11 • The Interactive Korn Shell

Table 11.6 Korn Shell Metacharacters (continued)

Command Function

[abc] Match for one from a set of characters

[!abc] Match for one not from the set of characters

i' Match for zero or more characters

(cmds ) Execute commands in a subshell

{cmds} Execute commands in current shell

EXAMPLE 11.26

1 $ Is -d * all files are displayed

abc abcl22 abc2 filel.bak file2.bak nonsense nothing one
abcl abcl23 filel file2 none noone

2 $ print hello \ # The carriage return is escaped

> there
hello there

3 $ rusers& # Process the rusers command in the background

[1] 4334
$

4 $ who; date; uptime # Commands are executed one at a time

ellie console Feb 10 10:46
ellie ttyp0 Feb 15 12:41
ellie ttypl Feb 10 10:47
ellie ttyp2 Feb 5 10:53
Mon Feb 15 17:16:43 PST 2004
5:16pm up 5 days, 6:32, 1 user, load average: 0.28, 0.23, 0.01

5 $ print $H0ME # The value of the HOME variable is printed

/home/jody/e Hie

6 $ print $L0GNAME # The value of the LOCNAME variable is printed

ellie

7 $ ( pwd; cd / ; pwd )
/home/jody/e Hie
/
11.7 Metacharacters 609

EXAMPLE 11.26 (continued)

S pwd
/home/jody/ellie

8 $ { pwd; cd /; pwd; }
/home/jody/ellie
/
$ pwd
/

9 $ ( date; pwd; Is ) > outfile

$ cat outfile
Mon Feb 15 15:56:34 PDT 2004
/home/jody/ellie
fool
foo2
food

EXPLANATION

1 The asterisk matches all the files in the current directory. (The -d option to the Is
command prevents the contents of subdirectories from being displayed.)

2 The backslash escapes the newline so that the command line can be continued on
the next line.

3 The ampersand (&) causes the rusers program to be executed in the background;
the shell prompt returns immediately. Both processes will run concurrently.

4 Each command is separated by a semicolon. Each command will be executed one

at a time.

5 If a dollar sign precedes the variable, the shell will perform variable substitution.
The value of the env variable, HOME, is displayed. The HOME variable contains the full
pathname of the user's home directory

6 Again, the dollar sign precedes the variable name. The value of the LOGNAME variable
is the user's login name.

7 The parentheses indicate that the enclosed commands will be executed in a sub-
shell. The cd command is built into the shell, so that each shell that is invoked has
its own copy of cd. The pwd command prints the present working directory,
/home/jody/ellie. After cding to the root directory, the pwd command displays that
the new directory is root. After the subshell exits, the output of the pwd command
in the parent shell indicates that the directory is still set to /home/jody/ellie as it
was before entering the subshell.
610 Chapter 11 • The Interactive Korn Shell

EXPLANATION (continued)

8 The curly braces indicate that the enclosed commands will be executed in the cur-
rent shell. The pwd command prints the present working directory, /home/jody/ellie.
After cding to the root directory, the pwd command displays that the new directory
is root. After the commands within the curly braces exit, the output of the pwd
command indicates that the directory is still set to the root directory.

9 The parentheses are used to group the commands so that the output of all three
commands is sent to outfile.

11.8 Filename Substitution (Wildcards)

When evaluating the command line, the shell uses metacharacters to abbreviate file-
names or pathnames that match a certain set of characters, often called wildcards. The
filename substitution metacharacters listed in Table 11.7 are expanded into an alphabet-
ically listed set of filenames. The process of expanding a metacharacter into filenames is
also called filename substitution, or globbing. If a metacharacter is used and there is no
filename that matches it, the Korn shell treats the metacharacter as a literal character.

Table 11.7 Shell Metacharacters and Filename Substitution

Metacharacter Meaning

* Matches zero or more characters

? Matches exactly one character

[abc] Matches one character in the set, a, b, or c

[! abc] Matches one character not in the set a, b, or c

[a-z] Matches one character in the range: any character in the set between a and z

Substitutes the user's home directory for ~

\ Escapes or disables the metacharacter

11.8.1 The Asterisk

The asterisk is a wildcard that matches for zero or more of any character in a filename.

EXAMPLE 11.27

1 S Is *
abc abcl abcl22 abcl23 abc2 filel filel.bak file2 file2.bak none
nonsense noone nothing nowhere one
11.8 Filename Substitution (Wildcards) 611

EXAMPLE 11.27 (continued)

2 $ Is -i.bak
filel.bak file2.bak
3 $ print a^c
abc

EXPLANATION

1 The asterisk expands to all of the files in the present working directory. All of the
files are passed to 1 s and displayed.

2 All files starting with zero or more characters and ending with .bak are matched
and listed.

3 All files starting with a, followed by zero or more characters, and ending in c are
matched and passed as arguments to the print command.

11.8.2 The Question Mark

The question mark represents a single character in a filename. When a filename contains
one or more question marks, the shell performs filename substitution by replacing the
question mark with the character it matches in the filename.

EXAMPLE 11.28

1 S Is
abc abcl abcl22 abcl23 abc2 filel filel.bak file2 file2.bak
none nonsense noone nothing nowhere one
2 $ Is a?c?
abcl abc2
3 $ Is ??
?? not found
4 $ print abc???
abcl22 abcl23
5 $ print ??
77

EXPLANATION

1 The files in the current directory are listed.

2 Filenames containing four characters are matched and listed if the filename starts
with an a, followed by a single character, followed by a c and a single character.

3 Filenames containing exactly two characters are listed. There are none, so the two
question marks are treated as literal characters. Because there is no file in the di-
rectory called ??, the shell sends the message ?? not found.

4 Filenames containing six characters are matched and printed, starting with abc
and followed by exactly three of any character.
612 Chapter 11 • The Interactive Korn Shell

EXPLANATION (continued)

5 The ksh pri nt function gets the two question marks as an argument. The shell tries
to match for any filenames with exactly two characters. There are no files in the
directory that contain exactly two characters. The shell treats the question mark
as a literal question mark if it cannot find a match. The two literal question marks
are passed as arguments to the print command.

11.8.3 The Square Brackets

Brackets are used to match filenames containing one character from a set or range of
characters.

EXAMPLE 11.29

1 $ Is
abc abcl abcl22 abcl23 abc2 filel filel.bak file2 file2.bak
none nonsense noone nothing nowhere one
2 $ Is abc[123]
abcl abc2
3 $ Is abc[l-3]
abcl abc2
4 $ Is [a-z][a-z][a-z]
abc one
5 $ Is [!f-z]???
abcl abc2
6 $ Is abcl2[2-3]
abcl22 abcUS

EXPLANATION

1 All of the files in the present working directory are listed.

2 All four-character names are matched and listed if the filename starts with abc, fol-
lowed by 1, 2, or 3. Only one character from the set in the brackets is matched for
a filename.

3 All four-character filenames are matched and listed if the filename starts with abc,
and is followed by a number in the range from 1 to 3.

4 All three-character filenames are matched and listed, if the filename contains ex-
actly three lowercase alphabetic characters.

5 All four-character files are listed if the first character is not a letter between f and
z, followed by three of any character (???).

6 Files are listed if the filenames contain abcl2, followed by 2 or 3.

11.8 Filename Substitution (Wildcards) 613

11.8.4 Escaping Metacharacters

To use a metacharacter as a literal character, use the backslash to prevent the metachar-
acter from being interpreted.

EXAMPLE 11.30

1 $ Is
abc filel youx
2 $ print How are you?
How are youx
3 $ print How are you\?
How are you?
4 $ print When does this line \
> ever end\?
When does this line ever end?

EXPLANATION

1 The files in the present working directory are listed. Note the file youx.

2 The shell will perform filename expansion on the question mark. Any files in the
current directory starting with y-o-u and followed by exactly one character are
matched and substituted in the string. The filename youx will be substituted in the
string to read, How are youx (probably not what you wanted to happen).

3 By preceding the question mark (?) with a backslash, it is escaped, meaning that
the shell will not try to interpret it as a wildcard.

4 The newline is escaped by preceding it with a backslash. The secondary prompt

is displayed until the string is terminated with a newline. The question mark (?)
is escaped to protect it from filename expansion.

11.8.5 Tilde and Hyphen Expansion

The tilde character was adopted by the Korn shell (from the C shell) for pathname
expansion. The tilde by itself evaluates to the full pathname of the user's home directory.
When the tilde is appended with a username, it expands to the full pathname of that
user.
The hyphen character refers to the previous working directory; OLDPWD also refers to
the previous working directory.

EXAMPLE 11.31

1 $ echo ~
/home/ jody/ellie
2 $ echo ~joe
/home/joe
614 Chapter 11 • The Interactive Korn Shell

EXAMPLE 11.31 (continued)

3 $ echo ~+
/home/jody/e11ie/perl
4 $ echo —
/home/jody/e 7 7 ie/prac
5 $ echo SOLDPWD
/home/jody/e 7 7 ie/prac
6 $ cd -
/home/jody/e 7 7 i e/prac

EXPLANATION

1 The tilde evaluates to the full pathname of the user's home directory.

2 The tilde preceding the username evaluates to the full pathname of joe's home
directory.

3 The ~+ notation evaluates to the full pathname of the working directory.

4 The notation evaluates to the previous working directory.

5 The OLDPWD variable contains the previous working directory.

6 The hyphen refers to the previous working directory; cd to go to the previous

working directory and display the directory.

11.8.6 New ksh Metacharacters

The new Korn shell metacharacters are used for filename expansion in a way that is sim-
ilar to the regular expression metacharacters of egrep and awk. The metacharacter preced-
ing the characters enclosed in parentheses controls what the pattern matches. See
Table 11.8.

Table 11.8 Regular Expression Wildcards

Regular Expression Meaning

abc?(219)1 ? matches zero or one occurrences of any pattern in the parentheses.

The vertical bar represents an OR condition; for example, either 2 or
9. Matches abc21, abc91, or abcl.

abci-( [0-9]) * matches zero or more occurrences of any pattern in the

parentheses. Matches abc followed by zero or more digits; for
example, abc, abcl234, abc3, or abc2.

abc+( [0-9]) + matches one or more occurrences of any pattern in the

parentheses. Matches abc followed by one or more digits; for
example, abc3 or abcl23.

no@(one|ne) @ matches exactly one occurrence of any pattern in the parentheses.

Matches noone or none.
11.8 Filename Substitution (Wildcards) 615

Table 11.8 Regular Expression Wildcards (continued)

Regular Expression Meaning

no!(thinglwhere) ! matches all strings except those matched by any of the patterns in
the parentheses. Matches no, nobody, or noone, but not nothing or
nowhere.

EXAMPLE 11.32

1 $ Is
abc abcl abcl22 abcl23 abc2 filel filel.bak file2 file2.bak none
nonsense noone nothing nowhere one
2 $ Is abc?(l|2)
abc abcl abc2
3 $ Is abc*([l-5])
abc abcl abcl22 abcl23 abc2
4 $ Is abc+([l-5])
abcl abcl22 abcl23 abc2
5 $ Is no©(thing|ne)
none nothing
6 $ Is no!(one|nsense)
none nothing nowhere

EXPLANATION

1 All the files in the present working directory are listed.

2 Matches filenames starting with abc and followed by zero characters or one of ei-
ther of the patterns in parentheses. Matches abc, abcl, or abc2.

3 Matches filenames starting with abc and followed by zero or more numbers be-
tween 1 and 5. Matches abc, abcl, abcl22, abcl23, and abc2.

4 Matches filenames starting with abc and followed by one or more numbers between
1 and 5. Matches abcl, abcl22, abcl23, and abc2.

5 Matches filenames starting with no and followed by exactly thing or ne. Matches
nothing or none.

6 Matches filenames starting with no and followed by anything except one or nsense.
Matches none, nothing, and nowhere.

11.8.7 The nogl ob Variable

If the noglob variable is set, filename substitution is turned off, meaning that all meta-
characters represent themselves; they are not used as wildcards. This can be useful when
searching for patterns containing metacharacters in programs like grep, sed, or awk. If
noglob is not set, all metacharacters must be escaped with a backslash if they are not to
be interpreted.
616 Chapter 11 • The Interactive Korn Shell

EXAMPLE 11.33

1 % set -o noglob # or set -f

2 % print *??[]- $L0GNAME
- .7-7 [] /home/jody/el lie el lie
3 % set +o noglob # or set +f

EXPLANATION

1 The noglob variable is set. It turns off the special meaning of the wildcards for file-
name expansion. You can use the -f option to set the command to achieve the
same results.

2 The filename expansion metacharacters are displayed as themselves without any

interpretation. Note that the tilde and the dollar sign are still expanded.

3 The noglob option is reset. Filename metacharacters will be expanded.

11.9 Variables

11.9.1 Local Variables

Local variables are given values that are known only to the shell in which they are cre-
ated. Variable names must begin with an alphabetic or underscore character. The
remaining characters can be alphabetic, decimal digits zero to nine, or an underscore
character. Any other characters mark the termination of the variable name.

Setting and Referencing Local Variables, when assigning a value to a variable,

there can be no whitespace surrounding the equal sign. To set the variable to null, the
equal sign is followed by nothing. If more than one word is assigned to a variable, it must
be quoted to protect the whitespace; otherwise, the shell prints an error message and the
variable is undefined.
If a dollar sign is prepended to the variable name, the value assigned to that variable
can be referenced. If other characters are attached to a variable name, curly braces are
used to shield the name of the variable from the extra characters.

EXAMPLE 11.34

1 $ state=Cal
$ echo $state
Cal
2 $ name="Peter Piper"
$ echo Sname
Peter Piper
11.9 Variables 617

EXAMPLE 11.34 (continued)

3 $ x=
S echo $x
# Blank line appears when a variable is either unset or set to null
i

4 $ state=Cal
$ print ${state}ifornia
California

EXPLANATION

1 The variable state is assigned the value Cal. When the shell encounters the dollar
sign preceding a variable name, it performs variable substitution. The value of the
variable is displayed.

2 The variable name is assigned the value "Peter Piper". The quotes are needed to hide
the whitespace so that the shell will not split the string into separate words when
it parses the command line. The value of the variable is displayed.

3 The variable x is not assigned a value. It will be assigned a null string. The null
value, an empty string, is displayed. The same output would be displayed if the
variable had not been set at all.

4 The variable state is assigned the value Cal. The variable is enclosed in curly brac-
es to shield it from the characters that are appended. The value of the variable Cal
is displayed with ifornia appended.

The Scope Of Local Variables. A local variable is known only to the shell in which
it was created. It is not passed on to subshells. The $$ variable is a special variable con-
taining the PID of the current shell.

EXAMPLE 11.35

1 $ echo $$
1313
2 $ round=world
$ echo $round
world
3 S ksh # Start a subshell
4 $ echo $$
1326
5 $ echo $round
6 S exit # Exits this shell, returns to parent shell
7 $ echo $$
1313
8 $ echo $round
world
618 Chapter 11 • The Interactive Korn Shell

EXPLANATION

1 The value of the $$ variable evaluates to the PID of the current shell. The PID of
this shell is 1313.

2 The local variable round is assigned the string value world and the value of the vari-
able is displayed.

3 A new Korn shell is invoked. This is called a subshell, or child shell.

4 The PID of this shell is 1326. The parent shell's PID is 1313.

5 The variable round is not defined in this shell.

6 The exit command terminates this shell and returns to the parent shell. If the
ignoreeof option is not set, Ctrl-D will also exit this shell.

7 The parent shell returns. Its PID is displayed.

8 The value of the variable is displayed.

Setting Read-Only Variables. A read-only variable cannot be redefined or unset.

It can be set with the readonly or typeset -r built-in commands. You may want to set vari-
ables to readonly for security reasons when running in privileged mode.

EXAMPLE 11.36

l $ readonly name=Tom
$ print Sname
Tom
2 $ unset name
ksh: name: is read only
3 $ name=]oe
ksh name: is read only
4 $ typeset -r PATH
$ PATH=S{PATH}:/usr/local/bi n
ksh: PATH: is read only

EXPLANATION

1 The readonly local variable name is assigned the value Tom.

2 A readonly variable cannot be unset.

3 A readonly variable cannot be redefined.

4 The PATH variable is set to be readonly. Any effort to unset or change the variable
will produce an error message.

11.9.2 Environment Variables

Environment variables are available to the shell in which they are created and any sub-
shells or processes spawned from that shell. By convention, environment variables are
capitalized.
11.9 Variables 619

The shell in which a variable is created is called the parent shell. If a new shell is started
from the parent shell, it is called the child shell. Some of the environment variables, such
as HOME, LOCNAME, PATH, and SHELL, are set before you log in by the /bin/login program. Nor-
mally, environment variables are set in the .profile file in the user's home directory.

Setting Environment Variables. To set environment variables, the export command

is used either after assigning a value or when the variable is set. All variables in a script can
be exported by turning on the all export option to the set command (e.g., set -o all export).

EXAMPLE 11.37

1 $ TERM=wyse ; export TERM

2 $ export NAME ="]ohn Smith"
$ print $NAME
John Smith
3 $ print $$
319
4 $ ksh
5 S print $$
340
6 $ print $NAME
John Smith
7 $ NAME="April lenner"
$ print $NAME
April Jenner
8 $ exit
9 $ print $$
319
10 S print $NAME
John Smith

EXPLANATION

l The TERM variable is assigned wyse. The variable is exported. Now processes started
from this shell will inherit the variable.

2 The variable is exported and defined in the same step. (New with the Korn shell.)

3 The value of this shell's PID is printed.

4 A new Korn shell is started. The new shell is the child; the original shell is its parent.

5 The PID of the new Korn shell, stored in the $$ (340) variable, is printed.

6 The variable was exported to the new shell and is displayed.

7 The variable is reset to April Jenner and displayed.

8 This Korn child shell is exited. The parent shell will return.

9 The PID of the parent, 319, is displayed again.

10 The variable NAME contains its original value. Variables retain their values when ex-
ported from parent to child. The child cannot change the value of a variable for
its parent.
620 Chapter 11 • The Interactive Korn Shell

Special Environment Variables. The Korn shell assigns default values to the envi-
ronment variables, PATH, PS1, PS2, PS3, PS4, MAILCHECK, FCEDIT, TMOUT, and IPS. The SHELL,
LOCNAME, USER, and HOME are set by the /bin/login program. You can change the values of the
defaults and set the others listed in Table 11.9.

Table 11.9 Korn Shell Environment Variables

Variable Name Meaning

_ (underscore) The last argument of the previous command.

CDPATH The search path for the cd command. A colon-separated list of directories used
to find a directory if the /, ./, or .. / is not at the beginning of the pathname.

COLUMNS If set, defines the width of the edit window for shell edit modes and the select
command.

EDITOR Pathname for a built-in editor: emacs, gmacs, or vi.

ENV A variable set to the name of a file, containing functions and aliases, that the
Korn shell will invoke when the ksh program is invoked. On versions newer than
1988, this file is only executed when ksh is invoked interactively, not for
noninteractive shells. The variable is not expanded if the privileged option is
turned on.

ERRNO System error number. Its value is the error number of the most recently failed
system call.

FCEDIT Default editor name for the fc command. On versions newer than 1988, this
variable is called HISTEDIT, and the fc command is hi st.

FPATH A colon-separated list of directories that defines the search path for directories
containing auto-loaded functions.

HISTEDIT For versions of the Korn shell newer than 1988, the new name for FCEDIT.

HISTFILE Specifies file in which to store command history.

HISTSIZE Maximum number of commands from the history that can be accessed; default
is 128.

HOME Home directory; used by cd when no directory is specified.

IPS Internal field separators, normally space, tab, and newline, used for field
splitting of words resulting from command substitution, lists in loop constructs,
and reading input.

LINENO Current line number in script.

LINES Used in select loops for vertically displaying menu items; default is 24.
11.9 Variables 621

Table 11.9 Korn Shell Environment Variables (continued)

Variable Name Meaning

MAIL If this parameter is set to the name of a mail file and the MAILPATH parameter is not
set, the shell informs the user of the arrival of mail in the specified file.

MAILCHECK This parameter specifies how often (in seconds) the shell will check for the
arrival of mail in the files specified by the MAILPATH or MAIL parameters. The default
value is 600 seconds (10 minutes). If set to zero, the shell will check before
issuing each primary prompt.

MAILPATH A colon-separated list of filenames. If this parameter is set, the shell informs the
user of the arrival of mail in any of the specified files. Each filename can be
followed by a % and a message that will be printed when the modification time
changes. The default message is You have mail.

OLDPWD Last working directory.

PATH The search path for commands; a colon-separated list of directories the shell
uses to search for the command you want to execute.

PWD Present working directory; set by cd.

PPID Process ID of the parent process.

PS1 Primary prompt string, by default $.

PS2 Secondary prompt string, by default >.

PSB Selection prompt string used with the select command, by default #?.

PS4 Debug prompt string used when tracing is turned on, by default +.

RANDOM Random number generated each time the variable is referenced.

REPLY Set when read is not supplied arguments.

SHELL When the shell is invoked, it scans the environment for this name. The shell
gives default values to PATH, PS1, PS2, MAILCHECK, and IPS. HOME and MAIL are set by
login.

TMOUT Specifies number of seconds to wait for input before exiting.

VISUAL Specifies editor for in-line command editing: emacs, gmacs, or vi.

11.9.3 Listing Set Variables

There are three built-in commands that print the value of variables: set, env, and typeset.
The set command prints all variables, local and global. The env command prints only
global variables. The typeset command prints all variables, integers, functions, and
exported variables. The set -o command prints all options set for the Korn shell.
622 Chapter 11 • The Interactive Korn Shell

EXAMPLE 11.38

1 $ env # Partial list

LOGNAME=ellie
TERMCAP=sun-cmd: te= \ E [>4h :ti=\E[>41: tc=sun:
USER=ellie
DISPLAY=:0.0
SHELL=/bin/ksh
HOME=/home/jody/e Hie
TERM=sun-cmd
LD_LIBRARY_PATH=/usr/loca 1/0143/1 ib
PW=/home/j ody/e 11 i e/per 1

2 $ typeset
export MAN PATH
export PATH
integer ERRNO
export FONTPATH
integer OPTIND
function LINENO
export 0PENI4INH0ME
export LOCNAME
function SECONDS
integer PPID
PS3
PS2
export TERMCAP
OPTARC
export USER
export DISPLAY
function RANDOM
export SHELL
integer TMOUT
integer MAILCHECK

3 $ set
DISPLAY=:0.0
ERRNO=10
FCEDIT=/bin/ed
FMH0ME=/us r/loca1/Frame-?.IX
FONTPA TH=/usr/loca 1/0143/1 ib/fonts
HELPPA TH^/us r/loca 1/0143/1 ib/loca le:/us r/loca 1/0143/1 ib/he Ip
H0ME=/home/j ody/e Hie
IFS=
LD_LIBRARY_PATH=/us r/loca 1/0143/1 ib
LINEN0=1
LOCNAME=eHie
MAILCHECK=600
11.9 Variables 623

EXAMPLE 11.38 (continued)

MAN PA TH=/usr/loca 1/ONS/share/man:/us r/I oca l/Oh/S/man:/

usr/Ioca l/man:/usr/loca 1/doctoo Is/man:/usr/man
0PTIND=1
PA TH=/home/jody/e 11 ie:/us r/I oca l/OMS/b i n:/us r/ucb:/
usr/local/doctools/bin:/usr/bin:/usr/local :/usr/etc:/etc:/
usr/spoo 1/news/bin:/home/jody/e 11 i e/bin:/usr/lo
PID=1332
PS1=$
P52=>
P53=#?
PS4=+
PW=/home/jody/e 17 i e/kshprog/joke
RAND0M=4251
SEC0NDS=36
SHELL=/bin/ksh
TERM=sun-cmd
TERMCAP=sun-cmd: te=\E[>4h:ti=\E[>41:tc=sun:
TMOUT=0
USER=eTlie
_=pwd
name=Joe
place=San Francisco
x=

set -o
all export off
bgnice on
emacs off
err exit off
gmacs off
ignoreeof off
interactive on
keyword off
markdirs off
monitor on
noexec off
noclobber off
nog lob off
nolog off
nounset off
privileged off
restricted off
tracka 11 off
verbose off
viraw off
xtrace off
624 Chapter 11 • The Interactive Korn Shell

EXPLANATION

1 The env command lists all environment (exported) variables. These variables are,
by convention, named with uppercase letters. They are passed from the process in
which they are created to any of the child processes.

2 The typeset command displays all variables and their attributes, functions, and in-
tegers. The typeset command with the + option displays only the names of the vari-
ables.

3 The set command, without options, prints all set variables, local and exported, in-
cluding variables set to null.

4 The set command with the -o option lists all built-in variables that are set to on or
off. To turn options off, use the plus sign (+), and to turn options on, use the mi-
nus sign (-); for example, set -o all export turns on the all export option, causing
all variables to be set as global.

11.9.4 Unsetting Variables

Both local and environment variables can be unset by using the unset command (unless
the variables are set to readonly).

EXAMPLE 11.39

unset name; unset TERM

EXPLANATION

The variables name and TERM are no longer defined for this shell.

11.9.5 Printing the Values of Variables

The echo command (used in Bourne and C shells) is still effective in this shell, but the
print command has more options and is more efficient. Both the echo command and print
command are built into the shell. The print command has a number of options to con-
trol its output. They are listed in Table 11.10.

Table 11.10 printOptions

Option Meaning

Any arguments that follow are not print options. The dash allows arguments
that contain a hyphen, for example, -2.

-f For versions newer than 1988, used to emulate printf.

-n No newline in output; like echo -n.

11.9 Variables 625

Table 11.10 print Options (continued)

Option Meaning

-P Sends output to a coprocess or pipe (&|) rather than to standard output.

-r Prevents the print command from interpreting escape sequences.

-R Prevents ksh from treating a -2 or -x as a print argument; turns off the dash if
preceding an argument (except -n); \t, \c, \c are not recognized as special and
appear unchanged when printed without the \.

-s Output is appended to the history file as a command rather than to standard

output.

-un Redirects output to file descriptor n.

EXAMPLE 11.40

1 $ print Hello my friend and neighbor!

Hello my friend and neighbor!
2 $ print "Hello friends"
Hello friends

3 $ print -r "\n"
\n
4 $ print -s "date +0/oH"
$ history -2
132 print -s "date +%H"
133 date +%H
134 history -2
$ r 133
09
5 $ print -n $H0ME
/home/ jody/ellie
6 $ var=world
$ print ${var}wide
worldwide
7 $ print -x is an option
ksh: print: bad option(s)
8 $ print - -x is an option
-x is an option

EXPLANATION

1 The shell parses the command line, breaks the command line into words (tokens)
separated by space, and passes the words as arguments to the pri nt command. The
shell removes all the extra whitespace between words.
626 Chapter 11 • The Interactive Korn Shell

EXPLANATION (continued)

2 The quotes create a single string. The shell evaluates the string as a single word
and the whitespace is preserved.

3 This is the raw option. Any escape sequences, such as \r, are not interpreted.

4 The -s option appends the pri nt command's arguments to the history file as a com-
mand. The string "date +%H" is the argument to the print command. The date string
is appended to the history list as a command and then executed with the r com-
mand (history's redo command).

5 The -n option suppresses the newline. The Korn shell prompt is on the same line
as the output from the print command.

6 The local variable is assigned the value world. The braces insulate the variable from
characters appended to it.

7 When the first argument to the print function begins with a dash, the print com-
mand interprets the argument as one of its options, unless an additional preceding
dash is provided.

8 The dash as an option allows you to use a dash as the first character in the string
to be printed.

11.9.6 Escape Sequences

Escape sequences consist of a character preceded by a backslash and have a special

meaning when enclosed within quotes. (See Table 11.11.)
The print command, without the -r and -R options, formats output when any of the
following escape sequences are placed within a string. The string must be enclosed in
double or single quotes.

EXAMPLE 11.41

1 $ print 'VtVtVtHelloVT
Hello

2 $ print "XaTea VtlimelVAn"

Ding (bell rings ) Tea Time!

EXPLANATION

1 The backslash characters must be quoted with either single or double quotes. The
\t escape sequence represents a tab, and \n represents a newline. The output is
three tabs, followed by the string Hello, and a newline.

2 The \a escape sequence causes a bell to ring (\07) and the \t creates a tab. The two
\n sequences will print two newline characters.
11.9 Variables 627

Table 11.11 Escape Sequences

Backslash
Character Meaning

\a Bell character

\b Backspace

\c Suppress newline and ignore any arguments that follow \c

\f Formfeed

\n Newline

\r Return

\t Tab

\v Vertical lab

\\ Backslash

\0x Eight-bit character with a 1-, 2-, or 3-digit ASCII value, as in print \0124

\E Only on versions newer than 1988; used for an escape sequence

11.9.7 Variable Expressions and Expansion Modifiers

Variable expressions can be tested and modified by using special modifiers. The modifier
provides a shortcut conditional test to check whether a variable has been set, and then,
depending on the modifier, may assign a default value to the variable. These expressions
can be used with conditional constructs such as if and el if. See Table 11.12.
The colon does not have to be used with the modifier. Using the colon with the mod-
ifier checks whether the variable is not set or is null; without the colon, a variable set to
null is considered a set variable.

Table 11.12 Variable Expressions and Modifiers

Expression Function

${variable:-word} If variable is set and is nonnull, substitute its value; otherwise, substitute word.

${variable:=word} If variable is not set or is null, set it to word; the value of variable is substituted
permanently. Positional parameters may not be assigned in this way.

${variable:+word} If variable is set and is nonnull, substitute word; otherwise substitute nothing.

${variable:?word} If variable is set and is nonnull, substitute its value; otherwise, print word and exit
from the shell. If word is omitted, the message parameter null or not set is printed.
628 Chapter 11 • The Interactive Korn Shell

EXAMPLE 11.42

(Using Temporary Default Values)

1 $ fruit=peach
2 $ print ${fruit:-plum}
peach
3 $ print S{newfruit:-apple}
apple
4 $ print Snewfruit

5 $ print ${TERM:-vtl20}
sun-cmd

EXPLANATION

l The variable fruit is assigned the value peach.

2 The special modifier will check to see if the variable fruit has been set. If it has,
the value peach is printed; if not, plum is printed.

3 The variable newfruit has not been set. The value apple will be printed.

4 The variable newfruit was not set, so nothing prints. In step 3, the expression was
simply replaced with the word apple and printed.

5 If the TERM variable has not been set, a default value vtl20 will be displayed. In this
example, the terminal has already been set to sun-cmd, a Sun workstation.

EXAMPLE 11.43

(Assigning Permanent Default Values)

1 $ name=
2 $ print ${name:=Patty}
Patty
3 $ print Sname
Patty
4 S print ${TERM:=vtl20}
vtl20
$ print $TERM
vtl20

EXPLANATION

1 The variable name is assigned the value nul 1.

2 The special modifier := will check to see if the variable name has been set to some
value other than null. If it has been set, it will not be changed; if it is either null
or not set, it will be assigned the value to the right of the equal sign. Patty is as-
signed to name because the variable is set to null. The setting is permanent.

3 The variable name still contains the value Patty.

4 If the variable TERM is not set, it will be assigned the default value vtl20 permanently.
11.9 Variables 629

EXAMPLE 11.44

(Assigning Temporary Alternate Value)

1 S foo=grapes
2 $ print ${foo:+pears}
pears
$ print $foo
grapes

EXPLANATION

1 The variable foo has been assigned the value grapes.

2 The special modifier :+ will check to see if the variable has been set. If it has been
set, it will temporarily be reset to grapes. If it has not been set, null is returned.

EXAMPLE 11.45

(Creating Error Messages Based on Default Values)

1 $ print ${namex:?"namex is undefined"}
ksh: namex: namex is undefined
2 $ print S{y?}
ksh: y: parameter null or not set

EXPLANATION

1 The :? modifier will check to see if the variable has been set. If not, the string to
the right of the ? is printed to standard error, after the name of the variable. If in
a script, the script exits.

2 If a message is not provided after the ?, the Korn shell sends a default message to
standard error. Without the colon, the ? modifier would consider a variable set to
null a set variable, and the message would not be printed.

EXAMPLE 11.46

(Line from a System Script)

M
if [ ${uid:=0}M -ne 0 ]

EXPLANATION

If the UID (user ID) has a value, it will not be changed; if it does not have a value, it
will be assigned the value zero (superuser). The value of the variable will be tested for
nonzero. This line was taken from the /etc/shutdown program (SVR4/Solaris 2.5). It is
here to give you an example of how variable modifiers are used.
630 Chapter 11 • The Interactive Korn Shell

11.9.8 Variable Expansion of Substrings

Pattern-matching arguments are used to strip off certain portions of a string from either
the front or end of the string. The most common use for these operators is stripping off
pathname elements from the head or tail of the path. See Table 11.13.

Table 11.13 Variable Expansion Substrings

Expression Function

${variable%pattern} Matches the smallest trailing portion of the value of variable to pattern
and removes it.

${variable%%pattern} Matches the largest trailing portion of the value of variable to pattern
and removes it.

${variable#pattern} Matches the smallest leading portion of the value of variable to pattern
and removes it.

${vanable##pattern} Matches the largest leading portion of the value of variable to pattern
and removes it.

EXAMPLE 11.47

1 $ pathname^'/usr/bin/local/bin"
2 $ print S{pathnaitie%/bin-i}
/usr/bin/loca 1

EXPLANATION

1 The local variable pathname is assigned /usr/bin/local/bin.

2 The % removes the smallest trailing portion of pathname containing the pattern /bi n,
followed by zero or more characters; that is, it strips off /bin.

EXAMPLE 11.48

1 $ pathname="usr/bin/local/bin"
2 S print ${pathname%%/bini}
/usr

EXPLANATION

1 The local variable pathname is assigned /usr/bin/local/bin.

2 The %% removes the largest trailing portion of pathname containing the pattern /bin,
followed by zero or more characters; that is, it strips off /bin/local/bin.
11.9 Variables 631

EXAMPLE 11.49

1 $ pathname=/home/lilliput/jake/.cshrc
2 $ print ${pathname#/home}-
/lilliput/jake/. cshrc

EXPLANATION

1 The local variable pathname is assigned /home/liliput/jake/.cshrc.

2 The # removes the smallest leading portion of pathname containing the pattern /home;
that is, /home is stripped from the beginning of the path variable.

EXAMPLE 11.50

1 $ pathname=/home/liliput/jake/.cshrc
2 $ print S{pathname##^/}
,cshrc

EXPLANATION

1 The local variable pathname is assigned /home/liliput/jake/.cshrc.

2 The ## removes the largest leading portion of pathname containing zero or more char-
acters up to and including the last slash; that is, it strips off /home/1 illiput/jake/
from the path variable.

11.9.9 Variable Attributes: The typeset Command

The attributes of a variable, such as its case, width, and left or right justification, can be
controlled by the typeset command. When the typeset command changes the attributes
of a variable, the change is permanent. The typeset function has a number of other func-
tions. See Table 11.14.

EXAMPLE II.51

1 $ typeset -u naine=Mjohn doe"

$ print "$name"
JOHN DOE # Changes all characters to uppercase.

2 $ typeset -1 name
$ print $name
John doe # Changes all characters to lowercase.

3 $ typeset -L4 name

$ print Sname
John # Left-justified fixed-width 4-character field.
632 Chapter 11 • The Interactive Korn Shell

EXAMPLE 11.51 (continued)

4 $ typeset -R2 name

$ print $name # Right-justified fixed-width 2-character field.
hn

5 $ name="]ohn Doe"
$ typeset -Z15 name # Null-padded sting, 15-space field width
$ print "$name"
John Doe

6 $ typeset -LZ15 name # Left-justified, 15-space field width.

$ print "SnameSname"
John Doe John Doe

7 $ integer n=25
$ typeset -Z15 n # Left-justified, zero-padded integer.
$ print "$n"
000000000000025

8 $ typeset -1L1 answer=Yes # Left justify one lowercase letter.

$ print Sanswer
y

EXPLANATION

1 The -u option to the typeset command converts all characters in a variable to

uppercase.

2 The -1 option to the typeset command converts all characters in a variable to

lowercase.

3 The -L option to the typeset command converts the variable name to a left-justified,
four-character string, john.

4 The -R option to the typeset command converts the variable name to a right-justi-
fied, two-character string, hn.

5 The variable name is set to John Doe. The -Z option to the typeset command will con-
vert the string to a null-padded, 15-space string. The variable is quoted to preserve
whitespace.

6 The variable name is converted to a left-justified, 15-space, null-padded string.

7 The variable n is an integer (see typeset -i, Table 11.14) assigned the value 25. The
typeset command will convert the integer n to a zero-filled, 15-space, left-justified
number.

8 The variable answer is assigned the value Yes and converted to a lowercase, left-jus-
tified, one-character string. (This can be very useful when handling user input in
a script.)
11.9 Variables 633

Table 11.14 Other Uses of the typeset Command

Command What It Does

typeset Displays all variables

typeset -i num Will only accept integer values for num

typeset -x Displays exported variables

typeset a b c If defined in a function, creates a, b, and c to be local variables

typeset -r x=foo Sets x to too and then makes it read-only

11.9.10 Positional Parameters

Normally, the special built-in variables, often called positional parameters, are used in
shell scripts when passing arguments from the command line, or used in functions to
hold the value of arguments passed to the function. The variables are called positional
parameters because they are referenced by numbers 1, 2, 3, and so on, representing their
respective positions in the parameter list. See Table 11.15.
The name of the shell script is stored in the $0 variable. The positional parameters can
be set and reset with the set command.

Table 11.15 Positional Parameters

Expression Function

$0 References the name of the current shell script

$l-$9 Positional parameters 1-9

${10} Positional parameter 10

$# Evaluates to the number of positional parameters

$* Evaluates to all the positional parameters

$0 Same as $«, except when double quoted

"$*" Evaluates to "$1 $2 $3", and so on

"$r Evaluates to "$1" "$2" "$3", and so on

EXAMPLE 11.52

1 $ set tim bill ann fred

$ print $* # Prints all the positional parameters,
tim bill ann fred
634 Chapter 11 • The Interactive Korn Shell

EXAMPLE 11.52 (continued)

2 $ print $1 # Prints the first position,

tim

3 $ print $2 S3 # Prints the second and third position,

bill ann

4 $ print $# # Prints the total number of positional parameters.

4

5 Ssetabcdefghijklm
$ print $10 # Prints the first positional parameter followed by a 0.
a0

$ print ${10} ${11} # Prints the 10th and 11th positions,

j k

6 $ print $#
13

7 $ print $*
abcdefghijklm

8 $ set filel file2 fileB

$ print \$$#
$3

9 $ eval print \$$#

file3

EXPLANATION

1 The set command assigns values to positional parameters. The $* special variable
contains all of the parameters set.

2 The value of the first positional parameter, tim, is displayed.

3 The value of the second and third parameters, bill and ann, are displayed.

4 The $# special variable contains the number of positional parameters currently set.

5 The set command resets all of the positional parameters. The original parameter
list is cleared. To print any positional parameters beyond 9, the curly braces are
used to keep the two digits together. Otherwise, the value of the first positional
parameter is printed, followed by the number appended to it.

6 The number of positional parameters is now 13.

7 The values of all the positional parameters are printed.

8 The dollar sign is escaped; $# is the number of arguments. The pri nt command dis-
plays $3, a literal dollar sign followed by the number of positional parameters.
11.9 Variables 635

EXPLANATION (continued)

9 The eval command parses the command line a second time before executing the
command. The first time parsed by the shell, the print would display $3; the sec-
ond time, after eval, the print displays the value of $3, file3.

11.9.11 Other Special Variables

The Korn shell has some special built-in variables, as shown in Table 11.16.

Table 11.16 Special Variables

Variable Meaning

$$ PID of the shell

$- ksh options currently set

$? Exit value of last executed command

$I PID of last job put in background

EXAMPLE 11.53

1 $ print The pid of this shell is $S

The pid of this shell is 4725
2 $ print The options for this korn shell are $-
The options for this korn shell are ismh
3 $ grep dodo /etc/passwd
S print $?
1
4 $ sleep 25&
[1] 400
$ print $!
400

EXPLANATION

1 The $$ variable holds the value of the PID for this process.

2 The $- variable lists all options for this interactive Korn shell.

3 The grep command searches for the string dodo in the /etc/passwd file. The ? variable
holds the exit status of the last command executed. Because the value returned
from grep is 1, grep is assumed to have failed in its search. An exit status of 0 indi-
cates a successful exit.

4 The & appended to the sleep command causes the command to be executed in the
background. The $! variable holds the PID of the last command placed in the
background.
636 Chapter 11 • The Interactive Korn Shell

11.10 Quoting

Quotes are used to protect special metacharacters from interpretation. They can cause
major debugging hassles in all shell scripts. Single quotes must be matched. They protect
special metacharacters from being interpreted by the shell. Double quotes also must be
matched. They protect most characters from interpretation by the shell, but allow vari-
able and command substitution characters to be processed. Single quotes will protect
double quotes, and double quotes will protect single quotes. The Korn shell, unlike the
Bourne shell, will inform you if you have mismatched quotes by sending an error message
to standard error with the line where it detects that the quotes were mismatched.

11.10.1 The Backslash

The backslash is used to protect (or escape) a single character from interpretation.

EXAMPLE 11.54

1 $ print Where are you going\?

Where are you going?
2 $ print Start on this line and \
> go to the next line.
Start on this line and go to the next line.

EXPLANATION

1 The special metacharacter ? is escaped with the backslash. It will not be interpret-
ed for filename expansion by the shell.

2 The newline is escaped. The next line will become part of the first line. The > is
the Korn shell's secondary prompt.

11.10.2 Single Quotes

Single quotes must be matched. They protect all metacharacters from interpretation. To
print a single quote, it must be enclosed in double quotes or escaped with a backslash.

EXAMPLE 11.55

1 $ print 'hi there

> how are you?
> When will this end?
> When the quote is matched
> oh'
hi there
how are you?
When will this end?
When the quote is matched
oh
11.10 Quoting 637

EXAMPLE 11.55 (continued)

2 $ print 'Do you need $5.00?'

Do you need $5.00?

3 $ print 'Mother yelled, "Time to eat!'"

Mother yelled, "Time to eat!"

EXPLANATION

1 The single quote is not matched on the line. The Korn shell produces a secondary
prompt. It is waiting for the quote to be matched.

2 The single quotes protect all metacharacters from interpretation. In this example,
the $ and the ? are protected from the shell and will be treated as literals.

3 The single quotes protect the double quotes in this string. The double quotes here
are conversational quotes.

11.10.3 Double Quotes

Double quotes must be matched. They allow variable and command substitution, and
protect any other special metacharacters from being interpreted by the shell.

EXAMPLE 11.56

1 $ nanie=]ody
2 $ print "Hi Sname, I'm glad to meet you!"
Hi Jody, I'm glad to meet you!

3 $ print "Hey Sname, the time is date "

Hey Jody, the time is Fri Dec 18 14:04:11 PST 2004

EXPLANATION

l The variable name is assigned the string Jody.

2 The double quotes surrounding the string will protect all special metacharacters
from interpretation, with the exception of $ in Sname. Variable substitution is per-
formed within double quotes.

3 Variable substitution and command substitution are both performed when en-
closed within double quotes. The variable name is expanded and the command in
backquotes, date, is executed.
638 Chapter 11 • The Interactive Korn Shell

11.11 Command Substitution

Command substitution is used when assigning the output of a command to a variable,

or when substituting the output of a command into a string. The Bourne and C shells
use backquotes to perform command substitution. The Korn shell does allow the back-
quote format (calling it "obsolescent"),4 but placing the command in parentheses is the
preferred method because it has simpler quoting rules and makes nesting commands
easier.

FORMAT

1
Unix/Linux command" # Old method with backquotes
$(Unix/Linux command) # New method

EXAMPLE 11.57

(Old Way)
1 $ print "The hour is 'date +%H'"
The hour is 09
2 $ name="nawk -F: '{print $1}' database"
$ print $name
Ebenezer Scrooge
3 $ Is "Is /etc"
shutdown
4 $ set "date"
5 $ print $"
Sat Oct IS 09:35:21 POT 2004
6 $ print $2 $6
Oct 2004

EXPLANATION |

1 The output of the date command is substituted into the string.

2 The output of the nawk command is assigned to the variable name, and displayed.

3 The output of the Is command, enclosed in backquotes, is a list of files from the
/etc directory. The filenames will be arguments to the first Is command. All files
with the same name in /etc as are in the current directory are listed.

4 The set command assigns the output of the date command to positional parame-
ters. Whitespace separates the list of words into its respective parameters.

5 The $* variable holds all of the parameters. The output of the date command was
stored in the $■> variable. Each parameter is separated by whitespace.

6 The second and sixth parameters are printed.

4. Using backquotes for command substitution is an old form still used in the Bourne and C shells.
Although still legal syntax, the Korn shell introduces a new method shown in this section.
11.12 Functions 639

The ksh alternate for using backquotes in command substitution is presented in

Example 11.58.

EXAMPLE 11.58

(The New ksh Way)

1 $ d=$(date)
$ print $d
Sat Oct 20 09:35:21 PDT 2004
2 $ line = $(< filex)
3 $ print The time is $(date +%H)
The time is 09
4 $ machine=$(uname -n)
$ print $machine
jody
5 S dirname="$(basename $(pwd))" # Nesting commands
$ print $dirname
bin

EXPLANATION

l The date command is enclosed within parentheses. The output of the command is
returned to the expression, assigned to the variable d, and displayed.

2 The input from the file is assigned to the variable line. The < filex notation has
the same effect as ""cat filex". Command substitution is performed within the pa-
rentheses when the parentheses are preceded with a dollar sign.

3 The UNIX date command and its hour argument, +%H, are enclosed within paren-
theses. Command substitution is performed, and the results are placed within the
print string.

4 Command substitution has been performed. The output of the UNIX uname com-
mand is assigned to the variable machine.

5 To set the variable di rname to the name (only) of the present working directory,
command substitution is nested. The pwd command is executed first, passing the
full pathname of the present working directory as an argument to the UNIX com-
mand basename. The basename command strips off all but the last element of a path-
name. Nesting commands within backquotes is not allowed.

11.12 Functions

This section introduces functions so that you can use them interactively or store them in
your initialization files. Later, when discussing scripts, functions will be covered in more
depth. Functions can be used when an alias is not enough, that is, for passing arguments.
Functions are often defined in the user's initialization file, .profile. They are like mini-
scripts, but unlike scripts, functions run in the current environment; that is, the shell
does not fork a child process to execute a function. All variables are shared with the shell
640 Chapter 11 • The Interactive Korn Shell

that invoked the function. Often functions are used to improve the modularity of a script.
Once defined, they can be used repeatedly and even stored in another directory.
Functions must be defined before they are invoked; there are two formats used to
define them. One format came from the Bourne shell and the other is new with the Korn
shell. Functions can be exported from one invocation of the shell to the next. The typeset
function and unset command can be used to list and unset functions. See Table 11.17.

Table 11.17 Commands to List and Set Functions

Command Function

typeset -f Lists functions and their definitions; functions is an alias for typeset -f

typeset +f Lists only function names

unset -f name Unsets a function

11.12.1 Defining Functions

There are two acceptable formats for defining functions; the Bourne shell format (still
allowed for upward compatibility) and the new Korn shell format. A function must be
defined before it can be used.5

FORMAT

(Bourne Shell)
functionnameO { commands ; commands; }

(Korn Shell)
function functionname { commands; commands; }

EXAMPLE 11.59

1 $ function fun { pwd; Is; date; }

2 $ fun
/home/jody/e 11 i e/prac
abc abcl23 filel.bak none nothing tmp
abcl abc2 file2 nonsense nowhere touch
abcl22 filel file2.bak noone one
Mon Feb 9 11:15:48 PST 2004

5. The POSIX standard defines functions with the Bourne shell syntax, but variables and traps cannot be
local in scope, as with the new Korn shell definition.
11.12 Functions 641

EXAMPLE 11.59 (continued)

3 $ function greet { print "Hi $1 and $2"; }

4 $ greet torn joe # Here $1 is torn and $2 is joe

Hi torn and joe

5 $ set jane nina lizzy

6 $ print $■>
jane nina lizzy

7 $ greet torn joe

Hi torn and joe

8 $ print Si $2
jane nina

EXPLANATION

1 The function fun is named and defined. The name is followed by a list of commands
enclosed in curly braces. Each command is separated by a semicolon. There must
be a space after the first curly brace or you will get a syntax error such as ksh: syntax
error: "}1 unexpected. A function must be defined before it can be used.

2 The function behaves like a script or an alias when invoked. Each of the com-
mands in the function definition is executed in turn.

3 There are two positional parameters used in the function greet. When arguments
are given to the function, the positional parameters are assigned those values.

4 The arguments to the function torn and joe are assigned to SI and $2, respectively.
The positional parameters in a function are private to the function and will not
interfere with any used outside the function.

5 The positional parameters are set at the command line. These variables have noth-
ing to do with the ones set in the function.

6 $■> displays the values of the currently set positional parameters.

7 The function greet is called. The values assigned to the positional parameters SI
and $2 are torn and joe, respectively.

8 The positional variables assigned at the command line are unaffected by those set
in the function.

11.12.2 Functions and Aliases

When processing the command line, the shell looks for aliases before special built-in
commands and for special built-ins before functions. If a function has the same name as
a built-in, the built-in will take priority over the function. An alias for a special built-in
can be defined, and then the function name can be given the name of the alias to over-
ride the order of processing.
642 Chapter 11 • The Interactive Korn Shell

EXAMPLE 11.60

(The ENV File)

1 alias cd=_cd
2 function _cd {
3 \cd $1
4 print $(basename $PWD)
5 }

(The Command Line)

$ cd /
/
$ cd SHOME/bin
bin
$ cd ..
ellie

EXPLANATION

1 The alias for cd is assigned _cd.

2 The function _cd is defined. The opening curly brace marks the start of the func-
tion definition.

3 If an alias is preceded by a backslash, alias substitution is not performed. The

backslash precedes cd to execute the built-in cd command, not the alias. Without
the backslash, the function would be recursive and the shell would display an
error message: cd_: recursion too deep. $1 is the argument (name of a directory)
passed to cd.

4 The name of the directory (not the full pathname) is printed.

5 The closing curly brace marks the end of the function definition.

11.12.3 Listing Functions

To list functions and their definitions, use the typeset command.

EXAMPLE 11.61

(The Command Line)

1 $ typeset -f
function fun
{
pwd; Is; date; }
function greet
{
print "hi SI and $2"; }
2 $ typeset +f
fun
greet
11.13 Standard I/O and Redirection 643

EXPLANATION

1 The typeset command, with the -f option, lists the function and its definition.

2 The typeset command, with the +f option, lists only the names of defined functions.

11.12.4 Unsetting Functions

When a function is unset, it will be removed from the shell's memory.

EXAMPLE 11.62

(The Command Line)

1 $ typeset -f
function fun
{
pwd; Is; date; }
function greet
{
print "hi $1 and $2"; }

2 $ unset -f fun
3 $ typeset -f
function greet
{
print "hi $1 and $2"; }

EXPLANATION

1 The typeset -f command displays the function and its definition. Two functions,
fun and greet, are displayed.

2 The built-in command unset, with the -f option, undefines the fun function, re-
moving it from the shell's memory.

3 The fun function is no longer shown as one of the functions defined when the
typeset -f command is executed.

11.13 Standard I/O and Redirection

The Korn shell opens three files (called streams) whenever a program is started: stdin,
stdout, and stderr. Standard input normally comes from the keyboard and is associated
with file descriptor 0. Standard output normally goes to the screen, file descriptor 1.
Standard error normally goes to the screen, file descriptor 2. Standard input, output, and
error can be redirected to or from a file. See Table 11.18 for a list of redirection operators.
644 Chapter 11 • The Interactive Korn Shell

Table 11.18 Redirection

Operator Function

< file Redirect input from file

> file Redirect output to file

» file Redirect and append output to file

2> file Redirect errors to fi 1 e

2» file Redirect and append errors to file

1>&2 Redirect output to where error is going

2>&1 Redirect error to where output is going

EXAMPLE 11.63

(The Command Line)

1 $ tr '[A-Z]' '[a-z]' < myfile # Redirect input
2 $ Is > Isfile # Redirect output
$ cat Isfile
dirl
dir2
filel
file2
filed
3 $ date » Isfile # Redirect and append output
$ cat Isfile
dirl
dir2
filel
file2
fileS
Mon Sept 20 12:57:22 PDT 2004
4 $ cc prog.c 2> errfile # Redirect error
5 $ find . -name \*.c -print > founditfile 2> /dev/null
6 $ find . -name \*.c -print > foundit 2>&1
7 $ print "File needs an argument" 1>&2
8 $ function usage { print "Usage: $0 [-y] [-g] filename" 1>&2 ; exit 1; }

EXPLANATION

l The standard input is redirected from the file myfile to the UNIX tr command. All
uppercase letters are converted to lowercase letters.

2 The Is command redirects its output to the file Isfile.

3 The output of the date command is redirected and appended to Isfile.

11.13 Standard I/O and Redirection 645

EXPLANATION (continued)

4 The file prog, c is compiled. If the compile fails, standard error is redirected to errfile.

5 The fi nd command starts searching in the current working directory for filenames
ending in .c and prints the files to a file named founditfile. Errors from the find
command are sent to /dev/null.

6 The fi nd command starts searching in the current working directory for filenames
ending in .c and prints the files to a filenamed foundit. The standard error (file de-
scriptor 2) is being sent to the same place that the standard output (file descriptor
1) is being sent, to the file called foundit.

7 The print command sends its message to standard error. Standard output is
merged with standard error; that is, standard output is being redirected to the
place where standard error goes, the terminal. This makes it possible to separate
error messages from "good" output.

8 The function usage is defined. This function, when called, will print a usage mes-
sage, send the output to standard error, and exit. This type of function is often
used in scripts.

11.13.1 The exec Command and Redirection

The exec command can be used to replace the current program with the one being execed.
Another use for the exec command is to change standard output or input without creat-
ing a subshell. If a file is opened with exec, subsequent read commands will move the file
pointer down the file a line at a time until end of file. The file must be closed to start
reading from the beginning again. However, if using UNIX utilities such as cat and sort,
the operating system closes the file after each command has completed. See Table 11.19
for exec functionality.

Table 11.19 exec Commands

Command Function

exec Is Is will execute in place of the shell. When Is is finished, the shell in
which it was started does not return.

exec < filea Open filea for reading standard input.

exec > filex Open filex for writing standard output.

exec 2> errors Open errors for writing standard error.

exec 2» errors Open errors for writing and appending standard error.

exec 2> /dev/console Sends all error messages to the console.

exec 3< datfile Open datfile as file descriptor 3 for reading input.
646 Chapter 11 • The Interactive Korn Shell

Table 11.19 exec Commands (continued)

Command Function

sort <&3 datfile is sorted.

exec 4>newfile Open newfile as file descriptor 4 for writing.

Is >&4 Output of Is is redirected to newfile.

exec 5<&4 Make fd 5 a copy of fd 4. Both descriptors refer to newfile.

exec 3<&- Close file descriptor 3, datfile.

11.13.2 Redirection and the Child Shell

When the output of a command is redirected from the screen to a file, the Korn shell
creates (forks) a child shell to rearrange the file descriptors, as shown in Figure 11.2.

11.14 Pipes

A pipe takes the output from the command on the left-hand side of the pipe symbol and
sends it to the input of a command on the right-hand side of the pipe symbol. A pipeline
can consist of more than one pipe.

EXAMPLE 11.64

1 $ who > tmp

2 $ wc -1 tmp
4 tmp
3 $ rm tmp
4 $ who 1 wc -1 # Using the pipe

EXPLANATION

The purpose of lines 1 through 3 is to count the number of people logged on (who),
save the output of the command in a file (tmp), use the wc -1 to count the number of
lines in the tmp file (wc -1), and then remove the tmp file; that is, find the number of
people logged on. The pipe performs the same task in one command.

1 The output of the who command is redirected to the tmp file.

2 The wc -1 command displays the number of lines in tmp.

3 The tmp file is removed.

4 With the pipe facility, you can perform steps 1, 2, and 3 in one step. The output
of the who command is sent to an anonymous kernel buffer (instead of to a tempo-
rary file that requires disk space); the wc -1 command reads from the buffer and
sends its output to the screen.
11.14 Pipes 647

$ grep John /etc/passwd > tmp 2> /dev/null

parent ksh running parent ksh sleeping

child ksh running

pid=1256 pid=1256
pid=1258
exported variables exported variables

HOME, PATH, USER, etc. HOME, PATH, USER, etc. exported variables
HOME, PATH, USER, etc.
0: stdin, terminal forkQ 0: stdin, terminal
0; stdin, terminal
1: stdout, terminal 1: stdout, terminal
1: stdout, tmp
2; stderr, terminal 2: stderr, terminal
2: stderr, /dev/null

local variables for ksh local variables for ksh

local variables for ksh
wait(&status)

child handles redirection

exec()
parent ksh sleeping grep running in
place of child
pid=1256
pid=1258 parent ksh running
exported variables

HOME, PATH, USER, etc. exported variables pid=1256

HOME, PATH, USER, etc.
0: stdin, terminal exported variables

0: stdin, terminal HOME, PATH, USER, etc.

1: stdout, terminal
1: stdout, tmp child exits 0: stdin, terminal

2: stderr, terminal
2: stderr, /dev/null 1: stdout, terminal

local variables for ksh 2: stderr, terminal

local variables for grep

local variables for ksh

Figure 11.2 Redirection of standard output and errors,

648 Chapter 11 • The Interactive Korn Shell

EXAMPLE 11.65

l $ Is | more
< lists (Is) all files one page at a time (more) >
2 $ du ~ | sort -n | sed -n 'Sp'
72388 /home/jody/eHie
3 $ cat 1 Ip or cat | Ipr

EXPLANATION |

1 The Is output is piped to the more command, which accepts input. Output is dis-
played one page at a time.

2 The output of the du command (disk usage) is sorted numerically and piped to the
sed command (stream editor), which displays only the last line ($p).

3 The cat command reads from standard input; its output is piped to the line printer
(Ip in SVR4 and Ipr in BSD).

11.14.1 The here document and Redirecting Input

A here document captures in-line input for programs such as mail, sort, and cat. Input is
placed between two words or symbols. The first word is preceded by a UNIX command
and the « symbol. The next lines consist of the input to be received by the command.
The last line consists of a second word that exactly matches the first word. This word
is called the final terminator and marks the end of input. It is used in the same way
Ctrl-D is used to terminate input. There can be no spaces surrounding the final termi-
nator. If the first word is preceded by the «-, leading tabs (and only tabs) may precede
the final terminator. Normally, a here document is used in shell scripts, rather than inter-
actively. A good use for a here document is to create a menu in a script.

FORMAT

UNIX command « TERMINATOR

lines of input
input
TERMINATOR

EXAMPLE 11.66

(The Command Line)

1 $ cat « FINISH
2 > Hello there $L0GNAME
3 > The time is $(date)
> I can't wait to see you!!!
4 > FINISH
11.14 Pipes 649

EXAMPLE 11.66 (continued)

5 Hello there el lie

The time is Sun May 30 19:42:16 PDT 2004
I can't wait to see you!!
6 $

EXPLANATION

1 The UNIX/Linux cat program will accept input until the word FINISH appears on a
line by itself. FINISH is called a user-defined terminator.

2 Variable substitution is performed within the here document. The > is the Korn
shell's secondary prompt.

3 Command substitution is performed within the here document.

4 The user-defined terminator, FINISH, marks the end of input for the cat program.
It cannot have any spaces before or after it and is on a line by itself.

5 The output from the cat program is displayed.

6 The shell prompt reappears.

EXAMPLE 11.67

(From the .profile File)

1 print "Select a terminal type"
2 cat « EOF
[1] sun
[2] ansi
[3] wyse50
3 EOF
4 read TERM

EXPLANATION

1 The user is asked to select a terminal type.

2 The menu will appear on the screen. This is a here document, meaning from here
until the matching EOF on line 3 is reached, input will be given to the cat com-
mand. You could use a series of echo commands to get the same results, but visu-
ally, the here document is nicer.

3 EOF is a user-defined terminator, marking the end of the here document. It must be
at the left margin with no spaces surrounding it.

4 The user input will be read in from the keyboard and assigned to TERM.
650 Chapter 11 • The Interactive Korn Shell

EXAMPLE 11.68

(The Command Line)

1 $ cat «- DONE
>Hello there
>What,s up?
>Bye now The time is $(date).

2 > DONE

3 Hello there
What's up?
Bye now The time is Sun May 30 19:48:23 PDT 2004.

EXPLANATION

l The cat program accepts input until DONE appears on a line by itself. The «- op-
erator allows the final terminator to be preceded by one or more tabs. (The > is
the shell's secondary prompt.)

2 The final matching DONE terminator is preceded by a tab. From the first DONE on line
1 to the last DONE on this line, the text in between is sent as input to the cat com-
mand.

3 The output of the cat program is displayed on the screen.

11.15 Timing Commands

11.15.1 The time Command

The time command is a ksh built-in command. The time command prints the following
to standard error: elapsed time, the user time, and the system time used to execute a
command.

EXAMPLE 11.69

1 S time sleep 3
real 0m3.15s took 3.15 seconds to run
user 0m0.01s sleep used its own code for .01 seconds
sys 0m0. 08s and kernel code for .08 seconds

2 $ time ps -ef | wc -1 # time is measured for all commands in the pipeline

38
real 0ml.03s
user 0m0.01s
sys 0m0.10s
11.15 Timing Commands 651

EXPLANATION

1 The time command will display the total amount of time elapsed to run the com-
mand, the time the user part of the program took to run, and the time the kernel
spent running the program. The sleep command took B.15 seconds to run.

2 The time is measured for the ps command and wc command.

11.15.2 The TMOUT Variable

The TMOUT variable is an integer type. It can be set to force users to type commands within
a certain period of time. TMOUT, by default, is set to zero, allowing the user an infinite
amount of time to type commands after the PS1 prompt. If TMOUT is set to a value greater
than zero, the shell will terminate after the time has expired. Sixty additional seconds
will be allotted as the grace period before actually exiting the shell.

EXAMPLE 11.70

$ TMOUT=600
time out in 60 seconds due to inactivity
ksh: timed out waiting for input

EXPLANATION

The TMOUT variable is set to 600 seconds. If the user does nothing for 600 seconds, a mes-
sage will appear on the screen and then an additional 60 seconds grace period will be
allotted before the shell exits. If you do this at the prompt, your current shell exits.
This page intentionally left blank
chapter

Programming the

Korn Shell

12.1 Introduction

When commands are executed from within a file, instead of from the command line, the
file is called a shell script and the shell is running noninteractively. Writing Korn shell
scripts requires a few steps, as outlined in the following section.

12.1.1 The Steps in Creating a Shell Script

A shell script is normally written in an editor and consists of commands interspersed

with comments. Comments are preceded by a pound sign (#).

The First Line. At the top left corner, the line preceded by #! (often called shbang)
indicates the program that will be executing the lines in the script. In Korn shell scripts,
this appears as

#!/bin/ksh

The #!, also called the magic number, is used by the kernel to identify the program that
should be interpreting the lines in the script. This line must be the top line of your
script. The Korn shell also provides a number of invocation options that control how the
shell behaves. These options are listed at the end of this chapter in "Korn Shell Invoca-
tion Arguments" on page 740.

Comments. Comments are lines preceded by a pound sign. They are used to docu-
ment your script. It is sometimes difficult to understand what the script is supposed to
do if it is not commented. Although comments are important, they are often too sparse
or not even used at all. Try to get used to commenting what you are doing, not only for
someone else, but also for yourself.

653
654 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

Executable Statements and Korn Shell Constructs. A Korn shell program con-
sists of a combination of UNIX/Linux commands, Korn shell commands, programming
constructs, and comments.

Naming and Storing Scripts. When naming scripts, it is a good idea to give the
script a meaningful name that does not conflict with other UNIX/Linux commands or
aliases. For example, you may want to call the script test because it is merely performing
some simple test procedure, but test is a built-in command and you may find you are
executing the wrong test. Additionally, if you name the file foo, goo, boobar, and so forth,
in a few days or even hours you may not have any idea what is in that script!
After you have tested your script and found it bug-free, make a directory where you
can store the scripts, then set the path so that your scripts can be executed from any-
where in the directory hierarchy.

EXAMPLE 12.1

1 $ mkdir ~/bin
2 $ mv myscript -/bin

(In .profile)
3 export PATH=S{PATH}:-/bin
4 $ . .profile

EXPLANATION

1 A common place to store scripts is in a directory under your home directory called bi n.

2 The script, called myscript, is moved into the new bin directory.

3 The new directory is added to the PATH variable in the .profile initialization file.

4 The dot command causes the .profile file to be executed in the current environ-
ment so that you do not have to log out and then back in to enable the new setting.

Making a Script Executable. When you create a file, it is not automatically given
execute permission (regardless of how umask is set). You need this permission to run your
script. Use the chmod command to turn on execute permission.

EXAMPLE 12.2

1 $ chmod +x myscript
2 $ Is -IF myscript
-rwxr—xr--x 1 el lie 0 Jul 12 13:00 myscript*

EXPLANATION

1 The chmod command is used to turn on execute permission for the user, group, and
others.

2 The output of the 1 s command indicates that all users have execute permission on
the myscript file. The asterisk at the end of the filename also indicates that this is
an executable program.
12.1 Introduction 655

Using a Script As an Argument to ksh. If you don't make a script executable, you
can execute it by passing it as an argument to the ksh command.

EXAMPLE 12.3

(The Command Line)

$ ksh myscript

EXPLANATION

If the ksh program is given a script name as its argument, it will execute the script and
the #! line is not necessary or even used.

A Scripting Session. In Example 12.4, the user will create a script in the editor. After
saving the file, the execute permissions are turned on, and the script is executed. If there
are errors in the program, the Korn shell will respond immediately

EXAMPLE 12.4

(The Script)
1 #!/bin/ksh
2 # This is the first Korn shell program of the day.
# Scriptname: greetings
# Written by: Karen Korny
3 print "Hello SLOCNAME, it's nice talking to you."
4 print "Your present working directory is $(pwd)."
print "You are working on a machine called $(uname -n)."
print "Here is a list of your files."
5 Is # List files in the present working directory
print "Bye for now SLOGNAME. The time is $(date +%T)!"

(The Command Line)

$ chmod +x greetings
$ greetings
3 Hello karen, it's nice talking to you.
4 Your present working directory is /home/1 ion/karen/junk
You are working on a machine called lion.
Here is a list of your files.
5 Afile cplus letter prac
Answerbook cprog library pracl
bourne joke notes perls
Bye for now karen. The time is 18:05:07!

EXPLANATION

l The first line of the script, #!/bin/ksh, lets the kernel know what interpreter will
execute the lines in this program.

2 The comments are nonexecutable lines preceded by a #. They can be on a line by

themselves or inserted in a line after a command.
656 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

EXPLANATION (continued)

3 The print command displays the line on the screen, after variable substitution is
performed by the shell.

4 The print command displays the line on the screen, after command substitution
is performed by the shell.

5 The Is command is executed. The comment, any text on the line after the pound
sign (#), will be ignored by the shell.

12.2 Reading User Input

The read command is used to take input from the terminal or from a file until the newline
is reached. The Korn shell provides some additional options for the read command. See
Table 12.1 for different read formats. See Table 12.2 for read options.

Table 12.1 read Formats

Format Meaning

read answer Reads a line from standard input and assigns it to the
variable answer.

read first last Reads a line from standard input to the first whitespace or
newline, putting the first word typed into the variable first
and the rest of the line into the variable 1 ast.

read response?"Do you feel okay?' Displays the string Do you feel okay? to standard error and
waits for the user to type a reply, then puts the reply in the
variable response. This form of read requires and accepts only
one variable. Whatever the user types, until the newline, will
be stored in response.

read -uB line Reads a line from file descriptor 3 into variable line.

read Reads input into a built-in variable, REPLY.

Table 12.2 read Options

Options Meaning

-p Reads a line of input from a coprocess.

-r Treats newline character, the \n, as a literal,

-s Copies a line into the history file.

-un Reads from file descriptor n; the default is fd 0, or standard input.

12.2 Reading User Input 657

Table 12.2 read Options (continued)

Options Meaning

On Versions of ksh Newer Than 1988

-A Stores the fields as an array, index starting at zero.

-d char Used as an alternate delimiter for terminating input; newline is the default,

-t sec Puts a limit of seconds on the user's response time.

EXAMPLE 12.5

(The Script)
#!/bin/ksh
# Scriptname: nosy
print -n "Are you happy? "
1 read answer
print "Sanswer is the right response."
print -n "What is your full name? "
2 read first middle last
print "Hello $first"
print -n "Where do you work? "
3 read
4 print I guess SREPLY keeps you busy!
5 read place?"Where do you live? "
# New ksh read and print combined
print Welcome to Splace, Sfirst Slast

(The Output)
$ nosy
Are you happy? Kes
1 Yes is the right response.
2 What is your full name? Jon Jake Jones
Hello Jon
3 Where do you work? Tandem
4 I guess Tandem keeps you busy!
5 Where do you live? Timbuktu
Welcome to Timbuktu, Jon Jones

EXPLANATION

1 The read command accepts a line of user input and assigns the input to the vari-
able answer.

2 The read command accepts input from the user and assigns the first word of input
to the variable first, assigns the second word of input to the variable middle, and
all the rest of the words to the end of the line to the variable last.
658 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

EXPLANATION (continued)

3 The read command, without an argument, accepts a line of input from the user
and assigns the input to the built-in variable REPLY.

4 After the shell has performed variable substitution, the print function prints the
string, showing the value of the built-in REPLY variable.

5 If the variable following the read command is appended with a question mark (?),
the string after the question mark is displayed as a prompt. The user input is
stored in the variable place.

12.2.1 read and File Descriptors

When the system boots up, three files called streams (stdin, stdout, and stderr) are
opened and assigned to an array of file descriptors. The first three file descriptors, 0, 1,
and 2, are for standard input, standard output, and standard error, respectively. The next
file descriptor available is file descriptor 3. The -u option allows the read command to
read directly from the file descriptor.

EXAMPLE 12.6

(The Command Line)

1 $ cat filex
Captain Kidd
Scarlett O'Hara
2 $ exec 3< filex # filex is assigned to file descriptor 3 for reading
3 $ read -u3 namel # read from filex and store input in variable, namel
4 $ print $namel
Captain Kidd
5 $ read -u3 name2
$ print $name2
Scarlett O'Hara
6 S exec 3<&- # close file descriptor 3
7 $ read -u3 line
ksh: read: bad file unit number

EXPLANATION

1 The contents of filex are displayed.

2 The exec command is used to open file descriptor 3 for reading from filex.

3 The read command reads one line directly from unit 3 (file descriptor 3, filex) and
assigns that line to the variable namel.

4 The line stored in namel is printed.

5 The file filex is still open, and this read command reads the next line from the file
and stores that line in the variable name2.

6 File descriptor 3 (unit 3) is closed, filex is no longer open.

7 Because file descriptor 3 (filex) has been closed, the read command fails when at-
tempting to read input from that descriptor into variable line.
12.2 Reading User Input 659

12.2.2 Reading Through Files

Example 12.7 uses the read command with a while loop. The loop will iterate through the
file one line at a time. When end of file is reached, the loop terminates. The files are
opened with descriptors (units) for reading.

EXAMPLE 12.7

(The Files)
1 $ cat names
Merry Melody
Nancy Drew
Rex Allen
$ cat addresses
150 Piano Place
5 Mystery Lane
130 Cowboy Terrace

(The Script)
#!/bin/ksh
# Scriptname: readit
2 while read -uB linel && read -u4 line2
do
3 print "SlineliSlineZ"
4 done 3<$1 4<$2

(The Command Line)

5 $ readit names addresses
Merry Melody:150 Piano Place
Nancy Drew:5 Mystery Lane
Rex All en:130 Cowboy Terrace

EXPLANATION

1 The contents of two files, names and addresses, are displayed.

2 The whi le loop is started. The read command reads a line of input from file descrip-
tor 3 (unit 3) and, if successful, reads another line from file descriptor 4. The file
descriptors (units) are assigned filenames on line 4. The filenames are being
passed as arguments, or positional parameters 1 and 2.

3 The value of the first variable, a colon, and the value of the second variable are
displayed.

4 The input assigned to file descriptor 3 is the first command-line argument, names.
The input assigned to file descriptor 4 is the second command-line argument,
addresses.

5 The script is executed with command-line arguments (the names of two files).
660 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

12.3 Arithmetic

The Korn shell supports both integer and floating-point arithmetic, but floating-point
arithmetic is available only on versions of the Korn shell newer than 1988. The typeset
command is used for assigning types. See Table 12.3 for the typeset command.

Table 12.3 typeset and Arithmetic

Command Alias Meaning

typeset -i variable integer variable variable is only allowed integer assignment

typeset -i# # is the base number for the integer

On Versions of ksh Newer Than 1988

typeset -F variable Floating-point number assignment

typeset -E variable float variable Floating-point number assignment

12.3.1 The Integer Type

Variables can be declared as integers with the typeset -i command or its alias, integer. If
you attempt to assign any string value, ksh returns an error. If you assign a floating-point
number, the decimal point and the fractional value will be truncated. The integer alias
can be used instead of typeset -i. Numbers can also be represented in different bases
such as binary, octal, and hex.

EXAMPLE 12.8 1

1 $ typeset -i num or integer num # integer is an alias for typeset -i

2 $ num=hello
/bin/ksh: hello: bad number
3 $ num=5 + 5
/bin/ksh: +: not found
4 $ num=5+5
$ echo $nuiti
10
5 $ num=4;v6
$ echo $niim
24
6 $ nuin="4 .v 6"
$ echo Snuiti
24
7 $ nuiii=6.789
$ echo Snum
6
12.3 Arithmetic 661

EXPLANATION

1 The typeset command with the -i option creates an integer variable, num.

2 Trying to assign the string hello to the integer variable num causes an error.

3 The whitespace must be quoted or removed unless the (( )) operators are used
(see "Arithmetic Operators and the let Command" on page 662).

4 The whitespace is removed and arithmetic is performed.

5 Multiplication is performed and the result assigned to num.

6 The whitespace is quoted so that the multiplication can be performed and to keep
the shell from expanding the wildcard (*).

7 Since the variable is set to integer, the fractional part of the number is truncated.

12.3.2 Using Different Bases

Numbers can be represented in decimal (base 10), octal (base 8), and so forth, by using
the typeset command and with the -i option and the base number.1

EXAMPLE 12.9

1 $ num=15
2 $ typeset -12 num # binary
$ print Snum
2mii
3 $ typeset -18 num # octal
$ print Snum
Ml?
4 $ typeset -116 num # hex
$ print Snum
16#f
5 $ read number
2#im
$ print Snumber
2#1101
6 $ typeset -1 number
$ print Snumber
2#1101
7 $ typeset -110 number # decimal
$ print Snumber
13
8 $ typeset -18 number # octal
$ print Snumber
M13

1. Bases greater than 36 are available on versions of the Korn shell that are newer than 1988.
662 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

EXPLANATION

1 The variable num is assigned the value 15.

2 The typeset command converts the number to a binary format. The display is the base
of the number (2), followed by a pound sign (#), and the value of the number in binary.

3 The typeset command converts the number to an octal format and displays the
value of the number in base 8.

4 The typeset command converts the number to hexadecimal format and displays
the value of the number in base 16.

5 The read command accepts input from the user. The input is entered in binary for-
mat, stored in the variable number, and displayed in binary format.

6 The typeset command converts number to an integer. It still displays in binary format.

7 The typeset command converts number to a decimal integer and displays it.

8 The typeset command converts number to octal and displays its value in base 8.

12.3.3 Listing Integers

The typeset command with only the -i argument will list all preset integers and their val-
ues, as shown in the following display.

$ typeset -i
ERRN0=2
LINEN0=1
MAILCHECK=600
0PTIND=1
PPID=4881
RANDOM=25022
SEC0NDS=47366
TMOUT=0
n=5
number=#15

12.3.4 Arithmetic Operators and the 1 et Command

The let command is a Korn shell built-in command that is used to perform integer arith-
metic. (See Table 12.4.) This replaces the Bourne shell method of integer testing. The
alternative and preferred way to use the 1 et command is with the (( )) operator.

Table 12.4 1 et Operators0

Operator Meaning

- Unary minus

! Logical NOT
12.3 Arithmetic 663

Table 12.4 1 et Operators0 (continued)

Operator Meaning

Bitwise NOT

* Multiply

/ Divide

% Remainder

+ Add

Subtract

« Bitwise left shift

» Bitwise right shift

<=>=<>==!= Comparison operators

& Bitwise AND

A
l Exclusive OR

&& Logical AND

11 Logical OR

! Unary NOT

Assignment

A
*= /= %= += -= «= »= &= = |= Shortcut assignments

a. The ++ and — operators are supported on versions of ksh that are newer than 1988

EXAMPLE 12.10

1 $ i=5
2 $ let i=i+l
$ print $i
6
3 $ let "i = i + 2"
S print $i
8
4 $ let "i+=r
$ print $i
9
664 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

EXPLANATION

l The variable i is assigned the value 5.

2 The let command will add 1 to the value of i. The S (dollar sign) is not required
for variable substitution when performing arithmetic.

3 The quotes are needed if the arguments contain whitespace.

4 The shortcut operator += is used to add 1 to the value of i.

EXAMPLE 12.11

(The Command Line)

1 $ (( i = 9 ))
2 $ (( i = i * 6 ))
$ print $i
54
3 $ (( i > 0 && i <= 10 ))
4 $ print $?
1
$ j=100
5 S (( i < j II i == 5 ))
6 $ print $?
0
7 $ if (( i < j && i == 54 ))
> then
> print True
>fi
True
$

EXPLANATION

1 The variable i is assigned the value 9. The (( )) operators are an alternate form of
the let command. Because the expression is enclosed in double parentheses, spac-
es are allowed between the operators.

2 The variable i is assigned the product of i *6.

3 The numeric expressions are tested. If both expressions are true, 0 exit status is
returned.

4 The special ? variable holds the exit status of the last command (the let com-
mand) executed. Because the value is 1, the command failed (evaluated as false).

5 The numeric expressions are tested. If one of the expressions is true, 0 exit status
is returned.

6 The special ? variable holds the exit status of the last command (the let command)
executed. Because the value is 0, the command succeeded (evaluated as true).

7 The if conditional command precedes the let command. The secondary prompt ap-
pears while waiting for the command to be completed. If the exit status is 0, the com-
mands after the then statement are executed; otherwise, the primary prompt returns.
12.4 Positional Parameters and Command-Line Arguments 665

12.4 Positional Parameters and

Command-Line Arguments

Command-line arguments can be referenced in scripts with positional parameters; for

example, $1 is set to the first argument, $2 to the second argument, and $3 to the third
argument. Positional parameters can be reset with the set command. See Table 12.5.

Table 12.5 Positional Parameters

Variable Function

$0 References the name of the script

$# Holds the value of the number of positional parameters

$* Contains a list of all the positional parameters

$@ Means the same as $*, except when enclosed in double quotes

"$*" Expands to a single argument, for example, "$1 $2 $3"

M
$r Expands to separate arguments, for example, "$1" "$2" "$3"

12.4.1 The set Command and Positional Parameters

The set command sets the positional parameters. If the positional parameters have
already been set, the set command will reset them, removing any values in the old list.
To unset all of the positional parameters, use set —.

EXAMPLE 12.12

(The Script)
$ cat args
#!/bin/ksh
# Script to test command-line arguments
l print The name of this script is $0.
2 print The arguments are $*.
3 print The first argument is $1.
4 print The second argument is S2.
5 print The number of arguments is $#.
6 oldparameters=$*
7 set Jake Nicky Scott
8 print All the positional parameters are $*.
9 print The number of positional parameters is $#.
10 print Soldparameters
666 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

EXAMPLE 12.12 (continued)

11 set --
12 print Good-bye for now, $1.
13 set Soldparameters
14 print S*

(The Output)
$ args abed
1 The name of this script is args.
2 The arguments are a b c d.
3 The first argument is a.
4 The second argument is b.
5 The number of arguments is 4.
8 All the positional parameters are Jake Nicky Scott.
9 The number of positional parameters is 3.
10 abed
12 Cood-bye for now ,.
14 abed
$

EXPLANATION

1 The name of the script is stored in the $0 variable.

2 $* (and $0) both represent all of the positional parameters.

3 $1 represents the first positional parameter (command-line argument).

4 $2 represents the second positional parameter.

5 $# is the total number of positional parameters (command-line arguments).

6 The variable oldparameters is assigned all of the positional parameters ($*). Later
on, if you want to get back your original parameters, you can do so by typing set
Soldparameters.

7 Reset positional parameters with the set command. The set command completely
clears all previously set parameters. Jake is assigned to $1, Nicky is assigned to $2,
and Scott is assigned to $3.

8 The new positional parameters are printed.

9 The number of positional parameters is printed.

10 The original parameters were stored in the variable oldparameters. They are printed.

11 All parameters are unassigned.

12 $1 has no value. The parameters list was cleared with the set — command.

13 A new parameter list is assigned by substituting the values in oldparameters to the

parameter list with the set command.

14 All the positional parameters are printed.

12.4 Positional Parameters and Command-Line Arguments 667

EXAMPLE 12.13

(How $-i and $@ Differ)

1 $ set 'apple pie' pears peaches
2 $ for i in $;v
> do
> echo $i
> done
apple
pie
pears
peaches

3 $ set 'apple pie' pears peaches

4 $ for i in "$*"
> do
> echo $i
> done
apple pie pears peaches

5 $ set 'apple pie' pears peaches

6 S for i in $@
> do
> echo $i
> done
apple
pie
pears
peaches

7 $ set 'apple pie' pears peaches

8 $ for i in "$©" # At last!!
> do
> echo $i
> done
apple pie
pears
peaches

EXPLANATION

1 The positional parameters are set. When the $* is expanded, the quotes are stripped
and apple pie becomes two separate words. The for loop assigns each of the words,
in turn, to the variable i and then prints the value of i. Each time through the loop,
the word on the left is shifted off, and the next word is assigned to i.

2 If $* is surrounded by double quotes, all of the words in the list become one single
string, and the whole string is assigned to the variable i.

3 The positional parameters are set.

668 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

EXPLANATION (continued)

4 By enclosing $* in double quotes, the entire parameter list becomes one string.

5 The positional parameters are set.

6 Unquoted, the $@ behaves the same way as the $*.

7 The positional parameters are set.

8 By surrounding S@ with double quotes, each of the positional parameters is treated

as a quoted string. The list would consist of "apple pie", "pears", and "peaches". Each
of the quoted words is assigned to i, in turn, as the loop goes through each iteration.

12.5 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control

Conditional commands allow you to perform some task(s) based on whether a condi-
tion succeeds or fails. The if command is the simplest form of decision making. The
if/else commands allow a two-way decision construct, and the if/el if/else commands
allow a multiway decision construct.
The Korn shell expects a command to follow an if. The command can be a system
command or a built-in command. The exit status of the command is used to evaluate
the condition. To evaluate an expression, the built-in test command is used. This com-
mand is also linked to the [ and the [ [ symbols. The Bourne shell encloses an expression
in a set of single brackets: [ and ]. The Korn shell has a more sophisticated method for
testing expressions. The expression is enclosed in double brackets; [[ and ]]. In the sin-
gle brackets, the expansion of wildcards is not allowed; with the double brackets, wild-
card expansion is supported and a new set of operators has been added. The result of a
command is tested, with zero status indicating success, and nonzero status indicating
failure.

12.5.1 Testing Exit Status and the $? Variable

The ? variable contains a number value (between 0 and 255) representing the exit status
of the last command that exited. If the exit status is zero, the command exited with suc-
cess; if nonzero, the command failed in some way. You can test the exit status of com-
mands and use the test command to test the exit status of expressions.
The following examples illustrate how the exit status is tested. The single brackets
are used in the Bourne shell, and although perfectly acceptable in the Korn shell, Dr.
Korn provides you with the new double-bracket notation for testing expressions.

EXAMPLE 12.14

(The Command Line)

1 $ name=Tom
2 $ grep "$naine" datafile
Tom Savage:408-124-2345
12.5 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 669

EXAMPLE 12.14 (continued)

3 $ print $?
0 # Success
4 test $name = Tom
5 print $?
0 # Success
6 $ test $name != Tom
print $?
1 # Failure
7 [ Sname = Tom ] # Brackets instead of the test command
8 print $?
0
9 S [[ $name = [Tt]?m ]] # New ksh test command
10 $ print S?
0

EXPLANATION

The string Tom is assigned to the variable name.

The grep command will search for string Tom in datafile, and if successful in its
search, will display the line found.

3 The ? variable, accessed by $?, contains the exit status of the last command exe-
cuted, in this case, the exit status of grep. If grep is successful in finding the string
Tom, it will return an exit status of 0. The grep command was successful.

The test command is used to evaluate strings and numbers, and to perform file
testing. It returns an exit status of 0 if the expression is true, and an exit status of
1 if the expression fails. There must be spaces surrounding the equal sign.

The value of name is tested to see if it is equal to Tom. The test command returns an
exit status of 0, meaning that $name does evaluate to Tom.

The value of name is tested to see if it is equal to Tom. The test command returns an
exit status of 1, meaning that name is not equal to Tom.

7 The brackets are an alternate notation for the test command. There must be spac-
es after the first bracket. The expression is tested to see if Sname evaluates to the
string Tom.

The exit status of the test is 0. The test was successful because Sname is equal to Tom.

The new Korn shell test command, [[, is used. The new test allows shell meta-
character expansion. If the variable matches Tom, torn, Tim, tim, and so on, the test
will return a successful status, 0.

10 The variable name did match a string beginning with T or t and ending in m, result-
ing in a successful exit status ($?) of 0.
670 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

12.5.2 The Old test Command

The test command is used to evaluate conditional expressions, returning true or false.
It returns zero exit status for true, and nonzero exit status for false. Either the test com-
mand or the brackets can be used. The Korn shell introduced a new way of testing
expressions with double brackets. For backward compatibility with the Bourne shell,
the older form of test can be used with either the test command or the single brackets.
However, the preferred method for Korn shell programmers is the new test with double
brackets. A complete list of test operators (both old and new style) appear in Table 12.6.

Table 12.6 Testing and Logical Operators

Test/Operator Tests For

String Testing

stringl = string2 stringl is equal to string2

stringl != string2 stringl is not equal to string2

string string is not null

-z string length of string is zero

-n string length of string is nonzero

Example

test -n $word or [ -n Sword ]

test torn = sue or [ torn = sue ]

Integer Testing (Old-Style test Used with Bourne Shell)

intl -eq int2 intl is equal to int2

intl -ge int2 intl is greater than or equal to int2

intl -gt int2 intl is greater than int2

intl -le int2 intl is less than or equal to int2

intl -It int2 intl is less than int2

intl -ne int2 intl is not equal to int2

Logical Operators (Old-Style test)

! NOT operator

-a AND operator

-o OR operator
12.5 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 671

Table 12.6 Testing and Logical Operators (continued)

Test/Operator Tests For

File Testing (Old-Style test)

-b filename Block special file

-c filename Character special file

-d filename Directory existence

-f filename File existence and not a directory

-g filename Set-group-ID is set

-h filename Symbolic link

-k filename Sticky bit is set

-p filename File is a named pipe

-r filename File is readable

-s filename File is nonzero size

-u filename Set-user-ID bit is set

-w filename File is writable

-x filename File is executable

12.5.3 The New test Command

With the [[...]] compound test command, additional operators are available. Wild-
cards can be used in string-matching tests, and many of the errors from the old test have
been eliminated. New string test operators are listed in Table 12.7.

Table 12.7 String Testing (New-Style Test)

String Testing Operator Tests For

string = pattern string matches pattern3

string != pattern string does not match pattern

stringl < string2 ASCII value of stringl is less than string2

stringl > string2 ASCII value of stringl is greater than string2

-n string string is nonzero in length, nonnull parameter

-z string string is zero in length, null parameter

a. On versions newer than 1988, the == operator is permitted.

672 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

EXAMPLE 12.15

(The Script)
read answer
1 if [[ $answer = [Yy]* ]] # Test for Kes or yes or Y or y, etc.
then...

Example:
(The Script)
guess=Noone
2 if [[ Sguess != [Nn]o©(one|body) ]] # Test for Noone, noone, or Nobody, nobody...
then. . .

Example:
(The Command Line)
3 [[ apples < oranges ]]
print $?
0
4 [[ apples > oranges ]]
print $?
1
5 $ name="3oe Shmoe"
$ [ $name = "Abe Lincoln" ] # old style
ksh: Shmoe: unknown test operator
6 $ [[ Sname = "Abe Lincoln" ]] # new style
$ echo $?
1

EXPLANATION

1 The answer read in from the user is tested to see if it matches anything starting with
Y or y.

2 The variable guess is tested. If it is not equal to a string starting with N or n, fol-
lowed by an o, and exactly one or body (for example, noone or nobody) the then com-
mand would be executed.

3 The string apples is tested to see if it comes before oranges in the ASCII collating
sequence. It does.

4 The string apples is tested to see if it comes after oranges in the ASCII collating se-
quences. It does not.

5 In the old-style test, the variable name is split into separate words. Because the =
operator expects a single string as its left operand, the test command fails. To fix
the problem, the variable should be enclosed in double quotes.

6 In the new-style test, the variable is not split up into separate words; therefore,
double quotes are not required around Sname.
12.5 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 673

12.5.4 File Testing with Binary Operators

The binary operators for testing files require two operands (i.e., a file on either side of
the operator). See Table 12.8 for a list of binary file-testing operators.

Table 12.8 Binary File Testing and Logical Operators

Operator Tests For

filel -nt fileZ True if filel is newer than fileZ

filel -ot file2 True if fi 1 el is older than fi 1 eZ

filel -ef fileZ True if filel is another name for fileZ

12.5.5 Expression Testing with Logical Operators

The Korn shell, like C, provides logical testing of the truth or falsity of expressions. They
are listed in Table 12.9.

Table 12.9 Logical Operators

Operator Tests For

&& The AND operator evaluates the expression on the left-hand side of &&;
if true, the expression on the right side of && is tested and must also be
true. If one expression is false, the expression is false. The && operator
replaces -a; for example, (( ( $x && $y ) > 5 )).

II The OR operator evaluates the expression on the left-hand side of the 11

operator; if true, the expression is true; if false, the expression on the
right-hand side of the 11 is evaluated; if true, the expression is true. Only
if both expressions are false will the expression evaluate to false. The 11
operator replaces -o; for example, (( ( $x i i $y ).

12.5.6 File Testing with Flags

The Korn shell provides a number of built-in test commands for checking the attributes
of files, such as existence, type, permissions, and so forth. The file-testing options (also
called/lags) are listed in Table 12.10.

Table 12.10 File Testing (New test Flags)

Flag Tests For

Korn Shell Only

-a file file exists

-e file file exists (versions newer than 1988)

674 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

Table 12.10 File Testing (New test Flags) (continued)

Flag Tests For

-L file file exists and is a symbolic link

-0 file You are the owner of file

-C file Your group ID is the same as fi 1 e's

-S file file exists and is a socket

Bourne and Korn Shells

-b file file exists and is a block special file

-c file file exists and is a character special file

-d file file exists and is a directory

-f file file exists and is not a directory

-g file file exists and is setgid

-k file file exists and sticky bit is set

-p file file exists and is a named pipe

-r file file exists and is readable

-s file file has a nonzero size

-u file file exists and is setuid

-w fie file exists and is writable

-x file file exists and is executable

EXAMPLE 12.16

(The Script)
1 file=/etc/passwd
2 if [[ -f $file && (-r $file || -w $file) ]]
then
3 print Sfile is a plain file and is either readable or writable
fi

EXPLANATION

1 The variable file is assigned /etc/passwd.

2 The file test operators test if the file is a plain file and is either readable or writable.
The parentheses are used for grouping. In the old test, the parentheses had to be
escaped with a backslash.

3 If both of the tests are true, the file is a plain file, and it is either readable or writ-
able, this line is executed.
12.5 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 675

12.5.7 The i f Command

The simplest form of conditional is the if command. The command following the if
keyword is executed and its exit status is returned. If the exit status is 0, the command
succeeded and the statement(s) after the then keyword are executed.
In the C shell and C language, the expression following the if command is a Boolean-
type expression. But in the Bourne and Korn shells, the statement following the if is a
command or group of commands. The exit status of the last command of the if line is
used to determine whether to continue and execute commands under the then state-
ment. If the exit status of the last command on the if line is 0, the commands under the
then statement are executed. The fi terminates the command list to be executed after the
then. If the exit status is nonzero, meaning that the command failed in some way, the
statement(s) after the then statement are ignored and control goes to the line directly
after the fi statement.
Conditional commands can be nested. Every if must have a corresponding fi. The fi
is paired with the closest if. Using indentation to format your if blocks helps when
debugging your programs.

FORMAT

if command
then # Testing command exit status
command
command
fi

if test expression
then # Using the test command to test expressions
command
fi

or

if [ expression ]
then # Using the old-style test command—
command # brackets replace the word test
fi

if [[ expression ]]
then # New-style brackets for testing expressions
command
fi
676 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

FORMAT (continued)

if command
then

if command
then

if command # Nested conditionals

then

fi
fi
fi

EXAMPLE 12.17

1 if ypmatch $name passwd > /dev/null 2>&1

2 then
echo Found Sname!
3 fi

EXPLANATION

1 The ypmatch command is an NIS command that searches for its argument, name, in
the NIS passwd database on the server machine. Standard output and standard error
are redirected to /dev/null, the UNIX bit bucket.

2 If the exit status of the ypmatch command is 0, the program goes to the then state-
ment and executes commands until fi is reached.

3 The fi terminates the list of commands following the then statement.

12.5.8 Using the Old-Style Bourne test

If you have been programming in the Bourne shell, the Korn shell is backward-compatible,
allowing your Bourne shell scripts to be executed properly by the Korn shell. Many Bourne
shell programmers, when converting to Korn shell, still use the old-style test command
when evaluating expressions. If you are reading or maintaining scripts, you may find the
old syntax alive and well. Therefore, a brief discussion of the old syntax may help you,
even if you are writing your own scripts with the new Korn shell test command.

EXAMPLE 12.18

#!/bin/l<sh
# Scriptname: are_you_ok
1 print "Are you ok (y/n) ?"
read answer
12.5 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 677

EXAMPLE 12.18 (continued)

2 if [ "Sanswer" = Y -o "Sanswer" = y ] # Old-style test

then
print "Clad to hear it."
3 fi

EXPLANATION

1 The user is asked the question, Are you ok (y/n) ?. The read command causes the
program to wait for user input.

2 The test command, represented by a [, is used to test expressions and returns an

exit status of 0 if the expression is true and nonzero if the expression is false. If
the variable answer evaluates to Y or y, the commands after the then statement are
executed. (The test command does not allow the use of wildcards when testing
expressions.)

3 The fi terminates the list of commands following the then statement.

12.5.9 Using the New-Style Korn test

The new-style Korn shell testing allows expressions to contain shell metacharacters and
Korn shell operators such as && and 11.

EXAMPLE 12.19

#!/bin/ksh
# Scriptname: are_you_ok2
l print "Are you ok (y/n) ?"
read answer
2 if [[ "Sanswer" = [Yy]* ]] # New-style test
then
print "Glad to hear it."
3 fi

EXPLANATION

l The user is asked the question, Are you ok (y/n) ?. The read command causes the
program to wait for user input.

2 The [[ ]] is a special Korn shell construct used to test expressions. If the answer
evaluates to Y or y followed by any number of characters, the commands after the
then statement are executed.

3 The fi statement terminates the if.

678 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

12.5.10 Using the Old-Style Bourne test with Numbers

To test numeric expressions, the old-style Bourne shell test command and its operators
are still acceptable in the Korn shell, but the new-style let command is preferred.

EXAMPLE 12.20

1 if [ $# -It 1 ]
then
print "$0: Insufficient arguments " 1>&2
exit 1
2 fi

EXPLANATION

l The statement reads: If the number of arguments is less than 1, print the error
message and send it to standard error. Then exit the script. The old style of testing
integers is used with the test command.

2 The fi marks the end of the block of statements after then.

12.5.11 The 1 et Command and Testing Numbers

Although it is still acceptable to use single square brackets and old-style Bourne shell
numeric operators for testing numeric expressions, the preferred Korn shell method is
to use the double parentheses and the new C language-style numeric operators when
testing numeric expressions. Note that the double brackets are only used for testing
string expressions and for file tests (see Table 12.10).

EXAMPLE 12.21

1 if (($#<!))
then
print "$0: Insufficient arguments " 1>&2
exit 1
2 fi

EXPLANATION

1 The statement reads: If the number of arguments is less than 1, print the error
message and send it to standard error. Then exit the script. This is the preferred
way to perform numeric tests in the Korn shell.

2 The fi marks the end of the block of statements after then.

12.5 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 679

12.5.12 The i f/el se Command

The if/else command allows a two-way decision-making process. If the command after
the if fails, the commands after the else are executed.

FORMAT

if command
then
command(s)
else
command(s)
fi

EXAMPLE 12.22

1 if ypmatch "$name" passwd > /dev/null 2>&1

2 then
print Found $name!
3 else
4 print "Can't find $name."
exit 1
5 fi

EXPLANATION

1 The ypmatch command searches for its argument, Sname, in the NIS passwd database.
Standard output and standard error are redirected to /dev/nul 1, the UNIX bit bucket.

2 If the exit status of the ypmatch command is 0, program control goes to the then
statement and executes commands until else is reached.

3 The commands under the el se statement are executed if the ypmatch command fails
to find name in the passwd database; that is, the exit status of ypmatch must be nonzero
for the commands in the else block to be executed.

4 The print function sends output to the screen and the program exits.

5 This marks the end of the if construct.

12.5.13 The i f/el i f/el se Command

The if/el if/else command allows a multiway decision-making process. If the command
following the if fails, the command following the el if is tested. If that command suc-
ceeds, the commands under its then statement are executed. If the command after the
el if fails, the next el if command is checked. If none of the commands succeeds, the else
commands are executed. The else block is called the default.
680 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

FORMAT

if command
then
command(s)
el if command
then
commands(s)
el if command
then
command(s)
else
command(s)
fi

if [[ string expression ]] or if (( numeric expression ))

then
command(s)
el if [[ string expression ]] or elif (( numeric expression ))
then
commands(s)
elif [[ string expression ]] or elif(( numeric expression ))
then
command(s)
else
command(s)
fi

EXAMPLE 12.23

(The Script)
#!/bin/l<sh
# Scriptname: tellme
1 read age?"How old are you? "
2 if (( age < 0 || age > 120 ))
then
n
print "Welcome to our planet!
exit 1
fi
3 if (( age >= 0 && age < IB ))
then
print "A child is a garden of verses"
elif (( age > 12 && age < 20 ))
then
print "Rebel without a cause"
12.5 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 681

EXAMPLE 12.23 (continued)

el if (( age >= 20 && age < 30 ))

then
print "You got the world by the tail!!"
el if (( age >= 30 && age < 40 ))
then
print "Thirty something..."
4 else
print "Sorry I asked"
5 fi

(The Output)
$ tell me
1 How old are you? 200
2 Welcome to our planet!

$ tell me
1 How old are you? 13
3 Rebel without a cause

$ tell me
1 How old are you? 55
4 Sorry I asked

EXPLANATION

1 The user is asked for input. The input is assigned to the variable age.

2 A numeric test is performed within the double parentheses. If age is less than 0 or
greater than 120, the print command is executed and the program terminates with
an exit status of 1. The interactive shell prompt will appear. Note that the dollar
sign ($) is not required to perform variable substitution when using the (( ))
operators.

3 A numeric test is performed within the double parentheses. If age is greater than
0 and less than 13, the let command returns exit status 0, true.

4 The el se construct is the default. If none of the above statements are true, the el se
commands will be executed.

5 The fi terminates the initial if statement.

12.5.14 The exi t Command

The exit command is used to terminate the script and get back to the command line. You
may want the script to exit if some condition does not test true. The argument to the exi t
command is an integer, ranging from 0 to 255. When the program exits, the exit number
is stored in the shell's ? variable.
682 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

EXAMPLE 12.24

(The Script)
#!/bin/ksh
# Scriptname: filecheck
# Purpose: Check to see if a file exists, what type it is, and its permissions.

1 file=$l # Variable is set to first command-line argument

2 if [[ ! -a $file ]]
then
print "$file does not exist"
exit 1
fi
3 if [[ -d Sfile ]]
then
print "Sfile is a directory"
4 elif [[ -f Sfile ]]
then
5 if [[ -r Sfile && -w Sfile && -x Sfile ]]
then
print "You have read, write, and execute permission on
file Sfile"
else
6 print "You don't have the correct permissions"
exit 2
fi
else
7 print "Sfile is neither a file nor a directory. "
exit 3
8 fi

(The Command Line)

9 $ filecheck testing
testing does not exist
10 $ echo $?
1

EXPLANATION

1 The first command-line argument passed to this program ($1) is assigned to the
variable file.

2 The test command follows the if. If Sfile (after variable substitution) is a file that
does not exist (note the NOT operator, !), the commands under the then keyword
are executed. An exit value of 1 means that the program failed in some way. (In
this case, the test failed.)

3 If the file is a directory, print that it is a directory.

4 If the file is not a directory, else if the file is a plain file, then . . .
12.5 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 683

EXPLANATION (continued)

5 If the file is readable, writable, and executable, then. . .

6 The fi terminates the innermost if command. The program exits with an argu-
ment of 2 if the file does not have read, write, and execute permission.

7 The else commands are executed if lines 2 and 3 fail. The program exits with a
value of 3.

8 This fi goes with the if on line 3 in the example.

9 The file called testing does not exist.

10 The $? variable holds the exit status, 1.

12.5.15 The nul 1 Command

The null command is a colon. It is a built-in, do-nothing command that returns an exit
status of 0. It is used as a placeholder after an if command when you have nothing to
say, but need a command or the program will produce an error message because it
requires something after the then statement. Often the null command is used as an argu-
ment to the loop command to make the loop a forever loop or for testing variable expres-
sion modifiers such as {EDITOR:-/bin/vi}.

EXAMPLE 12.25

(The Script)
1 name=Toni
2 if grep "Sname" databasefile > /dev/null 2>&1
then
3 :
4 else
print "$1 not found in databasefile"
exit 1
fi

EXPLANATION

1 The string Tom is assigned to the variable name.

2 The if command tests the exit status of the grep command. If Tom is found in data-
basefile, the null command is executed and does nothing.

3 The colon is the null command. It always exits with a 0 exit status.

4 What we really want to do is print an error message and exit if Tom is not found.
The commands after the else will be executed if the grep command fails.

EXAMPLE 12.26

(The Script)
1 : ${EDITOR:=/bin/vi}
2 echo $EDITOR
684 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

EXPLANATION

1 The colon command takes an argument that is evaluated by the shell. The expres-
sion ${EDITOR:=/bin/vi} is used as an argument to the colon command. If the vari-
able EDITOR has been previously set, its value will not be changed; if it has not been
set, the value /bin/vi will be assigned to it. The Korn shell would have responded
with an error such as ksh: /bin/vi: not found if the colon command had not pre-
ceded the expression.

2 The value of the EDITOR variable is displayed.

12.5.16 The case Command

The case command is a multiway branching command used as an alternative to the

if/el if commands. The value of the case variable is matched against valuel, valueZ, and
so forth until a match is found. When a value matches the case variable, the commands
following the value are executed until the double semicolons are reached. Then, instruc-
tion starts after the word esac (case spelled backwards).
If a case variable is not matched, the program executes commands after the *), the
default value, until the double semicolons or esac is reached. The *) value serves the
same purpose as the else statement in if/else conditionals. The case values can use shell
wildcards and the vertical bar (pipe symbol) for ORing two values.

FORMAT

case variable in
valuel)
commancKs);
value2)
conimand(s);
*)
commancKs);
esac

EXAMPLE 12.27

(The Script)
#!/bin/l<sh
# Script name: xtermcolor
# Sets the xterm foreground color (the color of the prompt and
# input typed for interactive windows.
1 read color?"Choose a foreground color for your terminal?"
2 case "Scolor" in
3 *[Bb]l??)
4 xterm -fg blue -fn terminal &
12.5 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 685

EXAMPLE 12.27 (continued)

6 ;v[Cg]reen)
xterm -fg darkgreen -fn terminal &
f f
7 red | orange) # The vertical bar means "OR"
xterm -fg "Scolor" -fn terminal &
J J
8 *) xterm -fn terminal & # default
J >
9 esac
10 print "Out of case.

EXPLANATION

l The user is asked for input. The input is assigned to the variable color.

2 The case command evaluates the expression Scolor.

3 If color begins with a B or b, followed by the letter 1 and any two characters, the
case expression matches the first value. The value is terminated with a single
closed parenthesis. The wildcards are shell metacharacters.

4 The statement is executed if the value in line 3 matches the case expression.The
xterm command sets the foreground color to blue.

5 The double semicolons are required after the last command in this block of com-
mands. Control branches to line 10, after the semicolons are reached.

6 If the case expression matches a G or g, followed by the letters r-e-e-n, the xterm
window foreground color is set to dark green. The double semicolons terminate
the block of statements and control branches to line 10.

7 The vertical bar is used as an OR conditional operator. If the case expression

matches either red or orange, the xterm command is executed.

8 This is the default value. If none of the above values match the case expression,
the command(s) after the *) value are executed. The default color for the terminal
foreground is black.

9 The esac statement (case spelled backwards) terminates the case command.

10 After one of the values is matched, execution continues here.

The case Command and the here document. Often, the here document is used to
create a menu. After the user has selected a choice from the menu, the case command is
used to match against one of the choices. The Korn shell also provides a select loop for
creating menus.
686 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

EXAMPLE 12.28

(The .profile File)

print "Select a terminal type "
1 cat « EOF
1) vtl20
2) wyse50
3) ansi
4) sun
2 EOF
3 read TERM
4 case "STERM" in
1) export TERM=vtl20
JJ
2) export TERM=wyse50
>)
3) export TERM=ansi
JJ
*) export TERM^sun
J>
5 esac
print "TERM is STERM"

EXPLANATION

l A here document is used to display a menu of choices.

2 EOF is the user-defined terminator. Input for the here document stops here.

3 The read command waits for user input and assigns it to the TERM variable.

4 The case command evaluates the variable TERM and matches it against one of the
numbers in the list. If a match is found, the terminal is set.

5 The case command terminates with esac.

12.6 Looping Commands

The looping commands are used to execute a command or group of commands a set
number of times, or until a certain condition is met. The Korn shell has four types of
loops; for, while, until, and select.

12.6.1 The for Command

The for looping command is used to execute commands for each member of a set of
arguments. You might use this loop to execute the same commands on a list of files or
usernames. The for command is followed by a user-defined variable, the keyword in, and
a list of words. The first time in the loop, the first word from the wordlist is assigned to
the variable, and then shifted off. The next time around the loop, the second word is
12.6 Looping Commands 687

assigned to the variable, and so on. The body of the loop starts at the do keyword and
ends at the done keyword. When all of the words in the list have been shifted off, the loop
ends and program control continues after the done keyword.

FORMAT

for variable in wordlist

do
comniand(s)
done

EXAMPLE 12.29

(The Script)
1 for pal in Tom Dick Harry Joe
2 do
3 print "Hi Spal"
4 done
5 print "Out of loop"

(The Output)
Hi Tom
Hi Dick
Hi Harry
Hi Joe
Out of loop

EXPLANATION

1 This for loop will iterate through the list of names, Tom, Di ck, Harry, and Joe, shifting
each one off (to the left) after it is assigned to the variable pal. As soon as all of the
words are shifted and the wordlist is empty, the loop ends and execution starts af-
ter the done keyword. The word following the for command, pal, is a variable that
will be assigned the value after the in keyword, one at a time, for each iteration of
the loop. The first time in the loop, the variable pal will be assigned the word Tom.
The second time through the loop, pal will be assigned Dick, the next time pal will
be assigned Harry, and the last time, pal will be assigned Joe.

2 The do keyword is required after the wordlist. If it is used on the same line, the list
must be terminated with a semicolon. For example:

for pal in Tom Dick Harry Joe; do

3 This is the body of the loop. After Tom is assigned to the variable pal, the commands
in the body of the loop, that is, all commands between the do and the done key-
words, are executed.

4 The done keyword ends the loop. If there are no words left to be processed in the
wordlist on line 1, the loop exits, and execution starts at line 5.

5 This line is executed when the loop terminates.

688 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

EXAMPLE 12.30

(The Command Line)

1 S cat mylist
torn
patty
ann
jake

(The Script)
2 for person in $(< mylist) #same as for person in cat mylist'
do
3 mail Sperson < letter
print Sperson was sent a letter.
4 done
5 print "The letter has been sent."

EXPLANATION

1 The contents of a file, mylist, are displayed.

2 Command substitution is performed and the contents of mylist become the

wordlist. The first time in the loop, torn is assigned to the variable person, and then
shifted off, to be replaced with patty, and so on.

3 In the body of the loop, each user is mailed a copy of a file called letter.

4 The done keyword marks the end of this loop iteration.

5 When all of the users in the list have been sent mail, the loop will exit, and this
line will be executed.

EXAMPLE 12.31

1 for file in *.c

2 do
if [[ -f Sfile ]] ; then
cc Sfile -o ${file%.c}
fi
done

EXPLANATION

1 The wordlist will consist of all files in the current working directory ending with
the extension .c (C source files). Each filename will be assigned to variable file,
in turn, for each iteration of the loop.

2 When the body of the loop is entered, the file will be tested to make sure it exists
and is a real file. If so, it will be compiled. ${file%.c} expands to the filename with-
out its extension.
12.6 Looping Commands 689

12.6.2 The $v; and $@ Variables in Wordlists

When expanded, the $* and $@ are the same unless enclosed in double quotes. "$*" eval-
uates to one string, whereas evaluates to a list of separate words.

EXAMPLE 12.32

(The Script)
#!/bin/ksh
1 for name in $* # or for name in $@
2 do
echo Hi $name
3 done

(The Command Line)

$ greet Dee Bert Lizzy Tommy
Hi Dee
Hi Bert
Hi Lizzy
Hi Tommy

EXPLANATION

1 $-i and S@ expand to a list of all the positional parameters; in this case, the argu-
ments passed in from the command line: Dee, Bert, Lizzy, and Tommy. Each name in
the list will be assigned, in turn, to the name variable in the for loop.

2 The commands in the body of the loop are executed until the list is empty.

3 The done keyword marks the end of the loop body.

12.6.3 The whi 1 e Command

The whi le evaluates the command immediately following it, and if its exit status is 0, the
commands in the body of the loop (commands between do and done) are executed. When
the done keyword is reached, control is returned to the top of the loop and the while com-
mand checks the exit status of the command again. Until the exit status of the command
being evaluated by the while becomes nonzero, the loop continues. When the exit status
reaches nonzero, program execution starts after the done keyword. If the exit status never
becomes nonzero, the loop goes around and around infinitely. (Of course, pressing Ctrl-C
or Ctrl A will stop the looping.)

FORMAT

while command
do
command(s)
done
690 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

EXAMPLE 12.33

(The Script)
1 num=0 # Initialize num
2 while (( num < 10 )) # Test num with the let
do
print -n Sniim
3 (( nuni=nuni + 1 )) # Increment num
done
M
print \nAfter loop exits, continue running here"

(The Output)
0123456789
After loop exits, continue running here

EXPLANATION

1 This is the initialization step. The variable num is assigned 0.

2 The whi 1 e command is followed by the 1 et command. If the value of num is less than
10, the body of the loop is entered.

3 In the body of the loop, the value of num is incremented by one. If the value of num
was never changed, the loop would iterate infinitely or until the process was
killed.

EXAMPLE 12.34

(The Script)
#!/bin/ksh
# Scriptname: quiz
1 read answer?"Who was the U.S. President in 1992? "
2 while [[ $answer != "Bush" ]]
3 do
print "Wrong try again!"
4 read answer
5 done
6 print Good guess!

(The Output)
S quiz
In/ho was the U.S. President in 1992? George
Wrong try again!
Who was the U.S. President in 1992? I give up
Wrong try again!
Who was the U.S. President in 1992? Bush
Good guess!
12.6 Looping Commands 691

EXPLANATION

1 The read command prints the string after the question mark (?), Who was the U.S.
President in 1992?, and waits for input from the user. The input will be stored in
the variable answer.

2 The while loop is entered and the test command, [[, evaluates the expression. If
the variable answer does not equal the string Bush, the body of the loop is entered
and commands between the do and done are executed.

3 The do keyword is the start of the loop body.

4 The user is asked to re-enter input.

5 The done keyword marks the end of the loop body. Control is returned to the top
of the while loop, and the expression is tested again. As long as Sanswer does not
evaluate to Bush, the loop will continue to iterate. When the user's input is Bush, the
loop ends. Program control goes to line 6.

EXAMPLE 12.35

(The Script)
1 go=l
print Type q to quit.
2 while let go or (( go ))
do
print I love you.
read word
3 if [[ Sword = [qQ]v; ]]
then
print "I'll always love you"
4 go=0
fi
5 done

(The Output)
$ sayit
Type q to quit.
I love you.
I love you.
I love you.
I love you.
I love you.
q
I'll always love you
$
692 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

EXPLANATION

1 The variable go is assigned 1.

2 The loop is entered. The let command tests the expression. The expression eval-
uates to one. The program goes into the body of the while loop and executes com-
mands from the do keyword to the done keyword.

3 If the user enters a q or Q as input to the variable word, the commands between then
and fi are executed. Anything else will cause I love you. to be displayed.

4 The variable go is assigned 0. When program control starts at the top of the while
loop, the expression will be tested. Because the expression evaluates to false, the
loop exits and the script starts execution after the done keyword on line 5.

5 The done marks the end of the body of the loop.

12.6.4 The until Command

The until command is used like the while command, but evaluates the exit status in the
opposite way. The until evaluates the command immediately following it, and if its exit
status is not 0, the commands in the body of the loop (commands between do and done)
are executed. When the done keyword is reached, control is returned to the top of the
loop and the until command checks the exit status of the command again. Until the exit
status of the command being evaluated by until becomes 0, the loop continues. When
the exit status reaches 0, program execution starts after the done keyword.

FORMAT

until command
do
command(s)
done

EXAMPLE 12.36

#!/bin/l<sh
1 until who 1 grep linda
2 do
sleep 5
B done
talk lindatadragonwings

EXPLANATION

1 The until loop tests the exit status of the last command in the pipeline, grep. The
who command lists who is logged on this machine and pipes its output to grep. The
grep command will return 0 exit status (success) only when it finds user linda.

2 If user linda has not logged in, the body of the loop is entered and the program
sleeps for 5 seconds.

3 When linda logs on, the exit status of the grep command will be 0 and control will
go to the statements following the done keyword.
12.6 Looping Commands 693

EXAMPLE 12.37

#!/bin/ksh
1 hour=0
2 until (( hour > 23 ))
do
3 case "Shour" in
[0-9]|1[0-1]) print "Good morning!"
jj
12) print "Lunch time"
>J
l[3-7]) print "Siesta time"
JJ
*) print "Good night"
Jj
esac
4 (( hour+=l ))
5 done

EXPLANATION

l The hour variable is assigned 0. The variable must be initialized before being used
in the until loop.

2 The until command is followed by the let command. If the hour is not greater than
23, that is, the exit status is nonzero, the loop body is entered.

3 The case command matches the value of the hour variable against one of the hour
values, or matches the default, executing the command that applies.

4 The hour is incremented by 1; otherwise, the hour will never become greater than
23 and the loop will never exit. Control is returned to the until command and the
hour is evaluated again.

5 The done keyword marks the end of the loop. When the hour is greater than 23,
control will go to the line under the done, if there is one; otherwise, the program
is exited.

12.6.5 The sel ect Command and Menus

The here document is an easy method for creating menus, but the Korn shell introduces a
new loop, called the select loop, which is used primarily for creating menus. A menu of
numerically listed items is displayed to standard error. The PS3 prompt is used to prompt
the user for input; by default, PS3 is #?. After the PS3 prompt is displayed, the shell waits
for user input. The input should be one of the numbers in the menu list. The input is
stored in the special Korn shell REPLY variable. The number in the REPLY variable is asso-
ciated with the string to the right of the parentheses in the list of selections.2

2. If you want the menu to reappear when the loop starts again, set the REPLY variable to null just before the
done keyword.
694 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

The case command is used with the sel ect command to allow the user to make a selec-
tion from the menu and, based on that selection, execute commands. The LINES and COL-
UMNS variables can be used to determine the layout of the menu items displayed on the
terminal. The output is displayed to standard error, each item preceded by a number and
closing parenthesis, and the PS3 prompt is displayed at the bottom of the menu. Because
the select command is a looping command, it is important to remember to use either the
break command to get out of the loop, or the exit command to exit the script.

FORMAT

select van in wordlist

do
command(s)
done

EXAMPLE 12.38

(The Script)
#!/bin/ksh
# Program name: goodboys
1 PSB="Please choose one of the three boys : "
2 select choice in torn dan guy
3 do
4 case Schoice in
torn)
print Tom is a cool dude!
5 break;; # break out of the select loop
6 dan | guy )
print Dan and Guy are both sweethearts.
break;;
-)
7 print " SREPLY is not one of your choices" 1>&2
print "Try again."
J f
8 esac
9 done

(The Command Line)

$ goodboys
1) torn
2) dan
3) guy
Please choose one of the three boys : 2
Dan and Guy are both sweethearts.
12.6 Looping Commands 695

EXAMPLE 12.38 (continued)

$ goodboys
1) torn
2) dan
3) guy
Please choose one of the three boys : 4
4 is not one of your choices
Try again.
Please choose one of the three boys : 1
Tom is a cool dude!
$

EXPLANATION

1 The PS3 variable is assigned the prompt that will appear below the list of menu se-
lections. After the prompt is displayed, the program waits for user input. The in-
put is stored in the built-in variable called REPLY.

2 The select command is followed by the variable choice. This syntax is similar to
that of the for loop. The variable choice is assigned, in turn, each of the items in
the list that follows it; in this case, torn, dan, and guy. It is this wordlist that will be
displayed in the menu, preceded by a number and a right parenthesis.

3 The do keyword indicates the start of the body of the loop.

4 The first command in the body of the select loop is the case command. The case
command is normally used with the select loop. The value in the REPLY variable is
associated with one of the choices: 1 is associated with torn, 2 is associated with
dan, and 3 is associated with guy.

5 If torn is the choice, after printing the string Tom i s a cool dude!, the break command
causes the select loop to be exited. Program control starts after the done keyword.

6 If either menu item, 2 (dan) or 3 (torn), is selected, the REPLY variable contains the
user's selection.

7 If the selection is not 1, 2, or 3, an error message is sent to standard error. The user
is asked to try again and control starts at the beginning of the select loop.

8 The end of the case command.

9 The end of the select loop.

EXAMPLE 12.39

(The Script)
#!/bin/ksh
# Program name: ttype
# Purpose: set the terminal type
# Author: Andy Admin
696 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

EXAMPLE 12.39 (continued)

1 COLUMNS=60
2 LINES=1
3 PS3=,,Please enter the terminal type: "
4 select choice in wyse50 vt200 vtl00 sun
do
5 case $REPLY in
1)
6 export TERM=$choice
M
print TERM4choice"
break;; # break out of the select loop
2 1 3 )
export TERM=Schoice
print "TERM=$choiceM
break;;
4)
export TERM=$choice
print "TERM=$choice"
break;;
*)
7 print "SREPLY is not a valid choice. Try again" 1>&2
JJ
esac
8 done

(The Command Line)

$ ttype
1) wyse50 2) vt200 3) vtl00 4) sun
Please enter the terminal type : 4
TERM=sun

$ ttype
1) wyse50 2) vt200 3) vtl00 4) sun
Please enter the terminal type : 3
TERM=vtl00

$ ttype
1) wyse50 2) vt200 3) vtl00 4) sun
Please enter the terminal type : 7
7 is not a valid choice. Try again.
Please enter the terminal type: 2
TERM=vt200
12.6 Looping Commands 697

EXPLANATION

1 The COLUMNS variable is set to the width of the terminal display in columns for
menus created with the select loop. The default is 80.

2 The LINES variable controls the vertical display of the select menu on the terminal.
The default is 24 lines. By changing the LINES value to 1, the menu items will be
printed on one line, instead of vertically as in the last example.

3 The PS3 prompt is set and will appear under the menu choices.

4 The select loop will print a menu with four selections: wyse50, vt200, vtl00, and sun.
The variable choice will be assigned one of these values based on the user's re-
sponse held in the REPLY variable. If REPLY is 1, wyse50 is assigned to choice; if REPLY
is 2, vt200 is assigned to choice; if REPLY is 3, vtl00 is assigned to choice; and if REPLY
is 4, sun is assigned to choice.

5 The REPLY variable evaluates to the user's input selection.

6 The terminal type is assigned, exported, and printed.

7 If the user does not enter a number between 1 and 4, he or she will be prompted
again. Note that the menu does not appear, just the PS3 prompt. To make the menu
reappear, set the REPLY variable to null. Type above line 8: REPLY =

8 The end of the select loop.

12.6.6 Looping Control Commands

If some condition occurs, you may want to break out of a loop, return to the top of the
loop, or provide a way to stop an infinite loop. The Korn shell provides loop control
commands to control loops.

Th© shift Command. The shift command shifts the parameter list to the left a
specified number of times. The shift command without an argument shifts the parame-
ter list once to the left. Once the list is shifted, the parameter is removed permanently.
Often the shift command is used in while loops when iterating through a list of posi-
tional parameters.

FORMAT

shift [n]

EXAMPLE 12.40

(Without a Loop)
(The Script)
#!/bin/ksh
# Scriptname: doitd
1 set joe mary torn sam
2 shift
698 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

EXAMPLE 12.40 (continued)

3 print
4 set $(date)
5 print $*
6 shift 5
7 print
8 shift 2

(The Output)
$ doitO
3 mary torn sam
5 Sun Sep 9 10:00:12 PDT 2004
7 2004
8 ksh: shift: bad number

EXPLANATION

l The set command sets the positional parameters. $1 is assigned joe, $2 is assigned
mary, $3 is assigned torn, and $4 is assigned sam.

2 The shift command shifts the positional parameters to the left; joe is shifted off.

3 The parameter list is printed after the shift. $* represents all of the parameters.

4 The set command resets the positional parameters to the output of the UNIX date
command.

5 The new parameter list is printed.

6 This time the list is shifted five times to the left.

7 The new parameter list is printed.

8 By attempting to shift more times than there are parameters, the shell sends a mes-
sage to standard error.

EXAMPLE 12.41

(With a Loop)
(The Script)
#!/bin/ksh
# Usage: doit [args]
1 while (( $# > 0 ))
do
2 print $*
3 shift
4 done
12.6 Looping Commands 699

EXAMPLE 12.41 (continued)

(The Command Line)

$ doit a b c d e
a b c d e
b c d e
c d e
d e
e

EXPLANATION

1 The while command tests the numeric expression. If the number of positional pa-
rameters ($#) is greater than 0, the body of the loop is entered. The positional pa-
rameters are coming from the command line as arguments. There are five.

2 All the positional parameters are printed.

3 The parameter list is shifted once to the left.

4 The body of the loop ends here; control returns to the top of the loop. The param-
eter list has decreased by one. After the first shift, $# is four. When $# has been de-
creased to 0, the loop ends.

The break Command. The built-in break command is used to force immediate exit
from a loop, but not from a program. (To leave a program, the exit command is used.)
After the break command is executed, control starts after the done keyword. The break
command causes an exit from the innermost loop, so if you have nested loops, the break
command takes a number as an argument, allowing you to exit out of any number of
outer loops. The break is useful for exiting from an infinite loop.

FORMAT

break [n]

EXAMPLE 12.42

1 while true; do
2 read answer? Are you ready to move on\?
3 if [[ Sanswer = [Yy]* ]]; then
break
4 else
commands...
fi )
5 done /
6 print "Here we are"
700 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

EXPLANATION

1 The true command is a UNIX command, and an alias for the colon command in
the Korn shell. It always exits with 0 status and is often used to start an infinite
loop. (The null command (:) can be used to do the same thing.) The body of the
loop is entered.

2 The user is asked for input. The user's input is assigned to the variable answer.

3 If answer evaluates to Y, y, Yes, Yup, or Ya (anything beginning with Y or y), the break
command is executed and control goes to line 6. The line Here we are is printed.
Until the user answers something that starts with a Y or y, the program will con-
tinue to ask for input. This could go on forever!

4 If the test fails in line 3, the else commands are executed. When the body of the
loop ends at the done keyword, control starts again at the top of the while at line 1.

5 The end of the loop body.

6 Control starts here after the break command is executed.

The continue Command. The continue command starts back at the top of the loop
if some condition becomes true. All commands below the continue will be ignored. The
continue command returns control to the top of the innermost loop; if nested within a
number of loops, the continue command may take a number as its argument. Control can
be started at the top of any number of outer loops.

FORMAT

continue [n]

EXAMPLE 12.43

(The Mailing List)

$ cat mailjist
ernie
john
richard
melanie
greg
robin

(The Script)
# Scriptname: mailtomaillist
#!/bin/ksh
1 for name in S(< mailjist)
do
2 if [[ "Sname" = "richard" ]] then
3 continue
else ~
4 mail Sname < memo
fi
5 done
12.6 Looping Commands 701

EXPLANATION

1 The for loop will iterate through a list of names stored in a file called mailjist.
Each time a name from the list is assigned to the variable name, it is shifted off the
list and replaced by the next name on the list.

2 The name matches richard; the continue command is executed. Because richard has
already been shifted off, the next user, melanie, is assigned to the variable name.

3 The continue command returns control to the top of the loop, skipping any com-
mands in the rest of the loop body.

4 All users in the list, except ri chard, will be mailed a copy of the file memo.

5 The end of the loop body.

12.6.7 Nested Loops and Loop Control

If using nested loops, the break and continue commands let you control which loop to ter-
minate.

EXAMPLE 12.44

(The Script)
#!/bin/ksh
1 while true ; do
< Commands here>
2 for user in torn dick harry joe
do ]
if [[ Suser = [Dd]* ]] I
then
3 continue 2 —
< Commands here >
4 while true ______
do
< Commands here>
5 break 3 \
6 done )
7 fi
done ^ —
8 done
9 print Out of loop

EXPLANATION

1 The true command always returns an exit status of zero. The loop is designed to
go forever unless you use loop control commands.

2 The for loop is entered.

702 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

EXPLANATION (continued)

3 The for loop will loop through each of the names in the list. If the user variable
begins with a D or d, the continue command causes control to go to the top of the
whi 1 e loop. Without an argument, the conti nue command would start control at the
top of the for loop. The argument 2 tells the shell to go to the top of the second
enclosing loop and restart execution there.

4 The while loop is nested. The true command always exits with zero status. The
loop will go forever.

5 The break command terminates the outermost whi le loop. Execution starts at line 9.

6 The done keyword marks the end of the innermost while loop.

7 This done keyword marks the end of the for loop.

8 This done keyword marks the end of outermost while loop.

9 Out of the loop.

12.6.8 I/O Redirection and Loops

The Korn shell allows you to use redirection and pipes in loops. Unlike the Bourne shell,
the loop runs in this shell, not a subshell. Variables set within the loop will still be set
when the loop exits.

Redirecting the Output of a Loop to a File, instead of sending the output of a

loop to the screen, it can be redirected to a file or a pipe. See Example 12.45.

EXAMPLE 12.45

(The Command Line)

1 $ cat memo
abc
def
ghi

(The Script)
#!/bin/ksh
# Program name: numberit
# Put line numbers on all lines of memo
2 if (( $# < 1 ))
then
print "Usage: $0 filename " >&2
exit 1
fi
3 integer count=l # Initialize count
4 cat SI | while read line # Input is coming from memo
do
12.6 Looping Commands 703

EXAMPLE 12.45 (continued)

5 (( count ==!))&& print "Processing file $1..." > /dev/tty

6 print Scount $line
7 (( count+=l ))
8 done > tmp$$ # Output is going to a temporary file
9 mv tmp$$ $1

(The Command Line)

10 $ number!t memo
Processing file memo...

11 $ cat memo
1 abc
2 def
3 ghi

EXPLANATION

1 The contents of file memo are displayed.

2 If the number of arguments is less than one, a usage message is sent to standard
error, the screen.

3 The count variable is declared an integer and is assigned the value 1.

4 The UNIX cat command displays the contents of the filename stored in $1, and the
output is piped to the while loop. The read command is assigned the first line of
the file the first time in the loop, the second line of the file the next time through
the loop, and so forth.

5 The output of this print statement is sent to /dev/tty, the screen. If not explicitly
redirected to /dev/tty, the output will be redirected to tmp$$ on line 8.

6 The print function prints the value of count, followed by the line in the file.

7 The count variable is incremented by 1.

8 The output of this entire loop, with the exception of line 3, is redirected to the file
tmp$$ (where $$ evaluates to the PID of this process). The tmp file is given a unique
name by appending the PID of this process to its name.

9 The tmp file is renamed to the name of the file that was assigned to $1.

10 The program is executed. The file to be processed is called memo.

11 The file is displayed with line numbers.

Piping the Output of a Loop to a UNIX Command. The output of a loop can be
redirected from the screen to a pipe. See Example 12.46.
704 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

EXAMPLE 12.46

(The Script)
1 for i in 7 9 2 3 4 5
2 do
print $i
3 done | sort -n

(The Output)
2
3
4
5
7
9

EXPLANATION

1 The for loop iterates through a list of unsorted numbers.

2 In the body of the loop, the numbers are printed. This output will be piped into
the UNIX sort command.

3 The pipe is created after the done keyword.

12.6.9 Running Loops in the Background

If the loop is going to take a while to process, it can be run as a background job so that
the rest of the program can continue.

EXAMPLE 12.47

1 for person in bob jim joe sam

do
2 mail Sperson < memo
3 done &

EXPLANATION

1 The for loop shifts through each of the names in the wordlist: bob, jim, joe, and sam.
Each of the names is assigned to the variable person, in turn.

2 In the body of the loop, each person is sent the contents of the file memo.

3 The ampersand at the end of the done keyword causes the loop to be executed in
the background. The program will continue to run while the loop is executing.
12.6 Looping Commands 705

12.6.10 The exec Command and Loops

The exec command can be used to close standard input or output without creating a sub-
shell.

EXAMPLE 12.48

(The File)
1 cat tmp
apples
pears
bananas
peaches
plums

(The Script)
#!/bin/ksh
# Scriptname: speller
# Purpose: Check and fix spelling errors in a file

2 exec < tmp # Opens the tmp file

3 while read line # Read from the tmp file
do
4 print Sline
5 print -n "Is this word correct? [Y/N] "
6 read answer < /dev/tty / Read from the terminal
case Sanswer in
[Vy]*)
continue
>J
*)
print "New word? "
7 read word < /dev/tty
sed "s/$line/$word/" tmp > error
mv error tmp

8 print $word has been changed,

esac
done

EXPLANATION

1 The contents of the tmp file are displayed.

2 The exec command changes standard input (file descriptor 0), so that instead of
input coming from the keyboard, it is coming from the tmp file.

3 The while loop starts. The read command gets a line of input from the tmp file.
706 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

EXPLANATION (continued)

4 The value stored in the line variable is printed to the screen.

5 The user is asked if the word is correct.

6 The read command gets the user's response from the terminal, /dev/tty. If the input
is not redirected directly from the terminal, it will continue to be read from the
file tmp, still opened for input.

7 The user is again asked for input, and the input is redirected from the terminal,
/dev/tty.

8 The new word is displayed.

12.6.11 The IFS and Loops

The IFS, the shell's internal field separator, evaluates to spaces, tabs, and the newline
character. It is used as a word (token) separator for commands that parse lists of words
such as read, set, for, and select. It can be reset by the user if a different separator will be
used in a list. It is a good idea to save the original value of the IFS in another variable
before changing it. Then it is easy to return to its default value.

EXAMPLE 12.49

(The Script)
#!/bin/l<sh
# Scriptname: runit
# IFS is the internal field separator and defaults to
# spaces, tabs, and newlines.
# In this script it is changed to a colon.

1 naines=Tom: Di ck: Harry: John

2 OLDIFS^'SIFS" # Save the original value of IFS
3 IFS=":"
4 for persons in Snames
do
5 print Hi $persons
done
6 IFS="$OLDIFS" # Reset the IFS to old value

7 set Jill Jane Jolene / Set positional parameters

8 for girl in $*
do
print Howdy $girl
done
12.7 Arrays 707

EXAMPLE 12.49 (continued)

(The Output)
$ runit
Hi Tom
Hi Dick
Hi Harry
Hi John
Howdy Jill
Howdy Jane
Howdy Jolene

EXPLANATION

l The names variable is set to the string Tom: Dick: Harry John. Each of the words is sep-
arated by a colon.

2 The value of IPS is assigned to another variable, 01DIFS. Because the value of the
IPS is whitespace, it must be quoted to preserve the whitespace.

3 The IPS is assigned a colon. Now the colon is used to separate words.

4 After variable substitution, the for loop will iterate through each of the names us-
ing the colon as the internal field separator between the words.

5 Each of the names in the wordlist is displayed.

6 IPS is reassigned its original values, stored in OLDIFS.

7 The positional parameters are set. $1 is assigned Jill, $2 is assigned Jane, and $3 is
assigned Jolene.

8 $■> evaluates to all the positional parameters, Jill, Jane, and Jolene. The for loop
assigns each of the names to the gi rl variable, in turn, through each iteration of
the loop.

12.7 Arrays

Korn shell arrays are one-dimensional arrays that may contain up to 1,024 (size varies)
elements consisting of words or integers. The index starts at 0. Each element of an array
can be set or unset individually Values do not have to be set in any particular order. For
example, you can assign a value to the tenth element before you assign a value to the
first element. An array can be set using the set command with the -A option.
Associative arrays are supported under versions of the Korn shell that are more recent
than 1988.
708 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

EXAMPLE 12.50

(The Command Line)

1 $ array[0]=tom
$ array[l]=dan
$ array[2]=bill
2 $ print ${array[0]} # Curly braces are required.
torn
3 $ print ${array[l]}
dan
4 $ print ${array[2]}
bill
5 $ print ${arrayH} # Display all elements.
torn dan bill
6 $ print ${#array[*]} # Display the number of elements.
3

EXPLANATION

1 The first three elements of the array are assigned values. The index starts at 0.

2 The value of the first array element, torn, is printed. Make sure you remember to
surround the variable with curly braces. $array[0] would print tom[0].

3 The value of the second element of the array, dan, is printed.

4 The value of the third element of the array, bi 11, is printed.

5 All elements in the array are printed.

6 The number of elements in the array is printed. An array can be declared with
typeset if you know the size and type.

EXAMPLE 12.51

(At The Command Line)

1 $ typeset -i ints[4] # Declare an array of four integers.
2 $ ints[0]=50
$ ints[l]=75
$ ints[2]=100
3 $ ints[3]=happy
ksh: happy: bad number

EXPLANATION

l The typeset command creates an array of 4 integers.

2 Integer values are assigned to the array.

3 A string value is assigned to the fourth element of the array, and the Korn shell
sends a message to standard error.
12.8 Functions 709

12.7.1 Creating Arrays with the set Command

You can assign the values of an array using the set command. The first word after the -A
option is the name of the array; the rest of the words are the elements of the array.

EXAMPLE 12.52

(The Command Line)

1 $ set -A fruit apples pears peaches
2 S print ${fruit[0]}
apples
3 $ print ${fruit[*]}
apples pears peaches
4 $ fruit[l]=plums
5 $ print ${fruit[*]}
apples plums peaches

EXPLANATION

1 The set command with the -A option creates an array. The name of the array, fruit,
follows the -A option. Each of the elements of the fruit array follow its name.

2 Subscripts start at 0. Curly braces are required around the variable for it to be eval-
uated properly. The first element of the array is printed.

3 When the asterisk is used as a subscript, all elements of the array are displayed.

4 The second element of the array is reassigned the value plums.

5 All elements of the array are displayed.

12.8 Functions

Korn shell functions are similar to those used in the Bourne shell, and are used to mod-
ularize your program. A function is a collection of one or more commands that can be
executed simply by entering the function's name, similar to a built-in command. Here is
a review of some of the important rules about using functions.

1. The Korn shell executes built-in commands first, then functions, and then exe-
cutables. Functions are read into memory once when they are defined, not
every time they are referenced.
2. A function must be defined before it is used; therefore, it is best to place func-
tion definitions at the beginning of the script.
3. The function runs in the current environment; it shares variables with the script
that invoked it, and lets you pass arguments by setting them as positional
parameters. The present working directory is that of the calling script. If you
change the directory in the function, it will be changed in the calling script.
4. In the Korn shell, you can declare local variables in the function using the type-
set command. Ksh functions can be exported to subshells.
710 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

5. The return statement returns the exit status of the last command executed
within the function or the value of the argument given, and cannot exceed a
value of 255.
6. To list functions and definitions, use the preset alias, functions.
7. Traps are local to functions and will be reset to their previous value when the
function exits (not so with the Bourne shell).
8. Functions can be recursive, that is, call themselves. Recursion should be
handled carefully. The Korn shell will warn you otherwise with the message,
recursion too deep.
9. Functions can be autoloaded; they are defined only if referenced. If never refer-
enced, they are not loaded into memory.
10. Versions of the Korn shell that are more recent than 1988 also support disci-
pline functions, passing variables by reference, and compound variables. A
built-in command is no longer found before a function of the same name. In
older versions it was necessary to use a combination of aliases and functions to
write a function that would override a built-in command.

12.8.1 Defining Functions

A function must be defined before it can be invoked. Korn shell functions are defined
with the keyword function preceding the function name. The curly braces must have a
space on the inside of each brace. (Please see "Functions" on page 372 for the older-style
Bourne shell function definition; these are still compatible in Korn shell scripts.)

FORMAT

function function.name { commands; commands; }

EXAMPLE 12.53

function usage { print "Usage $0 [-y] [-g] " ; exit 1; }

EXPLANATION

The function name is usage. It is used to print a diagnostic message and exit the script
if the script does not receive the proper arguments, either -y or -g.

12.8.2 Listing and Unsetting Functions

To list local function definitions, type typeset -f. To list exported function definitions,
type typeset -fx. To unset a function, type unset -f function.name. See the typeset com-
mand, Table 12.11 on page 714.

3. David G. Korn and Morris I. Bolsky, The Korn Shell Command and Programming Language (Englewood
Cliffs, NJ; Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1988), p. 77.
12.8 Functions 711

12.8.3 Local Variables and the Return Value

The typeset command can be used to create local variables. These variables will be
known only in the function where they are created. Once out of the function, the local
variables are undefined.
The return value of a function is really just the value of the exit status of the last com-
mand in the script unless a specific return command is used. If a value is assigned to the
return command, that value is stored in the ? variable. It can hold an integer value
between 0 and 255. Because the return command is limited to returning only integer val-
ues, you can use command substitution to return the output of a function and assign the
output to a variable, just as you would if getting the output of a UNIX command.

EXAMPLE 12.54

(The Script)
#!/bin/ksh
# Scriptname: do_increment
# Using the return Command)
1 function increment,
2 typeset sum sum local variable.
(( sum = $1 + 1 ))
3 return $sum # Return e value of sum to the script.
}

print -n "The sum i

increment 5 the function increment and pass 5 as a
# parameter. 5 becomes SI for the increment function.
5 print $? # The return value is stored in the ? variable
6 print $sum # The variable "sum" was local to the function, and
# is undefined in the main script. Nothing is printed.

(The Output)
$ dojncrement
5 The sum is 6
6

EXPLANATION

1 The function called increment is defined.

2 The typeset command defines the variable sum to be local to this function.

3 The return built-in command, when given an argument, returns to the main script
after the line where the function was invoked and stores its argument in the ? vari-
able. In the script, the increment function is called with an argument.

4 The increment function is called with an argument of 5.

712 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

EXPLANATION (continued)

5 The exit status of the function is stored in ? unless an explicit argument is given
to the return command. The return command argument specifies a return status
for the function, its value is stored in the ? variable, and it must be an integer be-
tween 0 and 255.

6 Because sum was defined as a local variable in the function increment, it is not de-
fined in the script that invoked the function. Nothing is printed.

EXAMPLE 12.55

(Using Command Substitution)

(The Script)
# Scriptname: do_square
#!/bin/l<sh
1 function square {
(( sq = $1 * $1 ))
print "Number to be squared is $1."
2 print "The result is $sq "
}
3 read number?"Give me a number to square. "
4 value_returned=S(square $number)
5 print $value_returned

(The Output)
$ do.square
5 Number to be squared is 10. The result is 100

EXPLANATION

1 The function called square is defined. It will multiply its argument times itself.

2 The result of squaring the number is printed.

3 The user is asked for input.

4 The function square is called with a number (input from the user) as its argument.
Command substitution is performed because the function is enclosed in paren-
theses preceded by a $. The output of the function (both of its print statements) is
assigned to the variable value_returned.

5 The command substitution removes the newline between the strings Number to be
squared is and The result is 100.

12.8.4 Exported Functions

Function definitions are not inherited by subshells unless you define them in the ENV file
with the typeset command, for example, typeset -fx function_names.
You can export functions with typeset -fx from the current Korn shell to a script, or
from one script to another, but not from one invocation of ksh to the next (e.g., a separate
12.8 Functions 713

invocation means that if you type ksh at the prompt, a brand new shell is started up).
Exported function definitions will not be inherited by the new shell.

EXAMPLE 12.56

(The First Script)

$ cat calling_script
#!/bin/ksh
1 function sayit { print "How are ya $1?" ; }
2 typeset -fx sayit # Export sayit to other scripts
3 sayit Tommy
4 print "Going to other script"
5 other_script # Call other_script
print "Back in calling script"
•A- i; -A- ■!; -A- -A- •!; -A- i; -A- -A- •!; i; •!; -A- i; ;'t•!; -A- -A- i; -A i; A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
(The Second Script)
$ cat other.script # NOTE: This script cannot be invoked with #!/bin/ksh
6 print "In other script "
7 sayit Dan
8 print "Returning to calling script"

(The Output)
$ calling.script
3 How are ya Tommy?
4 Going to other script
6 In other script
7 How are ya Dan?
8 Returning to calling script
Back in calling script

EXPLANATION

l The function sayit is defined. It will accept one argument to be stored in $1.

2 The typeset command with the -fx option allows the function to be exported to
any script called from this script.

3 The function sayit is invoked with Tommy as an argument. Tommy will be stored in $1
in the function.

4 After the sayit function terminates, the program resumes here.

5 The script, called other_script, is executed.

6 We are now in the other script. This script is called from the first script, sayit. It
cannot start with the line #!/bin/ksh because this line causes a ksh subshell to be
started, and exporting functions does not work if a separate Korn shell is invoked.

7 The function sayit is invoked. Dan is passed as an argument, which will be stored
in $1 in the function.

8 After this line is printed, other.script terminates and control goes back to the call-
ing script at the line where it left off after the function was invoked.
714 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

12.8.5 Function Options and the typeset Command

The typeset command is used to display function attributes. See Table 12.11.

Table 12.11 typeset and Function Options

Option What It Does

typeset -f Displays all functions and their values. Must have a history file, as all
function definitions are stored there.

typeset +f Displays just function names.

typeset -fx Displays all function definitions that will be exported across shell scripts,
but not as a separate invocation of ksh.

typeset -fu func func is the name of a function that has not yet been defined.

Autoloaded Functions. An autoloaded function is not loaded into your program

until you reference it. The autoloaded function can be defined in a file somewhere else
and the definition will not appear in your script, allowing you to keep the script small
and compact. To use autoload, you need to set the FPATH variable in your ENV file. The
FPATH variable contains a search path for directories containing function files. The files
in this directory have the same names as the functions defined within them.
The autoload alias for typeset -fu specifies that the function names that have not yet
been defined are to be autoloaded functions. After the autoload command is executed
with the function as its argument, you must invoke the function to execute the com-
mands contained in it. The primary advantage of autoloading functions is better perfor-
mance, because the Korn shell does not have to read the function definition if it has
never been referenced.4

EXAMPLE 12.57

(The Command Line)

1 S mkdir functionlibrary
2 S cd functionlibrary
3 $ vi foobar

(In Editor)
4 function foobar { pwd; Is; whoami; } # function has the same name as the file.

(In .profile File)

5 export FPATH=$HOME/functionlibrary # This path is searched for functions.

4. Morris 1. Bolsky and David G. Korn, The New Kornshell (Upper Saddle River, NJ; Prentice Hall, 1995), p. 78.
12.8 Functions 715

EXAMPLE 12.57 (continued)

(In Your Script)

6 autoload foobar
7 foobar

EXPLANATION

l Make a directory in which to store functions.

2 Go to the directory.

3 foobar is a file in functionlibrary. The file foobar contains the definition of function
foobar. The filename and function name must match.

4 The function foobar is defined in the file called foobar.

5 In the user's . profi le initialization file, the FPATH variable is assigned the path where
the functions are stored. This is the path the Korn shell will search when auto-
loading a function. FPATH is exported.

6 In your script, the function foobar is brought into the program's memory.

7 The function foobar is invoked.

A number of functions can be stored in one file; for example, calculation functions
may be contained in a file called math. Because the function must have the same name as
the file in which it is stored, you may create hard links to the function file. Each function
name will be a link to the file in which the function is defined. For example, if a function
in the math file is called square, use the UNIX/Linux In command to give the math file
another name, square. Now the math file and square file can be referenced, and in either
case you are referencing the file by the corresponding function name. Now the square
function can be autoloaded by its own name.

EXAMPLE 12.58

(The Command Line)

1 $ In math square add divide
2 $ Is -i
12256 add
12256 math
12256 square
12256 divide
3 $ autoload square; square

EXPLANATION

1 The UNIX/Linux In (link) command lets you give a file alternate names; math and
square are the same file. The link count is incremented by one for each link created.

2 A listing shows that all files have the same inode number, meaning they are all one
file but can be accessed with different names.
716 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

EXPLANATION (continued)

3 Now, when the square file is autoloaded, the function square has the same name and
will be invoked. None of the other functions defined in the file can be referenced
until they, in turn, have been specifically autoloaded by name.

12.9 Trapping Signals

While your program is running, if you press Ctrl-C or CtrlA, the program terminates as
soon as the signal arrives. There are times when you would rather not have the program
terminate immediately after the signal arrives. You could arrange to ignore the signal and
keep running, or perform some sort of cleanup operation before actually exiting the
script. The trap command allows you to control the way a program behaves when it
receives a signal.
A signal is defined as an asynchronous message that consists of a number that can be
sent from one process to another, or by the operating system to a process if certain keys
are pressed or if something exceptional happens.^ The trap command tells the shell to
terminate the command currently in execution upon the receipt of a signal. If the trap
command is followed by commands within single quotes, those commands will be exe-
cuted upon receipt of a specified signal. Use the command kill -1 to get a list of all sig-
nals and the numbers corresponding to them.

FORMAT

trap 'command; command' signal

EXAMPLE 12.59

trap 'rm tinp*$$; exit 1' 1 2 15

EXPLANATION

When any of the signals 1 (hangup), 2 (interrupt), or 15 (software termination) arrives,

remove all the tmp files and then exit.

If an interrupt comes in while the script is running, the trap command lets you handle
the interrupt signal in several ways. You can let the signal behave normally (default),
ignore the signal, or create a handler function to be called when the signal arrives. See
Table 12.12 for a list of signal numbers and their corresponding names.6 Type kill -1 to
get the output shown in Table 12.12.

5. Morris I. Bolsky and David G. Korn, The New KomShell Command and Programming Language (Engle-
wood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall PTR, 1995), p. 327.
6. For a complete discussion of UNIX signals, see W. Richard Stevens, Advanced Programming in the UNIX
Environment (Boston: Addison-Wesley Professional, 1992).
12.9 Trapping Signals 717

Table 12.12 Signals0, b

1) HUP 12) SYS 23) POLL

2) INT 13) PIPE 24) XCPU

3) QUIT 14) ALRM 25) XFSZ

4) ILL 15) TERM 26) VTALRM

5) TRAP 16) URG 27) PROF

6) I0T 17) STOP 28) WINCH

7) EMT 18) TSTP 29) LOST

8) FPE 19) CONT 30) USR1

9) KILL 20) CHLD 31) USR2

10) BUS 21) TTIN

11) SEGV 22) TTOU

a. The output of this command may differ slightly with the operating system.
b. For a complete list of UNIX signals and their meanings, go towww.cyberinagician.co.uk/
technet/unixsignals.htm. For Linux signals, go to www.coniptechdoc.org/os/linux/prograniniing/
linux_pgsignals.htnil.

12.9.1 Pseudo or Fake Signals

These three fake signals are not real signals, but are generated by the shell to help debug
a program. They are treated like real signals by the trap command and defined in the
same way. See Table 12.13 for a list of pseudo signals.

Table 12.13 Korn Shell Fake Trap Signals

Signal What It Does

DEBUG Executes trap commands after every script command

ERR Executes trap commands if any command in the script returns a nonzero exit status

0 or EXIT Executes trap commands if the shell exits

Signal names such as HUP and INT are normally prefixed with SIG, for example, SICHUP,
SICINT, and so forth. The Korn shell allows you to use symbolic names for the signals,
which are the signal names without the SIC prefix, or you can use the numeric value for
the signal. See Example 12.60.
718 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

12.9.2 Resetting Signals

To reset a signal to its default behavior, the trap command is followed by the signal name
or number. Traps set in functions are local to functions; that is, they are not known out-
side the function where they were set.

EXAMPLE 12.60

trap 2 or trap INT

EXPLANATION

Resets the default action for signal 2, SIGINT. The default action is to kill the process
when the interrupt key (Ctrl-C) is pressed.

12.9.3 Ignoring Signals

If the trap command is followed by a pair of empty quotes, the signals listed will be
ignored by the process.

EXAMPLE 12.61

11
trap " 1 2 or trap "" HUP INT

EXPLANATION

Signals 1 (SIGHUP) and 2 (SIGINT) will be ignored by the shell process.

12.9.4 Listing Traps

To list all traps and the commands assigned to them, type trap.

EXAMPLE 12.62

(The Script)
#!/bin/l<sh
# Scriptname: trapping
# Script to illustrate the trap command and signals
# Can use the signal numbers or ksh abbreviations seen
# below. Cannot use SIGINT, SICQUIT, etc.
1 trap 'print "Ctrl-C will not terminate SPROGRAM."' INT
2 trap 'print "Ctrl-\ will not terminate $PR0GRAM.'" QUIT
3 trap 'print "Ctrl-Z will not terminate SPROGRAM.'" TSTP
4 print "Enter any string after the prompt.\
When you are ready to exit, type \"stop\"."
5 while true
do
12.9 Trapping Signals 719

EXAMPLE 12.62 (continued)

6 print -n "Co ahead...> "

7 read
8 if [[ SREPLY = [Ss]top ]]
then
9 break
fi
10 done

(The Output)
$ trapping
4 Enter any string after the prompt.
When you are ready to exit, type "stop".
6 Go ahead...> this is itAC
1 Ctrl-C will not terminate trapping.
6 Go ahead...> this is it againAZ
3 Ctrl-Z will not terminate trapping.
6 Go ahead...> this is never itA\
2 Ctrl-\ will not terminate trapping.
6 Go ahead...> stop
$

EXPLANATION

1 The first trap catches the INT signal, Ctrl-C. If Ctrl-C is pressed while the program
is running, the command enclosed in quotes will be executed. Instead of aborting,
the program will print Ctrl-C will not terminate trapping and continue to prompt
the user for input.

2 The second trap command will be executed when the user presses CtrlA, the QUIT
signal. The string Ctrl-\ will not terminate trapping will be displayed and the pro-
gram will continue to run. This signal, SIGQUIT by default, kills the process and
produces a core file.

3 The third trap command will be executed when the user presses Ctrl-Z, the TSTP
signal. The string Ctrl-Z will not terminate trapping will be displayed, and the pro-
gram will continue to run. This signal normally causes the program to be sus-
pended in the background if job control is implemented.

4 The user is prompted for input.

5 The while loop is entered.

6 The string Go ahead.. .> is printed and the program waits for input (see line 7).
7 The read command assigns user input to the built-in REPLY variable.

8 If the value of REPLY matches Stop or stop, the break command causes the loop to
exit and the program will terminate. Entering Stop or stop is the only way we will
get out of this program unless it is killed with the kill command.

9 The break command causes the body of the loop to be exited.

10 The done keyword marks the end of the loop.

720 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

EXAMPLE 12.63

(The Script)
S cat trap.err
#!/bin/ksh
# This trap checks for any command that exits with a nonzero
# status and then prints the message.
1 trap 'print "You gave me a non-integer. Try again. ERR
2 typeset -i number # Assignment to number must be integer
3 while true
do
4 print -n "Enter an integer. "
5 read -r number 2> /dev/null
6 if (($?== 0 )) # Was an integer read in?
then # Was the exit status zero?
7 break

fi
/
done /
8 trap - ERR # Unset pseudo trap for ERR
n=$number
9 if grep ZOMBIE /etc/passwd > /dev/null 2>&1
then

else
10 print "\Sn is $n. So long"
fi

(The Output)
$ trap.err
4 Enter an integer, hello
1 You gave me a non-integer. Try again.
4 Enter an integer, good-bye
1 You gave me a non-integer. Try again.
4 Enter an integer. \\\
1 You gave me a non-integer. Try again.
4 Enter an integer. 5
10 $n is 5. So long.
$ trap.err
4 Enter an integer. 4.5
10 $n is 4. So long.

EXPLANATION

1 The ERR (fake or pseudo) signal will print the message in double quotes any time
a command in the program returns a nonzero exit status, that is, fails.

2 The typeset command with the -i option creates an integer variable, number, which
can only be assigned integers.
12.9 Trapping Signals 721

EXPLANATION (continued)

3 The exit status of the true command is always 0; the body of the while loop is
entered.

4 The user is asked to type in an integer.

5 The read command reads user input and assigns it to the number variable. The num-
ber must be an integer; if not, an error message will be sent to /dev/null. The -r
option to the read command allows you to enter a negative number (starting with
the minus sign).

6 If the exit status from the read command is 0, a number was entered, and the if
statements will be executed.

7 The break command is executed and the loop exits.

8 The trap for the fake Korn shell signal ERR is unset.

9 When grep fails, it returns a nonzero exit status; if we had not unset the ERR trap,
the script would have printed You gave me a non-integer. Try again. So long if the grep
failed to find ZOMBIE in the /etc/passwd file.

10 This line is printed if the grep failed. Note that if a floating-point number such as
4.5 is entered, the number is truncated to an integer.

12.9.5 Traps and Functions

If trap is used in a function, the trap and its commands are local to the function.

EXAMPLE 12.64

(The Script)
#!/bin/ksh
1 function trapper {
print "In trapper"
2 trap 'print "Caught in a trap!'" INT
print "Cot here."
sleep 25
}
3 while :
do
print "In the main script"
4 trapper # Call the function
5 print "Still in main"
sleep 5
print "Bye"
done
722 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

EXAMPLE 12.64 (continued)

(The Output)
$ functrap
In the main script
In trapper
Got here.
ACCaught in a trap!
$

EXPLANATION

1 The function trapper is defined. It contains the trap command.

2 The trap command will be executed if Ctrl-C is entered. The print command with-
in the trap is executed and the program continues execution. Ctrl-C is entered
while the sleep command is running. Normally, the program will continue to run
just after the command where it was interrupted (with the exception of the sleep
command, which causes the program to abort). The trap has no effect on lines
starting after 4.

3 In the main part of the script, a while loop is started. The colon is a do-nothing
command that always returns a zero exit status. The loop will go forever.

4 Once in the loop, the function trapper is called.

5 The trap command within the trapper function will have no effect in this part of
the program because the trap is local to the function. If the function exits normal-
A
ly (i.e., C is not pressed), execution will continue here. The default behavior for
A
C will cause the script to abort if the signal is sent here or to any of the lines that
follow.

12.10 Coprocesses

A coprocess is a special two-way pipeline that allows shell scripts to write to the stan-
dard input of another command and to read from its standard output. This provides a
way to create a new interface for an existing program. The append operator, |&, is placed
at the end of the command to initiate the command as a coprocess. Normal redirection
and background processing should not be used on coprocesses. The print and read com-
mands require a -p switch to read from and write to a coprocess. The output must be sent
to standard output and have a newline at the end of each message of output. The stan-
dard output must be flushed after each message is sent to standard output. You can run
multiple coprocesses by using the exec command with the >&p or <&p operator. To open
file descriptor 4 as a coprocess, you would enter exec 4>&p.
12.10 Coprocesses 723

EXAMPLE 12.65

(The Script)
#!/bin/ksh
# Scriptname: mycalculator
# ^ simple calculator — uses the be command to perform the calculations
# Because the shell performs operations on integers only, this program allows
# you to use floating-point numbers by writing to and reading from the beprogram.

1 cat « EOF

2 WELCOME TO THE CALCULATOR PROGRAM

is is is is is is is is is is is is is is is is is is is is is is is is is is is is is is is is is is is is is is is is is is is is is is is is is
3 EOF

4 be |& # Open coprocess

5 while true
do
6 print "Select the letter for one of the operators below "
7 cat «- EOF
a) +
s) -
m) *
d) /
e) a
EOF
8 read op
9 case Sop in
a) op^V;;
s) op="-";;
m) op="*";;
d) op=7";;
e) op="A";;
is) print "Bad operator"
continue;;
esac
10 print -p scale=3 # write to the coprocess
11 print "Please enter two numbers: " # write to standard out
12 read numl num2 # read from standard in
13 print -p "Snuml" "Sop" "$num2" # write to the coprocess
14 read -p result # read from the coprocess
15 print Sresult
16 print -n "Continue (y/n)? "
17 read answer
18 case Sanswer in
[Nn]* )
724 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

EXAMPLE 12.65 (continued)

19 break;;
esac
20 done
21 print Good-bye

(The Output)
$ mycalculator
•k k •!; k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k
1 WELCOME TO THE CALCULATOR PROGRAM
./I1 /If /I1 ., .V • 1.V ..V1. .V *v .V »v .1 .#. .V.f %> JV JV,l_ JV. 1. .V.■ *V JV.f .V.1 .V.« ,f_ •%».1 ■ .V,l_ •>.f, «>.t JV_|. .! .V.1 •.1V
/I /» /| .1/| /if /I_ 1 /I.f_ _# ^.« .f. I _|. ..
1 .1

6 5e7ect one of the operators below

7 a) +
s) -
m) *
d) /
e) h
e
11 Please enter two numbers:
2.3 4
27.984
16 Continue (y/n)? y
6 Select one of the operators below
7 a) +
s) -
m) *
d) /
e) h
d
11 Please enter two numbers:
2.1 4.6
0.456
16 Continue (y/n)? y
6 Select one of the operators below
7 a) +
s) -
m)
d) /
e) h
m
11 Please enter two numbers:
4 5
20
16 Continue (y/n)? n
21 Cood-bye
12.11 Debugging 725

EXPLANATION

1 The here document is used to display a title banner.

2 This text is printed as a header to the menu below.

3 EOF is a user-defined terminator, marking the end of the here document.

4 The be command (desk calculator) is opened as a coprocess. It is executed in the

background.

5 A whi 1 e loop is started. Because the true command always returns a successful exit
status of 0, the loop will continue indefinitely until a break or exit is reached.

6 The user is prompted to select an item from a menu to be displayed.

7 Another here document displays a list of math operations the user can choose for the
be program.

8 The read command assigns user input to the variable op.

9 The case command matches for one of the op values and assigns an operator to op.

10 The print command with the -p option pipes output (scale=3) to the coprocess, the
be command. The be command accepts the print output as input and sets the scale
to 3. (The scale defines the number of significant digits to the right of the decimal
point in a number that will be displayed by be.)

11 The user is prompted to enter two numbers.

12 The read command assigns user input to the variables numl and num2.

13 The print -p command sends the arithmetic expression to the be coprocess.

14 The shell reads from the be coprocess (read -p) and assigns the input to the vari-
able result.

15 The result of the calculation ($result) is printed.

16 The user is asked about continuing.

17 The user enters input. It is assigned to the variable answer.

18 The case command evaluates the variable answer.

19 If the user had entered No or no or nope, and so on, the break command would be
executed, and the while loop would be terminated with control sent to line 21.

20 The done keyword marks the end of the while loop.

21 This line is printed when the loop terminates.

12.11 Debugging

By turning on the noexec option or using the -n argument to the ksh command, you can
check the syntax of your scripts without really executing any of the commands. If there
is a syntax error in the script, the shell will report the error. If there are no errors, noth-
ing is displayed.
The most commonly used method for debugging scripts is to turn on the xtrace
option or to use the ksh command with the -x option. These options allow an execution
trace of your script. Each command from your script is displayed after variable substi-
726 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

tution has been performed, and then the command is executed. When a line from your
script is displayed, it is preceded with the value of the PS4 prompt, a plus (+) sign. The
PS4 prompt can be changed.
With the verbose option turned on, or by invoking the Korn shell with the -v option
(ksh -v scriptname), each line of the script will be displayed, just as it was typed in the
script, and then executed. See Table 12.14 for debug commands.

Table 12.14 Debug Commands and Options

Command Function How It Works

export PS4='$LINEN0 ' The PS4 prompt by You can reset the prompt. In this
default is a +. example, a line number will be
printed for each line.

ksh -x scriptname Invokes ksh with echo Displays each line of the script
option. after variable substitution and
before execution.

ksh -v scriptname Invokes ksh with verbose Displays each line of the script
option. before execution, just as you
typed it.

ksh -n scriptname Invokes ksh with noexec Interprets but does not execute
option. commands.

set -x or Turns on echo option. Traces execution in a script.

set -o xtrace

set +x Turns off echo. Turns off tracing.

trap 'print SLINENO ' DEBUG Prints value of SLINENO For each script command, the
for each line in the trap action is performed. See
script. format for trap.

trap 'print Bad input' ERR If a nonzero exit status is

returned, the trap is executed.

trap 'print Exiting from $0' EXIT Prints message when script or
function exits.

typeset -ft Turns on tracing. Traces execution in a function.

12.11 Debugging 727

EXAMPLE 12.66

(The Script)
#!/bin/ksh
# Scriptname: todebug
1 naine="]oe Blow"
2 if [[ Sname = []j]* ]] then
print Hi Sname
fi
nuin=l
3 while (( num < 5 ))
do
4 (( nuin=nuni+l ))
done
5 print The grand total is $num

(The Output)
1 $ ksh -x todebug
2 + name=]oe Blow
+ [[ Joe Blow = [Jj]* ]]
+ print Hi Joe Blow
Hi Joe Blow
+ num=l The + is the PS4 prompt
+ let num < 5
+ let num=num+l
+ let num < 5
+ let num=num+l
+ let num < 5
+ let num=num+l
+ let num < 5
+ let num=num+l
+ let num < 5
+ print The grand total is 5
5 The grand total is 5

EXPLANATION

1 The Korn shell is invoked with the -x option. Echoing is turned on. Each line of
the script will be displayed on the screen, followed by the result of executing that
line. Variable substitution is performed. Alternatively, the -x option can be used in
the script instead of at the command line (e.g., #!/bin/ksh -x).

2 The lines are preceded by the plus (+) sign, the PS4 prompt.

3 The while loop is entered. It will loop 4 times.

4 The value of num is incremented by by 1.

5 After the while loop exits, this line is printed.

728 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

EXAMPLE 12.67

(The Script)
#!/bin/ksh
# Scriptname: todebug?
1 trap 'print "num=$num on line SLINENO"' DEBUG
num=l
while (( num < 5 ))
do
(( num=num+l ))
done
print The grand total is $num

(The Output)
$ todebug2
2 num=l on line 3
num=l on line 4
num=2 on line 6
num=2 on line 4
num=3 on line 6
num=3 on line 4
num=4 on line 6
num=4 on line 4
num=5 on line 6
num=5 on line 4
The grand total is 5
num=5 on line 8
num=5 on line 8

EXPLANATION

1 LINENO is a special Korn shell variable that holds the number of the current script
line. The DEBUG signal, used with the trap command, causes the string enclosed in
single quotes to be executed every time a command in the script is executed.

2 As the while loop executes, the value of the variable nun and the line of the script
are displayed.

12.12 The Command Line

12.12.1 Processing Command-Line Options with getopts

If you are writing scripts that require a number of command-line options, positional
parameters are not always most efficient. For example, the UNIX/Linux Is command
takes a number of command-line options and arguments. (An option requires a lead-
ing dash; an argument does not.) Options can be passed to the program in several
ways: Is -laFi, Is -i -a -1 -11 Is -ia -F, and so forth. If you have a script that requires
12.12 The Command Line 729

arguments, positional parameters might be used to process the arguments individually,

such as Is -1 -i -F. Each dash option would be stored in $1, $2, and $3, respectively But,
what if the user listed all of the options as one dash option, as in Is -liF? Now the -liF
would all be assigned to $1 in the script. The getopts function makes it possible to process
command-line options and arguments in the same way they are processed by the Is pro-
gram.7 The getopts function will allow the runit program to process its arguments using
a variety of combinations.

EXAMPLE 12.68

(The Command Line)

1 $ runit -x -n 200 filex
2 $ runit -xn200 filex
3 $ runit -xy
4 $ runit -yx -n 30
5 $ runit -n250 -xy filey

(any other combination of these arguments )

EXPLANATION

1 The program runit takes four arguments; x is an option, n is an option requiring a

number argument after it, and filex is an argument that stands alone.

2 The program runit combines the options x and n and the number argument 200;
filex is also an argument.

3 The program runit combines the x and y options.

4 The program runit combines the y and x options; the n option is passed separately
as is the number argument, 30.

5 The program runit combines the n option with the number argument; the x and y
options are combined and the filey is separate.

Before getting into all the details of the runit program, we examine the line from the
program where getopts is used to see how it processes the arguments. The following is a
line from the script called runit:

while getopts :xyn: name

1. x, y, and n are the options.

2. Options typed at the command line begin with either - or +.
3. Any options that do not contain a + or - tell getopts that the option list is at an
end.
4. The colon after an option says that the option requires an argument; that is, the
-n option requires an argument.

7. See the UNIX or Linux manual for the C library function getopt.
730 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

5. The colon before an option list says that if you type an illegal option, getopts
will allow the programmer to handle it. For example, in the command runit -p,
where -p is not one of the legal options, getopts will tell you so programmati-
cally. The shell does not print an error message.
6. Each time getopts is called, it places the next option it finds, without the dash,
in the variable name. (You can use any variable name here.) If there is a plus sign
prepended to the option, then it goes into name with the plus sign. If an illegal
argument is given, name is assigned a question mark; if a required argument is
missing, name is assigned a colon.
7. OPTIND is a special variable that is initialized to one and is incremented each time
getopts completes processing a command-line argument to the number of the
next argument getopts will process.
8. The OPTARG variable contains the value of a legal argument, or if an illegal option
is given, the value of the illegal option is stored in OPTARG.

Sample getopts Scripts. The following sample scripts illustrate how getopts pro-
cesses arguments.

EXAMPLE 12.69 |

(The Script)
#!/bin/l<sh
# Program optsl
# Using getopts — First try —
1 while getopts xy options
do
2 case $options in
3 x) print "you entered -x as an option";;
y) print "you entered -y as an option";;
esac
done

(The Command Line)

4 $ optsl -x
you entered -x as an option
5 $ optsl -xy
you entered -x as an option
you entered -y as an option
6 $ optsl -y
you entered -y as an option
7 $ optsl -b
optsl[3]: getopts: b bad option(s)
8 $ optsl b
12.12 The Command Line 731

EXPLANATION

l The getopts command is used as a condition for the while command. The valid op-
tions for this program are listed after the getopts command; they are x and y. Each
option is tested in the body of the loop, one after the other. Each option will be
assigned to the variable options, without the leading dash. When there are no long-
er any arguments to process, getopts will exit with a nonzero status, causing the
while loop to terminate.

2 The case command is used to test each of the possible options found in the options
variable, either x or y.

3 If x was an option, the string you entered -x as an option is displayed.

4 At the command line, the optsl script is given an x option, a legal option to be pro-
cessed by getopts.

5 At the command line, the optsl script is given an xy option, legal options to be pro-
cessed by getopts.

6 At the command line, the optsl script is given a y option, a legal option to be pro-
cessed by getopts.

7 The optsl script is given a b option, an illegal option. Getopts sends an error message.

8 An option without a - or + prepended to it is not an option and causes getopts to

stop processing arguments.

EXAMPLE 12.70

(The Script)
#!/bin/ksh
# Program opt52
# Using getopts -- Second try —
1 while getopts :xy options
do
2 case Soptions in
x) print "you entered -x as an option";;
y) print "you entered -y as an option";;
3 \?) print $0PTARG is not a valid option 1>&2;;
esac
done

(The Command Line)

$ opts2 -x
you entered -x as an option
$ opts2 -y
you entered -y as an option
732 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

EXAMPLE 12.70 (continued)

$ opts2 xy
S opts2 -xy
you entered -x as an option
you entered -y as an option
4 $ opts2 -g
g is not a valid option
5 $ opts2 -c
c is not a valid option

EXPLANATION

1 The colon preceding the option list prevents the Korn shell from printing an error
message for a bad option. However, if the option is a bad option, a question mark
will be assigned to the options variable.

2 The case command can be used to test for the question mark, allowing you to print
your own error message to standard error.

3 If the options variable is assigned the question mark, this case statement is execut-
ed. The question mark is protected with the backslash so that the Korn shell does
not see it as a wildcard and try to perform filename substitution.

4 g is not a legal option. The question mark is assigned to the options variable, and
OPTARG is assigned the illegal option g.

5 c is not a legal option. The question mark is assigned to the options variable, and
OPTARG is assigned the illegal option c.

EXAMPLE 12.71

(The Script)
#!/bin/l<sh
# Program optsS
# Using getopts — Third try —
1 while getopts :d options
do
case Soptions in
2 d) print -R "-d is the ON switch";;
3 +d) print -R "+d is the OFF switch";;
\?) print SOPTARG is not a valid option;;
esac
done
# Need the -R option with print or the shell tries to use -d as a print option
12.12 The Command Line 733

EXAMPLE 12.71 (continued)

(The Command Line)

4 $ optsB -d
-d is the ON switch
5 $ optsB +d
+d is the OFF switch
6 $ optsB -e
e is not a valid option
7 $ optsB e

EXPLANATION

1 The while command tests the exit status of getopts; if getopts can successfully pro-
cess an argument, it returns 0 exit status, and the body of the whi 1 e loop is entered.
The colon prepended to the d option tells getopts not to print an error message if
the user enters an invalid option.

2 One of the legal options is -d. If-d is entered as an option, the d (without the dash)
is stored in the options variable. (The -R option to the print command allows the
first character in the print string to be a dash.)

3 One of the legal options is +d. If +d is entered as an option, the d (with the plus
sign) is stored in the options variable.

4 The -d option is a legal option to optsB.

5 The +d option is also a legal option to optsB.

6 The -e option is invalid. A question mark is stored in options if the option is illegal.
The illegal argument is stored in OPTARC.

7 The option is prepended with neither a dash nor a plus sign. The getopts com-
mand will not process it as an option and returns a nonzero exit status. The while
loop is terminated.

EXAMPLE 12.72

(The Script)
#!/bin/ksh
# Program opt54
# Using getopts — Fourth try —
1 alias USAGE=,print "usage: opts4 [-x] filename "
2 while getopts :x: arguments
do
case Sarguments in
3 x) print "SOPTARC is the name of the argument
4 :) print "Please enter an argument after the -x option" >&2
USAGE ;;
734 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

EXAMPLE 12.72 (continued)

5 \?) print "SOPTARC is not a valid option." >&2

USAGE;;
esac
6 print "SOPTIND" # The number of the next argument to be processed
done

(The Command Line)

7 $ opts4 -x
Please enter an argument after the -x option
usage: opts4 [-x] filename
2
8 $ opts4 -x filex
filex is the name of the argument
3
9 $ opts4 -d
d is not a valid option,
usage: opts4 [-x] filename
1

EXPLANATION

1 The alias USAGE is assigned the diagnostic error message that will be printed if
getopts fails.

2 The while command tests the exit status of getopts; if getopts can successfully pro-
cess an argument, it returns zero exit status, and the body of the while loop is en-
tered. The colon prepended to the x option tells getopts not to print an error mes-
sage if the user enters an invalid option. The colon appended to the x option tells
getopts that an argument should follow the x option. If the option takes an argu-
ment, the argument is stored in the getopts built-in variable, OPTARG.

3 If the x option was given an argument, the argument is stored in the OPTARG variable
and will be printed.

4 If an argument was not provided after the x option, a colon is stored in the variable
arguments. The appropriate error message is displayed.

5 If an invalid option is entered, the question mark is stored in the variable arguments
and an error message is displayed.

6 The special getopts variable, OPTIND, holds the number of the next option to be pro-
cessed. Its value is always one more than the actual number of command-line ar-
guments.

7 The x option requires an argument. An error message is printed.

8 The name of the argument is filex. The variable OPTARG holds the name of the ar-
gument filex.

9 The option d is invalid. The usage message is displayed.

12.13 Security 735

12.13 Security

12.13.1 Privileged Scripts

A script is privileged if the Korn shell is invoked with the -p option. When the privi-
leged option is used and the real UID and/or the real GID are not the same as the effec-
tive UID or effective GID, the .profile will not be executed and a system file called
etc/suicLprofile will be executed instead of the ENV file.

12.13.2 Restricted Shells

When the Korn shell is invoked with the -r option, the shell is restricted. When the shell
is restricted, the cd command cannot be used and the SHELL, ENV, and PATH variables can-
not be modified or unset; commands cannot be executed if the first character is a back-
slash; and the redirection operators (>, <, |, ») are illegal. This option cannot be unset
or set with the set command. The command rksh will invoke a restricted shell.

12.14 Built-in Commands

The Korn shell has a number of built-in commands, as shown in Table 12.15.

Table 12.15 Built-in Commands and Their Functions

Command Function

'■ Do-nothing command; returns exit status 0.

. file The dot command reads and executes a command from file.

break See "The break Command" on page 699.

continue See "The continue Command" on page 700.

cd Changes directory.

echo [ args ] Displays arguments.

eval command Shell scans the command line twice before execution.

exec command Runs command in place of this shell.

exit [ n ] Exit the shell with status n.

export [ var ] Makes van known to subshells.

736 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

Table 12.15 Built-in Commands and Their Functions (continued)

Command Function

fc -e [ editor ] [ Inr ] first last Used to edit commands in the history list. If no editor is specified,
the value of FCEDIT is used; if FCEDIT is not set, /bin/ed is used. Usually
history is aliased to fc -1.

Examples

fc -1 Lists the last 16 commands on the history list,

fc -e emacs grep Reads the last grep command into the emacs editor,
fc 25 30 Reads commands 25 through 30 into the editor
specified in FCEDIT, by default the ed editor,
fc -e - Re-executes the last command,
fc -e - TomUoe 28 Replaces Tom with Joe in history command 28.
fg Brings the last background job to the foreground,
fg %n Brings job number n to the foreground. Type jobs
to find the correct job number.

jobs [-1] Lists the active jobs by number and with the -1 option by PID
number.

Examples

$ jobs
[3] + Running sleep 50&
[1] - Stopped vi
[2] Running sleep%

kill [-signal process ] Sends the signal to the PID number or job number of process. See
/usr/include/sys/signal .h for a list of signals.

Signals

SIGHURl /* hangup (disconnect) */

SIGINT 2 /* interrupt */
SIGQUIT 3 /* quit */
SIGILL 4 /* illegal instruction (not reset when caught) */
SIGTRAP 5 /* trace trap (not reset when caught) */
SICIOT 6 /* IOT instruction */
SIGABRT 6 /* used by abort, replace SIGIOT in the future */
SIGEMT 7 /* EMT instruction */
SIGFPE 8 /* floating-point exception */
SIGKILL 9 /* kill (cannot be caught or ignored) */
SIGBUS 10 /* bus error */
SIGSEGV 11/* segmentation violation */
SIGSYS 12 /* bad argument to system call */
SIGPIPE 13/* write on a pipe with no one to read it */
SIGALRM 14/* alarm clock */
SIGTERM 15/* software termination signal from kill */
12.14 Built-in Commands 737

Table 12.15 Built-in Commands and Their Functions (continued)

Command Function

kill (continued) SIGURG 16 /* urgent condition on I/O channel */

SIGSTOP 17/* sendable stop signal not from tty */
SIGTSTP 18/* stop signal from tty */
SIGCONT 19/* continue a stopped process */

Examples

(To use the kill command and a signal name, strip off the SIC prefix
and precede the signal name with a dash.)
kill -INT %3
kill -HUP 1256
kill -9 %3
kill %1

getopts Used in shell scripts to parse command line and check for legal options.

hash Lists all tracked aliases.

login [ username ]

newgrp [ arg ] Changes your real group ID to the group ID.

print -[nrRsup] Replacement for echo. See print.

pwd Print present working directory.

read [ var ] Read line from standard input into variable var.

readonly [ van ] Make variable var readonly. Cannot be reset.

return [ n ] Exit value given to a function.

set [ -aefhknoptuvx- [-o option] Examples

[-A arrayname] [ arg ] ]
set Lists all variables and their values,
set + Lists all variables without their values,
set -o Lists all option settings,
set a b c Resets positional parameters $1, $2, $3.
set -s Sorts $1, $2, and $3 alphabetically,
set -o vi Sets the vi option.
set -xv Turns on the xtrace and verbose options for debugging,
set -- Unsets all positional parameters,
set -- "$x" Sets $1 to the value of x, even if x is -x.
set == $x Does pathname expansion on each item in x and
then sets the positional parameters to each item,
set -A name torn dick harry name[0] is set to torn; namefl] is set to dick;
name[2] is set to harry,
set +A name joe name[0] is reset to joe, the rest of the array is left
alone; name[l] is dick; name[2] is harry.
738 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

Table 12.15 Built-in Commands and Their Functions (continued)

Command Function

set (continued) (To set options, use the -o flag; to unset options, use the +o flag.)

set -o ignoreeof

Options:
all export After setting this, exports any variable defined or
changed.
bgnice Runs background jobs with a lesser priority; used
instead of nice.
emacs Sets the emacs built-in editor.
errexit The shell exits when a command returns a nonzero exit
status.
gmacs Sets the built-in gmacs editor.
ignoreeof Ignores the EOF (Ctrl-D) key from terminating the shell.
Must use exit to exit.
keyword Adds keyword arguments occurring anywhere on the
command line to the environment of the shell.
markdi rs Puts a trailing backslash on all directory names
resulting from filename expansion.
monitor Sets job control.
noclobber Prevents overwriting files using the redirection
operator, >. Use >| to force overwrite.
noexec Same as ksh -n; reads commands but does not execute
them. Used to check for syntax errors in shell scripts.
noglob Disables pathname expansion with ksh wildcard
metacharacters.
nolog Function definitions will not be stored in the history
file.
nounset Displays an error if a variable has not been set.
privileged Turns on privileged mode for setuid programs.
trackall Ksh causes each command to become a tracked alias;
automatically turned on for interactive shells.
verbose Echos each line of input to standard error; useful in
debugging.
vi Sets the vi built-in editor.
vi raw Specifies vi character at a time input.
xtrace Expands each command and displays it in the PS4
prompt, with variables expanded.

shift [ n ] Shifts positional parameters to the left n times.

times Prints accumulated user and system times for processes run from
this shell.

trap [ arg ] [ n ] When shell receives signal n ( 0, 1, 2, or 15 ), arg is executed.

12.14 Built-in Commands 739

Table 12.15 Built-in Commands and Their Functions (continued)

Command Function

type [ command ] Prints the type of command; for example, pwd is a built-in shell. In
ksh, an alias for whence -v.

typeset [ options ] [ van ] Sets attributes and values for shell variables and functions.

ulimit [ options size ] Sets maximum limits on processes.

Examples

ulimit -a Display all limits:

Time (seconds) unlimited.
File (blocks) unlimited.
Data (kbytes) 524280.
Stack (kbytes) 8192.
Memory (kbytes) unlimited.
Core dump (blocks) unlimited.

Other Options:
-c size Limits core dumps to size blocks.
-d size Limits the data size (of executables) to size blocks,
-f size Limits the size of files to size blocks (default),
-m size Limits the size of physical memory to size K bytes,
-s size Limits the size of the stack area to size K bytes,
-t sees Limits process execution time to sees seconds.

umask [ mask ] Without argument, prints out file creation mask for permissions.

umask [ octal digits ] User file creation mode mask for owner, group, and others.

unset [ name ] Unsets value of variable or function.

wait [ pid#n ] Waits for background process with PID number n and report
termination status.

whence [ command ] Prints information about the command, like ucb whereis.

Examples

whence -v happy happy is a function

whence -v addon addon is an undefined function
whence -vis Is is a tracked alias for /bin/Is
whence Is /bin/Is
740 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

12.15 Korn Shell Invocation Arguments

When the Korn shell is involved, it can take options to control its behavior. See
Table 12.16.

Table 12.16 Arguments to ksh

Command Function

-a Automatically exports all variables.

-c cmd Executes a command string.

-e Exits when a command returns a nonzero status.

-f Turns off globbing, the expansion of filename metacharacters.

-h Causes commands to be treated as tracked aliases.

-i Sets the interactive mode.

-k Sets the keyword option. All the key arguments to commands will be made part of the
environment.

-ID Causes commands executed in the background to be run in a separate process group, and
will continue to run even if Ctrl-C or logout is attempted. Sends a message that the job
has terminated when done.

-n Can be used for debugging. Commands are scanned, but not executed. Can be used with
-x and -v options.

-o Allows options to be set by the names listed in Table 12.15 with the set command,

-p Turns on privileged mode. Used for running setui d programs.

-r Sets the restricted mode.

-s Reads command from stdin, the default.

-t Causes the shell to exit after executing the first command found in shell input and the
-c option is specified.

-u Any reference to an unset variable is considered an error.

-v Each line of a script or standard input is printed before any parsing, variable substitution,
or other processing is performed. Output is written to standard error. Used for
debugging.

-x Each line of a script or standard input is printed before it is executed. Filename

expansion, variable substitution, and command substitution are shown in the output. All
output is prepended with the value of the PS4 prompt, a plus sign followed by a space.
Lines are written to standard error.
12.15 Korn Shell Invocation Arguments 741

LAB 33: KORN SHELL—GETTING STARTED

1. What shell are you using? How do you know?

2. Do you have a .profile and/or a .kshrc file in your home directory? What is the difference
between the .profile and .kshrc? What is the ENV file and how can you invoke it if you make
changes in it?

3. What is the default primary prompt? What is the default secondary prompt? Change your
primary prompt at the command line so that it contains your login name.

4. What is the purpose of setting each of the following variables?

a. set -o ignoreeof

b. set -o noclobber

c. set -o trackall

d. set -o monitor

e. set -o vi

Why are these variables set in the ENV file? What is the purpose of the PATH? What are the
elements of your PATH variable?

5. What is the difference between a local and an environment variable? How do you list all
your variables? How do you list only environment variables? To list all your current option
settings, type the following:

set -o

Which set options are turned on?

6. Create a local variable called myname that contains your full name. Now export the variable.
Type the following at the prompt:

ksh

Was the variable name exported? Type exit to get back to the parent shell. Make the variable
name readonly. What is a readonly variable?

7. What are positional parameters normally used for?

a. Type the following:

set apples pears peaches plums

Using the positional parameters, print plums. Print apples peaches. Print apples pears
peaches plums. Print the number of parameters. Reset the positional parameters to a list
of veggies. Print the whole list of veggies. What happened to the fruit list?

b. Type the following:

set ~
print $«

What happened?
742 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

8. Print the P1D of the current shell. Type the following at the prompt:

grep SLOGNAME /etc/passwd

echo $?

What does the $? tell you. What does the exit status tell you about the execution of a
command?

9. Change both the primary and secondary prompt in your .profile. How do you re-execute
the .profile file without logging out and logging back in?

LAB 34: HISTORY

1. What is your HISTSIZE variable set to? What is your HISTFILE variable set to? Check your .kshrc
file to see if set -o vi is there. If it has not been set, set it in the .kshrc file and re-execute the
file by typing the following:

. .kshrc

2. Type the following commands at the command line:

Is
date
who
cal 2 1993
date +%l

Type history or fc -1. What do these commands do? Print your history list in reverse. Print
your history list without numbers. Print the current command and the five preceding it.
Print everything from the tenth command to the present. Print everything between the most
recent Is command to the most recent cal command.

3. Using the r command, re-execute the last command. Re-execute the last command that
started with the letter d. Change the cal command year output to 1897. Change the date
command +%T argument to find the current hour.

4. If your history is set, press the Esc key at the command line and use the K key to move up
through the history list. Change the Is command to Is -alF and re-execute it.

5. Check to see if the FCEDIT variable has been set by typing the env command. If it has not been
set, type the following at the command line:

export FCEDIT=vi

Now type the following at the command line:

fc -1 -4

What happened?

6. How do you comment a line from your history list, so that it will be placed on the list
without being executed?

7. At the command line, type the following;

touch al a2 aB apples bears balloons a4 a45

12.15 Korn Shell Invocation Arguments 743

Now using the history Esc sequences, do the following:

a. Print the first file beginning with a.

b. Print a list of all files beginning with a.

c. Print the first file beginning with b.

d. Print a command and comment it.

8. At the command line, type the following;

print a b c d e

Using the history Esc underscore command, change the command to the following:

print e

Using the history Esc underscore command, change the first command to output:

print c

LAB 35: ALIASES AND FUNCTIONS

1. What command lists all the aliases currently set?

2. What command lists all the tracked aliases?

3. Create aliases for the following commands:

date +%T
history -n
Is -alF
rm -i
cp -i
print

4. How do you export an alias?

5. Create a function that contains the following commands:

Is -F
print -n "The time is"
date +%T
print -n "Your present working directory is"
pwd

6. Execute the function.

7. Now create your own functions, using positional parameters to

pass arguments.

8. What command lists the functions and their definitions?

9. Try some of the print options.

744 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

LAB 36: SHELL METACHARACTERS

1. Create a directory called meta. Cd to that directory. Use touch to create the following files (the
touch command creates a new empty file or updates the timestamp on an existing file):

abc abcl abc2 abc2191 Abel ab2 ab3 ab345 abc29 abc9 abc91 abc21xyz abc2121 noone nobody nothing
nowhere

2. Do the following:

a. List all files that start with a lowercase a.

b. List all files starting with uppercase A followed by two characters.

c. List all files that end in a number.

d. List all files that match one number after abc.

e. List all files that match nothing or noone.

f. List all files that match one or more numbers after abc.

g. List all files that do not contain the pattern abc.

h. List all files that contain ab followed by a 3 or 4.

i. List all files starting with a or A, followed by b, and ending in one number,

j. What is the error message if there is not a match?

LAB 37: TILDE EXPANSION, QUOTES,

AND COMMAND SUBSTITUTION

1. Use the tilde to do the following:

a. Print your home directory.

b. Print your neighbor's home directory.

c. Print your previous working directory.

d. Print your current working directory.

2. What variable holds the value of your present working directory? What variable holds the
value of your previous working directory?

3. Use the - to go to your previous working directory.

4. Use the print command to send the following output to the screen. (The word enclosed in
< > is a variable name that will be expanded, and words enclosed in [ ] are output of
commands that have been executed; i.e., use command substitution.)

Hi <L0CNAME> how's your day going?

"No, <L0GNAME> you can't use the car tonight!", she cried.
The time is [ Sun Feb 22 13:19:27 PST 2004 ]
The name of this machine is [ eagle ] and the time is [ 31:19:27 ]
12.15 Korn Shell Invocation Arguments 745

5. Create a file that contains a list of usernames. Now create a variable called nlist that
contains the list of usernames, extracted by using command substitution.

a. Print out the value of the variable. How does command substitution affect the
formatting of a list?

b. Test this by setting a variable to the output of the ps -eaf command.

c. What happened to the formatting?

LAB 38: REDIRECTION

1. Go into the editor and create the following two-line text file called ex6:

Last time I went to the beach I found a sea shell.

While in Kansas I found a corn shell.

2. Now append this line to your ex6 file:

The National Enquirer says someone gave birth to a shell, called the born shell.

3. Mail the ex6 file to yourself.

4. Using a pipe, count the number of lines (wc -1) in your ex6 file.

5. To list all set options, type the following:

set -o

Do you have the noclobber variable set? If not, type the following:

set -o noclobber

What happened?

6. Type the following at the command line:

cat « FINIS
How are you SLOGNAME
The time is "date'Bye!!
FINIS

What printed?

7. Now try this using tabs:

cat «- END
hello there
how are you
END

What printed?

8. Type the following at the command line:

kat file 2> error || print kat failed

What happened? Why?

746 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

9. Now type the following at the command line:

cat zombie 2> errorfile || print cat failed

What happened? Why? How does the && operator work? Try your own command to test it.

10. Use the find command to print all files that begin with an a from the root directory down.
Put the standard output in a file called foundit and send the errors to /dev/null.

LAB 39: JOB CONTROL

1. At the command line type the following:

mail <user>Press Ctrl-z

Now type:

jobs

What is the number in the square brackets?

2. Now type;

sleep 300
jobs
bg

What does bg do? What do the + and - signs indicate?

3. Kill the mail job using job control.

A
4. Go into the editor. Type Z to stop the job. Now bring the stopped vi job back into the
foreground. What command did you type?

5. Type the following command;

jobs -1

What is the output?

6. What is the TMOUT variable used for?

7. How much time was spent by the kernel when executing the following command:

(sleep 5 ; ps -eaf )

LAB 40: WRITING THE info SHELL SCRIPT

1. Write a program called info. Make sure you make the program executable with the chmod
command before you try to execute it.

2. The program should contain comments.

3. The program should do the following when executed:

a. Output the number of users logged on.

b. Output the time and date.

12.15 Korn Shell Invocation Arguments 747

c. Output the present working directory.

d. List all directory files in the parent directory

e. Print out the name of the shell being used.

f. Print a line from the password file containing your login name.

g. Print your user ID.

h. Print the name of this machine.

i. Print your disk usage.

j. Print a calendar for this month.

k. Tell the user good-bye and print the hour in nonmililary time.

LAB 41: VARIABLE EXPANSION OE SUBSTRINGS

1. Write a script that will do the following:

a. Set a variable called mypath to your home directory.

b. Print the value of mypath.

c. Print just the last element of the path in mypath.

d. Print the first element of the path in mypath.

e. Print all but the last element of the variable mypath.

LAB 42: THE lookup SCRIPT

1. Create a file called datafile if it has not been provided for you on the CD. It will consist of
colon-separated fields:

a. First and last name

b. Phone number

c. Address (street, city state, and ZIP)

d. Birth date (04/12/66)

e. Salary

2. Put ten entries in your file. Write a script called lookup that will do the following:

a. Welcome the user.

b. Print the names and phone numbers for all the users in datafile.

c. Print the number of lines in datafile.

d. Tell the user good-bye.

748 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

LAB 43: using typeset

1. Write a script that will do the following;

a. Ask the user to type in his or her first and last name.

b. Store the answers in two variables.

c. Use the new ksh read command.

2. Use the typeset command to convert the first and last name variables to all lowercase letters.

3. Test to see if the person's name is torn jones. If it is, print Welcome, Tom Jones; if it is not, print,
Are you happy today, FIRSTNAME LASTNAME?. (The user's first and last names are converted to
uppercase letters.)

4. Have the user type in an answer to the question and use the new ksh test command to see
whether the answer is yes or no. If yes, have your script say something nice to him or her, and
if no, tell the user to go home and give the current time of day.

5. Rewrite the lookup script.

a. The script will ask the user if he or she would like to add an entry to datafile.

b. If the user answers yes or y, ask for the following input:

Name
Phone number
Address
Birth date
Salary

A variable for each item will be assigned the user input.

EXAMPLE

print -n "What is the name of the person you are adding to the file?"
read name The information will be appended to the datafile.

LAB 44: THE if/else CONSTRUCT

AND THE let COMMAND

1. Write a script called grades that will ask the user for his or her numeric grade on a lest.

a. The script will test that the grade is within the possible grade range, 0 to 100.

b. The script will tell the user if he or she got an A, B, C, D, or E

2. Write a script called calc that will perform the functions of a simple calculator. The script
will provide a simple menu:

[al Add
[si Subtract
[ml Multiply
12.15 Korn Shell Invocation Arguments 749

[d] Divide
[r] Remainder

3. The user will choose one of the letters from the menu.

4. The user will then be asked to enter two integers between 0 and 100.

5. If the numbers are out of the range, an error message will be printed and the script will exit.

6. The program will perform the arithmetic on the two integers.

7. The answer will be printed in base 10, 8, and 16.

LAB 45: THE case STATEMENT

1. Write a script timegreet that will do the following:

a. Provide a comment section at the top of the script, with your name, the date, and the
purpose of this program.

b. Convert the following program using case statements:

# The timegreet script by El lie Quigley

yoiN$LOGNAME
hour=,date | awk '{print substr($4, 1, 2)},,
print "The time is: $(date)"
if (( hour > 0 && Shour < 12 ))
then
print "Good morning, $you!"
elif (( hour == 12 ))
then
print "Lunch time!"
elif (( hour > 12 && $hour < 16 ))
then
print "Good afternoon, $you!"
else
print "Good night, $you!"
fi

2. Rewrite the lookup script, replacing the if/elif construct with the case command. Add one
more menu item:

1) Add Entry
2) Delete Entry
3) Update Entry
4) View Entry
5) Exit

LAB 46: THE select LOOP

1. Write a script that will do the following:

a. Provide a comment section at the top of the script, with your name, the date, and the
purpose of this program.
750 Chapter 12 • Programming the Korn Shell

b. Use the select loop to provide a menu of foods. The output will resemble the following:

$ foods
1) steak and potatoes
2) fish and chips
3) soup and salad
Please make a selection. 1
Stick to your ribs
Watch your cholesterol
Enjoy your meal.

$ foods
1) steak and potatoes
2) fish and chips
3) soup and salad
Please make a selection. 2
British are coming
Enjoy your meal.

$ foods
1) steak and potatoes
2) fish and chips
3) soup and salad
Please make a selection. 3
Health foods...
Dieting is so boring.
Enjoy your meal.

$ foods
1) steak and potatoes
2) fish and chips
3) soup and salad
Please make a selection. 5
Not on the menu today!

2. Rewrite the lookup script using the select command to create a main menu and a submenu.
The menu will resemble the following:

1) Add Entry
2) Delete Entry
3) Update Entry
4) View Entry
a) Name
b) Phone
c) Address
d) Birthday
e) Salary
5) Exit
12.15 Korn Shell Invocation Arguments 751

LAB 47: AUTOLOADING FUNCTIONS

Steps for autoloading a function:

1. Make a directory called myfunctions.

2. Change directory to myf unctions and use the editor to create a file called good-bye.

3. Insert in the good-bye file a function called good-bye, spelled exactly the same as the filename.

4. The good-bye function contains:

function good-bye {
print The current time is $(date)
print "The name of this script is $0"
print See you later $1
print Your machine is 'uname -n'
}

5. Write and quit the editor. You now have a file containing a function with the same name.

6. Go to your home directory. Modify the .kshrc file in the editor by typing the following line:

FPATH=$HOME/myfuncti ons

7. Exit the editor, and to execute the .kshrc in the current environment, use the dot command.

8. In the timegreet script you wrote in Lab 45, include the following lines:

autoload good-bye
good-bye SLOCNAME

9. Run the timegreet script. The good-bye function output will appear.

10. Create functions for each of the menu items in the lookup script. Store the functions in a file
called lookup_f unctions in a directory called myf unctions.

11. Autoload the functions in your lookup script and make the function calls for the
corresponding cases.

12. Use the trap command so that if the user enters a menu selection other than an integer
value, the trap command will print an error to the screen, and cause the script to ask the
user to re-enter the correct data type.
This page intentionally left blank
chapter
Bash

13

•-v

The Interactive

Bash Shell

13.1 Introduction

With an interactive shell, the standard input, output, and error are tied to a terminal.
When using the Bourne Again shell (Bash) interactively, you type UNIX/Linux com-
mands at the bash prompt and wait for a response. Bash provides you with a large assort-
ment of built-in commands and command-line shortcuts, such as history, aliases, file
and command completion, command-line editing, and many more. Some of the features
were present in the standard UNIX Bourne shell and Korn shell, but the GNU project
has expanded the shell to include a number of new features as well adding POSIX com-
pliancy. With the release of Bash 2.x, so many features of the UNIX Korn shell and C
shell have been included that the bash shell is a fully functional shell at both the interac-
tive and programming level, while upwardly compatible with the standard Bourne shell.
For UNIX users, bash offers an alternative to the standard shells, sh, csh, and ksh.1
This chapter focuses on how you interact with bash at the command line and how to
customize your working environment. You will learn how to take advantage of all short-
cuts and built-in features in order to create an efficient and fun working environment.
Chapter 14 takes you a step further. Then you will be ready to write bash shell scripts to
further tailor the working environment for yourself by automating everyday tasks and
developing sophisticated scripts, and if you are an administrator, doing the same not
only for yourself but also for whole groups of users.

13.1.1 Versions of bash

The Bourne Again shell is a Capricorn, born on January 10, 1988, fathered by Brian Fox
and later adopted by Chet Ramey, who now officially maintains bash, enhances it, and
fixes bugs. The first version of bash was 0.99. The current version (as of this writing) is
version 2.05. Major enhancements were completed in version 2.0, but some operating

1. Although bash is traditionally the default shell for Linux platforms, it now comes bundled with Solaris 8.

753
754 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

systems are still using version 1.14.7. All versions are freely available under the GNU
public license.2 There is even bash for Windows! To see what version you are using, use
the —version option to bash or print the value of the BASOERSION environment variable.

EXAMPLE 13.1

(UNIX)
$ bash --version
GNU bash, version 2.05.0(l)-release (sparc-sun-solaris)
Copyright 2000 Free Softmre Foundation, Inc.

$ echo $BASH_VERSION
2.05.0(l)-release

EXAMPLE 13.2

(Linux)
$ bash --version
GNU bash, version 2.05.0(l)-release (i386-redhat-linux-gnu)
Copyright 2000 Free Software Foundation, Inc.

13.1.2 Startup

If the bash shell is your login shell, it follows a chain of processes before you see a shell
prompt. See Figure 13.1.
When the system boots, the first process to run is called init, P1D #1. It spawns a getty
process. This process opens up the terminal ports, providing a place where standard
input comes from and a place where standard output and errors go, and puts a login
prompt on your screen. The /bin/login program is then executed. The login program
prompts for a password, encrypts and verifies the password, sets up an initial environ-
ment, and starts up the login shell, /bin/bash, the last entry in the passwd file. The bash pro-
cess looks for the system file, /etc/profile, and executes its commands. It then looks in
the user's home directory for an initialization file called .bash_profi1e. After executing
commands from . bash.profi 1 e,3 it will execute a command from the user's ENV file, usually
called .bashrc, and finally the default dollar sign (S) prompt appears on your screen and
the shell waits for commands. (For more on initialization files, see "The Environment"
on page 756.)

2. To get the latest version of bash, visit www.delorie.com/gnu/.

3. There are a number of different initialization files used by bash; they are discussed on the next pages.
13.1 Introduction 755

Starting Up

ni login;

L \
getty
login: joe
passwd:

logi

bash login: joe

passwd: Welcome!

Figure 13.1 Starting the bash shell.

Changing the Shell at the Command Line. If you want to start another shell
from the command line temporarily (without changing the /etc/passwd file), just type the
name of the shell. For example, if you are currently using the standard Bourne shell and
would rather have bash as your shell, you can change the shell at the command line sim-
ply by typing bash.

EXAMPLE 13.3

1 S ps
PID TTY TIME CMD
1574 pts/6 0:00 sh

2 S bash
bash-2.05$

3 bash-2.05$ ps
PID TTY TIME CMD
1574 pts/6 0:00 sh
1576 pts/6 0:00 bash
756 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

EXPLANATION

l The output of the ps command shows what processes are running. Currently, sh
(the Bourne shell) is running.

2 At the Bourne shell prompt, the user enters bash and starts up the Bourne Again
shell. A new prompt appears.

3 At the bash prompt, the ps command is executed. The output shows that two shells
are running and the current shell is now bash.

13.2 The Environment

The environment of a process consists of variables, open files, the current working direc-
tory, functions, resource limits, signals, and so forth. It defines those features that are
inherited from one shell to the next and the configuration for the working environment.
The configuration for the user's shell is defined in the shell initialization files.

13.2.1 The Initialization Files

The bash shell has a number of startup files that are sourced. Sourcing a file causes all
settings in the file to become part of the current shell; that is, a subshell is not created.
(The source command is discussed in "The source or dot Command" on page 773.) The
initialization files are sourced depending on the whether the shell is a login shell, an
interactive shell (but not the login shell), or a noninteractive shell (a shell script).
When you log on, the . bash.profi 1 e in the user's home directory is sourced. It sets the user's
aliases and functions and then sets user-specific environment variables and startup scripts.
If the user doesn't have a .basLprofile, but does have a file called .bashjogin, that file will
be sourced, and if he doesn't have a .bashjogin, but does have a .profile, it will be sourced.

The /etc/profile File. The /etc/profile file is a systemwide initialization file set up
by the system administrator to perform tasks when the user logs on. It is executed when
bash starts up. It is also available to all Bourne and Korn shell users on the system and
normally performs such tasks as checking the mail spooler for new mail and displaying
the message of the day from the /etc/motd file. (The following examples will make more
sense after you have completed this chapter.)

EXAMPLE 13.4

(Sample /etc/profile)
# /etc/profile
# Systemwide environment and startup programs
# Functions and aliases go in /etc/bashrc
1 PATH="SPATH:/us r/XllR6/bi n"
2 PSl="[\u@\h \W]\\$ "
13.2 The Environment 757

EXAMPLE 13.4 (continued)

3 ulimit -c 1000000
4 if [ "id -grT = ^id -un^ -a 'id -u' -gt 14 ]; then
5 umask 002
else
umask 022
fi
6 USEiWid -un'
7 LOGNAME=SUSER
8 MAIL="/var/spool/mail/$USER"
9 HOSTNA^/IE=Vbin/hostname,
10 HISTSIZE=1000
11 HISTFILESIZE=1000
12 export PATH PS1 HOSTNAME HISTSIZE HISTFILESIZE USER LOGNAME MAIL
13 for i in /etc/profile.d/*.sh ; do
14 if [ -x $i ]; then
15 . $i
fi
16 done
17 unset i #

EXPLANATION

1 The PATH variable is assigned locations where the shell should search for commands.

2 The primary prompt is assigned. It will be displayed in the shell window as the
user's name (\u), the @ symbol, the host machine (\W), and a dollar sign.

3 The ulimit command (a shell built-in command) is set to limit the maximum size
of core files created to 1,000,000 bytes. Core files are memory dumps of programs
that have crashed, and they take up a lot of disk space.

4 This line reads: If the user's group name is equal to the user's name and the user's
ID number is greater than 14 . . . (see line 5)

5 ... then set the umask to 002. When directories are created they will get 775 permis-
sions and files will get 664 permissions. Otherwise, the umask is set to 022, giving 755
to directories and 644 to files.

6 The USER variable is assigned the username (id -un).

7 The LOGNAME variable is set to the value in SUSER.

8 The MAIL variable is assigned the path to the mail spooler where the user's mail is
saved.

9 The HOSTNAME variable is assigned the name of the user's host machine.

10 The HISTSIZE variable is set to 1000. HISTSIZE controls the number of history items
that are remembered (from the history list stored in the shell's memory) and saved
in the history file after the shell exits.
758 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

EXPLANATION (continued)

11 The HISTFILESIZE is set to limit the number of commands stored in the history file
to 1000, that is, the history file is truncated after it reaches 1,000 lines. (See "His-
tory" on page 785.)

12 These variables are exported so that they will be available in subshells and child
processes.

13 For each file (ending in .sh) in the etc/profile.d directory . . . (see line 14)

14 ... check to see if the file is executable, and if it is . . . (see line 15)

15 ... execute (source) the file with the dot command. The files in the /etc/profile.d
directory (lang.sh and mc.sh, respectively) set the character and font sets and create
a function called mc that starts up a visual/browser file manager program called
Midnight Commander. To see how the file manager works, type mc at the bash prompt.

16 The done keyword marks the end of the for loop.

17 The variable i is unset, that is, removed from shell's name space. The value of i is
whatever was assigned to it while in the for loop, if anything was assigned at all.

The ~/-bash_profile File. If the ~/-bash_profile is found in the user's home directory,
it is sourced after the /etc/profile. If ~/.bash_profile doesn't exist, bash will look for
another user-defined file, ~./bashJogin, and source it, and if ~./bashJogin doesn't exist, it
will source the V-profile, if it exists. Only one of the three files (~/.bash_profile,
~/.bash_login, or -/.profile) will be sourced. Bash will also check to see if the user has a
.bashre file and then source it.

EXAMPLE 13.5

(Sample .bash.profile)
# .bash_profile
# The file is sourced by bash only when the user logs on.

# Cet the aliases and functions

1 if [ -f -/.bashrc ]; then
2 . -/.bashrc
fi

# User-specific environment and startup programs

3 PATH=$PATH:$HOME/bin
4 ENV=$H0ME/.bashrc # or BASH_ENV=$HOME/.bashrc
5 USERNAME="root"
6 export USERNAME ENV PATH
7 mesg n
8 if [ STERM = linux ]
then
startx # Start the X Window system
fi
13.2 The Environment 759

EXPLANATION

1 If there is a file called .bashrc in the user's home directory . . . (see line 2)

2 ... execute (source) the .bashrc file for the login shell.

3 The PATH variable is appended with a path to the user's bin directory, normally the
place where shell scripts are stored.

4 The BASH_ENVa (ENV) file is set to the pathname for the .bashrc file, an initialization
file that will be sourced for interactive bash shells and scripts only if the BASH.ENV
(ENV) variable is set. The .bashrc file contains user-defined aliases and functions.

5 The variable USERNAME is set to root.

6 The variables are exported so that they are available to subshells, and other pro-
cesses will know about them.

7 The tnesg command is executed with the n option, disallowing others to write to
the terminal.

8 If the value of the TERM variable is 1 i nux, then startx will start the X Window system
(the graphical user interface allowing multiple virtual consoles), rather than start-
ing an interactive session in the Linux console window. Because the
~/.bash_profile is only sourced when you log in, the login shell would be the best
place to start up your X Windows session.

a. BASH_ENV is used by versions of bash starting at 2.0.

The BASH_ENV (ENV) Variable. Before bash version 2.0, the BASH_ENV file was simply
called the ENV file (same as in Korn shell). The BASH_ENV (ENV) variable is set in the
~/-bash_profile. It is assigned the name of a file that will be executed every time an inter-
active bash shell or bash script is started. The BASH_ENV (ENV) file will contain special bash
variables and aliases. The name is conventionally .bashrc, but you can call it anything you
want. The BASH_ENV (ENV) file is not processed when the privileged option is on (bash -p or
set -o privileged) or the —norc command-line option is used (bash -norc or bash —note if
using bash 2.x+).

The .bashrc File. The BASH.ENV (ENV) variable is assigned (by convention) the name
.bashrc. This file is automatically sourced every time a new or interactive bash shell or
bash script starts. It contains settings that pertain only to the bash shell.

EXAMPLE 13.6

(Sample .bashrc)
# If the .bashrc file exists, it is in the user's home directory.
# It contains aliases (nicknames for commands) and user-defined functions.

# .bashrc
# User-specific aliases and functions
760 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

EXAMPLE 13.6 (continued)

1 set -o vi
2 set -o noclobber
3 set -o ignoreeof
4 alias rit^'rm -i'
alias cp=,cp -i'
alias niv=,mv -i1
5 stty erase Ah
# Source global definitions
6 if [ -f /etc/bashrc ]; then
. /etc/bashrc
fi
7 case in
8 *i*) echo This is an interactive bash shell

9 *) echo This shell is noninteractive

33
esac
10 history_control=ignoredups
11 function cd { builtin cd $1; echo SPWD; }

EXPLANATION

1 The set command with the -o switch turns on or off special built-in options. (See
"The set -0 Options" on page 763.) If the switch is -o, a minus sign, the option is
turned on, and if a plus sign, the option is turned off. The vi option allows inter-
active command-line editing. For example, set -o vi turns on interactive com-
mand-line editing, whereas set vi +o turns it off. (See Table 13.1 on page 764.)

2 The noclobber option is turned on, which prevents the user from overwriting files
when using redirection; for example, sort filex > filex. (See "Standard I/O and
Redirection" on page 844.)
A
3 When exiting a shell, normally you can type D (Ctrl-D). With ignoreeof set, you
must type exit.

4 The alias for rm, rm -i, causes rtn to be interactive (-i ), that is, it will ask the user
if it's okay to remove files before actually removing them. The alias for the cp com-
mand, cp -i, causes the copy to be interactive.
A
5 The stty command is used to set the terminal backspace key to erase. H repre-
sents the Backspace key

6 If a file called /etc/bashrc exists, source it.

7 If the shell is interactive, the special variable, $-, will contain an i. If not, you are
probably running a script. The case command evaluates $-.

8 If the value returned from $- matches *i* (i.e., any string containing an i), then
the shell prints This is an interactive bash shell.
13.2 The Environment 761

EXPLANATION (continued)

9 Otherwise, the shell prints This shell is noninteractive. If you start up a script or
a new shell at the prompt, you will be able to tell whether your shell is interactive.
It is only here to let you test your understanding of the terms "interactive" and
"noninteractive" shell.

10 The history_control setting is used to control how commands are saved in the his-
tory file. This line reads: Don't save commands in the history file if they're already
there; that is, ignore duplicates.

11 This is a user-defined function. When the user changes directories, the present
working directory, PWD, is printed. The function is named cd and contains within
its definition the command cd. The special built-in command, called bull tin, pre-
cedes the cd command within the function definition to prevent the function from
going into an infinite recursion; that is, from calling itself indefinitely.

The /etc/bashrc File. Systemwide functions and aliases can be set in the /etc/bashrc
file. The primary prompt is often set here.

EXAMPLE 13.7

(Sample /etc/bashrc)

# Systemwide functions and aliases

# Environment stuff goes in /etc/profile

# For some unknown reason bash refuses to inherit

# PS1 in some circumstances that I can't figure out.
# Putting PS1 here ensures that it gets loaded every time.

11
1 PSl="[\u@\h \W]\\$
2 alias which="type -path"

EXPLANATION

1 Systemwide functions and aliases are set here. The primary bash prompt is set to
the name of the user (\u), and @ symbol, the host machine (\h), the basename of
the current working directory, and a dollar sign. (See Table 13.2 on page 769.)
This prompt will appear for all interactive shells.

2 Aliases, nicknames for commands, are usually set in the user's .bashrc file. The
alias was preset and is available when bash starts up. You use it when you want to
find out where a program resides on disk; that is, what directory it is found in
(e.g., which Is will print /bin/Is).
762 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

The '-/■Profile File. The .profile file is a user-defined initialization file. It is found
in the user's home directory, and sourced once at login if running sh (Bourne shell).
Because this file is used by the Bourne shell, it should not contain any bash-specific set-
tings. If running bash, .profile will be run if bash cannot find any other of the initializa-
tion files listed previously. It allows a user to customize and modify his or her shell
environment. Environment and terminal settings are normally put here, and if a window
application or database application is to be initiated, it is started here.

EXAMPLE 13.8

(Sample .profile)
# ^ login initialization file sourced when running as sh or the #.bash_profile or
# .bashjogin are not found.

1 TERM^xterm
2 HOSTNAME^uname -rT
3 EDIT0R=/bi n/vi
4 PATH=/bin:/usr/ucb:/usr/bin:/usr/local:/etc;/bin:/usr/bin:.
5 PS1="$H0STNAME S > "
6 export TERM HOSTNAME EDITOR PATH PS1
7 stty erase Ah
8 go () { cd $1; PS1=' pwd1; PSl='basename SPSL; }
9 trap 'SHOME/.logout' EXIT
10 clear

EXPLANATION

1 The TERM variable is assigned the value of the terminal type, xterm.

2 Because the uname -n command is enclosed in backquotes, the shell will perform
command substitution; that is, the output of the command (the name of the host
machine) will be assigned to the variable HOSTNAME.

3 The EDITOR variable is assigned /bin/vi. Programs such as mail and history will now
have this variable available when defining an editor.

4 The PATH variable is assigned the directory entries that the shell searches in order
to find a UNIX/Linux program. If, for example, you type Is, the shell will search
the PATH until it finds that program in one of the listed directories. If it never finds
the program, the shell will tell you so.

5 The primary prompt is assigned the value of HOSTNAME, the machine name, and the
$ and > symbols.

6 All of the variables listed are exported. They will be known by child processes
started from this shell.
A
7 The stty command sets terminal options. The Erase key is set to E[, so that when
you press the Backspace key, the letter typed preceding the cursor is erased.
13.2 The Environment 763

EXPLANATION (continued)

8 A function called go is defined. The purpose of this function is to take one argu-
ment, a directory name, then cd to that directory and set the primary prompt to
the present working directory. The basename command removes all but the last en-
try of the path. The prompt will show you the current directory.

9 The trap command is a signal-handling command. When you exit the shell, that
is, log out, the .logout file will be executed. The .logout file is a user-defined file
containing commands that will be executed just before logging out, commands
that will clean up temp files, log the time of logout, and so forth.

10 The clear command clears the screen.

The bash-logout File. When the user logs out (exits the login shell), ifa file called
~/.bash_logout exists, it is sourced. This file normally contains commands to clean up
temporary files, truncate the history file, record the time of logout, and perform other
housekeeping tasks.

Options to Prevent Startup Files from Being Executed, if bash is invoked with
the —noprofile option (for example, bash —noprofile), then the /etc/profile, ~/-bash_profile,
-/•bashjogin, or -/.profile startup files will not be sourced.

If invoked with the -p option (e.g., bash -p), bash will not read the user's -/.profile file.
If bash is invoked as sh (Bourne shell), it tries to mimic the behavior of the Bourne
shell as closely as possible. For a login shell, it attempts to source only /etc/profile and
-/.profile, in that order. The -noprofile option may still be used to disable this behavior.
If the shell is invoked as sh, it does not attempt to source any other startup files.

The .inputrc File. Another default initalization file, .inputre, is also read when bash
starts up. This file, if it exists in the user's home directory, contains variables to custom-
ize keystroke behavior and settings that bind strings, macros, and control functions to
keys. The names for the key bindings and what they do are found in the Readline library,
a library that is used by applications that manipulate text. The bindings are used partic-
ularly by the built-in emacs and vi editors when performing command-line editing. (See
"Command-Line Editing" on page 793 for more on readline.)

13.2.2 Setting bash Options with the Built-in

set and shopt Commands

The set -0 Options. The set command can take options when the -o switch is used.
Options allow you to customize the shell environment. They are either on or off, and are
normally set in the BASH.ENV (ENV) file. Many of the options for the set command are set
with an abbreviated form. For example, set -o noclobber can also be written, set -C. (See
Table 13.1.)
764 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

Table 13.1 The Built-in set Command Options

Name of Option Shortcut Switch What It Does

all export -a Automatically marks new or modified variables for export

from the time the option is set, until unset.

braceexpand -B Enables brace expansion, and is a default setting.

emacs For command-line editing, uses the emacs built-in editor,

and is a default setting.

errexit -e If a command returns a nonzero exit status (fails), exits.

Not set when reading initialization files.

histexpand -H Enables ! and !! when performing history substitution,

and is a default setting.

history Enables command-line history; on by default.

ignoreeof Disables EOF (Ctrl-D) from exiting a shell; must type exit.
Same as setting shell variable ICNOREEOF=10.

keyword -k Places keyword arguments in the environment for a

command.

interactive-comments For interactive shells, a leading # is used to comment out

any text remaining on the line.

monitor Allows job control.

noclobber -C Protects files from being overwritten when redirection is

used.

noexec -n Reads commands, but does not execute them. Used to

check the syntax of scripts. Not on when running
interactively.

noglob -d Disables pathname expansion; that is, turns off wildcards.

notify -b Notifies user when background job finishes.

nounset -u Displays an error when expanding a variable that has not

been set.

onecmd -t Exits after reading and executing one command.

physical -P If set, does not follow symbolic links when typing cd or

pwd. The physical directory is used instead.

posix Shell behavior is changed if the default operation doesn't

match the POSIX standard.

privileged -P When set, the shell does not read the .profile or ENV file
and shell functions are not inherited from the
environment; automatically set for setuid scripts.
13.2 The Environment 765

Table 13.1 The Built-in set Command Options (continued)

Name of Option Shortcut Switch What It Does

verbose -v Turns on the verbose mode for debugging.

vi For command-line editing, uses the vi built-in editor.

xtrace -x Turns on the echo mode for debugging.

FORMAT

set -o option # Turns on the option.

set +o option # Turns off the option.
set -[a-z] # Abbreviation for an option; the minus turns it on.
set +[a-z] # Abbreviation for an option; the plus turns it off.

EXAMPLE 13.9

1 set -o allexport
2 set +o allexport
3 set -a
4 set +a

EXPLANATION

1 Sets the allexport option. This option causes all variables to be automatically ex-
ported to subshells.

2 Unsets the allexport option. All variables will now be local in the current shell.

3 Sets the allexport option. Same as 1. Not every option has an abbreviation. (See
Table 13.1.)

4 Unsets the allexport option. Same as 2.

EXAMPLE 13.10

1 $ set -o
braceexpand on
err exit off
hasha11 on
histexpand on
keyword off
monitor on
noclobber off
noexec off
nog lob off
notify off
766 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

EXAMPLE 13.10 (continued)

nounset off
onecmd off
physical off
privileged off
verbose off
xtrace off
history on
ignoreeof off
interact!' ve-comments on
posix off
emacs off
vi on

2 $ set -o noclobber
3 $ date > outfile
4 $ Is > outfile
bash: outfile: Cannot clobber existing file.
5 $ set +o noclobber
6 $ Is > outfile
7 $ set -C

EXPLANATION

1 With the -o option, the set command lists all the options currently set or not set.

2 To set an option, the -o option is used. The noclobber option is set. It protects you
from overwriting files when using redirection. Without noclobber, the file to the
right of the > symbol is truncated if it exists, and created if it doesn't exist.

3 The output of the UNIX/Linux date command is redirected to a file called outfile.

4 This time, the outfile exists. By attempting to redirect the output of Is to outfile,
the shell complains that the file already exists. Without noclobber set, it would be
clobbered.

5 With the +o option to the set command, noclobber is turned off.

6 This time, trying to overwrite outfile is fine because noclobber is no longer set.

7 Using the -C switch to the set command is an alternate way of turning on noclobber.
+C would turn it off.

Th© shopt Built-in (Version 2.X+). The shopt (shell options) built-in command is
used in newer versions of bash as an alternative to the set command. In many ways shopt
duplicates the set built-in command, but it adds more options for configuring the shell.
See Table 13.27 on page 855 for a list of all the shopt options. In the following example,
shopt with the -p option prints all the available options settings. The -u switch indicates
an unset option and -s indicates one that is currently set.
13.2 The Environment 767

EXAMPLE 13.11

1 $ shopt -p
shopt -u cdable_vars
shopt -u cdspell
shopt -u checkhash
shopt -u checkwinsize
shopt -s cmdhist
shopt -u dotglob
shopt -u exec fail
shopt -s expand_a 1iases
shopt -u extglob
shopt -u histreedit
shopt -u histappend
shopt -u histverify
shopt -s hostcomplete
shopt -u huponexit
shopt -s interactive_comments
shopt -u lithist
shopt -u mail warn
shopt -u nocaseglob
shopt -u nullglob
shopt -s promptvars
shopt -u restricted.shell
shopt -u shift_verbose
shopt -s sourcepath
2 $ shopt -s cdspell
3 $ shopt -p cdspell
shopt -s cdspell
4 $ cd /hame
/home
5 $ pwd
/home
6 S cd /ur/lcal/ban
/usr/local/man
7 $ shopt -u cdspell
8 $ shopt -p cdspell
shopt -u cdspell

EXPLANATION

1 With the -p (print) option, the shopt command lists all settable shell options and
their current values, either set (-s) or unset (-u).

2 With the -s option, shopt sets (or turns on) an option. The cdspell option causes
the shell to correct minor spelling errors on directory names given as arguments
to the cd command. It will correct simple typos, insert missing letters, and even
transpose letters if it can.

3 With the -p option and the name of the option, shopt indicates whether the option
is set. The option has been set (-s).
768 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

EXPLANATION (continued)

4 In this example, the user tries to cd to his or her home directory, but misspells home.
The shell fixes the spelling and hame becomes home. The directory is changed to /home.

5 The output of the pwd command displays the current working directory, showing
that the directory was really changed even though the user spelled it wrong.

6 This time the directory name is missing letters and has a misspelling for the last
entry, ban. The shell makes a pretty good attempt to spell out the correct path-
name by inserting the missing letters, and correcting ban to man. Because the b in
ban is the first misspelled character, the shell searches in the directory for an entry
that might end with a and n. It finds man.

7 With the -u switch,3 shopt unsets (or turns off) the option.

8 With the -p switch and the name of the option, shopt indicates whether the option
is set. The cdspell option has been unset (-u).

a. The words switch and option are interchangeable. They are arguments to a command that contain a leading dash.

13.2.3 The Prompts

When used interactively, the shell prompts you for input. When you see the prompt, you
know that you can start typing commands. The bash shell provides four prompts: the pri-
mary prompt is a dollar sign (S); the secondary prompt is a right angle bracket symbol (>);
the third and fourth prompts, PSB and PS4, respectively, will be discussed later. The prompts
are displayed when the shell is running interactively. You can change these prompts.
The variable PS1 is set to a string containing the primary prompt. Its value, the dollar
sign, appears when you log on and waits for user input, normally a UNIX/Linux com-
mand. The variable PS2 is the secondary prompt, initially set to the right angle bracket
character (>). It appears if you have partially typed a command and then pressed Enter.
You can change the primary and secondary prompts.

The Primary Prompt. The dollar sign (or bash $) is the default primary prompt. You
can change your prompt. Normally, prompts are defined in /etc/bashrc or the user ini-
tialization file, .bash_profile, or .profile (Bourne shell).

EXAMPLE 13.12

1 $ PSl="$(uname -n) > "

2 chargers >

EXPLANATION

1 The default primary prompt is a dollar sign (bash $). The PS1 prompt is being reset
to the name of the machine3 (uname -n) and a > symbol.

2 The new prompt is displayed.

a. The command, uname -n, is executed because it is enclosed in a set of parentheses preceded by a dollar sign. An
alternative would be to enclose the command in backquotes. (See "Command Substitution" on page 835.)
13.2 The Environment 769

Setting the Prompt with Special Escape Sequences. By inserting special

backslash/escape sequences into the prompt string, you can customize the prompts.
Table 13.2 lists the special sequences.

Table 13.2 Prompt String Settings

Backslash
Sequence What It Evaluates To

\d The date in Weekday Month Date format (e.g., Tue May 26)

\h The hostname

\n Newline

\nnn The character corresponding to the octal number nnn

\s The name of the shell, the basename of $0 (the portion following the
final slash)

\t The current time in HH:MM:SS format

\u The username of the current user

\w The current working directory

\W The basename of the current working directory

\# The command number of this command

\! The history number of this command

\$ If the effective UID is 0, a #, otherwise a $

\\ Backslash

\[ Begin a sequence of nonprinting characters; could be used to embed a

terminal control sequence into the prompt

\] End a sequence of nonprinting characters

New in bash 2.x+

\a The ASCII bell character

\e The ASCII escape character (033)

\H The hostname

\T The current time in 12-hour format; HH;MM:SS

\v The version of bash, e.g., 2.03

\V The release and pathlevel of bash; e.g., 2.03.0

\@ The current time in 12-hour AM/PM format

770 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

EXAMPLE 13.13

1 $ PSl=,,[\u@\h \W]\\$ "

[ellie&homebound ellieJS
2 $ PSl="\W:\d> "
elh'eiTue May 18>

EXPLANATION

1 You customize the primary bash prompt using special backslash/escape sequences.
\u evaluates to the user's login name, \h to the host machine, and \W is the base-
name for the current working directory. There are two backslashes. The first back-
slash escapes the second backslash, resulting in \$. The dollar sign is protected
from shell interpretation and thus printed literally.

2 The primary prompt is assigned \W, the escape sequence evaluating to the base-
name of the current working directory, and \d, the escape sequence evaluating to
today's date.

The Secondary Prompt. The PS2 variable is assigned a string called the secondary
prompt. Its value is displayed to standard error, which is the screen by default. This
prompt appears when you have not completed a command or more input is expected.
The default secondary prompt is >.

EXAMPLE 13.14

1 $ echo "Hello
2 > there"
3 Hello
there
4 $

5 $ PS2=" > "

6 $ echo 'Hi
7 >

> there'
Hi

there
$
13.2 The Environment 771

EXAMPLE 13.14 (continued)

8 $ PS2=,,\s:PS2 > "

$ echo 'Hello
bash:PS2 > what are
bash:PS2 > you
bash:PS2 > trying to do?
bash:PS2 > '
Hello
what are
you
trying to do?
$

EXPLANATION

1 The double quotes must be matched after the string "Hello.

2 When a newline is entered, the secondary prompt appears. Until the closing dou-
ble quotes are entered, the secondary prompt will be displayed.

3 The output of the echo command is displayed.

4 The primary prompt is displayed.

5 The secondary prompt is reset.

6 The single quote must be matched after the string 'Hi.

7 When a newline is entered, the new secondary prompt appears. Until the closing
single quote is entered, the secondary prompt will be displayed.

8 The PS2 prompt is set to the name of the shell (\s) followed by a string consisting
of a colon, PS2 and >, followed by a space.

13.2.4 The Search Path

Bash uses the PATH variable to locate commands typed at the command line. The path is a
colon-separated list of directories used by the shell when searching for commands. The
default path is system-dependent, and is set by the administrator who installs bash. The
path is searched from left to right. The dot at the end of the path represents the current
working directory. If the command is not found in any of the directories listed in the
path, the shell sends to standard error the message filename: not found. The path is nor-
mally set in the .bash.profile if running the bash shell or .profile file if using sh, the
Bourne shell.
If the dot is not included in the path and you are executing a command or script from
the current working directory, the name of the script must be preceded with a ./, such
as ./programjiame, so that shell can find the program.
772 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

EXAMPLE 13.15

(Printing the PATH)

1 $ echo $PATH
/usr/gnu/b in: /usr/loca 1/b in :/us r/ucb :/b in :/usr/b in:.

(Setting the PATH)

2 $ PATH=SHOME:/usr/ucb:/usr:/usr/bi n:/usr/1ocal/bi n:
3 $ export PATH
4 $ runit
bash: runit: command not found
5 $ ./runit
< program starts running here >

EXPLANATION

l By echoing SPATH, the value of the PATH variable is displayed. The path consists of a
list of colon-separated elements and is searched from left to right. The dot at the
end of the path represents the user's current working directory.

2 To set the path, a list of colon-separated directories are assigned to the PATH vari-
able. Note that in this path, the dot is not at the end of the path, perhaps as a se-
curity measure.

3 By exporting the path, child processes will have access to it. It is not necessary to
export the PATH on a separate line: It could be written as follows:
export PATH=$HOME:/usr/ucb:/bin:., and so on, on the same line.

4 Because the dot is not in the search path, when the runit program is executed in
the present working directory, bash can't find it.

5 Because the program name is preceded with a dot and a slash (./), the shell will
be able to find it, and execute it, if it is the current working directory.

13.2.5 The hash Command

The hash command controls the internal hash table used by the shell to improve effi-
ciency in searching for commands. Instead of searching the path each time a command
is entered, the first time you type a command, the shell uses the search path to find the
command, and then stores it in a table in the shell's memory. The next time you use the
same command, the shell uses the hash table to find it. This makes it much faster to
access a command than having to search the complete path. If you know that you will
be using a command often, you can add the command to the hash table. You can also
remove commands from the table. The output of the hash command displays the number
of times the shell has used the table to find a command (hits) and the full pathname of
the command. The hash command with the -r option clears the hash table. An argument
of ~ disables option checking for the rest of the arguments. Hashing is automatically
implemented by bash. Although you can turn it off, if there isn't any compelling reason
to do so, don't.
13.2 The Environment 773

EXAMPLE 13.16

(Printing the PATH)

(Command line)
1 hash
hits command
1 /usr/bin/mesg
4 /usr/bin/man
2 /bin/Is
2 hash -r
3 hash
No commands in hash table
4 hash find
hits command
0 /usr/bin/find

EXPLANATION

l The hash command displays the full pathname of commands that have been exe-
cuted in this login session. (Built-in commands are not listed.) The number of hits
is the number of times the hash table has been used to find the command.

2 The -r option to the hash command erases all remembered locations in the hash table.

3 After the -r option was used in the last command, the hash command reports that
there are no commands currently in the table.

4 If you know you are going to use a command often, you can add it to the hash table
by giving it as an argument to the hash command. The find command has been
added. The table has 0 hits because the command hasn't been used yet.

13.2.6 The source or dot Command

The source command (from the C shell) is a built-in bash command. The dot command,
simply a period (from the Bourne shell), is another name for source. Both commands
take a script name as an argument. The script will be executed in the environment of the
current shell; that is, a child process will not be started. All variables set in the script will
become part of the current shell's environment. Likewise, all variables set in the current
shell will become part of the script's environment. The source (or dot) command is nor-
mally used to re-execute any of the initialization files, such as . bash_profi 1 e, . prof i 1 e, and
so on, if they have been modified. For example, if one of the settings, such as the EDITOR
or TERM variable, has been changed in the .bash_profile since you logged on, you can
use the source command to re-execute commands in the .bash_profile without logging
out and then logging back on. A file, such as .bash.profile, or for that matter any shell
script, does not need execute permissions to be sourced with either the dot or the
source commands.
774 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

EXAMPLE 13.17

$ source .bash_profile
$ . .bash_profile

EXPLANATION

The source or dot command executes the initialization file, .bash_profile, within the
context of the current shell. Local and global variables are redefined within this shell.
The dot command makes it unnecessary to log out and then log back in again after the
file has been modified.3

a. If the .bash.profile were executed directly as a script, a child shell would be started. Then the variables would be set
in the child shell, and when the child shell exited, the parent shell would not have any of the settings available to it.

13.3 The Command Line

After you log on, the bash shell displays its primary prompt, a dollar sign by default. The
shell is your command interpreter. When the shell is running interactively, it reads com-
mands from the terminal and breaks the command line into words. A command line
consists of one or more words (or tokens), separated by whitespace (blanks and/or tabs),
and terminated with a newline, generated by pressing the Enter key. The first word is the
command, and subsequent words are the command's arguments. The command may be
a UNIX/Linux executable program such as Is or date, a user-defined function, a built-in
command such as cd or pwd, or a shell script. The command may contain special charac-
ters, called metacharacters, which the shell must interpret while parsing the command
line. If a command line is too long, the backslash character, followed by a newline, will
allow you to continue typing on the next line. The secondary prompt will appear until
the command line is terminated.

13.3.1 The Order of Processing Commands

The first word on the command line is the command to be executed. The command may
be a keyword, an alias, a function, a special built-in command or utility, an executable
program, or a shell script. The command is executed according to its type in the follow-
ing order:

1. Aliases

2. Keywords (such as if, function, while, until)

3. Functions

4. Built-in commands

5. Executables and scripts

13.3 The Command Line 775

Special built-in commands and functions are defined within the shell, and therefore
are executed from within the context of the current shell, making them much faster in
execution. Scripts and executable programs such as Is and date are stored on disk, and
the shell, in order to execute them, must first locate them within the directory hierarchy
by searching the PATH environment variable; the shell then forks a new shell that executes
the script. To find out the type of command you are using—that is, a built-in command,
an alias, a function, or an executable—use the built-in type command. (See Example
13.18.)

EXAMPLE 13.18

$ type pwd
pwd is a shell bull tin
$ type test
test is a shell builtin
$ type clear
clear is /usr/bin/clear
$ type m
m is aliased to 'more'
$ type be
be is /usr/bin/bc
S type if
if is a shell keyword
$ type -path cal
/usr/bin/ca1
$ type which
which is aliased to 'type -path'
$ type greetings
greetings is a function
greetings ()
{
echo "Welcome to my world!";
}

13.3.2 Built-in Commands and the help Command

Built-in commands are commands that are part of the internal source code for the shell.
They are built-in and readily available to the shell, whereas commands such as date, cal,
and finger are compiled binary programs that reside on the disk. There is less overhead
in executing a built-in because it involves no disk operations. Built-in commands are
executed by the shell before executable programs on disk. Bash has added a new online
help system so that you can see all the built-ins, or a description for a particular built-
in; help itself is a built-in command. See Table 13.28 on page 857 for a complete list of
built-in commands.
776 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

EXAMPLE 13.19

1 $ help help
help: help [pattern ...]
Display helpful information about built-in commands, if PATTERN
is specified, gives detailed help on all commands matching
PATTERN, otherwise a list of the built-ins is printed.
2 $ help pw
pwd: pwd
Print the current working directory.

13.3.3 Changing the Order of Command-Line Processing

Bash provides three built-in commands that can override the order of command-line pro-
cessing: command, builtin, and enable.
The command built-in eliminates aliases and functions from being looked up in the
order of processing. Only built-ins and executables, found in the search path, will be
processed.
The builtin command looks up only built-ins, ignoring functions and executables
found in the path.
The enable built-in command turns built-ins on and off. By default, built-ins are
enabled. Disabling a built-in allows an executable command to be executed without
specifying a full pathname, even if it has the same name as a built-in. (In normal pro-
cessing, bash searches for built-ins before disk executable commands.) Built-ins become
disabled by using the -n switch. For example, a classic confusion for new shell program-
mers is naming a script test. Because test is a built-in command, the shell will try to exe-
cute it rather than the user's script (because a built-in is normally executed before any
executable program). By typing: enable -n test, the test built-in is disabled, and the user's
script will take precedence.
Without options, the enable built-in prints a list of all the built-ins. Each of the fol-
lowing built-ins are described in "Shell Built-in Commands" on page 857.

EXAMPLE 13.20

1 $ enable
enable .
enable :
enable [
enable alias
enable bg
enable bind
enable break
enable builtin
enable cd
enable command
13.3 The Command Line 777

EXAMPLE 13.20 (continued)

enable continue
enable declare
enable dirs

enable read
enable readonly
enable return
enable set
enable shift
enable shopt

enable type
enable typeset
enable ulimit
enable umask
enable unalias
enable unset
enable wait

2 enable -n test

3 function cd { builtin cd; echo $PWD; }

EXPLANATION

1 The enable built-in, without any options, displays a complete list of all bash shell
built-in commands. This example shows just part of that list.

2 With the -n switch, the test built-in command is disabled. Now, you execute your
script named test without worrying about the built-in test being executed in-
stead. It's not good practice to name a script by the same name as an operating sys-
tem command, because if you try to run the same script in another shell, the dis-
abling of built-ins doesn't exist.

3 The function is called cd. The builtin command causes the cd within the function
definition to be called instead of the function cd, which would cause an endless
recursive loop.

13.3.4 The Exit Status

After a command or program terminates, it returns an exit status to the parent process.
The exit status is a number between 0 and 255. By convention, when a program exits, if
the status returned is 0, the command was successful in its execution. When the exit sta-
tus is nonzero, the command failed in some way. If a command is not found by the shell,
the exit status returned is 127. If a fatal signal causes the command to terminate, the exit
status is 128 plus the value of the signal that caused it to die.
778 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

The shell status variable, ?, is set to the value of the exit status of the last command
that was executed. Success or failure of a program is determined by the programmer who
wrote the program.

EXAMPLE 13.21

1 $ grep el lie /etc/passwd

el lie:MrHJEFd2YpkJY:501:501: :/home/e11ie:/bin/bash
2 $ echo $?
0

3 $ grep nicky /etc/passwd

4 $ echo $?
1

5 $ grep ellie /junk

grep: /junk: No such file or directory
6 S echo $?
2

7 $ grip ellie /etc/passwd

bash: grip: command not found
8 $ echo $?
127

9 $ find / -name core AC # User presses Ctrl-C

10 $ echo $?
130

EXPLANATION

1 The grep program searches for the pattern ellie in the /etc/passwd file and is suc-
cessful. The line from /etc/passwd is displayed.

2 The ? variable is set to the exit value of the grep command. Zero indicates success-
ful status.

3 The grep program cannot find user nicky in the /etc/passwd file.

4 The grep program cannot find the pattern; the ? variable return value is nonzero.
An exit status of 1 indicates failure.

5 The grep fails because the /junk file cannot be opened.The grep error message is
sent to standard error, the screen.

6 If grep cannot find the file, it returns an exit status of 2.

7 The grip command is not found by the shell.

8 Because the command is not found, the exit status, 127, is returned.

9 The fi nd command is interrupted when the SICINT signal is sent by pressing Ctrl-C.
The signal number for Ctrl-C is 2.

10 The status returned from a process that has been killed is 128 + the number of the
signal (i.e., 128 + 2).
13.3 The Command Line 779

13.3.5 Multiple Commands at the Command Line

A command line can consist of multiple commands. Each command is separated by a

semicolon, and the command line is terminated with a newline. The exit status is that
of the last command in the chain of commands.

EXAMPLE 13.22

$ Is; pwd; date

EXPLANATION

The commands are executed from left to right, one after the other, until the newline
is reached.

13.3.6 Command Grouping

Commands may also be grouped so that all of the output is either piped to another com-
mand or redirected to a file.

EXAMPLE 13.23

$ ( Is; pwd; date ) > outputfile

EXPLANATION

The output of each of the commands is sent to the file called outputfile. The spaces
inside the parentheses are necessary.

13.3.7 Conditional Execution of Commands

With conditional execution, two command strings are separated by the special meta-
characters, double ampersands (&&) and double vertical bars (| |). The command on the
right of either of these metacharacters will or will not be executed based on the exit con-
dition of the command on the left.

EXAMPLE 13.24

$ cc prgml.c -o prgml && prgml

EXPLANATION

If the first command is successful (has a 0 exit status), the command after the && is ex-
ecuted; that is, if the cc program can successfully compile prgml.c, the resulting execut-
able program, prgml, will be executed.
780 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

EXAMPLE 13.25

$ cc prog.c >& err || mail bob < err

EXPLANATION

If the first command fails (has a nonzero exit status), the command after the 11 is ex-
ecuted; that is, if the cc program cannot compile prog.c, the errors are sent to a file
called err, and user bob will be mailed the err file.

13.3.8 Commands in the Background

Normally, when you execute a command, it runs in the foreground, and the prompt does
not reappear until the command has completed execution. It is not always convenient
to wait for the command to complete. When you place an ampersand (&) at the end of
the command line, the shell will return the shell prompt immediately and execute the
command in the background concurrently. You do not have to wait for one command to
finish before starting another. The output from a background job will be sent to the
screen as it processes. Therefore, if you intend to run a command in the background, the
output of that command might be redirected to a file or piped to another device, such
as a printer, so that its output does not interfere with the more recent command that was
typed.
The ! variable contains the P1D number of the last job put in the background. (See
the following section, "Job Control," for more on background processing.)

EXAMPLE 13.26

1 $ man sh | lp&
2 [1] 1557
3 $ kill -9 $!

EXPLANATION

l The output of the man command (the manual pages for the UNIX command) is
piped to the printer. The ampersand at the end of the command line puts the job
in the background.

2 There are two numbers that appear on the screen: the number in square brackets
indicates that this is the first job to be placed in the background; the second num-
ber is the PID, or the process identification number of this job.

3 The shell prompt appears immediately. While your program is running in the
background, the shell is waiting for another command in the foreground. The !
variable evaluates to the PID of the job most recently put in the background. If
you get it in time, you will kill this job before it goes to the print queue.
13.4 Job Control 781

13.4 Job Control

Job control is a powerful feature of the bash shell that allows you to selectively run pro-
grams, called jobs, in the background or foreground. A running program is called a pro-
cess or a job and each process has a process ID number, called the PID. Normally, a
command typed at the command line is running in the foreground and will continue
until it has finished unless you send a signal by pressing Ctrl-C or Ctrl-\ to terminate it.
With job control, you can send a job to the background and let it keep running; you can
stop a job by pressing Ctrl-Z, which sends the job to the background and suspends it;
you can cause a stopped job to run in the background; you can bring a background job
back to the foreground; and you can even kill the jobs you have running in the back-
ground or foreground. For a list of job commands, see Table 13.3 on page 782.

13.4.1 Job Control Commands and Options

By default, job control is already set (some older versions of UNIX do not support this
feature). If disabled, it can be reset by any one of the following commands:

FORMAT

set -m # set job control in the .bashrc file

set -o monitor # set job control in the .bashrc file
bash -m -i # set job control when invoking interactive bash

EXAMPLE 13.27

1 $ vi
[1]+ Stopped vi

2 $ sleep 25&
[2] 4538

3 $ jobs
[2]+ Running sleep 25&
[1]- Stopped vi

4 $ jobs -1
[2]+ 4538 Running sleep 25&
[1]- 4537 Stopped vi

5 S jobs %%
[2]+ 4538 Running sleep 25&

6 $ fg %1
782 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

EXAMPLE 13.27 (continued)

7 $ jobs -x echo %1
4537

8 $ kill %! # or kill 4537

[1]+ Stopped vi
Vim: Caught deadly signal TERM
Vim: Finished.
[1]+ Exit 1 vi

EXPLANATION
A
1 After the vi editor is invoked, you can press Z (Ctrl-Z) to suspend the vi session.
The editor will be suspended in the background, and after the message Stopped ap-
pears, the shell prompt will appear immediately.

2 The ampersand at the end of the command causes the sleep command, with an
argument of 25, to execute in the background. The notation [2] means that this is
the second job to be run in the background and the PID of this job is 4538.

3 The jobs command displays the jobs currently in the background.

4 The jobs command with the -1 option displays the processes (jobs) running in the
background and the PID numbers of those jobs.

5 The %% argument causes jobs to display the most recent command put in the job
table.

6 The fg command followed by a percent sign and the job number will bring that
numbered job into the foreground. Without a number, fg brings the most recently
backgrounded job back into the foreground.

7 The -x option can be used to print just the PID number of the job. %1 refers to the
vi session that was stopped in the first example.

8 The kill command sends a TERM signal to the process and kills it. The vi program
is killed. You can specify either the job number or the PID number as arguments
to the kill command.

Table 13.3 Job Control Commands

Command Meaning

bg Starts running the stopped job in the background

fg Brings a background job to the foreground

jobs Lists all the jobs running

kill Sends the kill signal to a specified job

stop Suspends a background job

13.5 Command-Line Shortcuts 783

Table 13.3 Job Control Commands (continued)

Command Meaning

stty tostop Suspends a background job if it sends output to the terminal

wait [n] Waits for a specified job and returns its exit status; n is a PID or job number

A
Z (Ctrl-Z) Stops (suspends) the job; the prompt appears on the screen

Argument to
Jobs Command Represents

%n Job number n

%sting Job name starting with string

%?string Job name containing string

%% Current job

%+ Current job

%- Previous job, before current job

-r Lists all running jobs

-s Lists all suspended jobs

New jobs Options. Two new options were added to the jobs command in bash ver-
sions 2.x. They are the -r and -s options. The -r option lists all running jobs, and the
-s option lists all stopped jobs.

The disown Built-in. The disown built-in command (bash 2.x) removes a specified job
from the job table. After the job has been removed, the shell will no longer recognize it
as a viable job process and it can only be referenced by its process ID number.

13.5 Command-Line Shortcuts

13.5.1 Command and Filename Completion

To save typing, bash implements command and filename completion, a mechanism that
allows you to type part of a command or filename, press the Tab key, and the rest of the
word will be completed for you.
If you type the first letters in a command and press the Tab key, bash will attempt to
complete the command and execute it. If bash cannot complete the filename or command,
because neither exists, the terminal may beep and the cursor will stay at the end of the
command. If there is more than one command starting with those characters and you press
the Tab key a second time, all commands that start with those characters will be listed.
784 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

If there are several files starting with the same letters, bash will complete the shortest
name that matches, expand out the filename until the characters differ, and then flash
the cursor for you to complete the rest.

EXAMPLE 13.28

l $ Is
filel file! foo foobarckle fumble

2 $ Is fu[tab] # Expands filename to fumble

3 S Is fx[tab] # Terminal beeps, nothing happens

4 $ Is fi[tab] # Expands to file_ (_ is a cursor)

5 $ Is fi[tab][tab] # Lists all possibilities

filel file2

6 $ Is foobftab] # Expands to foobarckle

7 $ 6a[tab] # Completes the date command

date
Tue Feb 24 18:53:40 PST 2004

8 $ ca[tab][tab] # Lists all commands starting with ca

cal captoinfo case cat

EXPLANATION

1 All files are listed for the current working directory.

2 After fu is typed, the Tab key is pressed, causing the spelling of the filename to be
completed to fumble, and listed.

3 Because none of the files start with fx, the terminal beeps and the cursor remains,
but does nothing. (The terminal may not beep if that feature has been disabled.)

4 There are a number of files starting with fi; the filenames are completed until the
letters are no longer the same. If another Tab is pressed, all files with that spelling
are listed.

5 By pressing two Tabs, a list of all files beginning with f i 1 e is printed.

6 When the Tab key is pressed, the filename is expanded to foobarckle.

7 When the Tab key is pressed after da, the only command that begins with da is the
date command. The command name is expanded and executed.

8 When the Tab key is pressed after ca, nothing happens because more than one
command starts with ca. Pressing the Tab key twice lists all commands starting
with ca.
13.5 Command-Line Shortcuts 785

13.5.2 History

The history mechanism keeps a history list, a numbered record of the commands that
you have typed at the command line. During a login session, the commands you type
are stored in the the shell's memory in a history list and then appended to the history/ile
when you exit. You can recall a command from the history list and re-execute it without
retyping the command. The history built-in command displays the history list. The
default name for the history file is . bash.hi story, and it is located in your home directory.
When bash starts accessing the history file, the HISTSIZE variable specifies how many
commands can be copied from the history file into the history list. The default size is
500. The HISTFILE variable specifies the name of the command history file (~/.bash_hi story
is the default) where commands are stored. If unset, the command history is not saved
when an interactive shell exits.
The history file grows from one login session to the next. The HISTFILESIZE variable
controls the maximum number of lines contained in the history file. When this variable
is assigned a value, the history file is truncated when it surpasses that number of lines.
The default size is 500.
The fc -1 command can be used to display or edit commands in the history list.

Table 13.4 History Variables

Variable Description

FCEDIT The pathname of the UNIX/Linux editor that uses the fc command.

HISTCMD The history number, or index in the history list, of the current command. If HISTCMD is
unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset.

HISTCONTROL If set to a value of ignorespace, lines that begin with a space character are not entered on
the history list. If set to a value of ignoredups, lines matching the last history line are not
entered. A value of i gnoreboth combines the two options. If unset, or if set to any other
value than those above, all lines read by the parser are saved on the history list.

HISTFILE Specifies file in which to store command history The default value is ~/-bash_hi story. If
unset, the command history is not saved when an interactive shell exits.

HISTFILESIZE The maximum number of lines contained in the history file. When this variable is
assigned a value, the history file is truncated, if necessary, to contain no more than that
number of lines. The default value is 500.

HISTICNORE A colon-separated list of patterns used to decide which command lines should be saved
on the history list. Each pattern is anchored to the beginning of the line and consists
of normal shell pattern-matching characters. An & can be used in the pattern causing
the history command to ignore duplicates; for example, ty??:& would match for any
command line starting with ty followed by two characters, and any duplicates of that
command. Those commands would not be placed in the history list.

HISTSIZE The number of commands to remember in the command history. The default value is
500.
786 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

13.5.3 Accessing Commands from the History File

The Arrow Keys. To access commands from the history file, you can use the arrow
keys on the keyboard to move up and down through the history file, and from left to
right (see Table 13.5). You can edit any of the lines from the history file by using the
standard keys for deleting, updating, backspacing, and so forth. As soon as you have
edited the line, pressing the Enter key will cause the command line to be re-executed.

Table 13.5 The Arrow Keys

t Up arrow moves up the history list.

Down arrow moves down the history list.

—> Right arrow moves cursor to right on history command.

<— Left arrow moves cursor to left on history command.

The history Built-in Command. The history built-in command displays the history
of commands typed preceded by an event number.

EXAMPLE 13.29

$ history
982 Is
983 for / in 1 2 3
984 do
985 echo Si
986 done
987 echo Si
988 man xterm
989 adfasdfasdfadfasdfasdfadfasdfasdf
990 id -gn
991 id -un
992 id -u
993 man id
994 more /etc/passwd
995 man ulimit
996 man bash
997 man baswh
998 man bash
999 history
1000 history

EXPLANATION

1 The built-in hi story command displays a list of numbered commands from the
history list. Any lines listed with an * have been modified.
13.5 Command-Line Shortcuts 787

Th© fc Command. The fc command, also called the fix command, can be used in
two ways: (1) to select commands from the history list, and (2) to edit the commands
in either the vi or emacs editor, or for that matter, any editor on your system.
In the first form, fc with the -1 option can select specific lines or ranges of lines
from the history list. When the -1 switch is on, the output goes to the screen. For
example, fc -1, the default, prints the last 16 lines from the history list, fc -1 10 selects
lines numbered 10 through the end of the list, and fc -1 -3 selects the last three lines.
The -n switch turns off the numbering of commands in the history list. With this option
on, you could select a range of commands and redirect them to a file, which in turn
could be executed as a shell script. The -r switch reverses the order of the commands.
The second form of fc is described in "Command-Line Editing" on page 793.

Table 13.6 The fc Command

Argument Meaning

-e editor Puts history list into editor

-1 n-m Lists commands in range from n to m

-n Turns off numbering of history list

-r Reverses the order of the history list

-s string Accesses command starting with string

EXAMPLE 13.30

1 $ fc -1
4 Is
5 history
6 exit
7 history
8 Is
9 pwd
10 clear
11 cal 2000
12 history
13 vi file
14 history
15 Is -1
16 date
17 more file
18 echo abed
19 cd
20 history
788 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

EXAMPLE 13.30 (continued)

2 $ fc ■-1 -3
19 cd
20 history
21 fc -7
3 $ fc -In
exit
history
Is
pwd
clear
cal 2000
history
vi file
history
Is -1
date
more file
echo abed
cd
history
fc -1
fc -1 -3
4 $ fc ■-In -3 > saved
5 $ more saved
fc -1
fc -1 -3
fc -In
6 $ fc ■-1 15
15 Is -1
16 date
17 more file
18 echo abed
19 cd
20 history
21 fc -1
22 fc -1 -3
23 fc -In
24 fc -In -3 > saved
25 more saved
26 history
7 $ fc ■-1 15 20
15 7s -7
16 date
17 more file
18 echo abed
19 cd
20 history
13.5 Command-Line Shortcuts 789

EXPLANATION

l fc -1 selects the last 16 commands from the history list.

2 fc -1 -3 selects the last three commands from the history list.

3 fc with the -In options prints the history list without line numbers.

4 The last three commands, without line numbers, from the history list are redirect-
ed to a file called saved.

5 The contents of the file saved are displayed.

6 Commands from the history list, starting at number 15, are listed.

7 Commands numbered 15 through 20 are displayed.

If fc is given the -s option, a string pattern can be used to re-execute a previous com-
mand; for example, fc -s rm will cause the most previous line containing the pattern rm
to be re-executed. To emulate the Korn shell's redo command, you can create a bash alias
called r (e.g., alias r=,fc -s') so that if you type r vi at the command line, the last history
item containing that pattern will be re-executed; in this case, the vi editor will be started
just as it was the last time it started, including any arguments passed.

EXAMPLE 13.31

1 S history
1 Is
2 pwd
3 clear
4 cal 2000
5 history
6 Is -1
7 date
8 more file
9 echo abed
2 $ fc -s da
date
Thu Jul 15 12:33:25 PST 2004
3 $ alias r="fc -s"
4 $ date +%T
18:12:32
5 $ r d
date +%T
18:13:19

EXPLANATION

l The built-in history command displays the history list.

2 fc with the -s option searches for the last command that began with string da. The
date command is found in the history list and is re-executed.
790 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

3 An alias (a user-defined nickname) called r is assigned the command fc -s. This

means that any time r is typed at the command line, it will be substituted with
fc -s.

4 The date command is executed. It will print the current time.

5 The alias is used as a shortcut to the fs -s command. The last command beginning
with a d is re-executed.

Re-executing History Commands (Bang! Bang!). To re-execute a command

from the history list, the exclamation point (called bang) is used. If you type two excla-
mation points, (!!) bang, bang, the last command in the history list is re-executed. If you
type an exclamation point, followed by a number, the command listed by that number
is re-executed. If you type an exclamation point and a letter or string, the last command
that started with that letter or string is re-executed. The caret (A) is also used as a short-
cut method for editing the previous command. See Table 13.7 for a complete list of his-
tory substitution characters.

Table 13.7 Substitution and History

Event Designator Meaning

Indicates the start of history substitution.

Re-executes the previous command.

N Re-executes the Nth command from the history list.

N Re-executes the Nth command back from present command.

Istring Re-executes the last command starting with string.

!?string? Re-executes the last command containing string.

!?string?% Re-executes the most recent command-line argument from the

history list containing string.

$ Uses the last argument from the last history command in the current
command line.

!! string Appends string to the previous command and executes.

N string Appends string to Nth command in history list and executes.

N:s/old/new/ In previous Nth command, substitutes the first occurrence of old

string with new string.

!N:gs/old/new/ In previous Nth command, globally substitutes old string with new
string.
13.5 Command-Line Shortcuts 791

Table 13.7 Substitution and History (continued)

Event Designator Meaning

AoldAnewA in last history command, substitutes old string with new string.

command !N:wn Executes current command appending an argument (wn) from the Nth
previous command. Wn is a number starting at 0, 1, 2, ... designating
the number of the word from the previous command; word 0 is the
command itself, and 1 is its first argument, etc. (See Example 11.32.)

EXAMPLE 13.32

1 $ date
Mon Jul 12 12:27:35 PST 2004

2 $ !!
date
Mon Jul 12 12:28:25 PST 2004

3 S ! 106
date
Mon Jul 12 12:29:26 PST 2004

4 S !d
date
Mon Jul 12 12:30:09 PST 2004

5 $ dare
dare: Command not found.

6 $ ArAt
date
Mon Jul 12 12:33:25 PST 2004

EXPLANATION

l The UNIX/Linux date command is executed at the command line. The history list
is updated. This is the last command on the list.

2 The !! (bang bang) gets the last command from the history list; the command is
re-executed.

3 Command number 106 from the history list is re-executed.

4 The last command on the history list that started with the letter d is re-executed.

5 The command is mistyped. It should be date, not dare.

6 The carets are used to substitute letters from the last command on the history list.
The first occurrence of an r is replaced with a t; that is, dare becomes date.
792 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

EXAMPLE 13.33

1 $ Is filel file2 file3

filel file! file3
$ vi !:1
vi filel

2 $ Is filel file2 file

filel file? file?
$ Is !:2
Is file?
file?

3 $ Is filel file2 file3

$ Is !:3
Is file?
fileS

4 $ echo a b c
a b c
$ echo !$
echo c
c

5 $ echo a b c
a b c
$ echo !A
echo a
a

6 % echo a b c
a b c
% echo \*
echo a b c
a b c

7 % !!:p
echo a b c

EXPLANATION

1 The Is command lists filel, file2, and file3. The history list is updated. The com-
mand line is broken into words, starting with word number 0. If the word number
is preceded by a colon, that word can be extracted from the history list. The ! :1
notation means: get the first argument from the last command on the history list
and replace it in the command string. The first argument from the last command
is filel. (Word 0 is the command itself.)

2 The ! :2 is replaced with the second argument of the last command, file2, and giv-
en as an argument to Is. file2 is printed. (file2 is the third word.)
13.5 Command-Line Shortcuts 793

EXPLANATION (continued)

3 Is ! :3 reads; go to the last command on the history list and get the fourth word
(words start at 0) and pass it to the Is command as an argument. (file3 is the
fourth word.)

4 The bang (!) with the dollar sign ($) refers to the last argument of the last com-
mand on the history list. The last argument is c.

5 The caret (a) represents the first argument after the command. The bang (!) with
the A refers to the first argument of the last command on the history list. The first
argument of the last command is a.

6 The asterisk (*) represents all arguments after the command. The ! with the * re-
fers to all of the arguments of the last command on the history list.

7 The last command from the history list is printed but not executed. The history
list is updated. You could now perform caret substitutions on that line.

13.5.4 Command-Line Editing

The bash shell provides two built-in editors, emacs and vi, that allow you to interactively
edit your history list. When you use the editing features at the command line, whether
in vi or emacs mode, the readline functions determine which keys will perform certain
functions. For example, if using emacs, Ctrl-P allows you to scroll upward in the com-
mand-line history, whereas if using vi, the K key moves upward through the history list.
Readline also controls the arrow keys, cursor movement, changing, deleting, inserting
text, and redoing or undoing corrections. Another feature of readline is the completion
feature previously discussed in "Command and Filename Completion" on page 783.
This allows you to type part of a command, filename, or variable, and then, by pressing
the Tab key, the rest of the word is completed. There are many more features provided
by the Readline library designed to help manipulate text at the command line.
The emacs built-in editor is the default built-in editor and is modeless, whereas the vi
built-in editor works in two modes, one to execute commands on lines and the other to
enter text. If you use UNIX, you are probably familiar with at least one of these editors.
To enable the vi editor, add the set command listed below4 and put this line in your
~/.bashrc file. To set vi, type what's shown in the following example, at either the prompt
or in the -/■ bashrc file.

EXAMPLE 13.34

set -o vi

EXPLANATION

Sets the built-in vi editor for command-line editing of the history list.

4. If the set -o (editor) has not been set, but the EDITOR variable has been set to either emacs or vi, then bash will
use that definition.
794 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

To switch to the emacs editor, type:

EXAMPLE 13.35

set -o emacs

EXPLANATION

Sets the built-in emacs editor for command-line editing of the history list.

The vi Built-in Editor. To edit the history list, go to the command line and press the
Esc key Then press the K key if you want to scroll upward in the history list, and the J
key5 to move downward, just like standard vi motion keys. When you find the command
that you want to edit, use the standard keys that you would use in vi for moving left and
right, deleting, inserting, and changing text. (See Table 13.8.) After making the edit, press
the Enter key. The command will be executed and added to the bottom of the history list.

Table 13.8 vi Commands

Command Function

Moving Through the History File

Esc k or + Move up the history list

Esc j or - Move down the history list

G Move to first line in history file

5G Move to fifth command in history file for string

/string Search upward through history file

? String search downward through history file

Moving Around on a Line

h Move left on a line

1 Move right on a line

b Move backward a word

e or w Move forward a word

A
or 0 Move to beginning of first character on the line

$ Move to end of line

5. vi is case-sensitive; an uppercase J and a lowercase j are different commands.

13.5 Command-Line Shortcuts 795

Table 13.8 vi Commands (continued)

Command Function

Editing with vi

aA Append text

il Insert text

dd dw x Delete text into a buffer (line, word, or character)

cc C Change text

uU Undo

yy Y Yank (copy a line into buffer)

pP Put yanked or deleted line down below or above the line

rR Replace a letter or any amount of text on a line

The emacs Built-in Editor. If using the emacs built-in editor, like vi, start at the com-
A
mand line. To start moving upward through the history file, press P To move down,
A
press N. Use emacs editing commands to change or correct text, then press Enter and
the command will be re-executed. See Table 13.9.

Table 13.9 emacs Commands

Command Function

Ctrl-P Move up history file

Ctrl-N Move down history file

Ctrl-B Move backward one character

Ctrl-R Search backward for string

Esc B Move backward one word

Ctrl-F Move forward one character

Esc F Move forward one word

Ctrl-A Move to the beginning of the line

Ctrl-E Move to the end of the line

Esc < Move to the first line of the history file

Esc > Move to the last line of the history file

796 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

Table 13.9 emacs Commands (continued)

Command Function

Editing with <emacs

Ctrl-U Delete the line

Ctrl-Y Put the line back

Ctrl-K Delete from cursor to the end line

Ctrl-D Delete a letter

Esc D Delete one word forward

EscH Delete one word backward

Esc space Set a mark at cursor position

Ctrl-X Ctrl-X Exchange cursor and mark

Ctrl-P Ctrl-Y Push region from cursor to mark into a buffer (Ctrl-P) and put it down
(Ctrl-Y)

FCEDIT and Editing Commands. If the fc command is given the -e option followed
by the name of a UNIX/Linux editor, that editor is invoked containing history com-
mands selected from the history list; for example, fc -e vi -1 -3 will invoke the vi editor,
create a temporary file in /tmp, with the last three commands from the history list in the
vi buffer. The commands can be edited or commented out. (Preceding the command
with a # will comment it.) If the user quits the editor, the commands will all be echoed
and executed.6
If the editor name is not given, the value of the FCEDIT variable is used (typically set
in the initialization files, either bash.profile or .profile), and the value of the EDITOR vari-
able is used if FCEDIT is not set. When editing is complete, and you exit the editor, all of
the edited commands are echoed and executed.

6. Whether the user saves and quits the editor, or simply quits the editor, the commands will all be executed,
unless they are commented or deleted.
13.5 Command-Line Shortcuts 797

EXAMPLE 13.36

1 $ FCEDIT=/bin/vi
2 $ pwd
3 $ fc
< Starts up the full screen vi editor with the pwd command on line 1>

pwd

vi editor

4 $ history
1 date
2 Is -1
3 echo "hello"
4 pwd

5 $ fc -3 -1 # Start vi, edit, write/quit, and execute

# last 3 commands.

EXPLANATION

l The FCEDIT variable can be assigned the pathname for any of the UNIX/Linux text
editors you have on your system, such as vi, emacs, and so on. If not set, the vi ed-
itor is the default.

2 The pwd command is typed at the command line. It will be placed in the hi story file.

3 The fc command caused the editor (set in FCEDIT) to be invoked with the last com-
mand typed in the editor window. After the user writes and quits the editor, any
commands typed there will be executed.

4 The history command lists recently typed commands.

5 The fc command is used to start up the editor with the last three commands from
the history file in the editor's buffer.
798 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

13.6 Aliases

An alias is a bash user-defined abbreviation for a command. Aliases are useful if a com-
mand has a number of options and arguments or the syntax is difficult to remember.
Aliases set at the command line are not inherited by subshells. Aliases are normally set
in the .bashrc file. Because the .bashrc is executed when a new shell is started, any aliases
set there will be reset for the new shell. Aliases may also be passed into shell scripts but
will cause potential portability problems unless they are set directly within the script.

13.6.1 Listing Aliases

The alias built-in command lists all set aliases. The alias is printed first, followed by the
real command or commands it represents.

EXAMPLE 13.37

$ alias
alias co='compress'
alias cp='cp -i'
alias mroe='more'
alias mv='mv -i'
alias ls='ls —colorztty'
alias uc='uncompress'

EXPLANATION

The alias command lists the alias (nickname) for the command and the real command
the alias represents after the = sign.

13.6.2 Creating Aliases

The alias command is used to create an alias. The first argument is the name of the alias,
the nickname for the command. The rest of the line consists of the command or com-
mands that will be executed when the alias is executed. Bash aliases cannot take argu-
ments (see "Defining Functions" on page 841). Multiple commands are separated by a
semicolon, and commands containing spaces and metacharacters are surrounded by sin-
gle quotes.

EXAMPLE 13.38

1 $ alias in=more
2 $ alias iiiroe=iiiore
3 S alias lF=,ls -alF'
4 $ alias r='fc -s'
13.7 Manipulating the Directory Stack 799

EXPLANATION

1 The nickname for the more command is set to m.

2 The alias for the more command is set to mroe. This is handy if you can't spell.

3 The alias definition is enclosed in quotes because of the whitespace. The alias IF
is a nickname for the command Is -alF

4 The alias r will be used instead of fc -s to recall commands from the history list
by a specified pattern; for example, r vi will re-execute the last command in the
history list containing the pattern vi.

13.6.3 Deleting Aliases

The unalias command is used to delete an alias. To temporarily turn off an alias, precede
the alias name by a backslash.

EXAMPLE 13.39

1 $ unalias mroe
2 $ \ls

EXPLANATION

1 The unalias command deletes the alias mroe from the list of defined aliases.

2 The alias Is is temporarily turned off for this execution of the command only.

13.7 Manipulating the Directory Stack

If you find that as you work, you cd up and down the directory tree into many of the
same directories, you can make it easy to access those directories by pushing them onto
a directory stack and manipulating the stack. The pushd built-in command pushes direc-
tories onto a stack and the popd command removes them. (See Example 13.40.) The stack
is a list of directories with the directory at the left being the most recent directory pushed
onto the stack. The directories can be listed with the built-in di rs command.

13.7.1 The di rs Built-in Command

The built-in command di rs, with a -1 option, displays the directory stack with each of
its directories in full pathname format; without an option, di rs uses a tilde to denote
the home directory. With a +n option, di rs displays the nth directory entry counting
from the left in the directory list, starting at 0. With the -n option, it does the same
thing, but starts at the right-hand side of the directory list with 0.
800 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

13.7.2 The pushd and popd Commands

The pushd command, with a directory as an argument, causes the new directory to be
added to the directory stack and, at the same time, changes to that directory If the argu-
ment is a +n where n is a number, pushd rotates the stack so that the nth directory from
the stack, starting at the left-hand side, is pushed onto the top of the stack. With a -n
option, it does the same thing but starts at the right-hand side. Without arguments, pushd
exchanges the top two elements of the directory stack, making it easy to switch back and
forth between directories.
The popd command removes a directory from the top of the stack, and changes to that
directory. With +n, where n is a number, popd removes the nth entry, starting at the left of
the list shown by di rs.

EXAMPLE 13.40

i $ pwd
/home/e Hie

$ pushd ..
/home ~

$ pwd
/home

2 $ pushd # Swap the two top directories on the stack

~ /home

$ pwd
/home/e Hie

3 $ pushd perl class

~/perlclass ~ /home

4 $ dirs
~/perlclass ~ /home

5 $ dirs -1
/home/el lie/perl class /home/el lie /home

6 S popd
-/home

$ pwd
/home/ellie

7 S popd
/home

$ pwd
/home

8 $ popd
bash: popd: Directory stack empty.
13.8 Metacharacters (Wildcards) 801

1 First the pwd command displays the present working directory, /home/el 1 i e. Next the
pushd command with .. as its argument, pushes the parent directory (..) onto the
directory stack. The output of pushd indicates that /home is at the top of the directory
stack (starting at the left-hand side of the displayed list) and the user's home direc-
tory, represented by the tilde character (~) is at the bottom of the stack, pushd also
changes the directory to the one that was pushed onto the stack; that is, .., which
translates to /home. The new directory is displayed with the second pwd command.

2 The pushd command, without arguments, exchanges the two top directory entries
on the stack and changes to the swapped directory; in this example, the directory
is switched back to the user's home directory, /home/ellie.

3 The pushd command will push its argument, ~/perlclass, onto the stack, and
change to that directory

4 The built-in di rs command displays the directory stack, with the top level starting
at left-hand side of the listing. The tilde expands to the user's home directory.

5 With the -1 option, dirs list displays the directory stack with full pathnames in-
stead of using tilde expansion.

6 The popd command removes a directory from the top of the stack, and changes to
that directory.

7 The popd command removes another directory from the top of the stack, and
changes to that directory.

8 The popd command cannot remove any more directory entries because the stack is
empty, and issues an error message saying so.

13.8 Metacharacters (Wildcards)

Metacharacters are special characters used to represent something other than them-
selves. Shell metacharacters are called wildcards. Table 13.10 lists metacharacters and
what they do.

Table 13.10 Metacharacters

Metacharacter Meaning

\ Interprets the following character literally

& Processes in the background

Separates commands

$ Substitutes variables

? Matches for a single character

802 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

Table 13.10 Metacharacters (continued)

Metacharacter Meaning

[abc] Matches for one character from a set of characters; for example, a, b, or c

[ !abc] Matches for one character not from the set of characters; for example, not
a, b, or c

* Matches for zero or more characters

(cmds) Executes commands in a subshell

{cmds} Executes commands in current shell

13.9 Filename Substitution (Globbing)

When evaluating the command line, the shell uses metacharacters to abbreviate filena-
mes or pathnames that match a certain set of characters. The filename substitution meta-
characters listed in Table 13.11 are expanded into an alphabetically listed set of
filenames. The process of expanding the metacharacter into filenames is also caWed file-
name substitution, or globbing. If a metacharacter is used and there is no filename that
matches it, the shell treats the metacharacter as a literal character.

Table 13.11 Shell Metacharacters and Filename Substitution

Metacharacter Meaning

* Matches zero or more characters

? Matches exactly one character

[abc] Matches one character in the set a, b, or c

[labc] Matches one character not in the set, not a, b, or c

{a, i 1 e, ax} Matches for a character or set of characters

[a-z] Matches for one character in the range from a to z

[ !a-z] Matches one character not in the range from a to z

\ Escapes or disables the metacharacter

13.9.1 The Asterisk

The asterisk is a wildcard that matches for zero or more of any characters in a filename.
13.9 Filename Substitution (Globbing) 803

EXAMPLE 13.41

l $ Is *
abc abcl abcl22 abcl23 abc2 filel filel.bak file2 file2.bak none
nonsense nobody nothing nowhere one
2 $ Is ft.bak
filel.bak file2.bak
3 $ echo a*
ab abcl abcl22 abcl23 abc2

EXPLANATION

l The asterisk expands to all of the files in the present working directory. All of the
files are passed as arguments to Is and displayed.

2 All files starting with zero or more characters and ending with . bak are matched
and listed.

3 All files starting with a, followed by zero or more characters, are matched and
passed as arguments to the echo command.

13.9.2 The Question Mark

The question mark represents a single character in a filename. When a filename contains
one or more question marks, the shell performs filename substitution by replacing the
question mark with the character it matches in the filename.

EXAMPLE 13.42

1 S Is
abc abcl22 abc2 filel.bak file2.bak nonsense nothing one
abcl abcl23 filei file2 none noone nowhere
2 $ Is a?c?
abcl abc2
3 $ Is ??
Is: ??: No such file or directory
4 $ echo abc???
abcl22 abcl23
5 $ echo ??
??

EXPLANATION

1 The files in the current directory are listed.

2 Filenames starting with a, followed by a single character, followed by c and a sin-

gle character, are matched and listed.

3 Filenames containing exactly two characters are listed, if found. Because there are
not any two-character files, the question marks are treated as a literal filename.
Such a file is not found, and the error message is printed.
804 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

EXPLANATION (continued)

4 Filenames starting with abc and followed by exactly three characters are expanded
and displayed by the echo command.

5 There are no files in the directory that contain exactly two characters. The shell
treats the question mark as a literal question mark if it cannot find a match.

13.9.3 The Square Brackets

The brackets are used to match filenames containing one character in a set or range of
characters.

EXAMPLE 13.43

l $ Is
abc abcl22 abc2 filel.bak fne2.bak nonsense nothing
one abcl abcl23 filel file2 none noone nowhere
2 $ Is abc[123]
abcl abc2
3 $ Is abc[1-3]
abcl abc2
4 $ Is [a-z][a-z][a-z]
abc one
5 $ Is [!f-z]???
abcl abc2
6 $ Is abcl2[23]
abcl22 abcUS

EXPLANATION

l All of the files in the present working directory are listed.

2 All filenames containing four characters are matched and listed if the filename
starts with abc, followed by 1,2, or 3. Only one character from the set in the brack-
ets is matched.

3 All filenames containing four characters are matched and listed, if the filename
starts with abc and is followed by a number in the range from 1 to 3.

4 All filenames containing three characters are matched and listed, if the filename
contains exactly three lowercase alphabetic characters.

5 All filenames containing four characters are listed if the first character is not a let-
ter between f and z ([! f-z], followed by three of any characters, where ? represents
a single character.

6 Files are listed if the filenames contain abcl2 followed by 2 or 3.

13.9 Filename Substitution (Globbing) 805

13.9.4 Brace Expansion

The curly braces match for any of a list of comma-separated strings. Normally the strings
are filenames. Any characters prepended to the opening curly brace are called the pre-
amble, and any characters appended to the closing curly brace are called the postamble.
Both the preamble and postamble are optional. There can be no unquoted whitespace
within the braces.

EXAMPLE 13.44

1 $ Is
a.c b.c abc ab3 ab4 abS filel file? file? file4 file? foo
faa fumble
2 $ Is f{oo,aa,umble}
foo faa fumble
3 $ Is a{.c,c,b[3-5]}
a.c ab3 ab4 ab5
4 $ tnkdir /usr/local/src/bash/{old,new,dist,bugs}
5 $ chown root /usr/{ucb/{ex,edit},lib/{ex?.?*,how_ex}}
6 $ echo folo, urn}*
fo{o, urn}*
7 $ echo {mam.pap.bala
mama papa baa
8 $ echo postfscript,office,ure}
postscript postoff ice posture

EXPLANATION

1 All the files in the current directory are listed.

2 Files starting with f and followed by the strings oo, aa, or umble are listed. Spaces
inside the curly braces will cause the error message Missing }.

3 Files starting with a followed by .c, c, or bB, b4, or b5 are listed. (The square brack-
ets can be used inside the curly braces.)

4 Four new directories will be made in /usr/local/src/bash: old, new, dist, and bugs.

5 Root ownership will be given to files, ex and edit, in directory /usr/ucb and to files
named ex followed by one character, a period, and at least one more character, and
a file called how.ex in directory /usr/lib.

6 Brace expansion will not occur if there are any unquoted spaces within the braces.

7 Brace expansion does not necessarily always cause expansion of filenames. In this
example the postamble a is added to each of the strings within the curly braces
and echoed back after the expansion.

8 The preamble is the string post, followed by a comma-separated list enclosed with-
in braces. Brace expansion is performed and the resulting strings are displayed.
806 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

13.9.5 Escaping Metacharacters

To use a metacharacter as a literal character, use the backslash to prevent the metachar-
acter from being interpreted.

EXAMPLE 13.45

1 $ Is
abc filel youx
2 $ echo How are you?
How are youx
3 $ echo How are you\?
How are you?
4 $ echo When does this line \
> ever end\?
When does this line ever end?

EXPLANATION

1 The files in the present working directory are listed. (Note the file youx.)

2 The shell will perform filename expansion on the ?. Any files in the current direc-
tory starting with y-o-u and followed by exactly one character are matched and
substituted in the string. The filename youx will be substituted in the string to read
How are youx (probably not what you wanted to happen).

3 By preceding the question mark with a backslash, it is escaped, meaning that the
shell will not try to interpret it as a wildcard.

4 The newline is escaped by preceding it with a backslash. The secondary prompt

is displayed until the string is terminated with a newline. The question mark (?)
is escaped to protect it from filename expansion.

13.9.6 Tilde and Hyphen Expansion

The tilde character was adopted by the bash shell (from the C shell) for pathname expan-
sion. The tilde by itself evaluates to the full pathname of the user's home directory.7
When the tilde is appended with a username, it expands to the full pathname of that
user.
When the plus sign follows the tilde, the value of the PWD (present working directory)
replaces the tilde. The tilde followed by the hyphen character is replaced with the pre-
vious working directory; OLDPWD also refers to the previous working directory.

7. The tilde character will not be expanded if enclosed in either double or single quotes.
13.9 Filename Substitution (Globbing) 807

EXAMPLE 13.46

1 $ echo ~
/home/jody/ellie
2 $ echo -joe
/home/joe
3 $ echo ~+
/home/jody/e 11i e/perl
4 $ echo —
/home/jody/e 11 i e/prac
5 $ echo $0LDPWD
/home/jody/e7 7 i e/prac
6 $ cd -
/home/jody/e 17 i e/prac

EXPLANATION I

1 The tilde evaluates to the full pathname of the user's home directory.

2 The tilde preceding the username evaluates to the full pathname of joe's home di-
rectory.

3 The ~+ notation evaluates to the full pathname of the working directory.

4 The notation evaluates to the previous working directory.

5 The OLDPWD variable contains the previous working directory.

6 The hyphen refers to the previous working directory; cd to go to the previous

working directory and display the directory.

13.9.7 Controlling Wildcards (Globbing)

If the bash noglob variable is set or if the set command is given a -f option, filename sub-
stitution, called globbing, is turned off, meaning that all metacharacters represent them-
selves; they are not used as wildcards. This can be useful when searching for patterns
containing metacharacters in programs like grep, sed, or awk. If globbing is not set, all
metacharacters must be escaped with a backslash to turn off wildcard interpretation.
The built-in shopt command (bash versions 2.x) also supports options for controlling
globbing.

EXAMPLE 13.47

l $ set noglob or set -f

2 $ print *??[]- $L0GNAME
- ■7-7 [] /home/jody/ellie el lie
3 $ unset noglob or set +f
4 $ shopt -s dotglob # Only available in bash versions 2.x
5 $ echo *bash*
.bash_history .bashjogout .bash_profile .bashrc bashnote
bashtest
808 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

EXPLANATION

1 The -f option is given as an argument to the set command. It turns off the special
meaning of wildcards used for filename expansion.

2 The filename expansion metacharacters are displayed as themselves without any

interpretation. Note that the tilde and the dollar sign are still expanded, because
they are not used for filename expansion.

3 If either noglob is unset or the +f option is set, filename metacharacters will be ex-
panded.

4 The shopt built-in allows you to set options for the shell. The dotglob option allows
filenames to be matched with globbing metacharacters, even if they start with a
dot. Normally the files starting with a dot are invisible and not recognized when
performing filename expansion.

5 Because the dotglob option was set in line 4, when the wildcard * is used for file-
name expansion, the filenames starting with a dot are also expanded if the file-
name contains the pattern bash.

13.9.8 Extended Filename Globbing (bash 2.x)

Derived from Korn shell pattern matching, bash 2.x has included this extended function-
ality, allowing regular expression-type syntax (see Table 13.12). The regular expression
operators are not recognized unless the extglob option to the shopt command is turned on;

shopt -s extglob

Table 13.12 Extended Pattern Matching

Regular Expression Meaning

abc?(2|9)l ? matches zero or one occurrences of any pattern in the parentheses.

The vertical bar represents an OR condition; for example, either 2 or
9. Matches abc21, abc91, or abcl.

abc*([0-9]) * matches zero or more occurrences of any pattern in the

parentheses. Matches abc followed by zero or more digits; for
example, abc, abcl234, abcB, abc2, and so on.

abc+([0-9]) + matches one or more occurrences of any pattern in the

parentheses. Matches abc followed by one or more digits; for
example, abcB, abcl23, and so on.

no@(one|ne) @ matches exactly one occurrence of any pattern in the parentheses.

Matches noone or none.

no!(thing|where) ! matches all strings except those matched by any of the patterns in
the parentheses. Matches no, nobody, or noone, but not nothing or
nowhere.
13.9 Filename Substitution (Globbing) 809

EXAMPLE 13.48

l $ shopt -s extglob

2 $ Is
abc abcl22 fl f3 nonsense nothing one
abcl abc2 f2 none noone nowhere

3 $ Is abc?(l|2)
abc abcl abc2

4 $ Is abc*([l-5])
abc abcl abcl22 abc2

5 $ Is abc+([0-5])
abcl abcl22 abc2

6 $ Is no©(thing|ne)
none nothing

7 $ Is no!(thing)
none nonsense noone nowhere

EXPLANATION

l The shopt built-in is used to set the extglob (extended globbing) option, allowing
bash to recognize extended pattern-matching characters.

2 All the files in the present working directory are listed.

3 Matches filenames starting with abc and followed by zero characters or one of ei-
ther of the patterns in parentheses. Matches abc, abcl, or abc2.

4 Matches filenames starting with abc and followed by zero or more numbers be-
tween 1 and 5. Matches abc, abcl, abcl22, abcl23, and abc2.

5 Matches filenames starting with abc and followed by one or more numbers between
0 and 5. Matches abcl, abcl22, abcl23, and abc2.

6 Matches filenames starting with no and followed by thing or ne. Matches nothing or
none.

7 Matches filenames starting with no and followed by anything except thing. Match-
es none, nonsense, noone, and nowhere. The ! means NOT.
810 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

13.10 Variables

13.10.1 Types of Variables

There are two types of variables: local and environment. Local variables are known only
to the shell in which they were created. Environment variables are available to any child
processes spawned from the shell from which they were created. Some variables are cre-
ated by the user and others are special shell variables.

13.10.2 Naming Conventions

Variable names must begin with an alphabetic or underscore character. The remaining
characters can be alphabetic, decimal digits (0 to 9), or an underscore character. Any
other characters mark the termination of the variable name. Names are case sensitive.
When assigning a value to a variable, do not include any whitespace surrounding the
equal sign. To set the variable to null, follow the equal sign with a newline. The sim-
plest format for creating a local variable is to assign a value to a variable in the follow-
ing format.

FORMAT

variable=value

EXAMPLE 13.49

nanie=Toininy

13.10.3 The declare Built-in

There are two built-in commands, declare and typeset, used to create variables, with
options to control the way the variable is set. The typeset command (from Korn shell) is
exactly the same as the declare command (bash). The bash documentation says, "The type-
set command is supplied for compatibility with the Korn shell; however, it has been dep-
recated in favor of the declare built-in command."8 So from this point on we'll use the
declare built-in (even though we could just as easily have chosen to use typeset).
Without arguments, declare lists all set variables. Normally read-only variables can-
not be reassigned or unset. If read-only variables are created with declare, they cannot be
unset, but they can be reassigned. Integer-type variables can also be assigned with
declare.

8. Bash Reference Manual; www.delorie.com/gnu/docs/bash/bashref_56.html.

13.10 Variables 811

FORMAT

declare variable=value

EXAMPLE 13.50

declare name=Tomniy

Table 13.13 decl are Options

Option Meaning

-aa Treats variable as an array (i.e., assigns elements)

-f Lists functions names and definitions

-Fa Lists just function names

-i Makes variables integer types

-r Makes variables read-only

-x Exports variable names to subshells

a. -a and -F are implemented only on versions of bash 2.x.

13.10.4 Local Variables and Scope

The scope of a variable refers to where the variable is visible within a program. For the
shell, the scope of local variables is confined to the shell in which the variable is created.
When assigning a value, there can be no whitespace surrounding the equal sign. To
set the variable to null, the equal sign is followed by a newline.9
A dollar sign is used in front of a variable to extract the value stored there.
The local function can be used to create local variables, but this is only used within
functions. (See "Defining Functions" on page 841.)

Setting Local Variables. Local variables can be set by simply assigning a value to a
variable name, or by using the declare built-in function as shown in Example 13.51.

9. A variable set to a value or to null will be displayed by using the set command, but an unset variable will
not.
812 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

EXAMPLE 13.51

l $ round=world or declare round=world

$ echo $round
world
2 $ name="Peter Piper"
$ echo $name
Peter Piper
3 $ x=
$ echo Sx
4 $ file.bak="$HOME/]unk"
bash: file.bak=/home/jody/e 11ie/junk: not found

EXPLANATION

l The local variable round is assigned the value world. When the shell encounters the
dollar sign preceding a variable name, it performs variable substitution. The value
of the variable is displayed. (Don't confuse the prompt $ with the $ used to per-
form variable substitution.)

2 The local variable name is assigned the value "Peter Piper". The quotes are needed
to hide the whitespace so that the shell will not split the string into separate words
when it parses the command line. The value of the variable is displayed.

3 The local variable x is not assigned a value. It will be assigned null. The null value,
an empty string, is displayed.

4 The period in the variable name is illegal. The only characters allowed in a vari-
able name are numbers, letters, and the underscore. The shell tries to execute the
string as a command.

EXAMPLE 13.52

l $ echo S$
ISIS
2 $ round=world
$ echo $round
world
3 $ bash # Start a subshell
4 $ echo $S
1S26
5 $ echo $round
6 $ exit # Exits this shell, returns to parent shell
7 $ echo $S
ISIS
8 $ echo $round
world
13.10 Variables 813

EXPLANATION

1 The value of the double dollar sign variable evaluates to the PID of the current
shell. The PID of this shell is 1313.

2 The local variable round is assigned the string value world, and the value of the vari-
able is displayed.

3 A new bash shell is started. This is called a subshell, or child shell

4 The PID of this shell is 1326. The parent shell's PID is 1313.

5 The local variable round is not defined in this shell. A blank line is printed.

6 The exit command terminates this shell and returns to the parent shell. (Ctrl-D
will also exit this shell.)

7 The parent shell returns. Its PID is displayed.

8 The value of the variable round is displayed. It is local to this shell.

Setting Read-Only Variables. A read-only variable is a special variable that cannot

be redefined or unset. If, however, the declare function is used, a read-only variable can
be redefined, but not unset.

EXAMPLE 13.53

1 $ name=Tom
2 S readonly name
$ echo $name
Tom

3 $ unset name
bash: unset: name: cannot unset: readonly variable
4 $ name=Joe
bash: name: readonly variable

5 $ declare -r city='Santa Clara'

6 S unset city
bash: unset: city: cannot unset: readonly variable

7 $ declare city=,San Francisco' # In/hat happened here?

$ echo $city
San Francisco

EXPLANATION

1 The local variable name is assigned the value Tom.

2 The variable is made read-only

3 A read-only variable cannot be unset.

4 A read-only variable cannot be redefined.

814 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

EXPLANATION (continued)

5 The declare built-in command assigns a read-only variable, city, the value Santa
Clara. Quotes are necessary when assigning a string containing whitespace.

6 Because it is read-only, the variable cannot be unset.

7 When a read-only variable is created with the declare command, it cannot be un-
set, but it can be reassigned.

13.10.5 Environment Variables

Environment variables are available to the shell in which they are created and any sub-
shells or processes spawned from that shell. They are often called global variables to
differentiate them from local variables. By convention, environment variables are capi-
talized. Environment variables are variables that have been exported with the export
built-in command.
The shell in which a variable is created is called the parent shell. If a new shell is
started from the parent shell, it is called the child shell Environment variables are passed
to any child process started from the shell where the environment variables were cre-
ated. They are passed from parent to child to grandchild, and so on, but not in the other
direction—a child process can create an environment variable, but cannot pass it back
to its parent, only to its children.10 Some of the environment variables, such as HOME,
LOCNAME, PATH, and SHELL, are set before you log on by the /bin/login program. Normally,
environment variables are defined and stored in the .bash_profile file in the user's home
directory. See Table 13.14 for a list of environment variables.

Table 13.14 bash Environment Variables

Variable Name Meaning

_ (underscore) The last argument to the previous command.

BASH Expands to the full pathname used to invoke this instance of bash.

BASH.ENV Same as ENV but set only in bash.3

BASH.VERSINFO Version information about this version of bash.3

BASH.VERSION Expands to the version number of this instance of bash.

CDPATH The search path for the cd command. This is a colon-separated list of directories
in which the shell looks for destination directories specified by the cd command.
A sample value is . :~:/usr.

COLUMNS If set, defines the width of the edit window for shell edit modes and the select
command.

10. Like DNA, inheritance goes in one direction only, from parent to child.
13.10 Variables 815

Table 13.14 bash Environment Variables (continued)

Variable Name Meaning

DIRSTACK The current contents of the directory stack of the bash.3

EDITOR Pathname for a built-in editor; emacs, gmacs, or vi.

ENV The environment file that is executed every time a new bash shell is started,
including a script. Normally the filename assigned to this variable is .bashrc. The
value of ENV is subjected to parameter expansion, command substitution, and
arithmetic expansion before being interpreted as a pathname.

EUID Expands to the effective user ID of the current user, initialized at shell startup.

FCEDIT Default editor name for the fc command.

FICNORE A colon-separated list of suffixes to ignore when performing filename

completion. A filename whose suffix matches one of the entries in FICNORE is
excluded from the list of matched filenames. A sample value is .o:~.

FORMAT Used to format the output of the time reserved word on a command pipeline.

CLOBICNORE A list of files that will be ignored during filename expansion (called globbing).3

CROUPS An array of groups to which the current user belongs.3

HISTCMD The history number, or index in the history list, of the current command. If
HISTCMD is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset.

HISTCONTROL If set to a value of ignorespace, lines that begin with a space character are not
entered on the history list. If set to a value of ignoredups, lines matching the last
history line are not entered. A value of ignoreboth combines the two options. If
unset, or if set to any other value than those above, all lines read by the parser
are saved on the history list.

HISTFILE Specifies file in which to store command history. The default value is
-/■bash_hi story. If unset, the command history is not saved when an interactive
shell exits.

HISTFILESIZE The maximum number of lines contained in the history file. When this variable
is assigned a value, the history file is truncated, if necessary, to contain no more
than that number of lines. The default value is 500.

HISTSIZE The number of commands to remember in the command history. The default
value is 500.

HOME Home directory; used by cd when no directory is specified.

HOSTFILE Contains the name of a file in the same format as in /etc/hosts that should be read
when the shell needs to complete a hostname. The file may be changed
interactively; the next time hostname completion is attempted, bash adds the
contents of the new file to the already existing database.
816 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

Table 13.14 bash Environment Variables (continued)

Variable Name Meaning

HOSTTYPE Automatically set to the type of machine on which bash is executing. The default
is system-dependent.

IPS Internal field separators, normally SPACE, TAB, and NEWLINE, used for field
splitting of words resulting from command substitution, lists in loop constructs,
and reading input.

ICNOREEOF Controls the action of the shell on receipt of an EOF character as the sole input. If
set, the value is the number of consecutive EOF characters typed as the first
characters on an input line before bash exits. If the variable exists but does not
have a numeric value, or has no value, the default value is 10. If it does not exist,
EOF signifies the end of input to the shell. This is only in effect for interactive
shells.

INPUTRC The filename for the readline startup file, overriding the default of ~./inputrc.

LANG Used to determine the locale category for any category not specifically selected
with a variable starting with LC_.a

LC_ALL Overrides the value of LANG and any other LC_ variable.3

LC.COLLATE Determines the collation order used when sorting the results of pathname
expansion and the behavior of range expressions, equivalence classes, and
collating sequences when matching pathnames and patterns.3

LCJESSAGES Determines the locale used to translate double-quoted strings preceded by a $.3

LINENO Each time this parameter is referenced, the shell substitutes a decimal number
representing the current sequential line number (starting with 1) within a script
or function.

MACHTYPE Contains a string describing the system on which bash is executing.3

MAIL If this parameter is set to the name of a mail file and the MAILPATH parameter is not
set, the shell informs the user of the arrival of mail in the specified file.

MAIL.WARNING If set, and a file that bash is checking for mail has been accessed since the last time
it was checked, the message The mail in [filename where mail is stored] has been
read is printed.

MAILCHECK This parameter specifies how often (in seconds) the shell will check for the
arrival of mail in the files specified by the MAILPATH or MAIL parameters. The default
value is 600 seconds (10 minutes). If set to zero, the shell will check before
issuing each primary prompt.

MAILPATH A colon-separated list of filenames. If this parameter is set, the shell informs the
user of the arrival of mail in any of the specified files. Each filename can be
followed by a % and a message that will be printed when the modification time
changes. The default message is You have mail.
13.10 Variables 817

Table 13.14 bash Environment Variables (continued)

Variable Name Meaning

OLDPWD Last working directory.

OPTARC The value of the last option argument processed by the getopts built-in
command.

OPTERR If set to 1, displays error messages from the getopts built-in.

OPTIND The index of the next argument to be processed by the getopts built-in command.

OSTYPE Automatically set to a string that describes the operating system on which bash
is executing. The default is system-dependent.

PATH The search path for commands. It is a colon-separated list of directories in which
the shell looks for commands. The default path is system-dependent, and is set
by the administrator who installs bash. A common value is
/usr/gnu/bi n:/usr/1ocal/bi n:/usr/ucb:/bin:/usr/bi n:.

PIPESTATUS An array containing a list of exit status values from processes in the most recently
executed foreground jobs in a pipeline.

PPID Process ID of the parent process.

PROMPT.COMMAND The command assigned to this variable is executed before the primary prompt is
displayed.

PS1 Primary prompt string, by default $.

PS2 Secondary prompt string, by default >.

PS3 Selection prompt string used with the select command, by default #?.

PS4 Debug prompt string used when tracing is turned on, by default +. Tracing can
be turned on with set -x.

PWD Present working directory; set by cd.

RANDOM Each time this parameter is referenced, a random integer is generated. The
sequence of random numbers may be initialized by assigning a value to RANDOM. If
RANDOM is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset.

REPLY Set when read is not supplied arguments.

SECONDS Each time SECONDS is referenced, the number of seconds since shell invocation is
returned. If a value is assigned to SECONDS, the value returned upon subsequent
references is the number of seconds since the assignment plus the value
assigned. If SECONDS is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is
subsequently reset.
818 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

Table 13.14 bash Environment Variables (continued)

Variable Name Meaning

SHELL When the shell is invoked, it scans the environment for this name. The shell
gives default values to PATH, PS1, PS2, MAILCHECK, and IPS. HOME and MAIL are set by
login(l).

SHELLOPTS Contains a list of enabled shell options, such as braceexpand, hashall, monitor, etc.

SHLVL Incremented by one each time an instance of bash is started.

TMOUT Specifies number of seconds to wait for input before exiting.

UID Expands to the user ID of the current user, initialized at shell startup.

a. Not available in bash versions prior to 2.x.

Setting Environment Variables. To set environment variables, the export command

is used either after assigning a value or when the variable is set. (See Table 13.15.) The
declare built-in, given the -x option, will do the same. (Do not use the $ on a variable
when exporting it.)

FORMAT

export variable=value
variable=value; export variable
declare -x variable=value

EXAMPLE 13.54

export NAME=]ohn
PS1= '\d:\W:$USER> ' ; export PS1
declare -x TERM=sun

Table 13.15 The export Command and Its Options

Option Value

Marks the end of option processing; the remaining parameters are arguments.

-f Name-value pairs are treated as functions, not variables.

-n Converts a global (exported) variable to a local variable. The variable will not
be exported to child processes.

-p Displays all the global variables.

13.10 Variables 819

EXAMPLE 13.55

l $ export TERM=sun # or declare -x TERM=sun

2 $ NAME="John Smith"
$ export NAME
$ echo $NAME
John Smith
3 $ echo $$
319 # pid number for parent shell
4 $ bash # Start a subshell
5 $ echo $$
340 # pid number for new shell
6 $ echo $NAME
John Smith
7 $ declare -x NAME=MApril lenner"
$ echo $NAME
April Jenner
8 $ exit # Exit the subshell and go back to parent shell
9 $ echo $$
319 # pid number for parent shell
10 $ echo $NAME
John Smith

EXPLANATION

l The TERM variable is assigned sun. The variable is exported at the same time. Now,
processes started from this shell will inherit the variable. You can use declare -x to
do the same thing.

2 The variable NAME is defined and exported to make it available to subshells started
from the shell.

3 The value of this shell's PID is printed.

4 A new bash shell is started. The new shell is called the child. The original shell is
its parent.

5 The PID of the new bash shell is stored in the S$ variable and its value is echoed.

6 The variable, set in the parent shell, was exported to this new shell and is dis-
played.

7 The built-in declare function is another way to set a variable. With the -x switch,
declare marks the variable for export. The variable is reset to April jenner. It is ex-
ported to all subshells, but will not affect the parent shell. Exported values are not
propagated upward to the parent shell.

8 This bash child shell is exited.

9 The PID of the parent is displayed again.

10 The variable NAME contains its original value. Variables retain their values when ex-
ported from parent to child shell. The child cannot change the value of a variable
for its parent.
820 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

13.10.6 Unsetting Variables

Both local and environment variables can be unset by using the unset command, unless
the variables are set as read-only.

EXAMPLE 13.56

unset name; unset TERM

EXPLANATION

The unset command removes the variable from the shell's memory

13.10.7 Printing the Values of Variables

The echo Command. The built-in echo command prints its arguments to standard
output. Echo, with the -e option, allows the use of numerous escape sequences that con-
trol the appearance of the output. Table 13.16 lists the echo options and escape
sequences.

Table 13.16 echo Options and Escape Sequences

Option Meaning

-e Allows interpretation of the escape sequences shown below

-E Disables the interpretation of these escape characters, even on systems where

they are interpreted by default3

-n Suppresses newline at the end of a line of output

Escape Sequence

\a Alert (bell)3

\b Backspace

\c Prints the line without a newline

\f Form feed

\n Newline

\r Return

\t Tab

\v Vertical tab

\\ Backslash

\nnn The character whose ASCII code

a. Not available in bash versions prior to 2.x.

13.10 Variables 821

When using the escape sequences, don't forget to use the -e switch!

EXAMPLE 13.57

1 $ echo The username is $L0GNAME.

The username is ellie.

2 $ echo -e "\t\tHello there\c"

Hello thereS

3 $ echo -n "Hello there"

Hello thereS

EXPLANATION

l The echo command prints its arguments to the screen. Variable substitution is per-
formed by the shell before the echo command is executed.

2 The echo command, with the -e option, supports escape sequences similar to those
of the C programming language. The $ is the shell prompt.

3 When the -n option is on, the line is printed without the newline. The escape se-
quences are not supported by this version of echo.

The printf Command. The GNU version of printf11 can be used to format printed
output. It prints the formatted string in the same way as the C printf function. The for-
mat consists of a string that may contain formatting instructions to describe how the
printed output will look. The formatting instructions are designated with a % followed
by specifiers (diouxXfeEgGcs) where %f would represent a floating-point number and %d
would represent a whole (decimal) number.
To see a complete listing of printf specifiers and how to use them, type printf —help
at the command-line prompt. To see what version of printf you are using, type printf
—version. If you are using bash 2.x, the built-in printf command uses the same format as
the executable version in /usr/bin.

FORMAT

printf format [argument...]

EXAMPLE 13.58

printf'mzmdVi" 10.5 25

11. On bash versions 2.x, printf is a built-in command.

822 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

Table 13.17 Format Specifiers for the pri ntf Command

Format Specifier Value

\" Double quote

\0NNN An octal character where NNN represents 0 to 3 digits

\\ Backslash

\a Alert or beep

\b Backspace

\c Produce no further output

\f Form feed

\n Newline

\r Return

\t Horizontal tab

\v Vertical tab

\xNNN Hexadecimal character, where NNN is 1 to 3 digits

%% A single %

%b Argument as a string with \ escapes interpreted

EXAMPLE 13.59 1

l $ printf —version
printf (GNU sh-utils) 1.16

2 $ type printf
printf is a shell builtin

3 $ printf "The number is %.2f\n" 100

The number is 100.00

4 $ printf "%-20s%-15s%10.2f\n" "Jody" "Savage" 28

Jody Savage 28.00

5 $ printf T/o-20s|%-15s|%10.2f|\n" "Jody" "Savage" 28

Jody 1 Savage / 28.001

6 $ printf "%s1s average was %.lf%%.\n" "Jody" $(( (80+70+90)/3 ))

Jody's average was 80.0%.
13.10 Variables 823

EXPLANATION

1 The GNU version of the printf command is printed.

2 If using bash 2.x, printf is a built-in command.

3 The argument 100 is printed as a floating-point number with only 2 places to the
right of the decimal point as designated by the specification %.2f in the format
string. Unlike C, there are no commas separating the arguments.

4 The format string specifies that three conversions will take place: the first one is
%-20s (a left-justified, 20-character string), next is %-15s (a left-justified, 15-char-
acter string), and last is %10.2f (a right-justified, 10-character floating-point num-
ber, one of whose characters is the period and the last two characters are the two
numbers to the right of the decimal point). Each argument is formatted in the or-
der of the corresponding % signs, so that string lody corresponds to first %, string
Savage corresponds to the second %, and the number 28 to the last % sign.

5 This line is the same as line 4 except vertical bars have been added to demonstrate
left and right justification of the strings.

6 The printf command formats the string Jody and formats the result of the arith-
metic expansion. (See "Arithmetic Expansion" on page 837.) Two percent (%%)
signs are needed to print one percent sign (%).

13.10.8 Variable Expansion Modifiers (Parameter Expansion)

Variables can be tested and modified by using special modifiers. The modifier provides
a shortcut conditional test to check if a variable has been set, and then assigns a value
to the variable based on the outcome of the test. See Table 13.18 for a list of variable
modifiers.

Table 13.18 Variable Modifiers

Modifier Value

${variable:-word} If variable is set and is non-null, substitute its value; otherwise,

substitute word.

${variable:=word} If variable is set or is non-null, substitute its value; otherwise, set

it to word. The value of variable is substituted permanently.
Positional parameters may not be assigned in this way.

${variable:+word} If variable is set and is non-null, substitute word; otherwise,

substitute nothing.

${variable:?word} If variable is set and is non-null, substitute its value; otherwise,

print word and exit from the shell. If word is omitted, the message
parameter null or not set is printed.

${variable:offset} Gets the substring of the value in variable starting at offset, where
offset starts at 0 to the end of the string.3
824 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

Table 13.18 Variable Modifiers (continued)

Modifier Value

${van' abl e: offset: 1 ength} Gets the substring of the value in vari abl e starting at offset, length
characters over.

a. Not available on bash versions prior to 2.0.

Using the colon with any of the modifiers (-, =, +, ?) checks whether the variable is
not set or is null; without the colon, a variable set to null is considered to be set.

EXAMPLE 13.60

(Substitute Temporary Default Values)

1 $ fruit=peach
2 $ echo S{fruit:-plum}
peach
3 $ echo ${newfruit:-apple}
apple
4 $ echo Snewfruit
5 $ echo $EDIT0R # More realistic example
6 $ echo ${EDITOR:-/bin/vi}
/bin/vi
7 $ echo $EDIT0R
8 $ name=
$ echo Sfname-Joe}
9 $ echo ${naitie:-3oe}
Joe

EXPLANATION

1 The variable fruit is assigned the value peach.

2 The special modifier will check to see if the variable fruit has been set. If it has,
the value is printed; if not, plum is substituted for fruit and its value is printed.

3 The variable newfruit has not been set. The value apple will be temporarily substi-
tuted for newfruit.

4 The setting was only temporary. The variable newfruit is not set.

5 The environment variable EDITOR has not been set.

6 The modifier substitutes EDITOR with /bin/vi.

7 The EDITOR was never set. Nothing prints.

8 The variable name is set to null. By not prefixing the modifier with a colon, the vari-
able is considered to be set, even if to null, and the new value Joe is not assigned
to name.

9 The colon causes the modifier to check that a variable is either not set or is set to
null. In either case, the value Joe will be substituted for name.
13.10 Variables 825

EXAMPLE 13.61

(Substitute Permanent Default Values)

1 $ name=
2 $ echo ${name:=Peter}
Peter
3 $ echo $name
Peter
4 $ echo S{EDITOR:=/bin/vi}
/bin/vi
5 $ echo $EDIT0R
/bin/vi

EXPLANATION

l The variable name is assigned the null value.

2 The special modifier := will check to see if the variable name has been set. If it has
been set, it will not be changed; if it is either null or not set, it will be assigned the
value to the right of the equal sign. Peter is assigned to name because the variable is
set to null. The setting is permanent.

3 The variable name still contains the value Peter.

4 The value of the variable EDITOR is set to /bin/vi.

5 The value of the variable EDITOR is displayed.

EXAMPLE 13.62

(Substitute Temporary Alternate Value)

1 $ foo=grapes
2 $ echo ${foo:+pears}
pears
3 $ echo $foo
grapes
$

EXPLANATION

1 The variable foo has been assigned the value grapes.

2 The special modifier :+ will check to see if the variable has been set. If it has been
set, pears will temporarily be substituted for foo; if not, null is returned.

3 The variable foo now has its original value.

826 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

EXAMPLE 13.63

(Creating Error Messages Based On Default Values)

1 $ echo ${naiiiex:?,,naitiex is undefined"}

namex: namex is undefined
2 $ echo ${y?}
y: parameter null or not set

EXPLANATION

l The :? modifier will check to see if the variable has been set. If not, the string to
the right of the ? is printed to standard error, after the name of the variable. If in
a script, the script exits.

2 If a message is not provided after the ?, the shell sends a default message to stan-
dard error.

EXAMPLE 13.64

(Creating Substring3)

1 $ var=notebook
2 $ echo ${var:0:4}
note
3 $ echo ${var:4:4}
book
4 $ echo S{var:0:2}
no

a. Not available in versions of bash prior to 2.x.

EXPLANATION

1 The variable is assigned the value, notebook.

2 The substring of van starts at offset 0, the n in notebook, and has a length of 4 char-
acters, ending at the e.

3 The substring of van starts at offset 4, the b in notebook, and has a length of 4 char-
acters, ending at the k.

4 The substring of van starts at offset 0, the n in notebook, and has a length of 2 char-
acters, ending at the o.
13.10 Variables 827

13.10.9 Variable Expansion of Substrings

Pattern-matching arguments are used to strip off certain portions of a string from either
the front or end of the string. The most common use for these operators is stripping off
pathname elements from the head or tail of the path. See Table 13.19.

Table 13.19 Variable Expansion Substrings0

Expression Function

${variable%pattern} Matches the smallest trailing portion of the value of variable to

pattern and removes it.

${variable%%pattern} Matches the largest trailing portion of the value of variable to

pattern and removes it.

${variable#pattern} Matches the smallest leading portion of the value of variable to

pattern and removes it.

${variable##pattern} Matches the largest leading portion of the value of variable to

pattern and removes it.

${#variable} Substitutes the number of characters in the variable. If * or @,

the length is the number of positional parameters.

a. Not available on versions of bash prior to 2.x.

EXAMPLE 13.65

1 $ pathname=,7usr/bin/local/bin"
2 $ echo ${pathname%/bini-}
/usr/bin/loca 1

EXPLANATION

1 The local variable pathname is assigned /usr/bin/local/bin.

2 The % removes the smallest trailing portion of pathname containing the pattern /bin,
followed by zero or more characters; that is, it strips off /bin.

EXAMPLE 13.66

1 $ pathname^'usr/bin/local/bin"
2 $ echo ${pathname%%/bin^}
/usr

EXPLANATION

1 The local variable pathname is assigned /usr/bin/local/bin.

2 The %% removes the largest trailing portion of pathname containing the pattern /bin,
followed by zero or more characters; that is, it strips off /bin/local/bin.
828 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

EXAMPLE 13.67

1 $ pathname=/home/lilliput/]ake/.bashrc
2 $ echo ${pathname#/hoitie}
/lilliput/jake/. bashrc

EXPLANATION

1 The local variable pathname is assigned /home/1 illiput/jake/.bashrc.

2 The # removes the smallest leading portion of pathname containing the pattern /home;
that is, /home is stripped from the beginning of the path variable.

EXAMPLE 13.68

1 $ pathname=/home/lilliput/jake/.bashrc
2 $ echo ${pathname##-v/}
.bashrc

EXPLANATION

1 The local variable pathname is assigned /home/lilliput/jake/.bashrc.

2 The ## removes the largest leading portion of pathname containing zero or more char-
acters up to and including the last slash; that is, it strips off /home/lil!iput/jake
from the path variable.

EXAMPLE 13.69

1 $ name="Ebenezer Scrooge"
2 $ echo ${#naiiie}
16

EXPLANATION

1 The variable name is assigned the string Ebenezer Scrooge.

2 The ${#variable} syntax displays the number of characters in the string assigned
to the variable name. There are 16 characters in Ebenezer Scrooge.

13.10.10 Positional Parameters

Normally the special built-in variables, often called positional parameters, are used in
shell scripts when passing arguments from the command line, or used in functions to
hold the value of arguments passed to the function. The variables are called positional
parameters because they are referenced by numbers 1, 2, 3, and so on, representing their
respective positions in the parameter list. See Table 13.20.
13.10 Variables 829

The name of the shell script is stored in the $0 variable. The positional parameters can
be set, reset, and unset with the set command.

Table 13.20 Positional Parameters

Expression Function

$0 References the name of the current shell script

$l-$9 Positional parameters 1-9

${10} Positional parameter 10

$# Evaluates to the number of positional parameters

$4 Evaluates to all the positional parameters

$@ Same as $*, except when double quoted

"$*" Evaluates to "$1 $2 $3", and so on

"W Evaluates to "$1" "$2" "$3", and so on

EXAMPLE 13.70

1 $ set punky tommy bert jody

$ echo $* # Prints all the positional parameters
punky tommy bert jody
2 $ echo $1 # Prints the first position
punky
3 $ echo $2 $3 # Prints the second and third position
tommy bert
4 $ echo $# # Prints the total number of positional parameters
4
5 Ssetabcdefghijklm
$ print $10 # Prints the first positional parameter followed by a 0
a0
$ echo ${10} ${11} # Prints the 10th and 11th positions

j k
6 $ echo $#
13
7 $ echo $4
abcdefghijk 1 m
8 $ set filel file2 file3
$ echo \$$#
$3
9 $ eval echo \$$#
file3
10 $ set — # Unsets all positional parameters
830 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

EXPLANATION

1 The set command assigns values to positional parameters. The $* special variable
contains all of the parameters set.

2 The value of the first positional parameter, punky, is displayed.

3 The value of the second and third parameters, tommy and bert, are displayed.

4 The $# special variable contains the number of positional parameters currently set.

5 The set command resets all of the positional parameters. The original parameter
list is cleared. To print any positional parameters beyond 9, use the curly braces
to keep the two digits together. Otherwise, the value of the first positional param-
eter is printed, followed by the number appended to it.

6 The number of positional parameters is now IB.

7 The values of all the positional parameters are printed.

8 The dollar sign is escaped; $# is the number of arguments. The echo command dis-
plays $3, a literal dollar sign followed by the number of positional parameters.

9 The eval command parses the command line a second time before executing the
command. The first time parsed by the shell, the print would display $3; the sec-
ond time, after eval, the print displays the value of $3, file3.

10 The set command with the — option clears or unsets all positional parameters.

13.10.11 Other Special Variables

The shell has special variables consisting of a single character. The dollar sign preceding
the character allows you to access the value stored in the variable. See Table 13.21.

Table 13.21 Special Variables

Variable Meaning

$ The PID of the shell

The sh options currently set

? The exit value of last executed command

! The PID of the last job put in the background

EXAMPLE 13.71

1 $ echo The pid of this shell is $$

The pid of this shell is 4725
2 $ echo The options for this shell are $-
The options for this shell are imh
13.11 Quoting 831

EXAMPLE 13.71 (continued)

3 $ grep dodo /etc/passwd

$ echo $?
1
4 $ sleep 25&
4736
$ echo $!
4736

EXPLANATION

1 The $ variable holds the value of the PID for this process.

2 The - variable lists all options for this interactive bash shell.

3 The grep command searches for the string dodo in the /etc/passwd file. The ? variable
holds the exit status of the last command executed. Because the value returned
from grep is 1, grep is assumed to have failed in its search. An exit status of 0 indi-
cates a successful exit.

4 The ! variable holds the PID number of the last command placed in the back-
ground. The & appended to the sleep command sends the command to the back-
ground.

13.11 Quoting

Quoting is used to protect special metacharacters from interpretation and prevent

parameter expansion. There are three methods of quoting: the backslash, single quotes,
and double quotes. The characters listed in Table 13.22 are special to the shell and must
be quoted.

Table 13.22 Special Metacharacters Requiring Quotes

Metacharacter Meaning

; Command separator

& Background processing

( ) Command grouping; creates a subshell

{ } Command grouping; does not create a subshell

I Pipe

< Input redirection

> Output redirection

832 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

Table 13.22 Special Metacharacters Requiring Quotes (continued)

Metacharacter Meaning

newline Command termination

space/tab Word delimiter

$ Variable substitution character

* [ ] ? Shell metacharacters for filename expansion

Single and double quotes must be matched. Single quotes protect special metachar-
acters, such as $, *, ?, |, >, and c, from interpretation. Double quotes also protect special
metacharacters from being interpreted, but allow variable and command substitution
characters (the dollar sign and backquotes) to be processed. Single quotes will protect
double quotes and double quotes will protect single quotes.
Unlike the Bourne shell, bash tries to let you know if you have mismatched quotes. If
running interactively, a secondary prompt appears when quotes are not matched; if in a
shell script, the file is scanned and if the quote is not matched, the shell will attempt to
match it with the next available quote. If the shell cannot match it with the next avail-
able quote, the program aborts and the message bash:unexpected EOF while looking for
appears on the terminal. Quoting can be a real hassle for even the best of shell program-
mers!

13.11.1 The Backslash

The backslash is used to quote (or escape) a single character from interpretation. The
backslash is not interpreted if placed in single quotes. The backslash will protect the dol-
lar sign ($), backquotes C "), and the backslash from interpretation if enclosed in double
quotes.

EXAMPLE 13.72

1 $ echo Where are you going\?

Where are you going?
2 $ echo Start on this line and \
> go to the next line.
Start on this line and go to the next line.
3 $ echo \\
\
4 $ echo 'W
w
5 $ echo 'XSS.ee'
\$5.00
13.11 Quoting 833

EXAMPLE 13.72 (continued)

6 $ echo "\S5.00"
$5.00
7 $ echo 'Don\'t you need $5.00?'
>
>'
Don\t you need .00?

EXPLANATION

l The backslash prevents the shell from performing filename substitution on the
question mark.

2 The backslash escapes the newline, allowing the next line to become part of this
line.

3 Because the backslash itself is a special character, it prevents the backslash follow-
ing it from interpretation.

4 The backslash is not interpreted when enclosed in single quotes.

5 All characters in single quotes are treated literally. The backslash does not serve
any purpose here.

6 When enclosed in double quotes, the backslash prevents the dollar sign from be-
ing interpreted for variable substitution.

7 The backslash is not interpreted when inside single quotes; therefore, the shell
sees three single quotes (the one at the end of the string is not matched). A sec-
ondary prompt appears, waiting for a closing single quote. When the shell finally
gets the closing quote, it strips out all of the quotes and passes the string on to the
echo command. Because the first two quotes were matched, the rest of the string,
t you need $5.00?, was not enclosed within any quotes. The shell tried to evaluate
$5; it was empty and .00 printed.

13.11.2 Single Quotes

Single quotes must be matched. They protect all metacharacters from interpretation. To
print a single quote, it must be enclosed in double quotes or escaped with a backslash.

EXAMPLE 13.73

1 $ echo 'hi there

> how are you?
> When will this end?
> When the quote is matched
> oh'
834 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

EXAMPLE 13.73 (continued)

hi there
how are you?
When will this end?
When the quote is matched
oh
2 $ echo DonVt you need '$5.00?'
Don't you need $5.00?
3 $ echo 'Mother yelled, "Time to eat!'"
Mother yelled, "Time to eat!"

EXPLANATION

1 The single quote is not matched on the line. The bash shell produces a secondary
prompt. It is waiting for the quote to be matched.

2 The single quotes protect all metacharacters from interpretation. The apostrophe
in Don't is escaped with a backslash (the backslash protects a single character,
rather than a string). Otherwise, it would match the single quote before the $.
Then the single quote at the end of the string would not have a mate. The $ and
the ? are enclosed in a pair of single quotes, protecting them from shell interpre-
tation, thus treating them as literals.

3 The single quotes protect the double quotes in this string.

13.11.3 Double Quotes

Double quotes must be matched, will allow variable and command substitution, and
protect any other special metacharacters from being interpreted by the shell.

EXAMPLE 13.74

1 $ name=Jody
2 $ echo "Hi Sname, I'm glad to meet you!"
Hi Jody, I'm glad to meet you!
3 $ echo "Hey $name, the time is $(date)"
Hey Jody, the time is Wed Jul 14 14:04:11 PST 2004

EXPLANATION

1 The variable name is assigned the string Jody.

2 The double quotes surrounding the string will protect all special metacharacters
from interpretation, with the exception of $ in Sname. Variable substitution is per-
formed within double quotes.

3 Variable substitution and command substitution are both performed when en-
closed within double quotes. The variable name is expanded, and the command in
parentheses, date, is executed. (See "Command Substitution," next.)
13.12 Command Substitution 835

13.12 Command Substitution

Command substitution is used when assigning the output of a command to a variable

or when substituting the output of a command within a string. All shells use backquotes
to perform command substitution.1" Bash allows two forms: the older form, where the
command(s) is placed within backquotes, and the new Korn-style form, where the com-
mand(s) is placed within a set of parentheses preceded by a dollar sign.
Bash performs the expansion by executing the command and returning the standard
output of the command, with any trailing newlines deleted. When the old-style back-
quote form of substitution is used, the backslash retains its literal meaning except when
followed by $, ", or \. When using the $(comniand) form, all characters between the paren-
theses make up the command; none are treated specially
Command substitutions may be nested. To nest when using the old form, the inner
backquotes must be escaped with backslashes.

FORMAT

TNIX command1 # Old method with backquotes

$(UNIX command) # New method

EXAMPLE 13.75

(The Old Way)

1 $ echo "The hour is "date +%H'"
The hour is 09
2 $ name=,awk -F: '{print SI}' database'
$ echo Sname
Ebenezer Scrooge
3 $ Is 'Is /etc'
shutdown
4 $ set date"
5 $ echo S*
Med Jul 14 09:35:21 PDT 2004
6 $ echo $2 $6
Jul 2004
7 $ echo basename VpwdV
ellie

EXPLANATION

1 The output of the date command is substituted into the string.

2 The output of the awk command is assigned to the variable name and displayed.

12. The bash shell allows backquotes for command substitution for upward compatibility, but provides an
alternate method as well.
836 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

EXPLANATION (continued)

3 The output of the Is command, enclosed in backquotes, is a list of files from the
/etc directory. The filenames will be arguments to the first Is command. All files
with the same name in /etc in the current directory are listed. (The files that are
not matches in this directory will cause an error message, such as Is: termcap: No
such file or directory.)

4 The set command assigns the output of the date command to positional parame-
ters. Whitespace separates the list of words into its respective parameters.

5 The $* variable holds all of the parameters. The output of the date command was
stored in the $■> variable. Each parameter is separated by whitespace.

6 The second and sixth parameters are printed.

7 To set the variable di rname to the name (only) of the present working directory,
command substitution is nested. The pwd command is executed first, passing the
full pathname of the present working directory as an argument to the UNIX com-
mand basename. The basename command strips off all but the last element of a path-
name. When nesting commands within backquotes, the backquotes for the inner
command must be escaped with a backslash.

The bash alternate for using backquotes in command substitution is presented below
in Example 13.76.

EXAMPLE 13.76

(The New Way)

1 $ d=$(date)
$ echo $d
Med Jul 14 09:35:21 POT 2004
2 $ lines = $(cat filex)
3 $ echo The time is $(date +%H)
The time is 09
4 $ machine=$(uname -n)
$ echo $machine
jody
5 $ pwd
/usr/loca 1/bin
$ dirname=,,$(basename $(pwd)) " # Nesting commands
$ echo $dirname
bin
6 $ echo $(cal) # Newlines are lost
July 2004 S PI Tu W Th F S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
13.13 Arithmetic Expansion 837

EXAMPLE 13.76 (continued)

7 $ echo "SCcal)"
July 2004
S M Tu h/ Th F S
1 2 3
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17
18 19 20 21 22 23 24
25 26 27 28 29 30 31

EXPLANATION

1 The date command is enclosed within parentheses. The output of the command is
substituted into the expression, then assigned to the variable d, and displayed.

2 The output from the cat command is assigned to the variable lines.

3 Again the date command is enclosed in parentheses. The output of date +%H, the
current hour, is substituted for the expression and echoed to the screen.

4 The variable machine is assigned the output of uname -n, the name of the host ma-
chine. The value of the machine variable is echoed to the screen.

5 The output of the pwd command (present working directory) is /usr/local/bin. The
variable dirname is assigned the output resulting from command substitution
where the command substitutions are nested. $(pwd) is the first command substi-
tution to be be performed. The output of the pwd command is substituted in the
expression, then the basename program will use the results of that substitution,
/usr/local/bin, as its argument, resulting in basename /usr/local/bin.

6 The output of the cal (the current month) command is echoed. The trailing new-
lines are deleted when command substitution is performed.

7 When you put the whole command substitution expression in double quotes, the
trailing newlines are preserved, and calendar looks like it should.

13.13 Arithmetic Expansion

The shell performs arithmetic expansion by evaluating an arithmetic expression and

substituting the result. The expression is treated as if it were in double quotes and the
expressions may be nested. For a complete discussion of arithmetic operations, and
arithmetic evaluations, see "Arithmetic Operators and the let Command" on page 662.
There are two formats for evaluating arithmetic expressions:

FORMAT

$[ expression ]
$(( expression ))
838 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

EXAMPLE 13.77

echo $[ 5 + 4 - 2 ]
7
echo $[5 + 3*2]
11
echo $[(5 + 3) * 2]
16
echo $(( 5 + 4 ))
9
echo $((5/0 ))
bash: 5/0: division by 0 ( error token is "0")

13.14 Order of Expansion

When you are performing the expansion of variables, commands, arithmetic expres-
sions, and pathnames, the shell is programmed to follow a specific order when scanning
the command line. Assuming that the variables are not quoted, the processing is per-
formed in the following order:

1. Brace expansion
2. Tilde expansion
3. Parameter expansion
4. Variable substitution
5. Command substitution
6. Arithmetic expansion
7. Word splitting
8. Pathname expansion

13.15 Arrays

Versions of bash 2.x provide for creation of one-dimensional arrays. Arrays allow you to
collect a list of words into one variable name, such as a list of numbers, a list of names,
or a list of files. Arrays are created with the built-in function decl are -a, or can be created
on the fly by giving a subscript to a variable name, such as x[0]=5. The index value is an
integer starting at 0. There is no maximum size limit on the array, and indices do not
have to be ordered numbers, such as, x[0], x[l], x[2], and so on. To extract an element of
an array, the syntax is ${arraynaiiie[index]}. If declare is given the -a and -r options, a read-
only array is created.
13.15 Arrays 839

FORMAT

declare -a variable.name
variable = ( iteml item2 itemB ■■ )

EXAMPLE 13.78

declare -a nums=(45 33 100 65)

declare -ar names (array is readonly)
names=( Tom Dick Harry)
states=( ME [B]=CA CT )
x[0]=55
n[4]=100

When assigning values to an array, they are automatically started at index 0 and incre-
mented by 1 for each additional element added. You do not have to provide indices in
an assignment, and if you do, they do not have to be in order. To unset an array, use the
unset command followed by the array name, and to unset one element of the array use
unset and the arrayname[subscript] syntax.
The declare, local, and read-only built-ins also can take the -a option to declare an
array. The read command with the -a option is used to read in a list of words from stan-
dard input into array elements.

EXAMPLE 13.79

1 $ declare -a friends
2 $ friends=(Sheryl Peter Louise)
3 $ echo S{friends[0]}
Sheryl
4 $ echo ${friends[l]}
Peter
5 $ echo S{friends[2]}
Louise
6 $ echo "All the friends are SffriendsH}"
All the friends are Sheryl Peter Louise
7 $ echo "The number of elements in the array is ${#friends[*]}"
The number of elements in the array is 3
8 S unset friends or unset SffriendsH}

EXPLANATION

1 The declare built-in command is used to explicitly declare an array, but it is not
necessary. Any variable that uses a subscript, such as variable[0], when being as-
signed a value, will automatically be treated as an array.

2 The array friends is assigned a list of values: Sheryl, Peter, and Louise.
840 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

EXPLANATION (continued)

3 The first element of the friends array is accessed by enclosing the array name and
its subscript in curly braces, with an index of 0 used as the value of the subscript.
Sheryl is printed.

4 The second element of the friends array is accessed by using the index value of 1.

5 The third element of the friends array is accessed by using the index value of 2.

6 When you place the asterisk within the subscript, all of the elements of the array
can be accessed. This line displays all the elements in the friends array.

7 The syntax ${#friends[*]} produces the size of the array (i.e., the number of ele-
ments in the array). On the other hand, ${#friends[0]} produces the number of
characters in the value of the first element of the array. There are six characters in
Sheryl.

8 The unset built-in command deletes the whole array. Just one element of the array
can be removed by typing unset friends[l]; this would remove Sheryl.

EXAMPLE 13.80

1 $ x[3]=100
$ echo ${x[*]}
100
2 $ echo ${x[0]}
3 $ echo ${x[3]}
100
4 $ states=(ME [3]=CA [2]=CT)
$ echo ${states[i]}
ME CA CT
5 $ echo ${states[0]}
ME
6 $ echo ${states[l]}
7 $ echo ${states[2]}
CT
8 $ echo ${states[3]}
C4

EXPLANATION

1 The third element of the array, x, is being assigned 100. It doesn't matter if the in-
dex number is 3, but because the first two elements do not exist yet, the size of
the array is only 1. ${x[*]} displays the one element of the array, x.

2 x[0] has no value, and neither do x[l] and x[2].

3 x[3] has a value of 100.

4 The states array is being assigned ME at index 0, CA at index 3, and CT at index 2. In

this example, you can see that bash doesn't care at what index you store values, and
that the index numbers do not have to be contiguous.
13.16 Functions 841

EXPLANATION (continued)

5 The first element of the states array is printed.

6 There is nothing stored in states [1].

7 The third element of the states array, states[2], was assigned CT.

8 The fourth element of the states array, states[B], was assigned CA.

13.16 Functions

Bash functions are used to execute a group of commands with a name within the context
of the current shell (a child process is not forked). They are like scripts, only more effi-
cient. Once defined, functions become part of the shell's memory so that when the func-
tion is called, the shell does not have to read it in from the disk as it does with a file.
Often functions are used to improve the modularity of a script. Once defined, functions
can be used again and again. Although functions can be defined at the prompt when run-
ning interactively, they are often defined in the user's initialization file, .bash_profile.
They must be defined before they are invoked.

13.16.1 Defining Functions

There are two ways to declare a bash function. One way, the old Bourne shell way, is to
give the function name followed by a set of empty parentheses, followed by the function
definition. The new way (Korn shell way) is to use the function keyword followed by the
function name and then the function definition. If using the new way, the parentheses
are optional. The function definition is enclosed in curly braces. It consists of com-
mands separated by semicolons. The last command is terminated with a semicolon.
Spaces around the curly braces are required. Any arguments passed to the function are
treated as positional parameters within the function. The positional parameters in a
function are local to the function. The local built-in function allows local variables to be
created within the function definition. Functions may also be recursive; that is, they can
call themselves an unlimited number of times.

FORMAT

function_name () { commands ; commands; }

function function.name { commands ; commands; }
function function_name () { commands ; commands; }

EXAMPLE 13.81

1 $ function greet { echo "Hello $L0GNAME, today is $(date)"; }

2 S greet
Hello ellie, today is Med Jul 14 14:56:31 PDT 2004
842 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

EXAMPLE 13.81 (continued)

3 $ greet () { echo "Hello $L0GNAME, today is S(date)M; }

4 $ greet
Hello ellie, today is Wed Jul 14 15:16:22 PDT 2004
5 $ declare -f
declare -f greet()
{
echo "Hello SLOCNAME, today is $(date)"
}
6 $ declare -Fa
declare -f greet
7 $ export -f greet
8 S bash # Start subshell
9 $ greet
Hello ellie, today is Wed Jul 14 17:59:24 PDT 2004

a. Only on bash version 2.x.

EXPLANATION

1 The keyword function is followed by the name of the function, greet. The function
definition is surrounded by curly braces. There must be a space after the opening
curly brace. Statements on the same line are terminated with a semicolon.

2 When the greet function is invoked, the command(s) enclosed within the curly
braces are executed in the context of the current shell.

3 The greet function is defined again using the Bourne shell syntax, the name of the
function, followed by an empty set of parentheses, and the function definition.

4 The greet function is invoked again.

5 The declare command with the -f switch lists all functions defined in this shell and
their definitions.

6 The declare command with the -F switch lists only function names.

7 The export command with the -f switch makes the function global (i.e., available
to subshells).

8 A new bash shell is started.

9 The function is defined for this child shell because it was exported.

EXAMPLE 13.82

1 $ function fun {
echo "The current working directory is $PWD."
echo "Here is a list of your files: "
Is
echo "Today is $(date +%A).";
}
13.16 Functions 843

EXAMPLE 13.82 (continued)

2 $ fun
The current working directory is /home.
Here is a list of your files:
abc abcl23 filel.bak none nothing tmp
abcl abc2 file2 nonsense nowhere touch
abcl22 filel file2.bak noone one
Today is Wednesday.
3 $ function welcome { echo "Hi $1 and $2"; }
4 $ welcome torn joe
Hi torn and joe
5 $ set jane anna lizzy
6 $ echo $*
jane anna lizzy
7 $ welcome johan joe
hi johan and joe
8 $ echo $1 $2
johan joe
9 $ unset -f welcome # unsets the function

EXPLANATION

1 The function fun is named and defined. The keyword function is followed by the
function's name and a list of commands enclosed in curly braces. Commands are
listed on separate lines; if they are listed on the same line, they must be separated
by semicolons. A space is required after the first curly brace or you will get a syn-
tax error. A function must be defined before it can be used.

2 The function behaves just like a script when invoked. Each of the commands in
the function definition is executed in turn.

3 There are two positional parameters used in the function welcome. When argu-
ments are given to the function, the positional parameters are assigned those
values.

4 The arguments to the function, torn and joe, are assigned to $1 and $2, respectively
The positional parameters in a function are private to the function and will not
interfere with any used outside the function.

5 The positional parameters are set at the command line. These variables have noth-
ing to do with the ones set in the function.

6 $* displays the values of the currently set positional parameters.

7 The function welcome is called. The values assigned to the positional parameters are
johan and joe.

8 The positional variables assigned at the command line are unaffected by those set
in the function.

9 The unset built-in command with the -f switch unsets the function. It is no longer
defined.
844 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

13.16.2 Listing and Unsetting Functions

To list functions and their definitions, use the declare command. In bash versions 2.x and
above, declare -F lists just function names. The function and its definition will appear in
the output, along with the exported and local variables. Functions and their definitions
are unset with the unset -f command.

13.17 Standard I/O and Redirection

When the shell starts up, it inherits three files; stdin, stdout, and stderr. Standard input
normally comes from the keyboard. Standard output and standard error normally go to
the screen. There are times when you want to read input from a file or send output or
errors to a file. This can be accomplished by using I/O redirection. See Table 13.23 for a
list of redirection operators.

Table 13.23 Redirection

Redirection Operator What It Does

< filename Redirects input

> filename Redirects output

» filename Appends output

2> filename Redirects error

2» filename Redirects and appends error

&> filename Redirects output and error

>& filename Redirects output and error (preferred way)

2>&1 Redirects error to where output is going

1>&2 Redirects output to where error is going

>1 Overrides noclobber when redirecting output

<> filename Uses file as both standard input and output if a device file (from /dev)

EXAMPLE 13.83
1
1 $ tr '[A-Z]' [a-z]' < myfile # Redirect input
2 S Is > Isfile # Redirect output
$ cat Isfile
dirl
dir2
filel
file!
fileS
13.17 Standard I/O and Redirection 845

EXAMPLE 13.83 (continued)

3 $ date » Isfile # Redirect and append otuput

$ cat Isfile
dirl
dir2
filel
file!
filed
Sun Sept 17 12:57:22 PDT 2004

4 $ cc prog.c 2> errfile # Redirect error

5 $ find . -name \*.c -print > foundit 2> /dev/null

/ Redirect output to foundit and errors to /dev/null,
# respectively.

6 $ find . -name \*.c -print >& foundit

# Redirect both output and errors to foundit.

7 $ find . -name \*.c -print > foundit 2>&1

# Redirect output to foundit and send errors to where output
# is going; i.e. foundit

8 $ echo "File needs an argument" 1>&2

# Send standard output to error

EXPLANATION

l Instead of getting input from the keyboard, standard input is redirected from the
file myfile to the UNIX/Linux tr command. All uppercase letters are converted to
lowercase.

2 Instead of sending output to the screen, the Is command redirects its output to
the file Isfile.

3 The output of the date command is redirected and appended to Isfile.

4 The C program source file prog.c is compiled. If the compile fails, the standard er-
ror is redirected to the file errfile. Now you can take your error file to the local
guru for an explanation (of sorts)!

5 The find command starts searching in the current working directory for filenames
ending in .c, and prints the filenames to a file named foundit. Errors from the find
command are sent to /dev/null.

6 The find command starts searching in the current working directory for filenames
ending in .c, and prints the filenames to a file named foundit. The errors are also
sent to foundit.

7 Same as 6.

8 The echo command sends its message to standard error. Its standard output is
merged with standard error.
846 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

13.17.1 The exec Command and Redirection

The exec command can be used to replace the current program with a new one without
starting a new process. Standard output or input can be changed with the exec command
without creating a subshell. (See Table 13.24.) If a file is opened with exec, subsequent
read commands will move the file pointer down the file a line at a time until the end of
the file. The file must be closed to start reading from the beginning again. However, if
using UNIX utilities such as cat and sort, the operating system closes the file after each
command has completed.

Table 13.24 The exec Command

Command What It Does

exec Is Is executes in place of the shell. When Is is finished, the shell in which
it was started does not return.

exec < files Opens filea for reading standard input.

exec > filex Opens filex for writing standard output.

exec 3< datfile Opens datfile as file descriptor 3 for reading input.

sort <&3 Datfile is sorted.

exec 4>newfile Opens newfile as file descriptor (fd) 4 for writing.

Is >&4 Output of Is is redirected to newfile.

exec 5<&4 Makes fd 5 a copy of fd 4.

exec 3<&- Closes fd 3.

EXAMPLE 13.84

1 $ exec date
Thu Oct 14 10:07:34 PDT 2004
<Log in prompt appears if you are in your login shell >
2 $ exec > temp
$ Is
S pwd
$ echo Hello
3 $ exec > /dev/tty
4 S echo Hello
Hello
13.17 Standard I/O and Redirection 847

EXPLANATION

1 The exec command executes the date command in the current shell (does not fork
a child shell). Because the date command is executed in place of the current shell,
when the date command exits, the shell terminates. If a bash shell had been started
from the TC shell, the bash shell would exit and the TC shell prompt would ap-
pear. If you are in your login shell when you try this, you will be logged out. If
you are working interactively in a shell window, the window exits.

2 The exec command opens standard output for the current shell to the temp file. Out-
put from Is, pwd, and echo will no longer go to the screen, but to temp. (See Figure
13.2.)

3 The exec command reopens standard output to the terminal. Now, output will go
to the screen as shown in line 4.

4 Standard output has been directed back to the terminal (/dev/tty).

exec > temp exec > /dev/tty

102 rid 102| RID

/bin/bash /bin/bash

0 stdin - keyboard 0 stdin — keyboard

1 stdout ■> temp 1 stdout ► screen (/dev/tty)

2 stderr - screen (/dev/tty) 2 stderr screen (/dev/tty)

Figure 13.2 The exec command and file descriptors,

EXAMPLE 13.85

1 > bash
2 $ cat doit
pwd
echo hello
date
3 $ exec < doit
/home/homebound/e11i e/she11
hello
Thu Oct 14 10:07:34 POT 2004
4 >
848 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

EXPLANATION

1 From a TC shell prompt, bash is started up. (This is done so that when the exec
command exits, the user will not be logged out.)

2 The contents of a file called doit are displayed.

3 The exec command opens standard input to the file called doi t. Input is read from the
file instead of from the keyboard. The commands from the file doi t are executed in
place of the current shell. When the last command exits, so does the shell.

4 The bash shell exited when the exec command completed. The TC shell prompt ap-
peared. It was the parent shell. If you had been in your login shell when the exec
finished, you would be logged out; if in a window, the window would have disap-
peared.

EXAMPLE 13.86

1 S exec 3> filex

2 $ who >& 3
3 $ date >& 3
4 $ exec 3>&-
5 $ exec 3<filex
6 $ cat <&3
ellie ttyl Jul 21 09:50
ellie ttypl Jul 21 11:16 (:0.0)
ellie ttyp0 Jul 21 16:49 (:0.0)
Wed Jul 21 17:15:18 PDT 2004
7 $ exec 3<&-
8 $ date >& 3
date: write error: Bad file descriptor

EXPLANATION

1 File descriptor 3 (fd 3) is assigned to filex and opened for redirection of output.
See Figure 13.3(a).

2 The output of the who command is sent to fd 3, filex.

3 The output of the date command is sent to fd 3; fi 1 ex is already opened, so the out-
put is appended to filex.

4 Fd 3 is closed.

5 The exec command opens fd 3 for reading input. Input will be redirected from
filex. See Figure 13.3(b).

6 The cat program reads from fd 3, assigned to filex.

7 The exec command closes fd 3. (Actually, the operating system will close the file
once end of file is reached.)

8 When attempting to send the output of the date command to fd 3, bash reports an
error condition, because fd 3 was previously closed.
13.18 Pipes 849

exec 3>filex exec 3<filex

1011 102|

/bin/bash /bin/bash

0 stdin 0 stdin

1 stdout 1 stdout

2 stderr 2 stderr

3 filex 3 filex

a. opened for writing b. opened for reading

Figure 13.3 exec and file descriptors.

13.18 Pipes

A pipe takes the output from the command on the left-hand side of the pipe symbol and
sends it to the input of the command on the right-hand side of the pipe symbol. A pipe-
line can consist of more than one pipe.
The purpose of the commands in Example 13.87 is to count the number of people
logged on (who), save the output of the command in a file (tmp), use the wc -1 to count
the number of lines in the tmp file (wc -1), and then remove the tmp file (i.e., find the num-
ber of people logged on).

EXAMPLE 13.87

1 $ who > tmp

2 $ wc -1 tmp
4 tmp
3 $ rm tmp

# Using a pipe saves disk space and time.

4 $ who | wc -1
4
5 S du .. | sort -n | sed -n 'Sp'
1980 ..
6 $ { du / | sort -n 1 sed -n 'Sp' ) 2> /dev/null
1057747 /

EXPLANATION

1 The output of the who command is redirected to the tmp file.

2 The wc -1 command displays the number of lines in tmp.

850 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

EXPLANATION (continued)

3 The tmp file is removed.

4 With the pipe facility, you can perform all three of the preceding steps in one step.
The output of the who command is sent to an anonymous kernel buffer; the wc -1
command reads from the buffer and sends its output to the screen. See Figure 13.4.

5 The output of the du command, the number of disk blocks used per directory,
starting in the parent directory (..), is piped to the sort command and sorted nu-
merically. It is then piped to the sed command, which prints the last line of the
output it receives. See Figure 13.5.

6 The du command (starting in the root directory) will send error messages to stderr
(the screen) if it is unable to get into a directory because the permissions have
been turned off. When you put the whole command line in a set of parentheses,
all the output is sent to the screen, and all the errors are directed to the
UNIX/Linux bit bucket, /dev/null.

1231 123 terminal screen

Swho wc-l
who wc -1

p
0 stdin I 0 stdin
p
1 stdout E 1 stdout

2 stderr 2 stderr

Figure 13.4 The pipe.

terminal screen

sdu
du sort sed sort n\
sed SP
9S0

0 stdin 0 stdin 0 stdin

1 stdout 1 stdout 1 stdout

2 stderr 2 stderr 2 stderr

Figure 13.5 Multiple pipes (filter).

13.18 Pipes 851

13.18.1 The here document and Redirecting Input

The here document is a special form of quoting. It accepts inline text for a program expect-
ing input, such as mail, sort, or cat, until a user-defined terminator is reached. It is often
used in shell scripts for creating menus. The command receiving the input is appended
with a « symbol, followed by a user-defined word or symbol, and a newline. The next
lines of text will be the lines of input to be sent to the command. The input is terminated
when the user-defined word or symbol is then placed on a line by itself in the leftmost
column (it cannot have spaces surrounding it). The word is used in place of Ctrl-D to
stop the program from reading input.
If the terminator is preceded by the «- operator, leading tabs, and only tabs, may pre-
cede the final terminator. The user-defined terminating word or symbol must match
exactly from "here" to "here." The following examples illustrate the use of the here doc-
ument at the command line to demonstrate the syntax. It is much more practical to use
them in scripts.

EXAMPLE 13.88

1 $ cat « FINISH # FINISH is a user-defined terminator

2 > Hello there $L0GNAME
3 > The time is $(date +%T).
> I can't wait to see you!!!
4 > FINISH # terminator matches first

5 Hello there ellie # FINISH on line 1.

The time is 19:42:12.
I can't wait to see you!!!
6 $

EXPLANATION

1 The UNIX/Linux cat program will accept input until the word FINISH appears on a
line by itself.

2 A secondary prompt appears. The following text is input for the cat command.
Variable substitution is performed within the here document.

3 Command substitution, $(date +%T), is performed within the here document. Could
have also used the older form of command substitution: date +T\

4 The user-defined terminator FINISH marks the end of input for the cat program. It
cannot have any spaces before or after it and is on a line by itself.

5 The output from the cat program is displayed.

6 The shell prompt reappears.

852 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

EXAMPLE 13.89

1 $ cat «- DONE
> Hello there
> What's up?
>Bye now The time is "date'.
2 > DONE
Hello there
What's up?
Bye now The time is Sun Feb 819:48:23 PST 2004.
$

EXPLANATION

1 The cat program accepts input until DONE appears on a line by itself. The «- oper-
ator allows the input and final terminator to be preceded by one or more tabs. Typ-
ing this example at the command line may cause problems with the Tab key; the
example will work fine, if run from a script.

2 The final matching terminator, DONE, is preceded by a tab. The output of the cat
program is displayed on the screen.

13.19 Shell Invocation Options

When the shell is started using the bash command, it can take options to modify its
behavior. There are two types of options: single-character options and multicharacter
options. The single-character options consist of a single leading dash followed by a sin-
gle character. The multicharacter options consist of two leading dashes and any number
of characters. Multicharacter options must appear before single-character options. An
interactive login shell normally starts up with -i (starts an interactive shell), -s (reads
from standard input), and -m (enables job control). See Table 13.25.

Table 13.25 Bash 2,x Shell Invocation Options

Option Meaning

-c string Commands are read from string. Any arguments after string are assigned to
positional parameters, starting at $0.

-D A list of double quoted strings, preceded by a $, are printed to standard output.

These strings are subject to language translation when the current locale is not C or
POSIX.

-i Shell is in the interactive mode. TERM, QUIT, and INTERRUPT are ignored.

-s Commands are read from standard input and allows the setting of positional
parameters.
13.19 Shell Invocation Options 853

Table 13.25 Bash 2.x Shell Invocation Options (continued)

Option Meaning

-r Starts a restricted shell.

Signals the end of options and disables further option processing. Any arguments
after — or - are treated as filenames and arguments.

-dump-strings Same as -D.

—help Displays a usage message for a built-in command and exits.

—login Causes bash to be invoked as a login shell.

—noediting When bash is running interactively, does not use the Readline library.

—noprofile When starting up, bash does not read the initialization files; /etc/profile,
~/.bash_profile, ~/.bash_login, or ~/.profile.

—norc For interactive shells, bash will not read the ~/-bashrc file. Turned on by default, if
running shell as sh.

—posix Changes the behavior of bash to match the POSIX 1003.2 standard, if otherwise it
wouldn't.

—quiet Displays no information at shell startup, the default.

—rcfile file If bash is interactive, uses this intialization file instead of -/.bashrc.

—restricted Starts a restricted shell.

—verbose Turns on verbose; same as -v.

—version Displays version information about this bash shell and exits.

13.19.1 The set Command and Options

The set command can be used to turn shell options on and off, as well as for handling
command-line arguments. To turn an option on, the dash (-) is prepended to the option;
to turn an option off, the plus sign (+) is prepended to the option. See Table 13.26 for a
list of set options.

EXAMPLE 13.90

1 5 set -■f
2 5 echo o

3 5 echo ??
77
4 5 set +f
854 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

EXPLANATION

1 The f option is turned on, disabling filename expansion.

2 The asterisk is not expanded.

3 The question marks are not expanded.

4 The f is turned off; filename expansion is enabled.

Table 13.26 The Built-in set Command Options

Name of Option Shortcut Switch What It Does

all export -a Automatically marks new or modified variables for

export from the time the option is set until unset.

braceexpand -B Enables brace expansion, and is a default setting.

emacs For command-line editing, uses the emacs built-in

editor, and is a default setting.

errexit -e If a command returns a nonzero exit status (fails), exits.

Not set when reading initialization files.

histexpand Enables ! and !! when performing history substitution,

and is a default setting.

history Enables command-line history; on by default.

ignoreeof Disables EOF (Ctrl-D) from exiting a shell; must type

exit. Same as setting shell variable, IGNOREEOF=10.

keyword -k Places keyword arguments in the environment for a

command.

interactive.comments For interactive shells, a leading # is used to comment

out any text remaining on the line.

monitor -m Allows job control.

noclobber -C Protects files from being overwritten when redirection

is used.

noexec -n Reads commands, but does not execute them. Used to

check the syntax of scripts. Not on when running
interactively.

noglob -d Disables pathname expansion (i.e., turns off wildcards).

noti fy -b Notifies user when background job finishes.

nounset -u Displays an error when expanding a variable that has

not been set.
13.19 Shell Invocation Options 855

Table 13.26 The Built-in set Command Options (continued)

Name of Option Shortcut Switch What It Does

onecmd -t Exits after reading and executing one command.

physical -P If set, does not follow symbolic links when typing cd or

pwd. The physical directory is used instead.

posix Shell behavior is changed if the default operation

doesn't match the POSIX standard.

privileged -P When set, the shell does not read the .profile or ENV file
and shell functions are not inherited from the
environment; automatically set for setuid scripts.

verbose -v Turns on the verbose mode for debugging.

vi For command-line editing, uses the vi built-in editor.

xtrace -x Turns on the echo mode for debugging.

13.19.2 The shopt Command and Options

The shopt (bash 2.x) command can also be used to turn shell options on and off.

Table 13.27 The shopt Command Options

Option Meaning

cdable.vars If an argument to the cd built-in command is not a directory, it is assumed

to be the name of a variable whose value is the directory to change to.

cdspell Corrects minor errors in the spelling of a directory name in a cd command.

The errors checked for are transposed characters, a missing character, and
a character too many. If a correction is found, the corrected path is printed,
and the command proceeds. Only used by interactive shells.

checkhash Bash checks that a command found in the hash table exists before trying to
execute it. If a hashed command no longer exists, a normal path search is
performed.

checkwinsize Bash checks the window size after each command and, if necessary, updates
the values of LINES and COLUMNS.

cmdhist Bash attempts to save all lines of a multiple-line command in the same
history entry. This allows easy re-editing of multiline commands.

dotglob Bash includes filenames beginning with a dot (.) in the results of filename
expansion.
856 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

Table 13.27 The shopt Command Options (continued)

Option Meaning

execfail A noninteractive shell will not exit if it cannot execute the file specified as
an argument to the exec built-in command. An interactive shell does not
exit if exec fails.

expancLaliases Aliases are expanded. Enabled by default.

extglob The extended pattern-matching features (regular expression

metacharacters derived from Korn shell for filename expansion) are
enabled.

histappend The history list is appended to the file named by the value of the HISTFILE
variable when the shell exits, rather than overwriting the file.

histreedit If readline is being used, a user is given the opportunity to re-edit a failed
history substitution.

histverify If set, and readline is being used, the results of history substitution are not
immediately passed to the shell parser. Instead, the resulting line is loaded
into the readline editing buffer, allowing further modification.

hostcomplete If set, and readline is being used, bash will attempt to perform hostname
completion when a word containing @ is being completed. Enabled by
default.

huponexit If set, bash will send SIGHUP (hangup signal) to all jobs when an interactive
login shell exits.

interactive_comnients Allows a word beginning with # to cause that word and all remaining
characters on that line to be ignored in an interactive shell. Enabled by
default.

lithist If enabled, and the cmdhi st option is enabled, multiline commands are saved
to the history with embedded newlines rather than using semicolon
separators where possible.

mail warn If set, and a file that bash is checking for mail has been accessed since the
last time it was checked, the message The mail in mail file has been read is
displayed.

nocaseglob If set, bash matches filenames in a case-insensitive fashion when

performing filename expansion.

null glob If set, bash allows filename patterns that match no files to expand to a null
string, rather than themselves.

promptvars If set, prompt strings undergo variable and parameter expansion after
being expanded. Enabled by default.
13.20 Shell Built-in Commands 857

Table 13.27 The shopt Command Options (continued)

Option Meaning

restrictecLshell The shell sets this option if it is started in restricted mode. The value may
not be changed. This is not reset when the startup files are executed,
allowing the startup files to discover whether or not a shell is restricted.

shift.verbose If this is set, the shift built-in prints an error message when the shift count
exceeds the number of positional parameters.

sourcepath If set, the source built-in uses the value of PATH to find the directory
containing the file supplied as an argument. Enabled by default.

source A synonym for dot (.).

13.20 Shell Built-in Commands

The shell has a number of commands that are built-in to its source code. Because the
commands are built-in, the shell doesn't have to locate them on disk, making execution
much faster. The help feature provided with bash gives you online help for any built-in
command. The built-in commands are listed in Table 13.28.

Table 13.28 Built-in Commands

Command What It Does

Do-nothing command; returns exit status zero.

■ Executes program in context of current process; same as source.

. file The dot command reads and executes command from file.

break Breaks out of the innermost loop.

break [n] See "The break Command" on page 919.

alias Lists and creates "nicknames" for existing commands.

bg Puts a job in the background.

bind Display current key and function bindings, or binds keys to a readline
function or macro.

builtin [sh-builtin [args]] Runs a shell built-in, passing it args and returning zero exit status. Useful
if a function and built-in have the same name.

cd [arg] Changes the directory to home if no arg or to value of arg.

858 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

Table 13.28 Built-in Commands (continued)

Command What It Does

command command [arg] Runs a command even if a function has the same name; i.e., bypasses
function lookup.

continue [n] See "The continue Command" on page 920.

declare [var] Displays all variables or declares variables with optional attributes.

di rs Displays a list of currently remembered directories resulting from pushd.

disown Removes an active job from the job table.

echo [args] Displays args terminated with a newline.

enable Enables and disables shell built-in commands.

eval [args] Reads args as input to the shell and executes the resulting command(s).

exec command Runs command in place of this shell.

exit [n] Exits the shell with status n.

export [var] Makes var known to subshells.

fc History's fix command for editing history commands.

fg Puts background job into foreground.

getopts Parses and processes command-line options.

hash Controls the internal hash table for quicker searches for commands.

help [command] Displays helpful info about built-in commands and, if command is
specified, detailed help about that built-in command.

history Displays the history list with line numbers.

jobs Lists jobs put in the background.

kill [-signal process] Sends the signal to the P1D number or job number of the process. Type
at the prompt: kill -1.

getopts Used in shell scripts to parse command line and check for legal options.

let Used for evaluating arithmetic expressions and assigning results of

arithmetic calculations to variables.

local Used in functions to restrict the scope of variables to the function.

logout Exits the login shell.

popd Removes entries from the directory stack.

13.20 Shell Built-in Commands 859

Table 13.28 Built-in Commands (continued)

Command What It Does

pushd Adds entries to the directory stack.

pwd Prints present working directory.

read [var] Reads line from standard input into variable var.

readonly [var] Makes variable var read-only. Cannot be reset.

return [n] Returns from a function where n is the exit value given to the return.

set Sets options and positional parameters. See "The set Command and
Positional Parameters" on page 876.

shift [n] Shifts positional parameters to the left n limes.

stop pid Halts execution of the process number PID.

suspend Stops execution of the current shell (but not if a login shell).

test Checks file types and evaluates conditional expressions.

times Prints accumulated user and system times for processes run from this
shell.

trap [arg] [n] When shell receives signal n ( 0, 1, 2, or 15 ), executes arg.

type [command] Prints the type of command (e.g., pwd is a built-in shell command).

typeset Same as declare. Sets variables and gives them attributes.

ulimit Diplays and sets process resource limits.

umask [octal digits] Sets user file creation mode mask for owner, group, and others.

unalias Unsets aliases.

unset [name] Unset value of variable or function.

wait [pid#n] Waits for background process with PID number n and reports
termination status.
860 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

LAB 48: bash SHELL—GETTING STARTED

1. What process puts the login prompt on your screen?

2. What process assigns values to HOME, LOGNAME, and PATH?

3. How do you know what shell you are using?

4. What command will allow you to change your login shell?

5. Where is your login shell assigned (what file)?

6. Explain the difference between the /etc/profile and ~/-bash_profile file.

Which one is executed first?

7. Edit your .bash_profile file as follows:

a. Welcome the user.

b. Add your home directory to the path if it is not there.

c. Set erase to the Backspace key using stty.

d. Type source.bash_profile. What is the function of the source command?

8. What is the BASH_ENV file? When is it executed?

9. What is the default primary prompt?

a. Change the prompt to include the time of day and your home directory.

b. What is the default secondary prompt? What is its function?

10. Explain the function of each of the following settings:

a. set -o ignoreeof

b. set -o noclobber

c. set -o emacs

d. set -o vi

11. In what file are the settings in the previous example stored? Why are they stored there?

12. What does shopt -p do? Why use shopt instead of set?

13. What is a built-in command? How can you tell if a command is a built-in or an executable?
What is the purpose of the bull tin command? The enable command?

14. What would cause the shell to return an exit status of 127?

LAB 49: JOB CONTROL

1. What is the difference between a program and a process? What is a job?

2. What is the PID of your shell?

3. How do you stop a job?

13.20 Shell Built-in Commands 861

4. What command brings a background job into the foreground?

5. How do you list all running jobs? All stopped jobs?

6. What is the purpose of the kill command?

7. What does jobs -1 display? What does kill -1 display?

LAB 50: COMMAND COMPLETION,

HISTORY, AND ALIASES

1. What is filename completion?

2. What is the name of the file that stores a history of commands entered at the command line?

3. What does the HISTSIZE variable control? What does HISTFILESIZE control?

4. What does "bang, bang" mean?

5. How would you re-execute the last command that started with a v?

6. How would you re-execute the 125th command? How would you print the history list in
reverse?

7. How do you set interactive editing to use the vi editor? In what initialization file would you
put this setting?

8. What is the fc command?

9. What is the purpose of the Readline library? From what initialization file does it read
instructions?

10. What is key binding? How do you find out what keys are bound?

11. What is the universal argument?

12. Create an alias for the following commands:

a. clear

b. fc -s

c. Is --color=tty

d. kill -1

LAB 51: SHELL METACHARACTERS

1. Make a directory called wildcards. Cd to that directory and type at the prompt:

touch ab abc al a2 aB all al2 ba ba.l ba.2 filex filey AbC ABC ABc2 abc

Write and test the command that will do the following:

a. List all files starting with a.

b. List all files ending in at least one digit.

862 Chapter 13 • The Interactive Bash Shell

c. List all files starting with a or A.

d. List all files ending in a period, followed by a digit.

e. List all files containing just two alphabetic characters.

f. List three character files where all letters are uppercase.

g. List files ending in 10, 11, or 12.

h. List files ending in x or y.

i. List all files ending in a digit, an uppercase letter, or a lowercase letter,

j. List all files not starting with a b or B.

k. Remove two character files starting with a or A.

LAB 52: REDIRECTION

1. What are the names of the three file streams associated with your terminal?

2. What is a file descriptor?

3. What command would you use to do the following:

a. Redirect the output of the Is command to a file called Isfile?

b. Redirect and append the output of the date command to Isfile?

c. Redirect the output of the who command to Isfile? What happened?

4. What happens when you type cp all by itself?

5. How do you save the error message from the above example to a file?

6. Use the find command to find all files, starting from the parent directory, of type di rectory.
Save the standard output in a file called found and any errors in a file called found.errs.

7. Take the output of three commands and redirect the output to a file called gotteni_all?

8. Use a pipe(s) with the ps and wc commands to find out how many processes you are
currently running.

LAB 53: VARIABLES

1. What is a positional parameter? Type at the command line:

set dogs cats birds fish

a. How do you list all of the positional parameters?

b. Which positional parameter is assigned bi rds?

c. How do you print the number of positional parameters?

d. How do you remove all the positional parameters from the shell's memory?
13.20 Shell Built-in Commands 863

2. What is an environment variable? What is the command used to list them? Create an
environment variable called CITY and assign it the value of your hometown. How do you
export it?

3. What is a local variable? Set a local variable to your name. Print its value. Unset it.

4. What is the function of declare -i?

5. What does the $$ variable display? What does the $! display?

This page intentionally left blank
chapter

Bash

14

Programming

the Bash Shell

14.1 Introduction

When commands are executed from within a file, instead of from the command line, the
file is called a shell script and the shell is running noninteractively. When the bash
(Bourne Again) shell starts running noninteractively, it looks for the environment vari-
able, BASH_ENV (ENV) and starts up the file (normally .bashre) assigned as its value. After
the BASH_ENV file has been read, the shell will start executing commands in the script.1

14.1.1 The Steps in Creating a Shell Script

A shell script is normally written in an editor and consists of commands interspersed

with comments. Comments are preceded by a pound sign (#) and consist of text used to
document what is going on.

The First Line. The first line at the top left corner of the script will indicate the pro-
gram that will be executing the lines in the script. This line, commonly called the shbang
line, is written as

#!/bin/bash

The #!, also called the magic number, is used by the kernel to identify the program that
should be interpreting the lines in the script. This line must be the top line of your
script. The bash program can also accept arguments to modify its behavior. See
Table 14.8 on page 951 for a list of bash options.

1. When bash starts interactively, if the -norc or —norc option is given, the BASH.ENV or ENV file will not be read.

865
866 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

Comments. Comments are lines preceded by a pound sign and can be on a line by
themselves or on a line following a script command. They are used to document your
script. It is sometimes difficult to understand what the script is supposed to do if it is
not commented. Although comments are important, they are often too sparse or not
used at all. Try to get used to commenting what you are doing not only for someone else,
but also for yourself. Two days from now you may not recall exactly what you were try-
ing to do.

Executable Statements and bash Shell Constructs. A bash shell program con-
sists of a combination of UNIX/Linux commands, bash shell commands, programming
constructs, and comments.

Making the Script Executable. When you create a file, it is not given the execute
permission. You need this permission to run your script. Use the chmod command to turn
on the execute permission.

EXAMPLE 14.1

1 $ chmod +x myscript
2 S Is -IF myscript
-rwxr-xr-x 1 elite 0 Jul 13:00 myscript*

EXPLANATION

1 The chmod command is used to turn on the execute permission for the user, group,
and others.

2 The output of the 1 s command indicates that all users have execute permission on
the myscript file. The asterisk at the end of the filename also indicates that this is
an executable program.

A Scripting Session. In the following example, the user will create a script in the
editor. After the user saves the file, the execute permissions are turned on, and the script
is executed. If there are errors in the program, the shell will respond immediately.

EXAMPLE 14.2

(The Script)
1 #!/bin/bash
2 / This is the first Bash shell program of the day.
# Scriptname: greetings
# Written by: Barbara Bashful
3 echo "Hello $L0GNAME, it's nice talking to you."
4 echo "Your present working directory is 'pwdV
echo "You are working on a machine called "uname -nV
echo "Here is a list of your files."
14.2 Reading User Input 867

EXAMPLE 14.2 (continued)

5 Is # List files in the present working directory

6 echo "Bye for now SLOGNAME. The time is 'date +%T'!"

(The Coniinand Line)

$ greetings # Don't forget to turn turn on x permission!
bash: ./greetings: Permission denied.
$ chmod +x greetings
$ greetings or ./greetings
3 Hello barbara, it's nice talking to you.
4 Your present working directory is /home/1ion/barbara/prog
You are working on a machine called lion.
Here is a list of your files.
5 Afile cplus letter prac
Answerbook cprog library pracl
bourne joke notes perl5
6 Bye for now barbara. The time is 18:05:07!

EXPLANATION

l The first line of the script, #!/bin/bash, lets the kernel know what interpreter will
execute the lines in this program; in this case, the bash interpreter.

2 The comments are nonexecutable lines preceded by a pound sign. They can be on
a line by themselves or appended to a line after a command.

3 After variable substitution is performed by the shell, the echo command displays
the line on the screen.

4 After command substitution is performed by the shell, the echo command displays
the line on the screen.

5 The Is command is executed. The comment will be ignored by the shell.

6 The echo command displays the string enclosed within double quotes. Variables
and command substitution (backquotes) are expanded when placed within dou-
ble quotes. In this case, the quotes were really not necessary.

14.2 Reading User Input

14.2.1 Variables (Review)

In the last chapter we talked about declaring and unsetting variables. Variables are set
local to the current shell or as environment variables. Unless your shell script will
invoke another script, variables are normally set as local variables within a script. (See
"Variables" on page 810.)
868 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

To extract the value from a variable, precede the variable with a dollar sign. You can
enclose the variable within double quotes and the dollar sign will be interpreted by the
shell for variable expansion. Variable expansion is not performed if the variable is
enclosed in single quotes.

EXAMPLE 14.3

1 naine="]ohn Doe" or declare name="]ohii Doe" # local variable

2 export NAME="]ohn Doe" # global variable
3 echo "$name" "SNAME" # extract the value

14.2.2 The read Command

The read command is a built-in command used to read input from the terminal or from
a file (see Table 14.1). The read command takes a line of input until a newline is reached.
The newline at the end of a line will be translated into a null byte when read. If no names
are supplied, the line read is assigned to the special built-in variable REPLY. You can also
use the read command to cause a program to stop until the user hits Enter. To see how
the read command is most effectively used for reading lines of input from a file, see
"Looping Commands" on page 903. The -r option to read causes the backslash/newline
pair to be ignored; the backslash is treated as part of the line. The read command has four
options to control its behavior: -a, -e, -p, and -r.2

Table 14.1 The read Command

Format Meaning

read answer Reads a line from standard input and assigns it to the variable answer

read first last Reads a line from standard input to the first whitespace or newline,
putting the first word typed into the variable f i rst and the rest of the
line into the variable 1 ast

read Reads a line from standard input and assigns it to the built-in variable
REPLY (Bash and Korn shell)

read -a arrayname Reads a list of words into an array called arrayname3

read -e Used in interactive shells with command-line editing in effect; for

example, if editor is vi, vi commands can be used on the input line3

read -p prompt Prints a prompt, waits for input, and stores input in REPLY variable3

read -r line Allows the input to contain a backslash3

a. Not implemented on versions of bash prior to 2.0.

2. Options -a, -e, and -p are available only in bash versions 2.x.
14.2 Reading User Input 869

EXAMPLE 14.4

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# Scriptname: nosy

echo -e "Are you happy? \c"

1 read answer
echo "Sanswer is the right response."
echo -e "What is your full name? \c"
2 read first middle last
echo "Hello $first"
echo -n "Where do you work? "
3 read
4 echo I guess SREPLY keeps you busy!
a

5 read -p "Enter your job title: "

6 echo "I thought you might be an SREPLY."
7 echo -n "Who are your best friends? "
8 read -a friends
9 echo "Say hi to SifriendstZ]}."

(The Output)
$ nosy
Are you happy? Kes
1 Kes 75 the right response.
2 What is your full name? Jon Jake Jones
Hello Jon
3 Where do you work? the Chico Hut Factory
4 I guess the Chico Nut Factory keeps you busy!
5 Enter your job title: Accountant
6 I thought you might be an Accountant.
7,8 Who are your best friends? Melvin Tim Ernesto
9 Say hi to Ernesto.

a. The commands listed below this line are not implemented on versions of bash prior to 2.x.

EXPLANATION

1 The read command accepts a line of user input and assigns the input to the vari-
able answer.

2 The read command accepts input from the user and assigns the first word of input
to the variable first, the second word of input to the variable middle, and all the
rest of the words up to the end of the line to the variable last.

3 A line is read from standard input and stored in the built-in REPLY variable.

4 The value of the REPLY variable is printed.

870 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

EXPLANATION (continued)

5 With the -p option, the read command produces a prompt, Enter your job title:
and stores the line of input in the special built-in REPLY variable.

6 The value of the REPLY variable is displayed in the string.

7 The user is asked to enter input.

8 With the -a option, the read command takes input as an array of words. The array
is called friends. The elements read into the array are Melvin, Tim, and Ernesto.

9 The third element of the friends array, Ernesto, is printed. Array indices start at 0.

EXAMPLE 14.5

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# Scriptname: printer_check
# Script to clear a hung-up printer
1 if [ SLOGNAME != root ]
then
echo "Must have root privileges to run this program"
exit 1
fi
2 cat « EOF
Warning: All jobs in the printer queue will be removed.
Please turn off the printer now. Press return when you
are ready to continue. Otherwise press Control C.
EOF
3 read JUNK # Wait until the user turns off the printer
echo
4 /etc/rc.d/init.d/lpd stop # Stop the printer
5 echo -e "\nPlease turn the printer on now."
6 echo "Press Enter to continue"
7 read JUNK # Stall until the user turns the printer back on
echo #4 blank line is printed
8 /etc/rc.d/init.d/lpd start # Start the printer

EXPLANATION

l Checks to see if user is root. If not, sends an error and exits.

2 Creates a here document. Warning message is displayed on the screen.

3 The read command waits for user input. When the user presses Enter, the variable
JUNK accepts whatever is typed. The variable is not used for anything. The read in
this case is used to wait until the user turns off the printer, comes back, and press-
es Enter.

4 The Ipd program stops the print daemon.

5 Now it's time to turn the printer back on!

14.3 Arithmetic 871

EXPLANATION (continued)

6 The user is asked to press Enter when ready.

7 Whatever the user types is read into the variable JUNK, and when Enter is pressed,
the program will resume execution.

8 The Ipd program starts the print daemon.

14.3 Arithmetic

14.3.1 Integers (decl are and 1 et Commands)

Th© declare Command. Variables can be declared as integers with the declare -i
command. If you attempt to assign any string value, bash assigns 0 to the variable. Arith-
metic can be performed on variables that have been declared as integers. (If the variable
has not been declared as an integer, the built-in let command allows arithmetic opera-
tions. See "The let Command" on page 873.) If you attempt to assign a floating-point
number, bash reports a syntax error. Numbers can also be represented in different bases
such as binary, octal, and hex.

EXAMPLE 14.6

1 $ declare -i num
2 $ num=hello
$ echo $num
0
3 S num=5 + 5
bash: +: command not found
4 $ num=5+5
$ echo $num
10
5 $ num=4ft6
$ echo $num
24
6 $ num="4 * 6"
$ echo $nuin
24
7 $ num=6.5
bash: num: 6.5: syntax error in expression (remainder of expression is ".5")

EXPLANATION

1 The declare command with the -i option creates an integer variable num.

2 Trying to assign the string hello to the integer variable num causes the string to be
stored as 0.
872 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

EXPLANATION (continued)

3 The whitespace must be quoted or removed unless the let command is used.

4 The whitespace is removed and arithmetic is performed.

5 Multiplication is performed and the result assigned to num.

6 The whitespace is quoted so that the multiplication can be performed and to keep
the shell from expanding the wildcard (*)■

7 Because the variable is set to integer, adding a fractional part causes a bash syntax
error.

Listing Integers. The declare command with only the -i argument will list all preset
integers and their values, as shown in the following display.

$ declare -i
declare -ir EUID="15" # effective user id
declare -ir PPID="235" # parent process id
declare -ir UID="15" # user id

Representing and Using Different Bases. Numbers can be represented in deci-

mal (base 10, the default), octal (base 8), hexadecimal (base 16), and a range from base
2 to 36.

FORMAT

vari able=base#number-i n-that-base

EXAMPLE 14.7

n=2#101 # Base is 2; number 101 is in base 2

EXAMPLE 14.8

(The Command Line)

1 $ declare -i x=017
$ echo $x
15
2 $ x=2#101
S echo $x
5
3 $ x=8#17
$ echo $x
15
4 $ x=16#b
$ echo $x
11
14.3 Arithmetic 873

EXPLANATION

1 The declare function is used to assign an integer variable x the octal value 017. Oc-
tal numbers must start with a leading 0. 15, the decimal value of 017, is printed.

2 The variable x is assigned the value of 101 (binary). 2 represents the base, separated
by a #, and the number in that base, 101. The value of x is printed as decimal, 5.

3 The variable x is assigned the value of 17 (octal). The value of x is printed as dec-
imal, 15.

4 The variable x is assigned the value of b (hexadecimal). The value of x is decimal 11.

The let Command. The let command is a bash built-in command that is used to
perform integer arithmetic and numeric expression testing. To see what let operators
your version of bash supports, type at the prompt:

help let

A list of the let operators is also found in Table 14.4 on page 884.

EXAMPLE 14.9

(The Command Line)

1 $ i=5 or let i=5
2 $ let i=i+l
$ echo $i
6
3 $ let "i = i + 2"
$ echo $i
8
4 $ let "i+=r
$ echo Si
9
5 S i=3
6 $ {( i+=4))
$ echo $i
7
7 $ (( i=i-2 ))
$ echo Si
5

EXPLANATION

1 The variable i is assigned the value 5.

2 The let command will add 1 to the value of i. The $ (dollar sign) is not required
for variable substitution when performing arithmetic.

3 The quotes are needed if the arguments contain whitespace.

4 The shortcut operator, +=, is used to add 1 to the value of i.

874 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

EXPLANATION (continued)

5 The variable i is assigned the value 3.

6 The double parentheses can be used to replace let.a 4 is added and assigned to i.

7 2 is subtracted from i. We could have also written i-=2

a. Implemented in versions of bash 2.x.

14.3.2 Floating-Point Arithmetic

Bash supports only integer arithmetic, but the be, awk, and nawk utilities are useful if you
need to perform more complex calculations.

EXAMPLE 14.10

(The Command Line)

1 $ n=,echo "scale=3; 13 / 2" | be"
$ echo $n
6.500
2 products'gawk -v x=2.45 -v y=3.123 'BEGINlprintf "%.2f\n"*
$ echo $product
7.65

EXPLANATION

1 The output of the echo command is piped to the be program. The scale is set to 3,
which is the number of significant digits to the right of the decimal point that will
be printed. The calculation is to divide 13 by 2. The entire pipeline is enclosed in
backquotes. Command substitution will be performed and the output assigned to
the variable n.

2 The gawk program gets its values from the argument list passed in at the command
line, x=2.45 y=3.123. After the numbers are multiplied, the printf function formats
and prints the result with a precision of two places to the right of the decimal
point. The output is assigned to the variable product.

14.4 Positional Parameters and

Command-Line Arguments

14.4.1 Positional Parameters

Information can be passed into a script via the command line. Each word (separated by
whitespace) following the script name is called an argument.
Command-line arguments can be referenced in scripts with positional parameters; for
example, $1 for the first argument, $2 for the second argument, $3 for the third argument,
and so on. After $9, curly braces are used to keep the number as one number. For example,
14.4 Positional Parameters and Command-Line Arguments 875

positional parameter 10 is referenced as ${10}. The $# variable is used to test for the num-
ber of parameters, and $* is used to display all of them. Positional parameters can be set
or reset with the set command. When the set command is used, any positional parame-
ters previously set are cleared out. See Table 14.2.

Table 14.2 Positional Parameters

Positional Parameter What It References

$0 References the name of the script

$# Holds the value of the number of positional parameters

$* Lists all of the positional parameters

$@ Means the same as $*, except when enclosed in double quotes

"$■■" Expands to a single argument (e.g., "$1 $2 $3")

"$@" Expands to separate arguments (e.g., "$1" "$2" "$3")

$1 ... ${10} References individual positional parameters

EXAMPLE I4.ll |

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# Scriptname: greetings!
echo "This script is called $0."
1 echo "$0 $1 and $2"
echo "The number of positional parameters is $#"

(The Command Line)

$ chmod +x greetings2
2 $ greetings2
This script is called greetings!.
greetings and
The number of positional parameters is
3 $ greetings2 Tommy
This script is called greetings!.
greetings Tommy and
The number of positional parameters is 1
4 $ greetings2 Tommy Kimberly
This script is called greetings!.
greetings Tommy and Kimberly
The number of positional parameters is !
876 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

EXPLANATION

1 In the script greetings2, positional parameter $0 references the script name, $1 the
first command-line argument, and $2 the second command-line argument.

2 The greetings2 script is executed without any arguments passed. The output illus-
trates that the script is called greet! ngs2 ($0 in the script) and that $1 and $2 were
never assigned anything; therefore, their values are null and nothing is printed.

3 This time, one argument is passed, Tommy. Tommy is assigned to positional parameter 1.

4 Two arguments are entered, Tommy and Kimberly. Tommy is assigned to $1 and Kimberly
is assigned to $2.

14.4.2 The set Command and Positional Parameters

The set command with arguments resets the positional parameters.3 Once reset, the old
parameter list is lost. To unset all of the positional parameters, use set —. $0 is always
the name of the script.

EXAMPLE 14.12

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# Scriptname: args
# Script to test command-1ine arguments
1 echo The name of this script is $0.
2 echo The arguments are $*.
3 echo The first argument is $1.
4 echo The second argument is $2.
5 echo The number of arguments is $#.
6 oldargs=$iV
7 set Jake Nicky Scott # Reset the positional parameters
8 echo All the positional parameters are $*.
9 echo The number of positional parameters is $#.
10 echo "Good-bye for now, $1."
11 set $(date) # Reset the positional parameters
12 echo The date is $2 $3, $6.
13 echo "The value of \$oldargs is Soldargs."
14 set Soldargs
15 echo $1 $2 $3

3. Remember, without arguments, the set command displays all the variables that have been set for this
shell, local and exported. With options, the set command turns on and off shell control options such
as -x and -v.
14.4 Positional Parameters and Command-Line Arguments 877

EXAMPLE 14.12 (continued)

(The Output)
S args abed
1 The name of this script is args.
2 The arguments are a b c d.
3 The first argument is a.
4 The second argument is b.
5 The number of arguments is 4.
8 All the positional parameters are Jake Nicky Scott.
9 The number of positional parameters is 3.
10 Good-bye for now, Jake.
12 The date is Mar 25, 2004.
13 The value of Soldargs is a b c d.
15 Wed Mar 25

EXPLANATION

l The name of the script is stored in the $0 variable.

2 $■> represents all of the positional parameters.

3 $1 represents the first positional parameter (command-line argument).

4 $2 represents the second positional parameter.

5 $# is the total number of positional parameters (command-line arguments).

6 All positional parameters are saved in a variable called oldargs.

7 The set command allows you to reset the positional parameters, clearing out the
old list. Now, $1 is Jake, $2 is Nicky, and $3 is Scott.

8 $■> represents all of the parameters, Jake, Nicky, and Scott.

9 $# represents the number of parameters, 3.

10 $1 is Jake.

11 After command substitution is performed (i.e., date is executed), the positional

parameters are reset to the output of the date command.

12 The new values of $2, $3, and $6 are displayed.

13 The values saved in oldargs are printed.

14 The set command creates positional parameters from the values stored in oldargs.

15 The first three positional parameters are displayed.

EXAMPLE 14.13

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# Scriptname: checker
# Script to demonstrate the use of special variable modifiers and arguments
1 name=${l:?"requires an argument" }
echo Hello $name
878 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

EXAMPLE 14.13 (continued)

(The Command Line)

2 $ checker
checker: 1: requires an argument
3 $ checker Sue
Hello Sue

EXPLANATION

1 The special variable modifier : ? will check whether $1 has a value. If not, the script
exits and the message is printed.

2 The program is executed without an argument. $1 is not assigned a value; an error

is displayed.

3 The checker program is given a command-line argument, Sue. In the script, $1 is as-
signed Sue. The program continues.

How $iv and $@ Differ. The $* and $@ differ only when enclosed in double quotes.
When S-a is enclosed within double quotes, the parameter list becomes a single string.
When $@ is enclosed within double quotes, each of the parameters is quoted; that is, each
word is treated as a separate string.

EXAMPLE 14.14

1 $ set 'apple pie' pears peaches

2 $ for i in S*
> do
> echo $i
> done
apple
pie
pears
peaches

3 $ set 'apple pie' pears peaches

4 $ for i in "$*"
> do
> echo $i
> done
apple pie pears peaches

5 $ set 'apple pie' pears peaches

6 $ for i in $@
> do
> echo $i
14.5 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 879

EXAMPLE 14.14 (continued)

> done
apple
pie
pears
peaches

7 $ set 'apple pie' pears peaches

8 $ for i in "$©" # At last!!
> do
> echo $i
> done
apple pie
pears
peaches

EXPLANATION

1 The positional parameters are set.

2 When $* is expanded, the quotes surrounding apple pie are stripped; apple and pie
become two separate words. The for loop assigns each of the words, in turn, to the
variable i, and then prints the value of i. Each time through the loop, the word on
the left is shifted off, and the next word is assigned to the variable i.

3 The positional parameters are set.

4 By enclosing $* in double quotes, the entire parameter list becomes one string,
apple pie pears peaches. The entire list is assigned to i as a single word. The loop
makes one iteration.

5 The positional parameters are set.

6 Unquoted, $@ and $v; behave the same way (see entry 2 of this explanation).

7 The positional parameters are set.

8 By surrounding $@ with double quotes, each of the positional parameters is treated

as a quoted string. The list would be apple pie, pears, and peaches. The desired result
is finally achieved.

14.5 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control

14.5.1 Exit Status

Conditional commands allow you to perform some task(s) based on whether a condi-
tion succeeds or fails. The if command is the simplest form of decision making; the
if/else commands allow a two-way decision; and the if/elif/else commands allow a
multiway decision.
880 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

Bash allows you to test two types of conditions: the success or failure of commands or
whether an expression is true or false. In either case, the exit status is always used. An
exit status of 0 indicates success or true, and an exit status that is nonzero indicates fail-
ure or false. The ? status variable contains a numeric value representing the exit status.
To refresh your memory on how exit status works, look at Example 14.15.

EXAMPLE 14.15

(At the Command Line)

l $ name=Tom
2 $ grep "Sname" /etc/passwd
Tom: 8ZKX2F: 5102:40: Tom Sa vage:/home/torn :/b in/sh
3 $ echo S?
0 # Success!
4 $ name=Fred
5 $ grep "Sname" /etc/passwd
$ echo $?
1 # Failure

EXPLANATION

l The variable name is assigned the string Tom.

2 The grep command will search for string Tom in the passwd file.

3 The ? variable contains the exit status of the last command executed; in this case,
the exit status of grep. If grep is successful in finding the string Tom, it will return
an exit status of 0. The grep command was successful.

4 The variable name is assigned Fred.

5 The grep command searches for Fred in the passwd file and is unable to find him.
The ? variable has a value of 1, indicating that grep failed.

14.5.2 The Built-in test and let Commands

The test Command with Single Brackets. To evaluate an expression, the built-in
test command is commonly used. This command is also linked to the bracket symbol.
Either the test command itself can be used, or the expression can be enclosed in a set of
single brackets. Shell metacharacter expansion is not performed on expressions evalu-
ated with the simple test command or when square brackets are used. Because word
splitting is performed on variables, strings containing whitespace must be quoted. (See
Example 14.16.)

The test Command with Double Brackets. On versions of bash 2.x, double
brackets [[ ]] (the built-in compound test command) can be used to evaluate expres-
sions. Word splitting is not performed on variables and pattern matching is done, allow-
ing the expansion of metacharacters. A literal string containing whitespace must be
quoted and if a string (with or without whitespace) is to be evaluated as an exact string,
14.5 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 881

rather than part of a pattern, it too must be enclosed in quotes. The logical operators &&
(AND) and 11 (OR) replace the -a and -o operators used with the simple test command.
(See Example 14.17.)

Table 14.3 The test Command Operators

Test Operator Tests True If

String Test

[ stringl = stringZ ] Stringl is equal to String2 (space surrounding = required).

[ stringl==string2 ] (Can be used instead of the single = sign on bash versions 2.x.)

[ stringl != stringZ ] Stringl is not equal to String2 (space surrounding != required).

[ string ] String is not null.

[ -z string ] Length of string is zero.

[ -n string ] Length of string is nonzero.

[ -1 string ] Length of string (number of characters).

Example

test -n Sword or [ -n Sword ]

test torn = sue or [ torn = sue ]

Logical Test

[ stringl -a stringl ] Both stringl and string2 are true.

[ stringl -o stringZ ] Either stringl or string2 is true.

[ ! stringl ] Not a stringl match.

Logical Test (Compound Test)a

[[ patternl && pattern2 ]] Both patternl and pattern2 are true.

[[ patternl || pattern2 ]] Either patternl or pattern2 is true.

[[ ! pattern ]] Not a pattern match.

Integer Test

[ intl -eg int2 ] Intl is equal to int2.

[ intl -ne int2 ] Intl is not equal to int2.

[ intl -gt int2 ] Intl is greater than int2.

[ intl -ge int2 ] Intl is greater than or equal to int2.

882 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

Table 14.3 The test Command Operators (continued)

Test Operator Tests True If

[ intl -It int2 ] Intl is less than int2.

[ intl -le int2 ] Intl is less than or equal to int2.

Binary Operators for File Testing

[ filel -nt file2 ] True if filel is newer than file2 (according to modification date).

[ filel -ot file2 ] True if filel is older than file2.

[ filel -ef file2 ] True if fil eland file2 have the same device or inode numbers.

a. With the compound test, pattern can contain pattern-matching metacharacters; for exact string testing, pattern2 must
be enclosed in quotes.

EXAMPLE 14.16

(The test Cotrnnand)

(At the Command Line)

1 $ name=Tom
2 $ grep "Sname" /etc/passwd
3 S echo $?
4 $ test Sname != Tom
5 $ echo $?
1 # Failure
6 $ [ Sname = Tom ] # Brackets replace the test command
7 $ echo $?
0
8 $ [ Sname = [Tt]?? ]
$ echo $?
1
9 $ x=5
$ y=20
10 $ [ $x -gt $y ]
$ echo $?
1
11 $ [ $x -le $y ]
$ echo $?
0

EXPLANATION

1 The variable name is assigned the string Tom.

2 The grep command will search for string Tom in the passwd file.
14.5 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 883

EXPLANATION (continued)

3 The ? variable contains the exit status of the last command executed, in this case,
the exit status of grep. If grep is successful in finding the string Join, it will return
an exit status of 0. The grep command was successful.

4 The test command is used to evaluate strings, numbers, and perform file testing.
Like all commands, it returns an exit status. If the exit status is 0, the expression
is true; if the exit status is 1, the expression evaluates to false. There must be spaces
surrounding the equal sign. The value of name is tested to see if it is not equal to Tom.

5 The test fails and returns an exit status of 1.

6 The brackets are an alternate notation for the test command. There must be spac-
es after the first bracket. The expression is tested to see if name evaluates to the
string Tom. Bash allows either a single or double equal sign to be used to test for
equality of strings.

7 The exit status of the test is 0. The test was successful because name is equal to Tom.

8 The test command does not allow wildcard expansion. Because the question mark
is treated as a literal character, the test fails. Tom and [Tt]?? are not equal. The exit
status is 1, indicating that the text in line 8 failed.

9 x and y are given numeric values.

10 The test command uses numeric relational operators to test its operands; in this
example it tests whether Sx is greater than (-gt) $y, and returns 0 exit status if true,
1 if false. (See Table 14.3 on page 881.)

11 Tests if $x less than or equal to (-le) $y, returning 0 exit status if true, 1 if false.

EXAMPLE 14.17

(The compound test command)(bash 2.x)

$ name=Tom; friend=]oseph
1 $ [[ Sname == [Tt]om ]] # Wildcards allowed
$ echo $?
0
2 $ [[ Sname == [Tt]om && $friend == "Jose" ]]
S echo S?
1
3 $ shopt -s extglob # Turns on extended pattern matching
4 $ name=Tommy
5 $ [[ Sname == [Tt]o+(iti)y ]]
$ echo $?
0
884 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

1 If using the compound test command, shell metacharacters can be used in string
tests. In this example, the expression is tested for string equality where name can
match either Tom, torn, tommy, and so forth. If the expression is true, the exit status
(?) is 0.

2 The logical operators && (AND) and 11 (OR) can be used with the compound test.
If && is used, both expressions must be true, and if the first expression evaluates
as false, no further checking is done. With the 11 logical operator, only one of the
expressions must be true. If the first expression evaluates true, no further check-
ing is done. Note that "Jose" is quoted. If not quoted, the friend variable would be
checked to see if it contained the pattern Jose. Jose would match, and so would
Joseph. The expression evaluates to false because the second condition is not true.
The exit status is 1.

3 Extended pattern matching is turned on with the built-in shopt command.

4 The variable is assigned the value Tommy.

5 In this test, the expression is tested for string equality using the new pattern-
matching metacharacters. It tests if name matches a string starting with T or t, fol-
lowed by an o, one or more m characters, and a y.

The following examples illustrate how the exit status is tested with the built-in test
command and the alternate form of test, a set of single brackets [ ]; the compound com-
mand, a set of double brackets [ [ ] ].

The let Command and Arithmetic with Double Parentheses. Although the
test command can evaluate arithmetic expressions, you may prefer to use the let com-
mand with its rich set of C-like operators (bash 2.x). The let command can be repre-
sented alternatively by enclosing its expression in a set of double parentheses.
Whether you are using the test command, compound command, or let command,
the result of an expression is tested, with zero status indicating success and nonzero sta-
tus indicating failure. (See Table 14.4.)
Example 14.18 illustrates how the let command uses double parentheses (( )).

Table 14.4 The let Command Operators0

Operator Meaning

Unary minus

+ Unary plus

Logical NOT

Bitwise NOT (negation)

14.5 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 885

Table 14.4 The let Command Operators0 (continued)

Operator Meaning

* Multiply

/ Divide

% Remainder

+ Add

Subtract

let Operators Not Implemented Prior to bash 2.x

« Bitwise left shift

» Bitwise right shift

<=>=<> Comparison operators

== != Equal to and not equal to

& Bitwise AND

A
Bitwise exclusive OR

I Bitwise OR

&& Logical AND

II Logical OR

= 4= /=%=+= -= «= »= &= a= |= Assignment and shortcut assignment

a. See Example 14.18.

EXAMPLE 14.18

(The let Command) (bash 2.x)

(At the Command Line)

1 S x=2
S y=3

2 (( x > 2 ))
echo $?
1

3 (( x < 2 ))
echo $?
0
886 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

EXAMPLE 14.18 (continued)

4 (( x == 2 && y == 3 ))
echo $?
0

5 (( x > 2 || y < 3 ))
echo $?
1

EXPLANATION

1 x and y are assigned numeric values.

2 The double parentheses replace the let command to evaluate the numeric expres-
sion. If x is greater than y, the exit status is 0. Because the condition is not true,
the exit status is 1. The ? variable holds the exit status of the last command exe-
cuted—the (( )) command. Note: To evaluate a variable, the dollar sign is not nec-
essary when the variable is enclosed in (( )).

3 The double parentheses evaluate the expression. If x is less than 2, an exit status
of 0 is returned; otherwise, 1 is returned.

4 The compound expression is evaluated. The expression is tested as follows: if x is

equal to 2 AND y is equal to 3 (i.e., both expressions are true), then an exit status
of 0 is returned; otherwise, 1 is returned.

5 The compound expression is evaluated. The expression is tested as follows: if x is

greater than 2 OR y is less than 3 (i.e., one of the expressions is true), then an exit
status of 0 is returned; otherwise, 1 is returned.

14.5.3 The i f Command

The simplest form of conditional is the if command. The command (a bash built-in or
executable) following the if construct is executed and its exit status is returned. The exit
status is usually determined by the programmer who wrote the utility If the exit status
is 0, the command succeeded and the statement(s) after the then keyword are executed.
In the C shell, the expression following the if command is a Boolean-type expression as
in C. But in the Bash, Bourne, and Korn shells, the statement following the if is a com-
mand or group of commands. If the exit status of the command being evaluated is 0, the
block of statements after the then is executed until fi is reached. The fi terminates the
i f block. If the exit status is nonzero, meaning that the command failed in some way, the
statement(s) after the then keyword are ignored and control goes to the line directly after
the fi statement.
It is important that you know the exit status of the commands being tested. For exam-
ple, the exit status of grep is reliable in letting you know whether grep found the pattern
it was searching for in a file. If grep is successful in its search, it returns a 0 exit status; if
not, it returns 1. The sed and awk programs also search for patterns, but they will report
a successful exit status regardless of whether they find the pattern. The criterion for suc-
cess with sed and awk is correct syntax, not functionality.
14.5 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 887

FORMAT

if command
then
command
command
fi

(Using test for numbers and strings — old format)

if test expression
then
command
fi

or

if [ string/numeric expression ] then

command
fi

(Using test for strings — new format)

if [[ string expression ]] then

command
fi

(Using let for numbers — new format)

if (( numeric expression ))

EXAMPLE 14.19

1 if grep "Sname" /etc/passwd > /dev/null 2>&1

2 then
echo Found Sname!
3 fi

EXPLANATION

1 The grep command searches for its argument, name, in the /etc/passwd database.
Standard output and standard error are redirected to /dev/null, the UNIX bit
bucket.
888 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

EXPLANATION (continued)

2 If the exit status of the grep command is zero, the program goes to the then state-
ment and executes commands until fi is reached. Indentation of commands be-
tween the then and fi keywords is a convention used to make the program more
readable, and hence, easier to debug.

3 The fi terminates the list of commands following the then statement.

EXAMPLE 14.20

1 echo "Are you o.k. (y/n) ?"

read answer
2 if [ "Sanswer" = Y -o "Sanswer" = y ]
then
echo "Glad to hear it."
3 fi

4 if [ Sanswer = Y -o "Sanswer" = y ]
[: too many arguments

5 if [[ Sanswer == [Yy]* || Sanswer == Maybe ]]a

then
echo "Glad to hear it."
fi

6 shopt -s extglob
7 answer="not really"

8 if [[ Sanswer = [Nn]o?( way|t really) ]]

then
echo "So sorry. "
fi

a. Lines 5 through 8 are only implemented on versions of bash 2.x.

EXPLANATION

1 The user is asked the question and told to respond. The read command waits for
a response.

2 The test command, represented by square brackets, is used to test expressions. It

returns an exit status of zero if the expression is true and nonzero if the expression
is false. If the variable answer evaluates to Y or y, the commands after the then state-
ment are executed. (The test command does not allow the use of wildcards when
testing expressions, and spaces must surround the square brackets, as well as the
= operators. See Table 14.3.) Quoting Sanswer assures that its value is a single
string. The test command will fail if more than one word is tested.
14.5 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 889

EXPLANATION (continued)

3 The fi terminates the if on line 2.

4 The test command fails if more than one word appears before the = operator. For
example, if the user entered yes, you betcha, the answer variable would evaluate to
three words, causing the test to fail. Sanswer is enclosed in double quotes to pre-
vent the resulting error message shown here.

5 The compound command operators [[ ]] allow the expansion of shell metachar-

acters in a string expression. The variable does not need quotes surrounding it,
even if it contains more than one word, as it did with the old test command. (The
double equal sign can be used to replace the single equal sign.)

6 The shopt built-in, if set to extglob, allows expanded parameter expansion. See
Table 14.11 on page 955.

7 The answer variable is set to the string "not really".

8 Extended pattern matching is used here. The expression reads: If the value of the
answer variable matches a string starting with no or No and if followed by zero or
one occurrences of the expression in the parentheses, the expression is true. The
expression could be evaluated to no, No, no way, No way, not really, or Not really.

The exit Command and the ? Variable. The exit command is used to terminate
the script and return to the command line. You may want the script to exit if some con-
dition occurs. The argument given to the exit command is a number ranging from 0 to
255. If the program exits with 0 as an argument, the program exited with success. A non-
zero argument indicates some kind of failure. The argument given to the exit command
is stored in the shell's ? variable.

EXAMPLE 14.21

(The Script)
$ cat bigfiles
# Name: bigfiles
# Purpose: Use the find command to find any files in the root
# partition that have not been modified within the past n (any
# number within 30 days) days and are larger than 20 blocks
# (512-byte blocks)

1 if (( $# != 2 ))a # [ $# -ne 2 ]
then
echo "Usage: $0 mdays size " 1>&2
exit 1
2 fi
3 if (( $1 < 0 M $1 > 30 ))b # [ $1 -It 0 -o $1 -gt 30 ]
then
echo "mdays is out of range"
exit 2
4 fi
890 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

EXAMPLE 14.21 (continued)

5 if (( $2 <= 20 )) # [ $2 -le 20 ]
then
echo "size is out of range"
exit 3
6 fi
7 find / -xdev -mtime $1 -size +$2

(The Command Line)

$ bigfiles
Usage: bigfiles mdays size

$ echo $?
1
$ bigfiles 400 80
mdays is out of range
$ echo $?
2
$ bigfiles 25 2
size is out of range
$ echo $?
3
$ bigfiles 2 25
(Output of find prints here)

a. Not implemented on versions prior to bash 2.x. On older versions could also be written if let $(( $# != 2 )).
b. Same as above. On older versions could also be written if let $(($!< 0 11 $1 > 30 ).

EXPLANATION

1 The statement reads: If the number of arguments is not equal to 2, print the error
message and send it to standard error, then exit the script with an exit status of 1.
Either the built-in test command or the let command can be used to test numeric
expressions.

2 The fi marks the end of the block of statements after then.

3 The statement reads: If the value of the first positional parameter passed in from
the command line is less than 0 or greater than 30, then print the message and
exit with a status of 2. See Table 14.4 on page 884 for numeric operators.

4 The fi ends the if block.

5 The statement reads: If the value of the second positional parameter passed in at
the command line is less than or equal to 20 (512-byte blocks), then print the
message and exit with a status of 3.

6 The fi ends the if block.

7 The fi nd command starts its search in the root directory. The -xdev option prevents
find from searching other partitions. The -mtime option takes a number argument,
which is the number of days since the file was modified, and the -size option takes
a number argument, which is the size of the file in 512-byte blocks.
14.5 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 891

Checking for Null Values. When checking for null values in a variable, use double
quotes to hold the null value or the test command will fail.

EXAMPLE 14.22

(The Script)
,m
1 if [ "Sname" = ] # Alternative to [ ! "Sname" ] or [ -z "Sname" ]
then
echo The name variable is null
fi

(From System showmount program, which displays all remotely mounted systems)
2 remotes=$(/usr/sbin/showmount)
if I "XSlremotes}" != "X" ]
then
/usr/sbin/wall ${remotes}

3 fi

EXPLANATION

1 If the name variable evaluates to null, the test is true. The double quotes are used
to represent null.

2 The showmount command lists all clients remotely mounted from a host machine.
The command will list either one or more clients, or nothing. The variable remotes
will either have a value assigned or will be null. The letter X precedes the variable
remotes when being tested. If remotes evaluates to null, no clients are remotely
logged on and X will be equal to X, causing the program to start execution again
on line 3. If the variable has a value, for example, the hostname pluto, the expres-
sion would read if Xpluto != X, and the wall command would be executed. (All
users on remote machines will be sent a message.) The purpose of using X in the
expression is to guarantee that even if the value of remotes is null, there will always
be a placeholder on either side of the != operator in the expression.

3 The fi terminates the if.

Nested if Commands. When if statements are nested, the fi statement always

goes with the nearest i f statement. Indenting the nested i fs makes it easier to see which
if statement goes with which fi statement.

14.5.4 The i f/el se Command

The if/else commands allow a two-way decision-making process. If the command after
the if fails, the commands after the else are executed.
892 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

FORMAT

if command
then
command(s)
else
command(s)
fi

EXAMPLE 14.23

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
/ Scriptname: grepit
1 if grep "Sname" /etc/passwd >& /dev/null; then
2 echo Found Sname!
3 else
4 echo "Can't find Sname."
exit 1
5 fi

EXPLANATION

1 The grep command searches for its argument, name, in the NIS passwd database. Be-
cause the user does not need to see the output, standard output and standard error
are redirected to /dev/null, the UNIX/Linux bit bucket.

2 If the exit status of the grep command is 0, program control goes to the then state-
ment and executes commands until else is reached.

3 The commands under the else statement are executed if the grep command fails to
find Sname in the passwd database; that is, the exit status of grep must be nonzero for
the commands in the else block to be executed.

4 If the value in Sname is not found in the passwd database, this echo statement is exe-
cuted and the program exits with a value of 1, indicating failure.

5 The fi terminates the if.

EXAMPLE 14.24

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# Scriptname: idcheck
# purpose:check user id to see if user is root.
# Only root has a uid of 0.
# Format for id output:uid=9496(ellie) gid=40 groups=40
# root's uid=0
14.5 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 893

EXAMPLE 14.24 (continued)

1 id='id | gawk-F'hd' '{print $2}'^ # get user id

echo your user id is: Sid
2 if (( id == 0 ))a #[ $id -eq 0 ] (See cd file: idcheck2)
then
3 echo "you are superuser."
4 else
echo "you are not superuser."
5 fi

(The Command Line)

6 $ idcheck
your user id is: 9496
you are not superuser.
7 $ su
Password:
8 # idcheck
your user id is: 0
you are superuser

a. Not implemented on versions of bash prior to 2.x.

EXPLANATION

1 The id command is piped to the gawk command. Gawk uses an equal sign and open
parenthesis as field separators, extracts the user ID from the output, and assigns
the output to the variable id.

2,3,4 If the value of id is equal to 0, then line 3 is executed. If id is not equal to 0, the
else statements are executed.

5 The fi marks the end of the if command.

6 The idcheck script is executed by the current user, whose UID is 9496.

7 The su command switches the user to root.

8 The # prompt indicates that the superuser (root) is the new user. The UID for root
is 0.

14.5.5 The i f/el i f/el se Command

The if/el if/else commands allow a multiway decision-making process. If the command
following the if fails, the command following the el if is tested. If that command suc-
ceeds, the commands under its then statement are executed. If the command after the
el if fails, the next el if command is checked. If none of the commands succeeds, the else
commands are executed. The else block is called the default.
894 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

FORMAT

if command
then
command(s)
el if command
then
commands(s)
el if command
then
command(s)
else
command(s)
fi

EXAMPLE 14.25

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# Scriptname: tellme
# Using the old-style test command

1 echo -n "How old are you? "

read age
2 if [ Sage -It 0 -o Sage -gt 120 ]
then
echo "Welcome to our planet! "
exit 1
fi
3 if [ Sage -ge 0 -a Sage -le 12 ]
then
echo "A child is a garden of verses"
elif [ Sage -gt 12 -a Sage -le 19 ]
then
echo "Rebel without a cause"
elif [ Sage -gt 19 -a Sage -le 29 ]
then
echo "You got the world by the tail!!"
elif [ Sage -gt 29 -a Sage -le 39 ]
then
echo "Thirty something..."
4 else
echo "Sorry I asked"
5 fi
14.5 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 895

EXAMPLE 14.25 (continued)

(The Output)
$ tell me
How old are you? 200
Welcome to our planet!

$ tell me
How old are you? 13
Rebel without a cause

$ tell me
How old are you? 55
Sorry I asked

#!/bin/bash
# Using the new (( )) compound let command
# Scriptname: tellme?

1 echo -n "How old are you? "

read age
2 if (( age < 0 11 age > 120 ))
then
echo "Welcome to our planet! "
exit 1
fi
3 if ((age >= 0 && age <= 12))
then
echo "A child is a garden of verses"
el if ((age > 12 && age <= 19 ))
then
echo "Rebel without a cause"
el if (( age > 19 && age <= 29 ))
then
echo "You got the world by the tail!!"
el if (( age > 29 && age <= 39 ))
then
echo "Thirty something..."
4 else
echo "Sorry I asked"
5 fi

EXPLANATION

1 The user is asked for input. The input is assigned to the variable age.

2 A numeric test is performed by the test command. If age is less than 0 or greater
than 120, the echo command is executed and the program terminates with an exit
status of 1. The interactive shell prompt will appear.
896 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

EXPLANATION (continued)

3 A numeric test is performed by the test command. If age is greater than or equal
to 0 and less than or equal to 12, the test command returns exit status 0, true, and
the statement after the then is executed. Otherwise, program control goes to the
elif. If that test is false, the next el if is tested.

4 The el se construct is the default. If none of the above statements are true, the el se
commands will be executed.

5 The fi terminates the initial if statement.

14.5.6 File Testing

Often when you are writing scripts, your script will require that there are certain files
available and that those files have specific permissions, are of a certain type, or have
other attributes. You will find file testing a necessary part of writing dependable scripts.

Table 14.5 File-Testing Operators

Test Operator Tests True If

-b filename Block special file

-c filename Character special file

-d filename Directory existence

-e filename File existence

-f filename Regular file existence and not a directory

-G filename True if file exists and is owned by the effective gro

-g filename Set-group-ID is set

-k filename Sticky bit is set

-L filename File is a symbolic link

-p filename File is a named pipe

-0 filename File exists and is owned by the effective user ID

-r filename File is readable

-S filename File is a socket

-s filename File is nonzero size

-t fd True if fd (file descriptor) is opened on a terminal

14.5 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 897

Table 14.6 File-Testing Operators (continued)

Test Operator Tests True If

-u filename Set-user-ID bit is set

-w fi 1 ename File is writable

-x filename File is executable

EXAMPLE 14.26

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# Using the old-style test command [ ] single brackets
# filename: perm_check
file=./testing

1 if [ -d $file ]
then
echo "$file is a directory"
2 elif [ -f $file ]
then
3 if [ -r Sfile -a -w $file -a -x Sfile ]
then # nested if command
echo "You have read,write,and execute permission on Sfile."
4 fi
5 else
echo "Sfile is neither a file nor a directory. "
6 fi

#!/bin/bash
# Using the new compound operator for test [[ ]]a
# filename: perm_check2
file=./testing

1 if [[ -d Sfile ]]
then
echo "Sfile is a directory"
2 elif [[ -f Sfile ]]
then
3 if [[ -r Sfile && -w Sfile && -x Sfile ]]
then # nested if command
echo "You have read,write,and execute permission on Sfile."
4 fi
898 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

EXAMPLE 14.26 (continued)

5 else
echo "Sfile is neither a file nor a directory. "
6 fi

a. New-style test with compound operators not implemented before bash 2.x.

EXPLANATION

1 If the file testing is a directory, print testing is a directory.

2 If the file testing is not a directory, else if the file is a plain file, then . . .

3 If the file testing is readable and writable, and executable, then . . .

4 The fi terminates the innermost if command.

5 The else commands are executed if lines 1 and 2 are not true.

6 This fi goes with the first if.

14.5.7 The null Command

The null command, represented by a colon, is a built-in, do-nothing command that

returns an exit status of 0. It is used as a placeholder after an if command when you
have nothing to say, but need a command or the program will produce an error message
because a command is required after the then statement. Often the null command is used
as an argument to a loop command to make the loop a forever loop.

EXAMPLE 14.27

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# filename: name_grep

1 name=Tom
2 if grep "$name" databasefile >& /dev/null
then
3 :
4 else
echo "$1 not found in databasefile"
exit 1
fi

EXPLANATION

1 The variable name is assigned the string Tom.

2 The if command tests the exit status of the grep command. If Tom is found in data-
basefile, the null command (a colon) is executed and does nothing. Both output
and errors are redirected to /dev/null.
14.5 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 899

EXPLANATION (continued)

3 The colon is the nul 1 command. It does nothing other than returning a 0 exit status.

4 What we really want to do is print an error message and exit if Tom is not found.
The commands after the else will be executed if the grep command fails.

EXAMPLE 14.28

(The Command Line)

1 $ DATAFILE=
2 $ : ${DATAFILE:=$HOME/db/datafile}
$ echo $DATAFILE
/home/jody/e 11 ie/db/da ta fi 1 e
3 $ : ${DATAFILE:=SHOME/junk}
$ echo SDATAFILE
/home/jody/e 11ie/db/data fi 1e

EXPLANATION

1 The variable DATAFILE is assigned null.

2 The colon command is a do-nothing command. The modifier (:=) returns a value
that can be assigned to a variable or used in a test. In this example, the expression
is passed as an argument to the do-nothing command. The shell will perform vari-
able substitution; that is, assign the pathname to DATAFILE if DATAFILE does not al-
ready have a value. The variable DATAFILE is permanently set.

3 Because the variable has already been set, it will not be reset with the default value
provided on the right of the modifier.

EXAMPLE 14.29

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# Scriptname: wholenum
# Purpose:The expr command tests that the user enters an integer

1 echo "Enter an integer."

read number
2 if expr "Snumber" + 0 >& /dev/null
then
3 :
else
4 echo "You did not enter an integer value."
exit 1
5 fi
900 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

EXPLANATION

1 The user is asked to enter an integer. The number is assigned to the variable number.

2 The expr command evaluates the expression. If addition can be performed, the
number is a whole number and expr returns a successful exit status. All output is
redirected to the bit bucket /dev/null.

3 If expr is successful, it returns a 0 exit status, and the colon command does nothing.

4 If the expr command fails, it returns a nonzero exit status, the echo command dis-
plays the message, and the program exits.

5 The fi ends the if block.

14.5.8 The case Command

The case command is a multiway branching command used as an alternative to if/el if

commands. The value of the case variable is matched against valuel, value2, and so forth,
until a match is found. When a value matches the case variable, the commands following
the value are executed until the double semicolons are reached. Then execution starts
after the word esac (case spelled backward).
If the case variable is not matched, the program executes the commands after the *),
the default value, until ;; or esac is reached. The *) value functions the same as the else
statement in if/else conditionals. The case values allow the use of shell wildcards and
the vertical bar (pipe symbol) for ORing two values.

FORMAT

case variable in
valuel)
comniand(s)
J >
value2)
command(s)
JJ
*)
command(s)

esac

EXAMPLE 14.30

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# Scriptname: xcolors

1 echo -n "Choose a foreground color for your xterm window: "

read color
14.5 Conditional Constructs and Flow Control 901

EXAMPLE 14.30 (continued)

2 case "Scolor" in
3 [Bb]l??)
4 xterm -fg blue -fn terminal &
5 11
6 [Gg]ree*)
xterm -fg darkgreen -fn terminal &
99
7 red | orange) # The vertical bar means "or"
xterm -fg "Scolor" -fn terminal &
11
8 0
xterm -fn terminal
■■
99
9 esac
10 echo "Out of case command"

EXPLANATION

1 The user is asked for input. The input is assigned to the variable color.

2 The case command evaluates the expression Scolor.

3 If the color begins with a B or b, followed by the letter 1 and any two characters,
such as blah, blue, blip, and so on, the case expression matches the first value (the
wildcards are shell metacharacters). The value is terminated with a single closed
parenthesis. The xterm command sets the foreground color to blue.

4 The statement is executed if the value in line number 3 matches the case expression.

5 The double semicolons are required after the last command in this block of com-
mands. Control branches to line 10 when the semicolons are reached. The script
is easier to debug if the semicolons are on their own line.

6 If the case expression matches a G or g, followed by the letters ree and ending in
zero or more of any other characters, the xterm command is executed. The double
semicolons terminate the block of statements and control branches to line 10.

7 The vertical bar is used as an OR conditional operator. If the case expression

matches either red or orange, the xterm command is executed.

8 This is the default value. If none of the above values match the case expression,
the commands after the *) are executed.

9 The esac statement terminates the case command.

10 After one of the case values are matched, execution continues here.

Creating Menus with the here document and case Command. The here doc-
ument and case command are often used together. The here document is used to create a
menu of choices that will be displayed to the screen. The user will be asked to select one
of the menu items, and the case command will test against the set of choices to execute
the appropriate command.
902 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

EXAMPLE 14.31

(From the .bash.profile File)

echo "Select a terminal type: "
1 cat «- ENDIT
1) unix
2) xterm
3) sun
2 ENDIT
3 read choice
4 case "$choice" in
5 1) TERM=unix
export TERM

2) TERM^xterm
export TERM

6 3) TERM=sun
export TERM
J>
7 esac
8 echo "TERM is STERM."

(The Command Line and Output)

$ . .bash_profile
Select a terminal type:
1) unix
2) xterm
3) sun
2 <— User input
TERM is xterm.

EXPLANATION

l If this segment of script is put in the .bash.profile, when you log on, you will be
given a chance to select the proper terminal type. The here document is used to dis-
play a menu of choices.

2 The user-defined ENDIT terminator marks the end of the here document.

3 The read command stores the user input in the variable TERM.

4 The case command evaluates the variable TERM and compares that value with one
of the values preceding the closing parenthesis: 1, 2, or 3.

5 The first value tested is 1. If there is a match, the terminal is set to unix. The TERM
variable is exported so that subshells will inherit it.

6 A default value is not required. The TERM variable is normally assigned in /etc/profile
at login time. If the choice is 3, the terminal is set to sun.

7 The esac terminates the case command.

8 After the case command has finished, this line is executed.

14.6 Looping Commands 903

14.6 Looping Commands

Looping commands are used to execute a command or group of commands a set number
of times or until a certain condition is met. The bash shell has three types of loops; for,
while, and until.

14.6.1 The for Command

The for looping command is used to execute commands a finite number of times on a
list of items. For example, you might use this loop to execute the same commands on a
list of files or usemames. The for command is followed by a user-defined variable, the
keyword in, and a list of words. The first time in the loop, the first word from the
wordlist is assigned to the variable, and then shifted off the list. Once the word is
assigned to the variable, the body of the loop is entered, and commands between the do
and done keywords are executed. The next time around the loop, the second word is
assigned to the variable, and so on. The body of the loop starts at the do keyword and
ends at the done keyword. When all of the words in the list have been shifted off, the loop
ends and program control continues after the done keyword.

FORMAT

for variable in wordjist

do
comniand(s)
done

EXAMPLE 14.32

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# Scriptname: forloop
1 for pal in Tom Dick Harry Joe
2 do
3 echo "Hi Spal"
4 done
5 echo "Out of loop"

(The Output)
Hi Tom
Hi Dick
Hi Harry
Hi Joe
Out of loop
904 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

EXPLANATION

1 This for loop will iterate through the list of names, Tom, Di ck, Harry, and Joe, shifting
each one off to the left and assigning its value to the user-defined variable, pal, af-
ter it is used. As soon as all of the words are shifted and the wordlist is empty, the
loop ends and execution starts after the done keyword. The first time in the loop,
the variable pal will be assigned the word Tom. The second time through the loop,
pal will be assigned Dick, the next time pal will be assigned Harry, and the last time
pal will be assigned Joe.

2 The do keyword is required after the wordlist. If it is used on the same line, the list
must be terminated with a semicolon. For example:

for pal in Tom Dick Harry Joe; do

3 This is the body of the loop. After Tom is assigned to the variable pal, the commands
in the body of the loop (i.e., all commands between the do and done keywords) are
executed.

4 The done keyword ends the loop. Once the last word in the list (Joe) has been as-
signed and shifted off, the loop exits, and execution starts at line 2.

5 Control resumes here when the loop exits.

EXAMPLE 14.33

(The Command Line)

1 S cat mylist
torn
patty
ann
jake

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# Scriptname: mailer
2 for person in $(cat mylist) # 'cat mylist' command substitution the alternate way
do
3 mail Sperson < letter
echo Sperson was sent a letter.
4 done
5 echo "The letter has been sent."

EXPLANATION

1 The contents of a file called myli st are displayed.

2 Command substitution is performed and the contents of mylist becomes the

wordlist. The first time in the loop, torn is assigned to the variable person, then it is
shifted off to be replaced with patty, and so forth.

3 In the body of the loop, each user is mailed a copy of a file called letter.
14.6 Looping Commands 905

EXPLANATION (continued)

4 The done keyword marks the end of this loop iteration.

5 When all of the users in the list have been sent mail and the loop has exited, this
line is executed.

EXAMPLE 14.34

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# Scriptname: backup
# Purpose: Create backup files and store
# them in a backup directory.
#

1 di r=/home/]ody/el1i e/backupscri pts

2 for file in inemo[l-5]
do
3 if [ -f Sfile ]
then
cp Sfile Sdir/Sfile.bak
echo "Sfile is backed up in Sdir"
fi
4 done

(The Output)
memol is backed up in /home/jody/e 11ie/backupscripts
memo2 is backed up in /home/jody/e 7 7 i e/backupscri pts
memoS is backed up in /home/jody/e 11ie/backupscripts
memo4 is backed up in /home/jody/e 17 ie/backupscripts
memoS is backed up in /home/jody/e 11ie/backupscripts

EXPLANATION

1 The variable dir is assigned the directory where the backup scripts are to be
stored.

2 The wordlist will consist of all files in the current working directory with names
starting with memo and ending with numbers between 1 and 5. Each filename will
be assigned, one at time, to the variable file for each iteration of the loop.

3 When the body of the loop is entered, the file will be tested to make sure it exists
and is a real file. If so, it will be copied into the directory /home/jody/ellie/backup-
scripts with the .bak extension appended to its name.

4 The done marks the end of the loop.

906 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

14.6.2 The $v; and $@ Variables in Wordlists

When expanded, the $* and are the same unless enclosed in double quotes. $* evalu-
ates to one string, whereas $@ evaluates to a list of separate words.

EXAMPLE 14.35

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# Scriptname: greet
1 for name in $* # same as for name in $@
2 do
echo Hi $name
3 done

(The Command Line)

$ greet Dee Bert Lizzy Tommy
Hi Dee
Hi Bert
Hi Lizzy
Hi Tommy

EXPLANATION

1 and expand to a list of all the positional parameters, in this case, the argu-
ments passed in from the command line: Dee, Bert, Lizzy, and Tommy. Each name in
the list will be assigned, in turn, to the variable name in the for loop.

2 The commands in the body of the loop are executed until the list is empty.

3 The done keyword marks the end of the loop body.

EXAMPLE 14.36

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# Scriptname: permx

1 for file # Empty wordlist

do
2 if [[ -f Sfile && ! -x $file ]]
then
3 chmod +x Sfile
echo Sfile now has execute permission
fi
done
14.6 Looping Commands 907

EXAMPLE 14.36 (continued)

(The Command Line)

4 $ permx *
addon now has execute permission
checkon now has execute permission
doit now has execute permission

EXPLANATION

1 If the for loop is not provided with a wordlist, it iterates through the positional
parameters. This is the same as for file in $*.

2 The filenames are coming in from the command line. The shell expands the aster-
isk (*) to all filenames in the current working directory. If the file is a plain file
and does not have execute permission, line 3 is executed.

3 Execute permission is added for each file being processed.

4 At the command line, the asterisk will be evaluated by the shell as a wildcard and
all files in the current directory will be replaced for the *. The files will be passed
as arguments to the permx script.

14.6.3 The whi 1 e Command

The while command evaluates the command following it and, if its exit status is 0, the
commands in the body of the loop (commands between do and done) are executed. When
the done keyword is reached, control is returned to the top of the loop and the while com-
mand checks the exit status of the command again. Until the exit status of the command
being evaluated by the while becomes nonzero, the loop continues. When the exit status
reaches nonzero, program execution starts after the done keyword.

FORMAT

while command
do
command(s)
done

EXAMPLE 14.37

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# Scriptname: num
1 num=0 # Initialize num
908 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

EXAMPLE 14.37 (continued)

2 while (( Snum < 10 ))a # or while [ num -It 10 ]

do
echo -n "$num "
3 let num+=l # Increment num
done
4 echo -e "\nAfter loop exits, continue running here"

(The Output)
0123456789
4 After loop exits, continue running here

a. Versions of bash 2.x use this form.

EXPLANATION

1 This is the initialization step. The variable num is assigned 0.

2 The whi 1 e command is followed by the 1 et command. The 1 et command evaluates

the arithmetic expression, returning an exit status of 0 (true) if the condition is
true (i.e., if the value of num is less than 10, the body of the loop is entered).

3 In the body of the loop, the value of num is incremented by one. If the value of num
never changes, the loop would iterate infinitely or until the process is killed.

4 After the loop exits, the echo command (with the -e option) prints a newline and
the string.

EXAMPLE 14.38

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# Scriptname: quiz
1 echo "Who was the 2nd U.S. president to be impeached?"
read answer
2 while [[ "Sanswer" != "Bill Clinton" ]]
3 do
echo "Wrong try again!"
4 read answer
5 done
6 echo You got it!

(The Output)
Mho was the 2nd U.S. president to be impeached? Ronald Reagan
Wrong try again!
Mho was the 2nd U.S. president to be impeached? I give up
Mrong try again!
Mho was the 2nd U.S. president to be impeached? Bill Clinton
You got it!
14.6 Looping Commands 909

EXPLANATION

1 The echo command prompts the user, Who was the 2nd U.S. president to be impeached?
The read command waits for input from the user. The input will be stored in the
variable answer.

2 The while loop is entered and the test command, the bracket, tests the expression.
If the variable answer does not exactly equal the string Bi 11 C1 i nton, the body of the
loop is entered and commands between the do and done are executed.

3 The do keyword is the start of the loop body.

4 The user is asked to re-enter input.

5 The done keyword marks the end of the loop body. Control is returned to the top
of the while loop, and the expression is tested again. As long as answer does not
evaluate to Bill Clinton, the loop will continue to iterate. When the user enters
Bill Clinton, the loop ends. Program control goes to line 6.

6 When the body of the loop ends, control starts here.

EXAMPLE 14.39

(The Script)
$ cat sayit
#!/bin/bash
# Scriptname: sayit
echo Type q to quit.
go=start
1 while [[ -n "Sgo" ]] # Make sure to double quote the variable
do
2 echo -n I love you.
3 read word
4 if [[ $word == [Qq] ]]
then # [ "Sword" = q -o "Sword" = Q ] Old style
echo "I'll always love you!"

go=
fi
done

(The Output)
Type q to quit.
I love you. <- - When user presses Enter, the program continues
I love you.
I love you.
I love you.
I love you.q
I'll always love you!
910 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

EXPLANATION

1 The command after the while is executed and its exit status tested. The -n option
to the test command tests for a non-null string. Because variable go initially has a
value, the test is successful, producing a zero exit status. If the variable go is not
enclosed in double quotes and the variable is null, the test command would com-
plain:

go: test: argument expected

2 The loop is entered. The string I love you is echoed to the screen.

3 The read command waits for user input.

4 The expresson is tested. If the user enters a q or Q, the string I'll always love you!
is displayed, and the variable go is set to null. When the while loop is re-entered,
the test is unsuccessful because the variable is null. The loop terminates. Control
goes to the line after the done statement. In this example, the script will terminate
because there are no more lines to execute.

14.6.4 The until Command

The until command is used like the while command, but executes the loop statements
only if the command after until fails, that is, if the command returns an exit status of
nonzero. When the done keyword is reached, control is returned to the top of the loop
and the until command checks the exit status of the command again. Until the exit sta-
tus of the command being evaluated by until becomes 0, the loop continues. When the
exit status reaches 0, the loop exits, and program execution starts after the done keyword.

FORMAT

until command
do
command(s)
done

EXAMPLE 14.40

#!/bin/bash
1 until who | grep linda
2 do
sleep 5
3 done
talk linda^dragonwings
14.6 Looping Commands 911

EXPLANATION

1 The until loop tests the exit status of the last command in the pipeline, grep. The
who command lists who is logged on this machine and pipes its output to grep. The
grep command will return a 0 exit status (success) only when it finds user linda.

2 If user linda has not logged on, the body of the loop is entered and the program
sleeps for five seconds.

3 When linda logs on, the exit status of the grep command will be zero and control
will go to the statements following the done keyword.

EXAMPLE 14.41

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# Scriptname: hour

1 hour=0
2 until (( hour > 24 ))
do
3 case "$hour" in
[0-9]|l[0-l])echo "Good morning!"
J)
12) echo "Lunch time."

l[3-7])echo "Siesta time."

J >
*) echo "Good night."

esac
4 (( hour+=l )) # Don't forget to increment the hour
5 done

(The Output)
Good morning!
Good morning!

Lunch time.
Siesta time.

Good night.
912 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

EXPLANATION

l The variable hour is initialized to 0.

2 The let command (( )) tests the arithmetic expression for an hour greater than 24.
If the hour is not greater than 24, the body of the loop is entered. The until loop
is entered if the command following it returns a nonzero exit status. Until the con-
dition is true, the loop continues to iterate.

3 The case command evaluates the hour variable and tests each of the case statements
for a match.

4 The hour variable is incremented before control returns to the top of the loop.

5 The done command marks the end of the loop body.

14.6.5 The sel ect Command and Menus

The here document is an easy method for creating menus, but bash introduces another
looping mechanism, called the select loop, used primarily for creating menus. A menu
of numerically listed items is displayed to standard error. The PS3 prompt is used to
prompt the user for input; by default, PS3 is #?. After the PS3 prompt is displayed, the shell
waits for user input. The input should be one of the numbers in the menu list. The input
is stored in the special shell REPLY variable. The number in the REPLY variable is associated
with the string to the right of the parentheses in the list of selections.
The case command is used with the select command to allow the user to make a
selection from the menu and, based on that selection, execute commands. The LINES
and COLUMNS variables can be used to determine the layout of the menu items displayed
on the terminal. (These variables are built into versions of bash 2.x, but are not built
into earlier versions; if they have not been defined, you can define and export them in
the .bash_profile.) The output is displayed to standard error, each item preceded by a
number and closing parenthesis, and the PS3 prompt is displayed at the bottom of the
menu. Because the select command is a looping command, it is important to remem-
ber to use either the break command to get out of the loop, or the exit command to exit
the script.

FORMAT

select var in wordlist

do
comniand(s)
done
14.6 Looping Commands 913

EXAMPLE 14.42

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# Scriptname: runit

1 PS3=,,Select a program to execute: "

2 select program in 'Is -F' pwd date
3 do
4 Sprogram
5 done

(The Command Line)

Select a program to execute: 2
1) Is -F
2) pwd
3) date
/home/ellie
Select a program to execute: 1
1) Is -F
2) pwd
3) date
Uabcrty abcl2 doit* progs/ xyz
Select a program to execute: 3
1) Is -F
2) pwd
3) date
Sun Mar 12 13:28:25 PST 2004

EXPLANATION

1 The PS3 prompt is assigned the string that will appear below the menu that the
select loop displays. This prompt is $# by default and is sent to standard error, the
screen.

2 The select loop consists of a variable called program and the three-word list that will
be displayed in the menu: Is -F, pwd, and date. The words in this list are UNIX/
Linux commands, but they could be any words (e.g., red, green, yellow, or cheese,
bread, milk, crackers). If the word has a space, it must be quoted (e.g., 'Is -F')

3 The do keyword starts the body of the select loop.

4 When the user selects numbers in the menu, that number will be equated with the
word value to the right of the number after the parentheses. For example, if the
user selects number 2, that is associated with pwd and pwd is stored in the program
variable. Sprogram evaluates to the executable command, pwd; the command is exe-
cuted.

5 The done keyword marks the end of the body of statements in the sel ect loop. Con-
trol will return to the top of the loop. This loop will continue to execute until the
A
user presses C.
914 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

EXAMPLE 14.43

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# Scriptname: goodboys

1 PS3=,,Please choose one of the three boys : "

2 select choice in torn dan guy
3 do
4 case "Schoice" in
torn)
echo Tom is a cool dude!
5 break;; / break out of the select loop
6 dan | guy )
echo Dan and Guy are both wonderful.
break;;
*)
7 echo "$REPLY is not one of your choices" 1>&2
echo "Try again."
> >
8 esac
9 done

(The Command Line)

$ goodboys
1) torn
2) dan
3) guy
Please choose one of the three boys : 2
Dan and Cuy are both wonderful.
$ goodboys
1) torn
2) dan
3) guy
Please choose one of the three boys : 4
4 is not one of your choices
Try again.
Please choose one of the three boys : 1
Tom is a cool dude!
$

EXPLANATION

1 The PS3 prompt will be printed below the menu created by the select loop on line 2.

2 The select loop is entered. It causes the words in its list to be displayed as a num-
bered menu.

3 The loop body starts here.

14.6 Looping Commands 915

EXPLANATION (continued)

4 The variable choice is assigned the first value on the list, after which the value is
shifted off the list and the next item will be first.

5 The break statement sends loop control after line 9.

6 If either dan or guy are selected, the following echo command is executed, followed
by the break command, sending control after line 9.

7 The built-in REPLY variable contains the number of the current list item; that is, 1,
2, or 3.

8 This marks the end of the case command.

9 The done marks the end of the select loop.

EXAMPLE 14.44

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# Scriptname: ttype
# Purpose: set the terminal type
# Author: Andy Admin

1 COLUMNS=60
2 LINES=1
3 PS3="Please enter the terminal type: "
4 select choice in wyse50 vt200 xterm sun
do
5 case "SREPLY" in
1)
6 export TERM=$choice
echo "TERM=$choice"
break;; # break out of the select loop
2 1 3 )
export TERM=$choice

echo "TERM=$choice"
break;;
4)
export TERM=$choice
echo "TERM=$choice"
break;;
*)
7 echo -e "SREPLY is not a valid choice. Try againV 1>&2
8 REPLY= # Causes the menu to be redisplayed
JJ
esac
9 done
916 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

EXAMPLE 14.44 (continued)

(The Command Line)

$ ttype
1) wyse50 2) vt200 3) xterm 4) sun
Please enter the terminal type : 4
TERM=sun

$ ttype
1) wyse50 2) vt200 3) xterm 4) sun
Please enter the terminal type : 3
TERM=xterm

$ ttype
1) wyse50 2) vt200 3) xterm 4) sun
Please enter the terminal type : 7
7 is not a valid choice. Try again.

1) wyse50 2) vt200 3) xterm 4) sun

Please enter the terminal type: 2
TERM=vt200

EXPLANATION

1 The COLUMNS variable is set to the width of the terminal display in columns for
menus created with the select loop. The default is 80.

2 The LINES variable controls the vertical display of the select menu on the terminal.
The default is 24 lines. When you change the LINES value to 1, the menu items will
be printed on one line, instead of vertically as in the last example.

3 The PS3 prompt is set and will appear below the menu choices.

4 The select loop will print a menu with four selections: wyse50, vt200, xterm, and sun.
The variable choice will be assigned one of these values based on the user's re-
sponse held in the REPLY variable. If REPLY is 1, wyse50 is assigned to choice; if REPLY
is 2, vt200 is assigned to choice; if REPLY is 3, xterm is assigned to choice; and if REPLY
is 4, sun is assigned to choice.

5 The REPLY variable evaluates to the user's input selection.

6 The terminal type is assigned, exported, and printed.

7 If the user does not enter a number between 1 and 4, he or she will be prompted
again. Note that the menu does not appear, just the PS3 prompt.

8 If the REPLY variable is set to null (e.g., REPLY=), the menu will be redisplayed.

9 The end of the select loop.

14.6 Looping Commands 917

14.6.6 Looping Control Commands

If some condition occurs, you may want to break out of a loop, return to the top of the
loop, or provide a way to stop an infinite loop. The bash shell provides loop control com-
mands to handle these kinds of situations.

The shift Command. The shift command shifts the parameter list to the left a
specified number of times. The shift command without an argument shifts the parame-
ter list once to the left. Once the list is shifted, the parameter is removed permanently.
Often, the shift command is used in a while loop when iterating through a list of posi-
tional parameters.

FORMAT

shift [n]

EXAMPLE 14.45

(Without a Loop)
(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# Scriptname: shifter
1 set joe mary torn sam
2 shift
3 echo $*
4 set $(date)
5 echo $*
6 shift 5
7 echo $*
8 shift 2

(The Output)
3 mary torn sam
5 Thu Mar 18 10:00:12 PST 2004
7 2001
8 shift: shift count must be <= $#

EXPLANATION

1 The set command sets the positional parameters. $1 is assigned joe, $2 is assigned
mary, $3 is assigned torn, and $4 is assigned sam. $* represents all of the parameters.

2 The shift command shifts the positional parameters to the left; joe is shifted off.

3 The parameter list is printed after the shift.

4 The set command resets the positional parameters to the output of the UNIX date
command.

5 The new parameter list is printed.

918 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

EXPLANATION (continued)

6 This time the list is shifted 5 times to the left.

7 The new parameter list is printed.

8 By attempting to shift more times than there are parameters, the shell sends a mes-
sage to standard error stating that the shift command cannot shift off more pa-
rameters than it has. $# is the total number of positional parameters. On versions
of bash 2.x, no error message occurs.

EXAMPLE 14.46

(With a Loop)
(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# Name: doit
# Purpose: shift through command-line arguments
# Usage: doit [args]
1 while (( $# > 0 ))
do
2 echo $*
3 shift
4 done

(The Command Line and Output)

$ doit a b c d e
a b c d e
b c d e
c d e
d e
e

EXPLANATION

1 The while command tests the numeric expression. If the number of positional pa-
rameters ($#) is greater than 0, the body of the loop is entered. The positional pa-
rameters are coming from the command line as arguments. There are five.

2 All positional parameters are printed.

3 The parameter list is shifted once to the left.

4 The body of the loop ends here; control returns to the top of the loop. Each time
the loop is entered, the shift command causes the parameter list to be decreased
by one. After the first shift, $# (number of positional parameters) is four. When $#
has been decreased to 0, the loop ends.
14.6 Looping Commands 919

EXAMPLE 14.47

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# Scriptname: dater
# Purpose: set positional parameters with the set command
# and shift through the parameters.

1 set $(date)
2 while (( $# > 0 ))
do
3 echo $1
4 shift
done

(The Output)
Wed
Mar
17
19:25:00
PST
2004

EXPLANATION

1 The set command takes the output of the date command and assigns the output
to positional parameters $1 through $6.

2 The while command tests whether the number of positional parameters ($#) is
greater than 0. If true, the body of the loop is entered.

3 The echo command displays the value of $1, the first positional parameter.

4 The shift command shifts the parameter list once to the left. Each time through
the loop, the list is shifted until the list is empty. At that time, $# will be zero and
the loop terminates.

The break Command. The built-in break command is used to force immediate exit
from a loop, but not from a program. (To leave a program, the exit command is used.)
After the break command is executed, control starts after the done keyword. The break
command causes an exit from the innermost loop, so if you have nested loops, the break
command takes a number as an argument, allowing you to break out of a specific outer
loop. If you are nested in three loops, the outermost loop is loop number 3, the next
nested loop is loop number 2, and the innermost nested loop is loop number 1. The break
is useful for exiting from an infinite loop.
920 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

FORMAT

break [n]

EXAMPLE 14.48

#!/bin/bash
# Scriptname: loopbreak

1 while true; do
2 echo Are you ready to move on\?
read answer
3 if [[ "Sanswer" == [Yy] ]]
then
4 break
5 else
commands... ^
fi
6 done
7 print "Here we are" ^

EXPLANATION

1 The true command is a UNIX/Linux command that always exits with 0 status. It
is often used to start an infinite loop. It is okay to put the do statement on the same
line as the whi le command, as long as a semicolon separates them. The body of the
loop is entered.

2 The user is asked for input. The user's input is assigned to the variable answer.

3 If Sanswer evaluates to Y or y, control goes to line 4.

4 The break command is executed, the loop is exited, and control goes to line 7. The
line Here we are is printed. Until the user answers with a Y or y, the program will
continue to ask for input. This could go on forever!

5 If the test fails in line 3, the else commands are executed. When the body of the
loop ends at the done keyword, control starts again at the top of the while at line 1.

6 This is the end of the loop body.

7 Control starts here after the break command is executed.

Th© Continue Command. The continue command returns control to the top of the
loop if some condition becomes true. All commands below the continue will be ignored.
If nested within a number of loops, the continue command returns control to the inner-
most loop. If a number is given as its argument, control can then be started at the top of
any loop. If you are nested in three loops, the outermost loop is loop number 3, the next
nested loop is loop number 2, and the innermost nested loop is loop number I.4

4. If the continue command is given a number higher than the number of loops, the loop exits.
14.6 Looping Commands 921

FORMAT

continue [n]

EXAMPLE 14.49

(The mailing List)

$ cat mailjist
ernie
John
richard
melanie
greg
robin

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# Scriptname: mail em
# Purpose: To send a list
1 for name in $(cat mailjist)^
do
2 if [[ $name == richard ]] ; then
3 continue —
else
4 mail Sname < memo
fi
5 done

EXPLANATION

1 After command substitution, $(cat mailjist) or 'cat mailjist', the for loop will
iterate through the list of names from the file called mailjist.

2 If the name matches ri chard, the continue command is executed and control goes
back to top of the loop where the loop expression is evaluated. Because ri chard has
already been shifted off the list, the next user, melanie, will be assigned to the vari-
able name. Old style: if [ "Sname" = richard ] ; then

3 The continue command returns control to the top of the loop, skipping any com-
mands in the rest of the loop body.

4 All users in the list, except ri chard, will be mailed a copy of the file memo.

5 This is the end of the loop body.

Nested Loops and Loop Control. When you are using nested loops, the break and
conti nue commands can be given a numeric, integer argument so that control can go from
the inner loop to an outer loop.
922 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

EXAMPLE 14.50

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash ^
# Script name: months *
1 for month in Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Auq Sep Oct Nov Dec \
— do
2 for week in 1 2 3 4 i
— do /
echo -n "Processing the month of Smonth. OK? "
read ans
3 if [ "Sans" = n -o -z "Sans" ] \
then \
4 continue 2
else /
echo -n "Process week Sweek of Smonth? " /
read ans /
if [ "Sans" = n -o -z "Sans" ]
then
5 continue
else
echo "Now processing week Sweek of Smonth."
sleep 1
# Commands go here
echo "Done processing..."
fi
fi
6 — done
7 —done

(The Output)
Processing the month of Jan. OK?
Processing the month of Feb. OK? y
Process week 1 of Feb? y
Now processing week 1 of Feb.
Done processing...
Processing the month of Feb. OK? y
Process week 2 of Feb? y
Now processing week 2 of Feb.
Done processing...
Processing the month of Feb. OK? n
Processing the month of Mar. OK? n
Processing the month of Apr. OK? n
Processing the month of May. OK? n
14.6 Looping Commands 923

EXPLANATION

1 The outer for loop is started. The first time in the loop, ]an is assigned to month.

2 The inner for loop starts. The first time in this loop, 1 is assigned to week. The inner
loop iterates completely before going back to the outer loop.

3 If the user enters either an n or presses Enter, line 4 is executed.

4 The continue command with an argument of 2 starts control at the top of the sec-
ond outermost loop. The continue without an argument returns control to the top
of the innermost loop.

5 Control is returned to the innermost for loop.

6 This done terminates the innermost loop.

7 This done terminates the outermost loop.

14.6.7 I/O Redirection and Subshells

Input can be piped or redirected to a loop from a file. Output can also be piped or redi-
rected to a file from a loop. The shell starts a subshell to handle I/O redirection and
pipes. Any variables defined within the loop will not be known to the rest of the script
when the loop terminates.

Redirecting the Output of a Loop to a File. Output from a bash loop can be sent
to a file rather than to the screen. See Example 14.51.

EXAMPLE 14.51

(The Command Line)

1 $ cat memo
abc
def
ghi

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# Program name: numberit
# Put line numbers on all lines of memo
-h

2
A

then
3 echo "Usage: $0 filename " >&2
exit 1
fi
4 count=l # Initialize count
924 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

EXAMPLE 14.51 (continued)

5 cat $1 | while read line

# Input is coming from file provided at command line
do
6 ((count == 1)) && echo "Processing file $1..." > /dev/tty
7 echo -e "$count\t$line"
8 let count+=l
9 done > tmp$$ # Output is going to a temporary file
10 mv tmp$$ $1

(The Command Line)

11 $ numberit memo
Processing file memo...

12 $ cat memo
1 abc
2 def
3 ghi

EXPLANATION

1 The contents of file memo are displayed.

2 If the user did not provide a command-line argument when running this script,
the number of arguments ($#) will be less than one and the error message appears.

3 The usage message is sent to stderr (>&2) if the number of arguments is less than 1.

4 The count variable is assigned the value 1.

5 The UNIX/Linux cat command displays the contents of the filename stored in $1,
and the output is piped to the while loop. The read command is assigned the first
line of the file the first time in the loop, the second line of the file the next time
through the loop, and so forth. The read command returns a 0 exit status if it is
successful in reading input and 1 if it fails.

6 If the value of count is 1, the echo command is executed and its output is sent to
/dev/tty, the screen.

7 The echo command prints the value of count, followed by the line in the file.

8 The count is incremented by one.

9 The output of this entire loop, each line of the file in $1, is redirected to the file
tmp$$, with the exception of the first line of the file, which is redirected to the ter-
minal, /dev/tty.a

10 The tmp file is renamed to the filename assigned to $1.

11 The program is executed. The file to be processed is called memo.

12 The file memo is displayed after the script has finished, demonstrating that line
numbers have been prepended to each line.

a. S$ expands to the PID number of the current shell. By appending this number to the filename, the filename is made
unique.
14.6 Looping Commands 925

Piping the Output of a Loop to a UNIX/Linux Command. Output can be either

piped to another command(s) or redirected to a file.

EXAMPLE 14.52

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
1 for i in 7 9 2 3 4 5
2 do
echo $i
3 done | sort -n

(The Output)
2
3
4
5
7
9

EXPLANATION

1 The for loop iterates through a list of unsorted numbers.

2 In the body of the loop, the numbers are printed. This output will be piped into
the UNIX/Linux sort command, a numerical sort.

3 The pipe is created after the done keyword. The loop is run in a subshell.

14.6.8 Running Loops in the Background

Loops can be executed to run in the background. The program can continue without
waiting for the loop to finish processing.

EXAMPLE 14.53

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
1 for person in bob jim joe sam
do
2 mail Sperson < memo
3 done &

EXPLANATION

1 The for loop shifts through each of the names in the wordlist: bob, jim, joe, and sam.
Each of the names is assigned to the variable person, in turn.

2 In the body of the loop, each person is sent the contents of the memo file.

3 The ampersand at the end of the done keyword causes the loop to be executed in
the background. The program will continue to run while the loop is executing.
926 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

14.6.9 The IFS and Loops

The shell's internal field separator (IFS) evaluates to spaces, tabs, and the newline char-
acter. It is used as a word (token) separator for commands that parse lists of words, such
as read, set, and for. It can be reset by the user if a different separator will be used in a
list. Before changing its value, it is a good idea to save the original value of the IFS in
another variable. Then it is easy to return to its default value, if needed.

EXAMPLE 14.54

(The Script )
#/bin/bash
# Scriptname: runit2
# IFS is the internal field separator and defaults to
# spaces, tabs, and newlines.
# In this script it is changed to a colon.

1 naines=Toni: Di ck: Harry: John

2 oldifs="$IFS" # Save the original value of IFS

IS)
u_
1—1
3

ii
4 for persons in $names
do
5 echo Hi Spersons
done

6 IFSs'Soldifs" # Reset the IFS to old value

7 set Jill Jane Jolene # Set positional parameters

8 for girl in $*
do
9 echo Howdy Sgirl
done

(The Output)
5 Hi Tom
Hi Dick
Hi Harry
Hi John
9 Howdy Jill
Howdy Jane
Howdy Jolene
14.7 Functions 927

EXPLANATION

l The names variable is set to the string Tom: Dick: Harry John. Each of the words is sep-
arated by a colon.

2 The value of IPS, whitespace, is assigned to another variable, oldifs. Because the
value of the IPS is whitespace, it must be quoted to preserve it.

3 The IPS is assigned a colon. Now the colon is used to separate words.

4 After variable substitution, the for loop will iterate through each of the names, us-
ing the colon as the internal field separator between the words.

5 Each of the names in the wordlist is displayed.

6 The IPS is reassigned its original value stored in oldifs.

7 The positional parameters are set. $1 is assigned Jill, $2 is assigned lane, and $3 is
assigned lolene.

8 $-i evaluates to all the positional parameters, lill, lane, and lolene. The for loop as-
signs each of the names to the gi rl variable, in turn, through each iteration of the
loop.

9 Each of the names in the parameter list is displayed.

14.7 Functions

Functions were introduced to the Bourne shell in AT&T's UNIX SystemVR2 and have
been enhanced in the Bourne Again shell. A function is a name for a command or group
of commands. Functions are used to modularize your program and make it more effi-
cient. They are executed in context of the current shell. In other words, a child process is
not spawned as it is when running an executable program such as 1 s. You may even store
functions in another file and load them into your script when you are ready to use them.
Here is a review of some of the important rules about using functions.

1. The shell determines whether you are using an alias, a function, a built-in com-
mand, or an executable program (or script) found on the disk. It looks for
aliases first, then functions, built-in commands, and executables last.
2. A function must be defined before it is used.
3. The function runs in the current environment; it shares variables with the script
that invoked it, and lets you pass arguments by assigning them as positional
parameters. Local variables can be created within a function by using the local
function.
4. If you use the exit command in a function, you exit the entire script. If you exit
the function, you return to where the script left off when the function was
invoked.
5. The return statement in a function returns the exit status of the last command
executed within the function or the value of the argument given.
6. Functions can be exported to subshells with the export -f built-in command.
928 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

7. To list functions and definitions, use the declare -f command. To list just func-
tion names, use declare -F.5
8. Traps, like variables, are global within functions. They are shared by both the
script and the functions invoked in the script. If a trap is defined in a function,
it is also shared by the script. This could have unwanted side effects.
9. If functions are stored in another file, they can be loaded into the current script
with the source or dot command.
10. Functions can be recursive; that is, they can call themselves. There is no limit
imposed for the number of recursive calls.

FORMAT

function function.name { commands ; commands; }

EXAMPLE 14.55

function dir { echo "Directories: ";ls -l|awk 7Ad/ {print SNF}'; }

EXPLANATION

The keyword function is followed by the name of the function di r. (Sometimes empty
parentheses follow the function name, but they are not necessary.) The commands
within the curly braces will be executed when di r is typed. The purpose of the function
is to list only the subdirectories below the present working directory. The spaces sur-
rounding the first curly brace are required.

14.7.1 Unsetting Functions

To remove a function from memory, use the unset command.

FORMAT

unset -f function_name

14.7.2 Exporting Functions

Functions may be exported so that subshells know about them.

FORMAT

export -f function_name

5. Only on bash versions 2.x.

14.7 Functions 929

14.7.3 Function Arguments and the Return Value

Because the function is executed within the current shell, the variables will be known to
both the function and the shell. Any changes made to your environment in the function
will also be made to the shell.

Arguments. Arguments can be passed to functions by using positional parameters.

The positional parameters are private to the function; that is, arguments to the function
will not affect any positional parameters used outside the function. See Example 14.56.

The Built-in local Function. To create local variables that are private to the function
and will disappear after the function exits, use the built-in local function. See Example
14.57.

The Built-in return Function. The return command can be used to exit the function
and return control to the program at the place where the function was invoked.
(Remember, if you use exit anywhere in your script, including within a function, the
script terminates.) The return value of a function is really just the value of the exit status
of the last command in the script, unless you give a specific argument to the return com-
mand. If a value is assigned to the return command, that value is stored in the ? variable
and can hold an integer value between 0 and 256. Because the return command is limited
to returning only an integer between 0 and 256, you can use command substitution to
capture the output of a function. Place the entire function in parentheses preceded by a
$ (e.g., $(function_nanie)), or traditional backquotes to capture and assign the output to a
variable just as you would if getting the output of a UNIX command.

EXAMPLE 14.56

(Passing Arguments)
(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# Scriptname: checker
# Purpose: Demonstrate function and arguments

1 function Usage { echo "error: $*" 2>&1; exit 1; }

2 if (($#!= 2))
then
3 Usage "$0: requires two arguments"
fi
4 if [[ ! ( -r SI && -w $1 ) ]]
then
5 Usage "$1: not readable and writable"
fi
6 echo The arguments are: $*
< Program continues here >
930 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

EXAMPLE 14.56 (continued)

(The Command Line and Output)

$ checker
error: checker: requires two arguments
$ checker filel file2
error: filel: not readable and writable
$ checker filex fileZ
The arguments are filex file?

EXPLANATION

1 The function called Usage is defined. It will be used to send an error message to
standard error (the screen). Its arguments consist of any string of characters
sent when the function is called. The arguments are stored in $*, the special vari-
able that contains all positional parameters. Within a function, positional pa-
rameters are local and have no effect on those positional parameters used out-
side the function.

2 If the number of arguments being passed into the script from the command line
does not equal 2, the program branches to line 3.

3 When the Usage function is called, the string $0: requi res two arguments is passed to
the function and stored in the U varable. The echo statement will then send the
message to standard error and the script will exit with an exit status of 1 to indi-
cate that something went wrong.3

4, 5 If the first argument coming into the program from the command line is not the
name of a readable and writable file, the Usage function will be called with $1: not
readable and writable as its argument.

6 The arguments coming into the script from the command line are stored in $*.
This has no effect on the $* in the function.

a. With the old test form, the expression is written if [ ! \( -r SI -a -w SI \) ].

EXAMPLE 14.57

(Using the return Command)

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# Scriptname: dojncrement
1 increment () {
2 local sum; # sum is known only in this function
3 let "sum=$l + 1"
4 return $sum # Return the value of sum to the script
}
5 echo -n "The sum is "
14.7 Functions 931

EXAMPLE 14.57 (continued)

6 increment 5 # Ca77 function increment; pass 5 as a

# parameter; 5 becomes $1 for the increment function
7 echo $? # The return value is stored in $7
8 echo Ssum # The variable "sum" is not known here

(The Output)
4,6 The sum is 6
8

EXPLANATION

1 The function called increment is defined.

2 The built-in local function makes variable sum local (private) to this function. It
will not exist outside the function. When the function exits, it will be removed.

3 When the function is called, the value of the first argument, $1, will be increment-
ed by one and the result assigned to sum.

4 The return built-in command, when given an argument, returns to the main
script after the line where the function was invoked. It stores its argument in the
? variable.

5 The string is echoed to the screen.

6 The increment function is called with an argument of 5.

7 When the function returns, its exit status is stored in the ? variable. The exit status
is the exit value of the last command executed in the function unless an explicit
argument is used in the return statement. The argument for return must be an in-
teger between 0 and 255.

8 Although the sum was defined in the function increment, it is local in scope, and
therefore also not known outside the function. Nothing is printed.

EXAMPLE 14.58

(Using Command Substitution)

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# Scriptname: do_square
1 function square {
local sq # sq is local to the function
let "sq=$l * $1"
echo "Number to be squared is $1."
2 echo "The result is $sq "
}
932 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

EXAMPLE 14.58 (continued)

3 echo "Give me a number to square. "

read number
4 value_returned=$(square $number) # Command substitution
5 echo "Svalue.returned"

(The Command Line and Output)

$ do.square
3 Give me a number to square.
10
5 Number to be squared is 10.
The result is 100

EXPLANATION

1 The function called square is defined. Its purpose, when called, is to multiply its
argument, $1, times itself.

2 The result of squaring the number is printed.

3 The user is asked for input. This is the line where the program starts executing.

4 The function square is called with a number (input from the user) as its argument.
Command substitution is performed because the function is enclosed in paren-
theses preceded by a $. The output of the function, both of its echo statements, is
assigned to the variable value_returned.

5 The value returned from the command substitution is printed.

14.7.4 Functions and the source (or dot) Command

Storing Functions. Functions are often defined in the .profile file so that when you
log in, they will be defined. Functions can be exported, and they can be stored in a file.
Then when you need the function, the source or dot command is used with the name of
the file to activate the definitions of the functions within it.

EXAMPLE 14.59

1 $ cat myfunctions
2 function go() {
cd $HOME/bin/prog
PS1=11pwd' > '
Is
}
3 function greetings!) { echo "Hi $1! Welcome to my world." ; }
4 $ source myfunctions
5 $ greetings george
Hi george! Welcome to my world.
14.7 Functions 933

EXPLANATION

l The file myfunctions is displayed. It contains two function definitions.

2 The first function defined is called go. It sets the primary prompt to the present
working directory.

3 The second function defined is called greetings. It will greet the name of the user
passed in as an argument.

4 The source or dot command loads the contents of the file myfunctions into the shell's
memory. Now both functions are defined for this shell.

5 The greetings function is invoked and executed.

EXAMPLE 14.60

(The dbfunctions file shown below contains functions to be used by the main program. See
cd for complete script.)

1 $ cat dbfunctions
2 function addon () { # Function defined in file dbfunctions
3 while true
do
echo "Adding information "
echo "Type the full name of employee "
read name
echo "Type address for employee "
read address
echo "Type start date for employee (4/10/88 ) :"
read startdate
echo $name:$address:$startdate
echo -n "Is this correct? "
read ans
case "Sans" in
[Yy]*)
echo "Adding info..."
echo Sname: Saddress: $startdate»datafi 1 e
sort -u datafile -o datafile
echo -n "Do you want to go back to the main menu? "
read ans
if [[ Sans == [Yy] ]]
then

4 return # Return to calling program

else
934 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

EXAMPLE 14.60 (continued)

5 continue # Co to the top of the loop

fi
JJ
*)
echo "Do you want to try again? "
read answer
case "Sanswer" in
[Yy]-0 continue;;
*) exit;;
esac
JJ
esac
done
6 } # End of function definition

(The Command Line)

7 $ more mainprog
#!/bin/bash
# Script name: mainprog
# This is the main script that will call the function, addon

datafi1e=$HOME/bou rne/datafi 1 e
8 source dbfunctions # The file is loaded into memory
if [ ! -e $datafile ]
then
echo "$(basename Sdatafile) does not exist" >&2
exit 1
fi
9 echo "Select one: "
cat «EOF
[1] Add info
[2] Delete info
[3] Update info
[4] Exit
EOF
read choice
case Schoice in
10 1) addon # Calling the addon function
jj
2) delete # Calling the delete function
JJ
3) update
14.8 Trapping Signals 935

EXAMPLE 14.60 (continued)

4)
echo Bye
exit 0
JJ
*) echo Bad choice
exit 2
»J
esac
echo Returned from function call
echo The name is Sname
# Variable set in the function are known in this shell.
done

EXPLANATION

1 The dbfunctions file is displayed.

2 The addon function is defined. Its function is to add new information to datafile.

3 A while loop is entered. It will loop forever unless a loop control statement such
as break or continue is included in the body of the loop.

4 The return command sends control back to the calling program where the func-
tion was called.

5 Control is returned to the top of the while loop.

6 The closing curly brace ends the function definition.

7 This is the main script. The function addon will be used in this script.

8 The source command loads the file dbfunctions into the program's memory. Now the
function addon is defined for this script and available for use. It is as though you
had just defined the function right here in the script.

9 A menu is displayed with the here document. The user is asked to select a menu
item.

10 The addon function is invoked.

14.8 Trapping Signals

While your program is running, if you press Ctrl-C or CtrlA, your program terminates
as soon as the signal arrives. There are times when you would rather not have the pro-
gram terminate immediately after the signal arrives. You could arrange to ignore the sig-
nal and keep running or perform some sort of cleanup operation before actually exiting
the script. The trap command allows you to control the way a program behaves when it
receives a signal.
A signal is defined as an asynchronous message that consists of a number that can be
sent from one process to another, or by the operating system to a process if certain keys
936 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

are pressed or if something exceptional happens.6 The trap command tells the shell to
terminate the command currently in execution upon the receipt of a signal. If the trap
command is followed by commands within quotes, the command string will be executed
upon receipt of a specified signal. The shell reads the command string twice, once when
the trap is set, and again when the signal arrives. If the command string is surrounded
by double quotes, all variable and command substitution will be performed when the
trap is set the first time. If single quotes enclose the command string, variable and com-
mand substitution do not take place until the signal is detected and the trap is executed.
Use the command kill -1 or trap -1 to get a list of all signals. Table 14.6 provides a list
of signal numbers and their corresponding names. The most commonly used signals for
trap are 1) SIGHUP (hangup), 2) SIGINT (interrupt), 3) SICQUIT (quit), and 4) SIGTERM (exit).

FORMAT

trap 'command; command' signal-number

trap 'command; command' signal-name

EXAMPLE 14.61

trap 'rtn tmp^v; exit 1' 0 1 2 15

trap 'rm tmp*; exit 1' EXIT HUP INT TERM

EXPLANATION

When any of the signals 1 (hangup), 2 (interrupt), or 15 (software termination) arrives,

remove all the tmp files and exit.

Table 14.6 Signal Numbers and Signals0

1) SIGHUP 9) SIGKILL 17) SIGCHLD 25) SIGXFSZ

2) SIGINT 10) SIGUSR1 18) SIGCONT 26) SIGVTALRM

3) SIGQUIT 11) SIGSEGV 19) SIGSTOP 27) SIGPROF

4) SIGILL 12) SIGUSR2 20) SIGTSTP 28) SIGWINCH

5) SIGTRAP 13) SIGPIPE 21) SIGTTIN 29) SIGIO

6) SICABRT 14) SIGALRM 22) SIGTTOU 30) SICPWR

7) SICBUS 15) SIGTERM 23) SIGURC

8) SIGFPE 16) SIGSTKFLT 24) SIGXCPU

a. For a complete list of UNIX signals and their meanings, go to www.cybemagician.co.uk/technet/

unixsignals.htm. For Linux signals, go to www.comptechdoc.org/os/linux/programniing/linux_pgsignals.html.

6. Morris I. Bolsky and David G. Korn, The New KomShell Command and Programming Language (Engle-
wood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall PIR, 1995), p. 327.
14.8 Trapping Signals 937

If an interrupt comes in while the script is running, the trap command lets you handle
the interrupt signal in several ways. You can let the signal behave normally (default),
ignore the signal, or create a handler function to be called when the signal arrives.
Signal names such as HUP and INT are normally prefixed with SIC, for example, SICHUP,
SICINT, and so forth.7 The bash shell allows you to use symbolic names for the signals,
which are the signal names without the SIC prefix, or you can use the numeric value for
the signal. See Table 14.6. A pseudo signal name EXIT, or the number 0, will cause the
trap to be executed when the shell exits.

14.8.1 Resetting Signals

To reset a signal to its default behavior, the trap command is followed by the signal name
or number. Traps set in functions are recognized by the shell that invoked the function,
once the function has been called. Any traps set outside the function are also recognized
with the function.

EXAMPLE 14.62

trap INT

EXPLANATION

Resets the default action for signal 2, SIGINT. The default action is to kill the process
when the interrupt key (Ctrl-C) is pressed.

EXAMPLE 14.63

trap 2

EXPLANATION

Resets the default action for signal 2, SICINT, which is used to kill a process (i.e., Ctrl-C).

EXAMPLE 14.64

trap 'trap 2' 2

EXPLANATION

Sets the default action for signal 2 (SICINT) to execute the command string within
quotes when the signal arrives. The user must press Ctrl-C twice to terminate the pro-
gram. The first trap catches the signal, and the second trap resets the trap back to its
default action, which is to kill the process.

7. SICKILL, number 9, often called a "sure kill," is not trappable.

938 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

14.8.2 Ignoring Signals

If the trap command is followed by a pair of empty quotes, the signals listed will be
ignored by the process.

EXAMPLE 14.65

,,,,
trap " " 1 2 or trap HUP INT

EXPLANATION

Signals 1 (SIGHUP) and 2 (SIGINT) will be ignored by the shell process.

14.8.3 Listing Traps

To list all traps and the commands assigned to them, type trap.

EXAMPLE 14.66

(At the command line)

1 $ trap 'echo "Caught ya!; exit"' 2
2 S trap
trap — 'echo "Caught ya!; exit 1"' SIGINT
3 $ trap -

EXPLANATION

1 The trap command is set to exit on signal 2 (Ctrl-C).

2 The trap command without an argument lists all set traps.

3 If the argument is a dash, all signals are reset to their original values, that is, what-
ever they were when the shell started up.

EXAMPLE 14.67 1

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# Scriptname: trapping
# Script to illustrate the trap command and signals
# Can use the signal numbers or bash abbreviations seen
# below. Cannot use SICINT, SIGQUIT, etc.
1 trap 'echo "Ctrl-C will not terminate $0."' INT
2 trap 'echo "Ctrl-\\ will not terminate $0."' QUIT
3 trap 'echo "Ctrl-Z will not terminate $0.'" TSTP
4 echo "Enter any string after the prompt.
When you are ready to exit, type \"stop\"."
14.8 Trapping Signals 939

EXAMPLE 14.67 (continued)

5 while true
do
6 echo -n "Co ahead...> "
7 read
8 if [[ SREPLY == [Ss]top ]]
then
9 break
fi
10 done

(The Output)
4 Enter any string after the prompt.
When you are ready to exit, type "stop".
6 Co ahead...> this is itAC
1 Ctrl-C will not terminate trapping.
6 Co ahead...> this is it againAZ
3 Ctrl-Z will not terminate trapping.
6 Co ahead...> this is never itlA\
2 Ctrl-\\ will not terminate trapping.
6 Co ahead. ..> stop
$

EXPLANATION

1 The first trap catches the INT signal, Ctrl-C. If Ctrl-C is pressed while the program
is running, the command enclosed in quotes will be executed. Instead of aborting,
the program will print Ctrl-C will not terminate trapping and continue to prompt
the user for input.

2 The second trap command will be executed when the user presses CtrlA, the QUIT
signal. The string Ctrl-\\ will not terminate trapping will be displayed and the pro-
gram will continue to run. This signal, SIGQUIT by default, kills the process and
produces a core file.

3 The third trap command will be executed when the user presses Ctrl-Z, the TSTP
signal. The string Ctrl-Z will not terminate trapping will be displayed, and the pro-
gram will continue to run. This signal normally causes the program to be sus-
pended in the background if job control is implemented.

4 The user is prompted for input.

5 The while loop is entered.

6 The string Co ahead.. .> is printed and the program waits for input (see read on the
next line).

7 The read command assigns user input to the built-in REPLY variable.
940 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

EXPLANATION (continued)

8 If the value of REPLY matches Stop or stop, the break command causes the loop to
exit and the program will terminate. Entering Stop or stop is the only way we will
get out of this program unless it is killed with the kill command.

9 The break command causes the body of the loop to be exited.

10 The done keyword marks the end of the loop.

14.8.4 Traps and Functions

If you use a trap to handle a signal in a function, it will affect the entire script, once the
function is called. The trap is global to the script. In the following example, the trap is
A
set to ignore the interrupt key, C. This script had to be killed with the kill command
to stop the looping. It demonstrates potential undesirable side effects when using traps
in functions.

EXAMPLE 14.68

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
1 function trapper () {
echo "In trapper"
2 trap 'echo "Caught in a trap!"' INT
# Once set, this trap affects the entire script. Anytime
# is entered, the script will ignore it.
}
3 whi1e :
do
echo "In the main script"
4 trapper
5 echo "Still in main"
6 echo "The pid is $$"
sleep 5
7 done

(The Output)
In the main script
In trapper
Still in main
The pid is 4267
Caught in a trap! # User presses K
14.9 Debugging 941

EXAMPLE 14.68 (continued)

In the main script

In trapper
Still in main
The pid is 4267
Caught in a trap! # User just pressed Ctrl-C
In the main script

EXPLANATION

1 The trapper function is defined. All variables and traps set in the function are glo-
bal to the script.

2 The trap command will ignore INT, signal 2, the interrupt key (AC). If A
C is
pressed, the message Caught in a trap! is printed, and the script continues forever.
The script can be killed with the kill command or CtrlA.

3 The main script starts a forever loop.

4 The function trapper is called.

5 When the function returns, execution starts here.

6 The PID will be displayed. Later you can use this number to kill the process from
another terminal. For example, if the PID is 4267, the kill 4267 will terminate this
process.

7 The program pauses (sleeps) for 5 seconds.

14.9 Debugging

By using the -n option to the bash command, you can check the syntax of your scripts
without really executing any of the commands. If there is a syntax error in the script, the
shell will report the error. If there are no errors, nothing is displayed.
The most commonly used method for debugging scripts is the set command with the
-x option, or bash invoked with the -x option and the script name. See Table 14.7 for a
list of debugging options. These options allow an execution trace of your script. Each
command from your script is displayed after substitution has been performed, and then
the command is executed. When a line from your script is displayed, it is preceded with
a plus (+) sign.
With the verbose option turned on, or by invoking the shell with the -v option (bash
-v scriptname), each line of the script will be displayed just as it was typed in the script,
and then executed. (See Chapter 15, "Debugging Shell Scripts," on page 967 for details.)
942 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

Table 14.7 Debugging Options

Command Option What It Does

bash -x scriptname Echo option Displays each line of script after variable
substitutions and before execution.

bash -v scriptname Verbose option Displays each line of script before execution,
just as you typed it.

bash -n scriptname Noexec option Interprets but does not execute commands.

set -x Turns on echo Traces execution in a script.

set +x Turns off echo Turns off tracing.

EXAMPLE 14.69

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# Scriptname: todebug

1 name="]oe Shmoe"
if [[ Sname == "Joe Blow" ]]
then
printf "Hello $name\n"
fi

declare -i nuin=l
while (( num < 5 ))
do
let nuni+=l
done
printf "The total is %d\n", Snum

(The Output)
2 bash -x todebug
+ name=Joe Shmoe
+ [[ Joe Shmoe == \J\o\e\ \B\l\o\w ]]
+ declare -i num=l
+ (( num < 5 ))
+ let num+=l
+ (( num < 5 ))
+ let num+=l
+ (( num < 5 ))
+ let num+=l
14.10 The Command Line 943

EXAMPLE 14.69 (continued)

+ (( num < 5 ))
+ let num+=l
+ (( num < 5 ))
+ printf 'The total is %d\n,' 5
The total is 5

EXPLANATION

1 The script is called todebug. You can watch the script run with the -x switch turned
on. Each iteration of the loop is displayed and the values of variables are printed
as they are set and when they change.

2 Bash is invoked with the -x option. Echoing is turned on. Each line of the script
will be displayed to the screen prepended with a plus sign (+). Variable substitu-
tion is performed before the line is displayed. The result of the execution of the
command appears after the line has been displayed.

14.10 The Command Line

14.10.1 Processing Command-Line Options with getopts

If you are writing scripts that require a number of command-line options, positional
parameters are not always the most efficient. For example, the UNIX Is command takes
a number of command-line options and arguments. (An option requires a leading dash;
an argument does not.) Options can be passed to the program in several ways; Is -laFi,
Is -i -a -1 -F, Is -ia -F, and so forth. If you have a script that requires arguments, posi-
tional parameters might be used to process the arguments individually, such as Is -1 -i
-F. Each dash option would be stored in $1, $2, and $3, respectively. But, what if the user
listed all of the options as one dash option, as in Is -liF? Now the -liF would all be
assigned to $1 in the script. The getopts function makes it possible to process command-
line options and arguments in the same way they are processed by the Is program.8 The
getopts function will allow the runit program to process its arguments using any variety
of combinations.

EXAMPLE 14.70

(The Command Line )

1 $ runit -x -n 200 filex
2 $ runit -xn200 filex
3 $ runit -xy

8. See the UNIX/Linux manual pages (Section 3) for the C library function getopt.
944 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

EXAMPLE 14.70 (continued)

4 $ runit -yx -n 30
5 S runit -n250 -xy filey
( any other combination of these arguments )

EXPLANATION

1 The program runit takes four arguments; x is an option, n is an option requiring a

number argument after it, and filex is an argument that stands alone.

2 The program runit combines the options x and n and the number argument 200;
filex is also an argument.

3 The program runit is invoked with the x and y options combined.

4 The program runit is invoked with the y and x options combined; the n option is
passed separately, as is the number argument, 30.

5 The program runit is invoked with the n option combined with the number argu-
ment, the x and y options are combined, and the filey is separate.

Before getting into all the details of the runit program, we examine the line from the
program where getopts is used to see how it processes the arguments.

EXAMPLE 14.71

(A line from the script called runit)

while getopts :xyn: name

EXPLANATION

x, y, and n are the options. In this example the first option is preceded by a colon. This
tells getopts to use silent error reporting. If there is a colon after one of the options, the
option expects an argument separated from it by whitespace. An argument is a word
that does not begin with a dash, -n requires an argument.

Any options typed at the command line must begin with a dash.

Any options that do not contain a dash tell getopts that the option list has ended.

Each time getopts is called, it places the next option value it finds in the variable name.
(You can use any variable name here.) If an illegal argument is given, name is assigned
a question mark.

Sample getopts Scripts. The following examples illustrate how getopts processes
arguments.
14.10 The Command Line 945

EXAMPLE 14.72

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# Program: opt si
# Using getopts — First try —

1 while getopts xy options

do
2 case $options in
3 x) echo "you entered -x as an option";;
y) echo "you entered -y as an option";;
esac
done

(The Command Line)

4 $ optsl -x
you entered -x as an option
5 $ optsl -xy
you entered -x as an option
you entered -y as an option
6 $ optsl -y
you entered -y as an option
7 $ optsl -b
optsl: illegal option — b
8 $ optsl b

EXPLANATION

1 The getopts command is used as a condition for the whi 1 e command. The valid op-
tions for this program are listed after the getopts command; they are x and y. Each
option is tested in the body of the loop, one after the other. Each option will be
assigned to the variable options, without the leading dash. When there are no long-
er any arguments to process, getopts will exit with a nonzero status, causing the
while loop to terminate.

2 The case command is used to test each of the possible options found in the options
variable, either x or y.

3 If x was an option, the string you entered -x as an option is displayed.

4 At the command line, the optsl script is given an x option, a legal option to be pro-
cessed by getopts.

5 At the command line, the optsl script is given an xy option; x and y are legal op-
tions to be processed by getopts.

6 At the command line, the optsl script is given a y option, a legal option to be pro-
cessed by getopts.
946 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

EXPLANATION (continued)

7 The optsl script is given a b option, an illegal option. Getopts sends an error mes-
sage to stderr.

8 An option without a dash prepended to it is not an option and causes getopts to

stop processing arguments.

EXAMPLE 14.73

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# Program: opts2
# Using getopts — Second try —

1 while getopts xy options 2> /dev/null

do
2 case Soptions in
x) echo "you entered -x as an option";;
y) echo "you entered -y as an option";;
3 \?) echo "Only -x and -y are valid options" 1>&2;;
esac
done

(The Command Line)

$ opts2 -x
you entered -x as an option
$ opts2 -y
you entered -y as an option
$ opts2 xy
$ opts2 -xy
you entered -x as an option
you entered -y as an option
4 $ opts2 -g
Only -x and -y are valid options
5 $ opts2 -c
Only -x and -y are valid options

EXPLANATION

l If there is an error message from getopts, it is redirected to /dev/null.

2 If the option is a bad option, a question mark will be assigned to the options vari-
able. The case command can be used to test for the question mark, allowing you
to print your own error message to standard error.
14.10 The Command Line 947

EXPLANATION (continued)

3 If the options variable is assigned the question mark, the case statement is execut-
ed. The question mark is protected with the backslash so that the shell does not
see it as a wildcard and try to perform filename substitution.

4 g is not a legal option. A question mark is assigned to the variable options and the
error message is displayed.

5 c is not a legal option. A question mark is assigned to the variable options and the
error message is displayed.

Special getopts Variables. The getopts function provides two variables to help
keep track of arguments: OPTIND and OPTARG. OPTIND is a special variable that is initialized
to one and is incremented each time getopts completes processing a command-line argu-
ment to the number of the next argument getopts will process. The OPTARG variable con-
tains the value of a legal argument. See Examples 14.74 and 14.75.

EXAMPLE 14.74

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# Program: opts3
# Using getopts — Third try —

1 while getopts dq: options

do
case $options in
2 d) echo "-d is a valid switch
3 q) echo "The argument for -q is $0PTARC";;
\?) echo "Usage:opts3 -dq filename ..." 1>&2;;
esac
done

(The Command Line)

4 $ optsB -d
-d is a valid switch
5 $ opts3 -q foo
The argument for -q is foo
6 $ opts3 -q
Usage:opts3 -dq filename ...
7 $ opts3 -e
Usage:opts3 -dq filename ...
8 $ optsB e
948 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

EXPLANATION

1 The while command tests the exit status of getopts; if getopts can successfully pro-
cess an argument, it returns 0 exit status, and the body of the whi 1 e loop is entered.
The colon appended to the argument list means that the q option requires an ar-
gument. The argument will be stored in the special variable, OPTARG.

2 One of the legal options is d. If d is entered as an option, the d (without the dash)
is stored in the options variable.

3 One of the legal options is q. The q option requires an argument. There must be a
space between the q option and its argument. If q is entered as an option followed
by an argument, the q, without the dash, is stored in the options variable and the
argument is stored in the OPTARG variable. If an argument does not follow the q op-
tion, the question mark is stored in the variable options.

4 The d option is a legal option to optsB.

5 The q option with an argument is also a legal option to optsB.

6 The q option without an argument is an error.

7 The e option is invalid. A question mark is stored in the options variable if the op-
tion is illegal.

8 The option is prepended with neither a dash nor a plus sign. The getopts com-
mand will not process it as an option and returns a nonzero exit status. The while
loop is terminated.

EXAMPLE 14.75

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
# Program: opts4
# Using getopts — Fourth try —

1 while getopts xyz: arguments 2>/dev/null

do
case $arguments in
2 x) echo "you entered -x as an option
y) echo "you entered -y as an option." ;;
3 z) echo "you entered -z as an option."
echo "\$0PTARC is SOPTARG.";;
4 \?) echo "Usage opts4 [-xy] [-z argument]"
exit 1;;
esac
done
5 echo "The number of arguments passed was $(( $0PTIND - 1 ))"
14.10 The Command Line 949

EXAMPLE 14.75 (continued)

(The Command Line)

$ opts4 -xyz foo
You entered -x as an option.
You entered -y as an option.
You entered -z as an option.
SOPTARC is foo.
The number of arguments passed was 2.

$ opts4 -x -y -z boo
You entered -x as an option.
You entered -y as an option.
You entered -z as an option.
SOPTARC is boo.
The number of arguments passed was 4.

$ opts4 -d
Usage: opts4 [-xy] [-z argument]

EXPLANATION

1 The while command tests the exit status of getopts; if getopts can successfully pro-
cess an argument, it returns 0 exit status, and the body of the whi 1 e loop is entered.
The colon appended to the z option tells getopts that an argument must follow the
-z option. If the option takes an argument, the argument is stored in the getopts
built-in variable OPTARG.

2 If x is given as an option, it is stored in the variable arguments.

3 If z is given as an option with an argument, the argument is stored in the built-in

variable OPTARG.

4 If an invalid option is entered, the question mark is stored in the variable arguments
and an error message is displayed.

5 The special getopts variable OPTIND holds the number of the next option to be pro-
cessed. Its value is always one more than the actual number of command-line ar-
guments.

14.10.2 The eval Command and Parsing the Command Line

The eval command evaluates a command line, performs all shell substitutions, and then
executes the command line. It is used when normal parsing of the command line is not
flexible enough for what we want to do.
950 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

EXAMPLE 14.76

1 $ set a b c d
2 $ echo The last argument is \$$#
3 The last argument is $4

4 $ eval echo The last argument is \SS#

The last argument is d

5 $ set -x
$ eval echo The last argument is \$$#
+ eval echo the last argument is '$4'
++ echo the last argument is d
The last argument is d

EXPLANATION

1 Four positional parameters are set.

2 The desired result is to print the value of the last positional parameter. The \S will
print a literal dollar sign. The $# evaluates to 4, the number of positional parame-
ters. After the shell evaluates the $#, it does not parse the line again to get the value
of $4.

3 S4 is printed instead of the last argument.

4 After the shell performs variable substitution, the eval command performs the
variable substitution and then executes the echo command.

5 Turn on the echoing to watch the order of parsing.

EXAMPLE 14.77

(From Shutdown Program)

,
1 eval '/usr/bin/id | /usr/bin/sed s/[Aa-z0-9=].*//'"
2 if [ "${uid:=0}" -ne 0 ]
then
3 echo $0: Only root can run $0
exit 2
fi

EXPLANATION

1 This is a tricky one. The id program's output is sent to sed to extract the uid part
of the string. The output for id is

uid=9496(ellie) gid=40 groups=40

uid=0(root) gid=l(daemon) groups=l(daemon)
14.11 bash Options 951

The sed regular expression reads: Starting at the beginning of the string, find
any character that is not a letter, number, or an equal sign and remove that char-
acter and all characters following it. The result is to substitute everything from the
first opening parenthesis to the end of the line with nothing. What is left is either
uid=9496 or uid=0.
After eval evaluates the command line, it then executes the resulting command:
uid=9496 or uid=0.
For example, if the user's ID is root, the command executed would be uid=0. This
creates a local variable in the shell called uid and assigns 0 to it.

2 The value of the uid variable is tested for 0, using command modifiers.

3 If the ui d is not 0, the echo command displays the script name ($0) and the message.

14.11 bash Options

14.11.1 Shell Invocation Options

When the shell is started using the bash command, it can take options to modify its
behavior. There are two types of options: single-character options and multicharacter
options. The single-character options consist of a single leading dash followed by a sin-
gle character. The multicharacter options consist of two leading dashes and any number
of characters. Multicharacter options must appear before single-character options. An
interactive login shell normally starts up with -i (start an interactive shell), -s (read from
standard input), and -m (enable job control). See Table 14.8.

Table 14.8 bash 2,x Shell Invocation Options

Option Meaning

-c string Commands are read from string. Any arguments after string are assigned to
positional parameters, starting at $0.

-D A list of double-quoted strings, preceded by a $, are printed to standard output.

These strings are subject to language translation when the current locale is not C
or POSIX. The -n option is implied; no commands will be executed.

-i Shell is in the interactive mode. TERM, QUIT, and INTERRUPT are ignored.

-s Commands are read from standard input and allow the setting of positional
parameters.

-r Starts a restricted shell.

952 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

Table 14.8 bash 2,x Shell Invocation Options (continued)

Option Meaning

— Signals the end of options and disables further option processing. Any arguments
after — or - are treated as filenames and arguments.

—dump-strings Same as-D.

—help Displays a usage message for a built-in command and exits.

—login Causes bash to be invoked as a login shell.

—noediting When bash is running interactively, does not use the Readline library.

—noprofile When starling up, bash does not read the initialization files /etc/profile,
~/-bash_profile, -/-bashjogin, or -/.profile.

—norc For interactive shells, bash will not read the -/.bashrc file. Turned on by default, if
running shell as sh.

—posix Changes the behavior of bash to match the POSIX 1003.2 standard, if otherwise
it wouldn't.

—quiet Displays no information at shell startup, the default.

—rcfile file If bash is interactive, uses this intialization file instead of -/.bashrc.

—restricted Starts a restricted shell.

—verbose Turns on verbose; same as -v.

—version Displays version information about this bash shell and exits.

Table 14.9 bash (Versions Prior to 2.x) Shell invocation Options

Option Meaning

-c string Commands are read from string. Any arguments after string are assigned to
positional parameters, starting at $0.

-D A list of double-quoted strings, preceded by a $, are printed to standard output.

These strings are subject to language translation when the current locale is not C
or POSIX. The -n option is implied; no commands will be executed.

-i Shell is in the interactive mode. TERM, QUIT, and INTERRUPT are ignored.

-s Commands are read from standard input and allows the setting of positional
parameters.

-r Starts a restricted shell.

Signals the end of options and disables further option processing. Any arguments
after ~ or - are treated as filenames and arguments.
14.11 bash Options 953

Table 14.9 bash (Versions Prior to 2,x) Shell Invocation Options (continued)

Option Meaning

-login Causes bash to be invoked as a login shell.

-nobraceexpansion Curly brace expansion is turned off.

-nolineediting When bash is running interactively, does not use the Readline library.

-noprofile When starting up, bash does not read the initialization files /etc/profile,
~/-bash_profile, ~/-bash_login, or -/.profile.

-posix Changes the behavior of bash to match the POS1X standard, if otherwise it
wouldn't.

-quiet Displays no information at shell startup, the default.

-rcfile file If bash is interactive, uses this intialization file instead of ~/-bashrc.

-verbose Turns on verbose; same as -v.

-version Displays version information about this bash shell and exits.

14.11.2 The set Command and Options

The set command can be used to turn shell options on and off, as well as for handling
command-line arguments. To turn an option on, the dash (-) is prepended to the option;
to turn an option off, the plus sign (+) is prepended to the option. See Table 14.10 for a
list of set options.

EXAMPLE 14.78

1 $ set -f
2 $ echo *
*
3 $ echo ??
??
4 $ set +f

EXPLANATION

1 The f option is turned on, disabling filename expansion.

2 The asterisk is not expanded.

3 The question marks are not expanded.

4 The f is turned off; filename expansion is enabled.

954 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

Table 14.10 The Built-in set Command Options

Shortcut
Name of Option Switch What It Does

all export -a Automatically marks new or modified variables for export from
the time the option is set until unset.

braceexpand Enables brace expansion, and is a default setting.3

emacs For command-line editing, uses the emacs built-in editor, and is a
default setting.

errexit -e If a command returns a nonzero exit status (fails), exits. Not set
when reading initialization files.

histexpand -H Enables ! and !! when performing history substitution, and is a

default setting.3

history Enables command-line history; on by default.3

ignoreeof Disables EOF (Ctrl-D) from exiting a shell; must type exit. Same
as setting shell variable, IGNOREEOF=10.

keyword -k Places keyword arguments in the environment for a command.3

interactive-comments For interactive shells, a leading # is used to comment out any text
remaining on the line.

monitor Allows job control.

noclobber -C Protects files from being overwritten when redirection is used.

noexec -n Reads commands, but does not execute them. Used to check the
syntax of scripts. Not on when running interactively.

noglob -d Disables pathname expansion (i.e., turns off wildcards).

notify -b Notifies user when background job finishes.

nounset -u Displays an error when expanding a variable that has not been set.

onecmd -t Exits after reading and executing one command.3

physical -P If set, does not follow symbolic links when typing cd or pwd. The
physical directory is used instead.

posix Shell behavior is changed if the default operation doesn't match

the POSIX standard.

privileged -P When set, the shell does not read the .profile or ENV file and shell
functions are not inherited from the environment; automatically
set for setuid scripts.
14.11 bash Options 955

Table 14.10 The Built-in set Command Options (continued)

Shortcut
Name of Option Switch What It Does

posix Changes the default behavior to POSIX 1003.2.

verbose -v Turns on the verbose mode for debugging.

vi For command-line editing, uses the vi built-in editor.

xtrace -x Turns on the echo mode for debugging.

a. Option applies only to versions of bash 2.x.

14.11.3 The shopt Command and Options

The shopt (bash 2.x) command can also be used to turn shell options on and off. See
Table 14.11.

Table 14.11 The shopt Command Options

Option Meaning

cdable.vars If an argument to the cd built-in command is not a directory, it is assumed to

be the name of a variable whose value is the directory to change to.

cdspell Corrects minor errors in the spelling of a directory name in a cd command.

The errors checked for are transposed characters, a missing character, and a
character too many If a correction is found, the corrected path is printed, and
the command proceeds. Only used by interactive shells.

checkhash Bash checks that a command found in the hash table exists before trying to
execute it. If a hashed command no longer exists, a normal path search is
performed.

checkwinsize Bash checks the window size after each command and, if necessary updates
the values of LINES and COLUMNS.

cmdhi st Bash attempts to save all lines of a multiple-line command in the same history
entry This allows easy re-editing of multiline commands.

dotglob Bash includes filenames beginning with a dot (.) in the results of filename
expansion.

execfail A noninteractive shell will not exit if it cannot execute the file specified as an
argument to the exec built-in command. An interactive shell does not exit if
exec fails.

expancLaliases Aliases are expanded. Enabled by default.

956 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

Table 14.11 The shopt Command Options (continued)

Option Meaning

extglob The extended pattern matching features (regular expression metacharacters

derived from Korn shell for filename expansion) are enabled.

histappend The history list is appended to the file named by the value of the HISTFILE
variable when the shell exits, rather than overwriting the file.

histreedit If readline is being used, a user is given the opportunity to re-edit a failed
history substitution.

histverify If set, and readline is being used, the results of history substitution are not
immediately passed to the shell parser. Instead, the resulting line is loaded
into the readline editing buffer, allowing further modification.

hostcomplete If set, and readline is being used, bash will attempt to perform hostname
completion when a word containing an @ is being completed. Enabled by
default.

huponexit If set, bash will send SICHUP (hangup signal) to all jobs when an interactive
login shell exits.

interacti vecomments Allows a word beginning with # to cause that word and all remaining
characters on that line to be ignored in an interactive shell. Enabled by
default.

lithist If enabled, and the cmdhist option is enabled, multiline commands are saved
to the history with embedded newlines rather than using semicolon
separators where possible.

mailwarn If set, and a file that bash is checking for mail has been accessed since the last
time it was checked, the message The mail in mail file has been read is
displayed.

nocaseglob If set, bash matches filenames in a case-insensitive fashion when performing

filename expansion.

null glob If set, bash allows filename patterns that match no files to expand to a null
string, rather than themselves.

promptvars If set, prompt strings undergo variable and parameter expansion after being
expanded. Enabled by default.

restricted_shell The shell sets this option if it is started in restricted mode. The value may not
be changed. This is not reset when the startup files are executed, allowing the
startup files to discover whether or not a shell is restricted.

shift.verbose If this is set, the shift built-in prints an error message when the shift count
exceeds the number of positional parameters.
14.12 Shell Built-in Commands 957

Table 14.11 The shopt Command Options (continued)

Option Meaning

sourcepath If set, the source built-in uses the value of PATH to find the directory containing
the file supplied as an argument. Enabled by default.

source A synonym for dot (.).

14.12 Shell Built-in Commands

The shell has a number of commands that are built into its source code. Because the
commands are built-in, the shell doesn't have to locate them on disk, making execution
much faster. The help feature provided with bash gives you online help for any built-in
command. The built-in commands are listed in Table 14.12.

Table 14.12 Built-in Commands

Command What It Does

■ Executes program in context of current process; same as source.

.file The dot command reads and executes command from file.

■ Do-nothing command; returns 0 exit status.

alias Lists and creates "nicknames" for existing commands.

bg Puts a job in the background.

bind Displays current key and function bindings, or binds keys to a readline
function or macro.a

break Breaks out of the innermost loop.

break [n] See "The break Command" on page 919.

builtin [sh-builtin [args]] Runs a shell built-in, passing it args, and returning 0 exit status. Useful if
a function and built-in have the same name.a

cd [arg] Changes the directory to home if no arg or to value of arg.

command command [arg] Runs a command even if a function has the same name (i.e., bypasses
function lookup).3

continue [n] See "The conti nue Command" on page 920.

declare [var] Displays all variables or declares variables with optional attributes.3

dirs Displays a list of currently remembered directories resulting from pushd.

958 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

Table 14.12 Built-in Commands (continued)

Command What It Does

disown Removes an active job from the job table,

echo [args] Displays args terminated with a newline.

enable Enables and disables shell built-in commands.a

eval [args] Reads args as input to the shell and executes the resulting command(s).

exec command Runs command in place of this shell.

exit [n] Exits the shell with status n.

export [var] Makes var known to subshells.

fc Hi story's fix command for editing history commands.

fg Puts background job into foreground.

getopts Parses and processes command-line options.

hash Controls the internal hash table for quicker searches for commands.

help [command] Displays helpful info about built-in commands and, if command is
specified, detailed help about that built-in command.3

history Displays the history list with line numbers.

jobs Lists jobs put in the background.

kill [-signal process] Sends the signal to the PID number or job number of the process. Type
kill -1 for a list of signals.

let Used for evaluating arithmetic expressions and assigning results of

arithmetic calculations to variables.

local Used in functions to restrict the scope of variables to the function.

logout Exits the login shell.

popd Removes entries from the directory stack.

pushd Adds entries to the directory stack.

pwd Prints present working directory.

read [var] Reads line from standard input into variable var.

readonly [var] Makes variable var read-only. Cannot be reset.

return [n] Returns from a function where n is the exit value given to the return.
14.12 Shell Built-in Commands 959

Table 14.12 Built-in Commands (continued)

Command What It Does

set Sets options and positional parameters. See Table 14.2 on page 875.

shift [n] Shifts positional parameters to the left n times.

stop pid Halts execution of the process number PID.

suspend Stops execution of the current shell (but not if a login shell).

test Checks file types and evaluates conditional expressions.

times Prints accumulated user and system times for processes run from this shell.

trap [arg] [n] When shell receives signal n (0, 1, 2, or 15), executes arg.

type [command] Prints the type of command (e.g., pwd is a built-in shell command).

typeset Same as declare. Sets variables and gives them attributes.

ulimit Displays and sets process resource limits.

umask [octal digits] Sets user file creation mode mask for owner, group, and others.

unalias Unsets aliases.

unset [name] Unsets value of variable or function.

wait [pid#nl Waits for background process with PID number n and reports
termination status.

a. Option applies to bash 2.x and later.

LAB 54: bash SHELL FIRST SCRIPT

1. Write a script called greetme that will do the following:

a. Contain a comment section with your name, the name of this script, and the purpose of
this script.

b. Greet the user.

c. Print the date and the time.

d. Print a calendar for this month.

e. Print the name of your machine.

f. Print the name and release of this operating system (cat /etc/motd).

g. Print a list of all files in your parent directory.

h. Print all the processes root is running.

960 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

i. Print the value of the TERM, PATH, and HOME variables,

j. Print your disk usage (du).

k. Use the id command to print your group ID.

1. Print Please, could you loan me $50.00?

m. Tell the user Good-bye and the current hour (see man pages for the date command).

2. Make sure your script is executable,

chmod +x greetme

What was the first line of your script? Why do you need this line?

LAB 55: COMMAND-LINE ARGUMENTS

1. Write a script called rename that will take two arguments: the first argument is the name of
the original file and the second argument is the new name for the file.

If the user does not provide two arguments, a usage message will appear on the screen and
the script will exit. Here is an example of how the script works:

$ rename
Usage: rename oldfilename newfilename
$

$ rename filel fileZ

filel has been renamed file?
Here is a listing of the directory:
a file2
b file.bak

2. The following find command (SunOS) will list all files in the root partition that are larger
than 100K and that have been modified in the last week. (Check your man pages for the
correct find syntax on your system.)

find / -xdev -mtime -7 -size +200 -print

3. Write a script called bigfiles that will take two arguments: one will be the mtime and one the
size value. An appropriate error message will be sent to stderr if the user does not provide
two arguments.

4. If you have time, write a script called vib that creates backup files for vi. The backup files
will have the extension .bak appended to the original name.

LAB 56: GETTING USER INPUT

1. Write a script called nosy that will do the following:

a. Ask the user's full name—first, last, and middle name.

b. Greet the user by his or her first name.

c. Ask the user's year of birth and calculate his or her age (use expr).
14.12 Shell Built-in Commands 961

d. Ask the user's login name and print his or her user ID (from /etc/passwd).

e. Tell the user his or her home directory.

f. Show the user the processes he or she is running.

g. Tell the user the day of the week, and the current time in nonmilitary time. The output
should resemble

The day of the week is Tuesday and the current time is 04:07:38 PM.

2. Create a text file called datafile (unless this file has already been provided for you). Each
entry consists of fields separated by colons. The fields are as follows:

a. First and last name

b. Phone number

c. Address

d. Birth date

e. Salary

3. Create a script called lookup that will do the following:

a. Contain a comment section with the script name, your name, the date, and the reason
for writing this script. The reason for writing this script is to display datafile in sorted
order.

b. Sort datafile by last names.

c. Show the user the contents of datafile.

d. Tell the user the number of entries in the file.

4. Try the -x and -v options for debugging your script. How did you use these commands? How
do they differ?

LAB 57: CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS

1. Write a script called checking that will do the following:

a. Take a command-line argument, a user's login name.

b. Test to see if a command-line argument was provided.

c. Check to see if the user is in the /etc/passwd file. If so, will print

Found <user> in the /etc/passwd file.

Otherwise, will print

No such user on our system.

2. In the lookup script from Lab 56, ask the user if he or she would like to add an entry to
datafile. If the answer is yes or y:
962 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

a. Prompt the user for a new name, phone number, address, birth date, and salary. Each
item will be stored in a separate variable. You will provide the colons between the fields
and append the information to the datafile.

b. Sort the file by last names. Tell the user you added the entry, and show him or her the
line preceded by the line number.

LAB 58: CONDITIONALS AND FILE TESTING

1. Rewrite the checking script from Lab 57. After checking whether the named user is in the
/etc/passwd file, the program will check to see if the user is logged on. If so, the program will
print all the processes that are running; otherwise it will tell the user

<user> is not logged on.

2. Use the let command to evaluate a set of grades. The script will ask the user for his or her
numeric grade on an examination. (Use declare -i.) The script will test that the grade is
within the allowable range between 0 and 100. If not, the program will exit. If the grade is
within the range, the user's letter grade will be displayed (e.g., You received an A. Excellent!).
The range is as follows:

A (90-100) B (80-89) C (70-79) D (60-69) F (Below 60)

3. The lookup script from Lab 57 depends on datafile in order to run. In the lookup script, check
to see if the datafile exists and if it is readable and writable. Add a menu to the lookup script
to resemble the following:

[11 Add entry

[2] Delete entry
[3] View entry
[41 Exit

You already have the Add entry part of the script written. The Add entry routine should now
include code that will check to see if the name is already in the datafile and if it is, tell the
user so. If the name is not there, add the new entry.

Now write the code for the Delete entry, View entry, and Exit functions.

The Delete part of the script should first check to see if the entry exists before trying to
remove it. If it does, notify the user; otherwise, remove the entry and tell the user you
removed it. On exit, make sure that you use a digit to represent the appropriate exit status.

How do you check the exit status from the command line?

LAB 59: THE case STATEMENT

1. The ps command is different on BSD (Berkeley UNIX), System 5 (AT&T UNIX), and Linux.
On System 5, the command to list all processes is

ps -ef

On BSD UNIX, the command is

ps aux
14.12 Shell Built-in Commands 963

On Linux, the command is

ps -aux

Write a program called systype that will check for a number of different system types. The
cases to test for will be

A1X
Darwin (Mac OS X)
Free BSD
HP-UX
IRIX
Linux
OS
OSF1
SCO
SunOS (Solaris/SunOS)
ULTRIX

Solaris, HP-UX, SCO, and IRIX are AT&T-type systems. The rest are BSD-ish.

The version of UNIX you are using will be printed to stdout. The system name can be found
with the uname -s command or from the /etc/motd file.

2. Write a script called timegreet that will do the following:

a. Provide a comment section at the top of the script, with your name, the date, and the
purpose of the program.

b. Convert the following program to use the case command rather than if/elif.

#!/bin/bash
# Comment section
you=$LOCNAME
hour=$( date +%H )
echo "The time is: $( date +%T )"
if (( hour > 0 && hour < 12 ))
then
echo "Good morning, $you!"
elif (( hour == 12 ))
then
echo "Lunch time!"
elif (( hour > 12 && hour < 16 ))
then
echo "Good afternoon, $you!"
else
echo "Good night, Syou. Sweet dreams."
fi
964 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

LAB 60: LOOPS

Select one of the following:

1. Write a program called mchecker to check for new mail and write a message to the screen if
new mail has arrived.

a. The program will get the size of the mail spool file for the user. (The spool files are
found in /usr/mail/SLOCNAME on AT&T systems; /usr/spool/mail/$USER on BSD and UCB
systems; and /var/spool/mail/JUSER on Linux. Use the find command if you cannot locate
the file.) The script will execute in a continuous loop, once every 30 seconds. Each
time the loop executes, it will compare the size of the mail spool file with its size from
the previous loop. If the new size is greater than the old size, a message will be printed
on your screen, saying Username, You have new mail.

The size of a file can be found by looking at the output from Is -1, wc -c or from the find
command.

2. Write a script that will do the following;

a. Provide a comment section at the top of the script, with your name, the date, and the
purpose of the program.

b. Use the select loop to produce a menu of foods.

c. Produce output to resemble the following:

1) steak and potatoes

2) fish and chips

3) soup and salad

Please make a selection. 1

Stick to your ribs.

Watch your cholesterol.

Enjoy your meal.

1) steak and potatoes

2) fish and chips

3) soup and salad

Please make a selection. 2

British are coming!

Enjoy your meal.

1) steak and potatoes
2) fish and chips

3) soup and salad

Please make a selection. 3
Health foods...

Dieting is so boring.

Enjoy your meal.

14.12 Shell Built-in Commands 965

3. Write a program called dusage that will mail a list of users, one at a time, a listing of the
number of blocks they are currently using. The list of users will be in a file called
potential _hogs. One of the users listed in the potential Jogs file will be admin.

a. Use file testing to check that the potential_hogs file exists and is readable.

b. A loop will be used to iterate through the list of users. Only those users who are using
over 500 blocks will be sent mail. The user admin will be skipped over (i.e., he or she
does not get a mail message). The mail message will be stored in a here document in your
dusage script.

c. Keep a list of the names of each person who received mail. Do this by creating a log file.
After everyone on the list has been sent mail, print the number of people who received
mail and a list of their names.

LAB 61: FUNCTIONS

1. Rewrite the systype program from Lab 59 as a function that returns the name of the system.
Use this function to determine what options you will use with the ps command in the
checking program.

The ps command to list all processes on AT&T UNIX is

ps -ef

On UNIX/BSD UNIX/Linux, the command is

ps -aux or ps aux9

2. Write a function called cleanup that will remove all temporary files and exit the script. If the
interrupt or hangup signal is sent while the program is running, the trap command will call
the cleanup function.

3. Use a here document to add a new menu item to the lookup script to resemble the following:

[11 Add entry

[2] Delete entry
[3] Change entry
[4] View entry
[5] Exit

Write a function to handle each of the items in the menu. After the user has selected a valid
entry, and the function has completed, ask if the user would like to see the menu again. If an
invalid entry is entered, the program should print

Invalid entry, try again,

and the menu will be redisplayed.

9. Using the leading dash with UNIX will produce a warning. See the man page. Without the leading dash,
Linux displays only user's processes.
966 Chapter 14 • Programming the Bash Shell

4. Create a submenu under View entry in the lookup script. The user will be asked if he or she
would like to view specific information for a selected individual:

a) Phone
b) Address
c) Birth date
d) Salary

5. Use the trap command in a script to perform a cleanup operation if the interrupt signal is
sent while the program is running.
chapter

Debugging

Shell Scripts

15.1 Introduction

Programmers often spend more time debugging programs than writing them. Because
many shell programs perform tasks that can affect the entire operating system, making
sure those scripts perform properly is imperative. Whether you are a user or a system
administrator writing scripts to automate simple or complex tasks, you want your script
to do what you want it to do, and not cause weird and unexpected surprises even after
all the syntax errors have been weeded out. The expression "If it ain't broke, don't fix it"
is often ignored when you are thinking of ways to "improve" a script that is already
working. Perhaps you think your script should be a little more user-friendly, might need
some cosmetic surgery, or a little more error checking. Or you might even be cleaning
up some other programmer's code. So, you put the script back in the editor, type, type,
type, exit the editor, and run the program. Whoops! It's broken! @<!@%5#!>!! This
chapter aims to provide an invaluable tool for finding, fixing, and understanding many
types of errors that cause shell scripts to misbehave and leave you frustrated, wasting a
lot of time that you probably don't have.

15.2 Style Issues

Although it is not required, style can make all the difference in how quickly you find
bugs in your program. Here are some simple guidelines:

• Put comments in your program so that you and others know what you are trying
to do. A cute little trick today may be an time-consuming enigma tomorrow.
• Define variables with meaningful names and put them at the top of the program to
help detect spelling errors and null values. Names like fool, foo2, and fooB really
don't say much. Check that you are not using reserved words and pay attention to
case sensitivity.

967
968 Chapter 15 • Debugging Shell Scripts

• Whenever you use a conditional or looping command, indent the statement block
that follows, at least one tab stop. If conditions or loops are nested, indent further.
Align ending keywords with conditional and looping commands such as if and
endif, if and fi, while, done, and so on. (See "Missing Keywords" on page 976 and
"Indentation" on page 976.)
• Use the echo command in areas where you keep getting a syntax error, or turn on
the echoing and verbose switches to trace your program's execution. (See "Tracing
with Shell Options and the set Command" on page 1009.)
• Logic errors can be a source for hidden glitches in your program, even if the pro-
gram runs without error. Know your operators. They vary from shell to shell and
are often a cause for a logic error.
• Make your program robust—check for all possibilities of human error, such as bad
input, insufficient arguments, nonexistent files, and the like. (See "Logic Errors
and Robustness" on page 1001.)
• Keep things short and simple when testing. For example, if you are using a func-
tion, test the syntax, and then try it with a small script to see if you are getting what
you want.
• Know your operating system commands. Because most statements consist of
UNIX/Linux commands, go to the command line and try the command before
using it in a script if you are not sure about how it behaves. Do you understand its
exit code, how variables are being interpreted, how to use quotes properly, how to
redirect output and errors?
• Last, if you are a system administrator, test your script carefully before taking it to
the system level. An unexpected error could bring a whole system to its knees.

The following guidelines will help you with all of these issues and give you a list of the
most common syntax errors for each shell, what caused it, and how to fix it.

15.3 Types of Errors

There are several types of errors you will experience in shell programs: runtime errors,
logical errors, and errors that could have been prevented by making the program robust.
Runtime errors occur when the script starts running and encounters the use of a bad
script name, permission issues, path problems, or syntactical errors such as mismatched
quotes or mispelled words. The shell will report some diagnostic message if you have
this type of error and normally abort the program. Logical errors are are often harder to
find, because they are not obvious, and involve problems in the way in which the pro-
gram was constructed, such as using the wrong operator in an expression, not knowing
the exit status of a command, or using faulty logic in branching or looping statements.
Other errors involve lack of robustness, that is, errors that could have been avoided with
proper error checking, such as not anticipating bad user input or insufficient arguments,
and so forth.
15.3 Types of Errors 969

15.3.1 Runtime Errors

Runtime errors occur when the script starts running and encounters use of a bad script
name, permission issues, path problems, or syntactical errors, such as mismatched
quotes or mispelled words.

15.3.2 Naming Conventions

When you type a command at the shell prompt, the shell searches the UNIX/Linux path
to find that command. When you type your script name at the prompt, it is treated as
any other command—the shell searches the path to find it. But suppose you name a
script with the same name as some other UNIX command. Suppose, for example, you
name your program "Is". Which Is will be executed? It depends on which Is is found in
the path first, and most likely the UNIX command will be executed instead of your
script. Although it seems obvious to avoid calling your script Is or cat, it is less obvious
with more obscure commands such as test or script. For example, because the UNIX
test command produces no output, realizing that a naming problem exists can be tricky.
The UNIX scri pt command starts up another interactive shell, which copies your session
at the terminal into a typescript file. It is not obvious that another shell has started run-
ning and may take some time before you realize something is really wrong. So avoid
using test and script as filenames just as you would avoid using cat or Is.
One way to see if you have named a script after a UNIX/Linux command is to use the
whi ch command. It will show you the path where the named program is found. See Exam-
ple 15.1. You can also start the script with a leading ./; then the script will run in your
current working directory.

EXAMPLE 15.1

1 $ cat test
#! /bin/sh
echo "She sells C shells on the C shore"
2 $ test
$ (no output)
3 $ echo $PATH
/usr/b in:/b in:/us r/I oca 1/b in:/us r/XllR6/bin:/home/e11ie/bin:.
4 $ which test
/us r/bin/test
5 $ mv test mytest
6 $ mytest
She sells C shells on the C shore

EXPLANATION

l Notice that the script name is test, which is also a UNIX/Linux command name.

2 When the user tries to run the script, called test, the UNIX/Linux command runs
instead. The UNIX test command produces no output.
970 Chapter 15 • Debugging Shell Scripts

EXPLANATION (continued)

3 The user's search path is displayed. The first path that will be searched is /usr/bin.
The dot at the end of the path represents the user's current working directory.

4 The whi ch command locates the test command and displays its full pathname. The
UNIX/Linux test command is in /usr/bin/test.

5,6 If the script called test is given a unique name, and not a UNIX/Linux command
name, it should run as expected. The test script is renamed mytest.

15.3.3 Insufficient Permissions

Ordinary files do not have execute permission. If a script is run directly from the com-
mand line, it must have execute permission turned on, or the shell will tell you that you
have insufficient permission. Scripts are made executable with the chmod command.

EXAMPLE 15.2

1 $ mytest
sh: ./mytest: Permission denied.
2 $ Is -1 mytest
-rw-rw-r— 1 ellie ellie 23 Jan 22 12:37 mytest
3 $ chmod +x mytest # or chmod 755 mytest
4 $ Is -1 mytest
-rwxrwxr-x 1 ellie ellie 23 Jan 22 12:37 mytest
5 $ mytest
She sells C shells on the C shore

EXPLANATION

1 When the script is executed, an error message is displayed indicating that the
script does not have the proper permission to run.

2 The Is -1 command shows that the script does not have execute permission for
anyone, including the owner of the script.

3 The chmod command adds execute permission (+x) for everyone. Now the script
should run.

4 The Is -1 command displays the new permissions. Execute permission is turned

on.

5 The script executes as expected.

15.3.4 Path Problems

As we mentioned before, when you type the name of a shell script on the command line,
the shell will check the directories listed in the search PATH variable to locate your script.
If the dot directory is listed in the path, the shell will look in the current working direc-
tory for your script. If the script is there, it will be executed. However, if the dot is not
15.3 Types of Errors 971

in your path, you will receive an error message: Command not found. To enable the shell to
locate your script, you can add the dot (.) directory to your PATH. However, if you have
a superuser account (an account with UID of 0), it is recommended, for security reasons,
that you do not include a dot in the search path. There are two alternative solutions if
you choose not to put the dot in your PATH variable:

1. Explicitly indicate the location of your script by preceding the script name with
./ (e.g., ./mytest).
2. Precede the script name with the name of the invoking shell (e.g., csh mytest or
bash mytest).

When the script name is given as an argument to the shell, the shell automatically
checks the current directory for the script name.

EXAMPLE 15.3

i $ cat mytest
#!/bin/sh
echo "Users may wish to include the . directory in their PATH"
2 $ echo $PATH
/usr/b in :/b in:/us r/I oca 1/b in :/usr/XllR6/b in:/home/e 7 7 ie/bin:
3 $ mytest
not found
4 S ./mytest # this is one possible solution
Users may wish to include the . directory in their PATH
5 $ PATH=$PATH:. # this solution should only be used by non-root
$ export PATH # bash, sh, ksh set PATH this way
% setenv PATH ${PATH}:. # csh/tcsh set path this way
6 $ mytest
Users may wish to include the . directory in their PATH

EXPLANATION

1 The Bourne shell script is displayed. It is located in the user's current working
directory.

2 The PATH variable does not contain a dot, which represents the current working
directory.

3 The shell cannot locate the mytest script.

4 The shell is now able to locate the script because the directory (the .) is included
with the script name.

5 The PATH is updated to include the current directory. The first syntax can be used
for sh/ksh/bash shells, the second for csh/tcsh.

6 The script now runs correctly.

972 Chapter 15 • Debugging Shell Scripts

15.3.5 The Shbang Line

When you create a script, the first line of the script is normally the shbang (#!) line.
When the script is started, the UNIX kernel examines the first line of the file to deter-
mine what type of program is to be executed. The path that follows the shbang notation
(#!) is the location of the shell that will be invoked to interpret this script. The #! char-
acters must be the first two characters in the file for this feature to operate properly. If
you have a blank line or blank space at the top of your file, this feature will be ignored
and the line will be interpreted as an ordinary comment line.

EXAMPLE 15.4

(The Script)
11

2 #!/bin/csh
# Scriptname: shbang. test
3 setenv MYVAR 18
echo "The value of MYVAR is SMYVAR

(The Output)
./shbang. test: line 3: setenv: command not found
The value of MYVAR is

(The Script)
4 #!/bin/csh
setenv MYVAR 18
echo "The value of MYVAR is SMYVAR

(The Output)
The value of MYVAR is 18

EXPLANATION

l Notice that this script has a blank line at the top. Also note that the script was
written for the C shell. The setenv command on line 3 will not work in the Bourne,
Korn, or Bash shells.

2,3 Because the #! line is not the first line of the script, the script will be executed by
the user's login shell. If the login shell is ksh, the Korn shell will execute the script;
if bash, the Bash shell will execute the script. If, however, the user's login shell is
C shell, this script will be executed by the Bourne shell. The error message is dis-
played because the Bourne shell doesn't understand the setenv command.

4 The script now runs correctly because the #! notation has been entered on the top
line. The kernel will recognize the #! and start up the shell listed in the path that
follows. Because the shell is /bin/csh, the C shell will be the interpreter for this
script (provided that the execute permissions are turned on). The setenv com-
mand is understood by the C shell.
15.3 Types of Errors 973

EXAMPLE 15.5

l #! /bin/chs
echo "Watch out for typing errors on the #! line"
2 $ ./mytest
mytest: Command not found.

3 #! /bin/csh
echo "Watch out for typing errors on the #! line"
4 ./my test
Match out for typing errors on the #! line

EXPLANATION

l The shbang line has a typing error in the shell name. The shell should be /bin/csh
instead of /bin/chs. Misspelling on the shbang line is a very common error!

2 Because of the typing error, the kernel looks for the /bin/chs program, causing the
Command not found error message. This message can be misleading, causing you to
think that the script itself or a command typed in the script cannot be found. If
the only error you get is Command not found, first check the shbang line for spelling.

3 The spelling of the shell is corrected on the shbang line.

4 The script now runs correctly.

15.3.6 Sneaky Aliases

An alias is an abbreviation or an alternative name for a command. Aliases are not sup-
ported by the Bourne shell. Aliases are usually put in an initialization file and used as
shortcuts at the command line, but are not readily used in shell scripts. However, they
may find their way into a script if the user's .cshrc or .kshrc defines an alias and does not
limit the aliases to interactive shell sessions.

EXAMPLE 15.6

(In the .cshrc File)

1 alias Is 'Is -aF'

(At the shell prompt)

2 $ Is
./ a c tl ts
../ b t* t2 tester*

(The Script)
#!/bin/csh
3 foreach i ( "Is" )
4 echo $i
end
974 Chapter 15 • Debugging Shell Scripts

EXAMPLE 15.6 (continued)

(Output)
./

a
b
c
t tl t2 t3 tester <— What happened here?
tl
t2
tS
tester

Possible Fix

5 #!/bin/csh -f <— Add the -f option to the shbang line

6 unalias Is <— turn off the alias

EXPLANATION

1 In the user's .cshrc initialization file, an alias has been defined. Normally the .cshrc
file is started up any time you invoke a C shell, including a C shell script. Many
generic .cshrc files define aliases after the expression:

if ( $?proinpt ) then
< aliases listed here >
endif

This means; If you are running an interactive shell, that is, a shell that produces
a prompt, then you can use the aliases. Because shell scripts are noninteractive
and do not have a prompt, they would not able to use the aliases. (Often aliases
are also stored in a file called .aliases and are sourced in the .cshrc file, .kshrc file,
.bashrc file, or .tcshrc file.)

2 When the user types Is at the prompt, the alias is used. It causes Is -aF to be exe-
cuted. The -F switch lists files with a * appended to executable files, a / appended
to directories, and an @ appended to symbolic links. The -a switch causes invisible
files to be printed (i.e., those files starting with a period).

3 In the shell script, the 1 s command is executed in the foreach expression. The shell
will evaluate the alias, causing the Is -aF command to list the files in the format
described above, something the unsuspecting programmer may not realize. Each
executable file is appended with a *, which the shell will treat as a globbing meta-
character and start matching on filenames. Because the file called t is an execut-
able file, it will be listed as t*, causing the shell to match all files starting with a t.

4 All the files are listed using the alias.

15.4 Probable Causes for Syntax Errors 975

EXPLANATION (continued)

5 One solution to this problem is to add the -f option to /bi n/csh in the shbang line.
Often called a fast startup, the -f switch tells the shell not to load the .cshrc file
when it starts the script. For ksh the shbang line would be #!/bin/ksh -p and for bash
it would be #!/bin/bash --noprofile.

15.4 Probable Causes for Syntax Errors

15.4.1 Undefined and Misspelled Variables

As you know, the shells do not require variables to be declared. When a variable name
is used in a program, the variable is created automatically. Although this may seem more
convenient than having to declare every variable explicitly, there is an unfortunate con-
sequence; An inadvertent spelling error might introduce an extra variable that you had
no intention of creating. And because UNIX/Linux is case sensitive, even changing from
uppercase to lowercase can cause a program to fail.
When setting a variable in the C/TC shells, the set command is used, and the = sign
must be surrounded with space (or no space at all). The set command in bash, sh, and
ksh is used to set shell options or create positional parameters, but is not used to define
variables. Space is not allowed on either side of the = sign. When switching from one
shell to another, it is easy to forget when to use set and when to use or not use spaces.
The C and TC shells will tell you when you are using an undefined variable. The
Bourne, Bash, and Korn shells display a blank line, unless you request error checking
with the set -u or the shell's -u invocation option. The -u option flags any variables that
have not been defined, called unbound variables.
In the Bourne, Korn, and Bash shells, a variable is set as follows:

x=5
name=]ohn
friend="]ohn Doe"
eiiipty= or 61^7=""

To check for undefined variables;

set -u
echo "Hi Sfirstname"

(Output)
ksh: firstname: parameter not set
976 Chapter 15 • Debugging Shell Scripts

In the C and TC shells:

set x = 5
set name = John
set friend = "John Doe"
set empty = ""

The shell checks for undefined variables:

echo "Hi Sfirstname"

(Output)
firstname: Undefined variable

EXAMPLE 15.7

#!/bin/tcsh
1 set friendl = "George"
set friendZ = "Jake"
set friend4 = "Danny"
2 echo "Welcome SfriendB "

(Output)
3 friendS: Undefined variable.

EXPLANATION

1 Three variables are set. When variables are so similar in thier names, it is easy to
mistype one of them later in the program.

2 The variable friendB was never defined.

3 The C and TC shells send an error to let you know that you have an undefined
variable. The Bourne, Korn, and Bash shells leave a blank line.

15.4.2 Incomplete Programming Statements

Missing Keywords. When using a programming statement such as an if statement

or while loop, you may accidentally omit part of the statement. For example, you may
forget to complete your while loop with the done keyword. Whenever you see an error
message concerning unexpected end of file, or if the message points to the line number
one past the last (e.g., your script contains 10 lines and the error message refers to line
11), you should check for incomplete programming statements.

Indentation. An easy way to ensure that if/else, while/do/done, case statements, and
other contructs are complete is to indent the block of statements under each test expres-
sion (at least one tab stop), and move the terminating keyword (done, end, endsw, etc.) to
line up with the conditional or looping command that it terminates. This is an extremely
helpful technique when these constructs are nested.
15.4 Probable Causes for Syntax Errors 977

In sh, bash, ksh: In csh, tcsh:

if [ expression ] / if ( expression ) then

then I statement
statement V statement
statement ^ endif

if/end if Errors. See the following format for the correct way to set up your if/endif
construct with tab stops.

FORMAT

In Bourne, Korn, and Bash shells:

# Without indentation
if [ $ch = "a" ] # Use indentation
then
echo $ch
if [ $ch = "b" ] <— Missing 'then'
echo $ch
else
echo $ch
fi
<— Missing 'fi' for first 'if
Pix
# With indentation
if [ $ch = "a" ]
then
echo Sch
if [ $ch = "b" ]
then
echo Sch
else # 'else' goes with nearest 'if
echo Sch
fi
fi

In C and TC shells:

if ( Sch == "a" ) <-- Missing 'then'

echo Sch
if ( Sch == "b" ) then
echo Sch
else
echo Sch
endif
<— Missing 'endif for first 'if
978 Chapter 15 • Debugging Shell Scripts

FORMAT (continued)
Fix
if ( $ch == "a" ) then
echo Sch
if ( $ch == "b" ) then
echo Sch
else
echo Sch
endif
endif

case and switch Errors. There are a number of bugs often found in case and switch
commands. The variable that is being tested should be in double quotes if the variable
value consists of more than one word. Relational, logical, and equality operators are not
allowed in the case constants.

FORMAT

Case statements for the Bourne, Korn, and Bash shells:

case Scolor in <— Variable should be quoted

blue)
statements
statements <— Missing ;;
red || orange) <— Logical // not allowed
statements
>J
*) statements
JJ
<— Missing esac
jhe Fix
case "Scolor" in
blue )
statement
statement
jj
red | orange )
statements
JJ
*)
statements

esac
15.4 Probable Causes for Syntax Errors 979

FORMAT (continued)

Switch statements for C and TC shells:

switch ($color) <— Variable should be quoted

case blue:
statements
statements <— Missing breaksw
case red || orange: <— Logical operator not allowed
statements
breaksw
default:
statements
breaksw
<— Missing endsw
Thp
MIC 1Fi1 y
A
switch ("Scolor")
case blue:
statements
statements
breaksw
case red:
case orange:
statements
breaksw
default:
statements
breaksw
endsw

Looping Errors. A looping error occurs when the syntax of a for, foreach, while, or
unti 1 loop is incorrect, most commonly when one of the keywords used to terminate the
looping block is omitted, such as do, done, or end.

FORMAT

Bourne shell-

while [ $n -It 10 ] <-- Missing do keyword

echo $n
n=,expr $n + T
done

while [ $n -It 10 ]
do
echo $n
n=,expr $n + T
<— Missing done keyword
980 Chapter 15 • Debugging Shell Scripts

FORMAT (continued)
The Fix
while [ $n -It 10 ]
do
echo $n
n=,expr $n + 1'
done

Loops for Bash and Korn shells:

while (( $n <= 10 )) <— Missing do keyword

echo Sn
(( n+=l ))
done

while (( $n <= 10 ))
do
echo $n
(( n+=l ))
<— Missing done keyword
jhe Fix

while (( $n <= 10 ))
do
echo $n
(( n+=l ))
done

Loops for the C and TC shells:

while ( $n <= 10 )
echo $n
@n+=l <— Missing space after the & symbol
<— Missing end keyword
foreach ( a b c ) <— Missing variable after foreach
echo Schar
end
jhe Fix

while ( $n <= 10 )
echo $n
@ n+=l
end

foreach char ( a b c )
echo Schar
end
15.4 Probable Causes for Syntax Errors 981

Operator Errors. The shells use different operators for manipulating strings and
numbers. The Bourne shell uses the test command (see man test) and its operators for
comparing numbers and strings. Although these operators will work with Korn and
Bash shells, normally they are not used. Instead, the Korn and Bash shells provide a set
of C-like operators to handle arithmetic with the let command (( )) and string operators
to be used with the new test command [ [ ] ]. But the Korn shell does not use the double
== sign for equality, whereas the Bash shell does.
The C and TC shells also provide a set of C-like operators for comparing numbers
and strings, and use the == for both numbers and strings. Confusing? If you are porting
shell scripts, it might be a good idea to check the operators for each shell. They are pro-
vided in tables for each shell in this book. (See Appendix B.) The following examples
illustrate some of the operators for each shell.

FORMAT

Bourne shell:

Numeric testing
if [ $n -It 10 ]
if [ $n -gt $y ]
if [ Sn -eq 6 ]
if [ Sn -ne 6
String testing
if [ "Sname" = "John" ]
if [ "Sname" != "John" ]

Korn shell-

Numeric testing
if (( n < 10 ))
if {( n > y ))
if (( n == 6 ))
if (( n != 6 ))
String testing
if [[ Sname = "John" ]]
if [[ Sname != "John" ]]

Bash shell:

Numeric testing
if (( n < 10 ))
if (( n > y ))
if (( n == 6 ))
if (( n != 6 ))
String testing
if [[ Sn == "John" ]]
if [[ Sn != "John" ]]
982 Chapter 15 • Debugging Shell Scripts

FORMAT (continued)

C and TC shells:

Numeric testing
if ( Sn < 10 )
if ( $n > $y )
if { n == 6 ))
if { n != 6 )

String testing
if ( "Sname" == "John" )
if ( "Sname" != "John" )

Misusing an Operator. The following examples illustrate the most common causes
of misused operators.

EXAMPLE 15.8

(sh)
1 n=5; name="Tom"
2 if [ $n > 0 ] # Should be: if [ $n -gt 0 ]
then
3 if [ $n == 5 ] # Should be: if [ $n -eq 5 ]
then
4 n++ # Should be: n=,expr $n + T
5 if [ "$name" == "Tom" ] # Should be: if [ Sname = "Tom" ]

(csh/tcsh)
set n = 5; set name = "Tom"
6 if ( $n =< 5 ) then # Should be: if ( $n <= 5 ) then
7 if ( $n == 5 && < 6 ) then # Should be: if ( $n == 5 && Sn < 6)
8 if ( Sname == [Tt]om ) then # Should be: if (Sname ==~ [Tt]om )

(ksh)
name="Tom"
n=5
9 if [ Sname == [Tt]om ] # Should be: if [[ Sname == [Ttjom ]]a
10 [[ n+=5 ]] # Should be: (( n+=5 ))

a. On versions of ksh newer than ksh88, the == is okay; earlier version must use a single = sign.

EXPLANATION

1 In the Bourne shell, the variable n is assigned 5.

2 The [ bracket is a symbol for the test command. The test command does not use
> for greater than, but instead, uses -gt for the relational operator.
15.4 Probable Causes for Syntax Errors 983

EXPLANATION (continued)

3 The double equal sign is not a valid equality operator for the test command. The
operator that should be used is -eq.

4 The Bourne shell does not support arithmetic operations.

5 The test command does not use == for equality testing; it uses a single = for string
testing and -eq for numeric testing.

6 The csh/tcsh relational operator should be <=. Misusing relational operators causes
a syntax error in all shells.

7 The expression on the right-hand side of the logical && is incomplete.

8 The csh/tcsh shells use =~ when evaluating strings containing wildcards. The error
in this example would be No match.

9 The single bracket type of testing does not support the == sign. Bash and ksh use the
[ [ test command to test expressions containing wildcards. The double equal sign,
rather than the single equal sign, is used for testing string equality (Only versions
of ksh newer than ksh88 support the == sign. Earlier versions require the single =
for string testing.)

10 The [[ test command is used with string expressions; the ((let command is used
for numeric expressions.

Quoting Errors. Misused quotes are such a common cause for error in shell scripts
that a whole section has been devoted to quoting. (See "What You Should Know About
Quotes" on page 985.) Quotes are often called the "bane of shell programmers" or the
"quotes from hell." There are three types of quotes: single quotes, double quotes, and
backquotes. Single and double quotes surround strings of text to protect certain charac-
ters from interpretation, whereas backquotes are used for command substitution. Al-
though we have discussed quotes in previous chapters, the next few sections will focus
on how to use them properly to avoid errors.

Quoting Metacharacters. A problem directly related to quoting is the misuse of

metacharacters. We've already discussed two kinds of metacharacters: shell metacharac-
ters and regular expression metacharacters used with vi, grep, sed, awk, and utility pro-
grams other than the shell. (See Chapter 3, "Regular Expressions and Pattern Matching,"
on page 67.) Unquoted metacharacters will be interpreted by the shell to mean file match-
ing, and unquoted regular expression metacharacters may cause programs like grep, sed,
and nawk to break down. In the following example, the * is used by grep to represent zero
or more of the letter "b" and the * is used by the shell to match all filenames starting with
an "f. The shell always evaluates the command line before executing the command.
Because grep's * is not quoted, the shell will try to evaluate it, causing an error.

grep ab*c f*

To fix the problem, quotes are used:

grep 'abc1 f*
984 Chapter 15 • Debugging Shell Scripts

Now when the shell parses the command line, it will not evaluate the characters
within the quotes.
Quotes must be matched. Most shells will send an error message when they realize
that there are unmatched quotes. The Bourne shell, on the other hand, parses an entire
script file before reporting a problem, which is usually "unexpected end of file," hardly
a big help when the same error message is displayed for a number of other problems.
In order to really achieve expertise in shell scripting, it is imperative to get a good
understanding of the quoting mechanism.

EXAMPLE 15.9

#! /bin/csh
1 echo I don't understand you. # Unmatched single quote

(Output)
2 Unmatched '

#! /bin/csh
3 echo Gotta light? # Unprotected wildcard

(Output)
4 echo: No match

#!/bin/csh
5 set name = "Steve"
6 echo 'Hello Sname.' # Variable not interpreted

(Output)
Hello Sname

EXPLANATION

l Quotes must be matched. The single quote in don't causes an error. To fix the
problem, the string can be enclosed in double quotes or the single quote can be
preceded by a backslash, as don\'t.

2 The C shell displays its error message for a mismatched single quote.

3 The shell metacharacter, ?, is used to match for single character filenames. There
is not a file in the directory spelled light and followed by a single character.

4 The C shell complains that there is No match for that metacharacter. To fix the prob-
lem, the string should be enclosed in either single or double quotes or the ques-
tion mark should be preceded by a backslash, as 'Gotta light?' or light\?

5 The string "Steve" is assigned to a variable.

6 The string is enclosed in single quotes. The characters within the single quotes are
treated literally (i.e., the variable will not be interpreted). To fix the problem, the
string should be enclosed in double qutoes or no quotes at all, as "Hello Sname."
15.4 Probable Causes for Syntax Errors 985

What You Should Know About Quotes. Quotes are so inherently part of
shell scripting that this section is provided to clarify their use in all the shells. If you are
regularly getting quoting syntax errors, study this section to be sure you know how to
use them, especially if your script contains commands like grep, sed, and awk.

The Backslash

1. Precedes a character and escapes that character

2. Same as putting single quotes around one character

Single Quotes

1. Must be matched
2. Protect all metacharacters from interpretation except the following:
a. Itself
b. Exclamation point (csh only)
c. Backslash

Table 15.1 Proper Single Quoting Examples

C/TC Shells Bourne/Bash Shells Korn Shell

echo '$*&><?' echo '$*&!><?' print '$>v&!><?'

$■■■&><? $*&!><? $*&!><?

(C) echo 'I need $5.00\!' echo 'I need $5.00!' print 'I need $5.00!'
I need $5.00! I need $5.00!

(TC) echo 'I need $5.00!'

echo 'She cried, "Help"' echo 'She cried,"Help"' print 'She cried, "Help"'
She cried, "Help" She cried, "Help" She cried, "Help"

echo 'WW echo '\\\\' print 'WW

\\\\ (Bourne) \\ W
(Bash) WW

Double Quotes

1. Must be matched
2. Protect all metacharacters from interpretation except the following;
a. Itself
b. Exclamation point (csh only)
c. $ used for variable substitution
d. " ' Backquotes for command substitution
986 Chapter 15 • Debugging Shell Scripts

Table 15.2 Proper Double Quoting Examples

C Shell Bourne Shell Korn Shell

echo "Hello $L0GNAME\!" echo "Hello $L0GNAME!" print "Hello SLOGNAME!"

echo "I don't care" echo "I don't care" print "I don't care"

echo "The date is 'date'" echo "The date is 'date'" print "The date is $(date)"

echo "\\\\" echo "\\\\" print "\\\\"

\\\\ \ \

Backquotes

Backquotes are used in shell programs for command substitution. They are unrelated to
single and double quotes, but often the source of problems. For example, when copying
a shell script, if the backquotes are replaced with single quotes (merely by misreading
the code), the program will no longer work.1

EXAMPLE 15.10

#!/bin/sh
1 now=,date'
2 echo Today is Snow
3 echo "You have 'ls|wc -11 files in this directory"
4 echo 'You have dslwc -V files in this directory'

(Output)
2 Today is Mon Jul 5 10:24:06 PST 2004
3 You have 33 files in this directory
4 You have Isjwc -V files in this directory

EXPLANATION

l The variable now is assigned to the output of the UNIX/Linux date command. (For
the T/TC shell: set now = "datek) The backquotes cause command substitution.
The backquote is normally found under the tilde (~) on your keyboard.

2 The value of variable now is displayed with the current date.

3 The backquotes surround a UNIX/Linux pipe. The output of Is is piped to wc -1.

The result is to count the number of files listed in this directory. Double quotes
around the string will not interfere with command substitution. The output is em-
bedded in the string and printed.

4 By enclosing the string in single quotes, the backquotes are not interpreted, but
treated as literal characters.

1. In the production of this type of book, it is very easy to mistake backquotes for single quotes!
15.4 Probable Causes for Syntax Errors 987

Combining Quotes

Combining quotes can be a major trick. This next section will guide you through the
steps for successfull quoting. We will demonstrate how to embed a shell variable in the
awk command line and have the shell expand the variable without interfering with awk's
field designators, $1 and $2.

Setting the Shell Variable

name=,,Jacob Savage" (Bourne and Korn shells)

set name = "Jacob Savage" (C shell)

(The line from the datafile)

Jacob Savage:408-298-7732:934 La Barbara Dr. , San Jose, CA:02/27/78;500000

(The nawk command line)

nawk -F: '$1 ~ /A,"$natneM,/{pnnt $2}' datafile

(Output)
408-298-7732

Try this example:

1. Test your knowledge of the UNIX/Linux command at the command line before
plugging in any shell variables.

nawk -F: '$1 ~ /AJacob Savage/{print $2}' filename

(Output)
408-298-7732

2. Plug in the shell variable without changing anything else. Leave all quotes as
they were.

nawk -F: 'Si ~ /A$name/{print $2}' datafile

Starting at the left-hand side of the awk command leave the first quote as is; right
before the shell dollar sign in Sname, place another single quote. Now the first
quote is matched and all text within these two quotes is protected from shell
interference. The variable is exposed. Now put another single quote right after
the e in Sname. This starts another matched set of single quotes ending after awk's
closing curly brace. Everything within this set of quotes is also protected from
shell interpretation.
988 Chapter 15 • Debugging Shell Scripts

3. Enclose the shell variable in a set of double quotes. This allows the variable to
be expanded but the value of the variable will be treated as single string if it
contains whitespace. The whitespace must be protected so that the command
line is parsed properly.

nawk -F: '$1 ~ /A",Snaitie",/{pf,int $2}' datafile

Count the number of quotes. There should be an even number of single quotes
and an even number of double quotes.

Here's another example:

oldnaine="Ellie Main"
newname="Eleanor Quigley"

1. Make sure the command works.

nawk -F: '/^llie Main/{$l="Eleanor Quigley"; print $0}' datafile

2. Plug in the variables.

,
nawk -F: /ASoldname/{$l="$newname"; print $0}' datafile

3. Play the quoting game. Starting at the first single quote at the left, move across
the line until you come to the variable Soldname and place another single quote
just before the dollar sign. Put another single quote right after the last letter in
the variable name.
Now move to the right and place another single quote right before the dol-
lar sign in Snewname. Put another single quote after the last character in Snewname.

nawk -F: '/A'SoldnameVlSH"'Snewname"1; print $0}' datafile

4. Count the number of single quotes. If the number of single quotes is an even
number, each quote has a matching quote. If not, you have forgotten a step.

5. Enclose each of the shell variables in double quotes. The double quotes are
placed snugly around the shell variable.

nawk -F: '^'"Soldname"V{$l="",$newnatne"",; print $0}' datafile

15.4 Probable Causes for Syntax Errors 989

Problems with the here document. The here document, used primarily for creating
menus in shell scripts, is often a source of error. The problem is usually found with the
user-defined terminator that ends the here document. There can be no space around the
terminator. All shells are strict about this rule, although the Bourne, Bash, and Korn
shells allow you to use tabs under certain conditions. See the following example.

EXAMPLE I5.ll

#! /bin/ksh
print "Do you want to see the menu?"
read answer
if [[ Sanswer = y ]]
then
1 cat « EOF <-- No space after user-defined terminator
1) Steak and eggs
2) Fruit and yogurt
3) Pie and icecream
2 EOF <— User-defined terminator cannot
have spaces surrounding it
print "Pick one "
read choice
case "Schoice" in
1) print "Cholesterol"
JJ
2) print "Dieter"
>J
3) print "Sweet tooth"
JJ
esac
else
print "Later alligator!"
fi

(Output)
file: line 6: here document 'EOF' unclosed
or
file: line 6: syntax error: unexpected end of file (bash)

EXPLANATION

1 This is the start of a here document. The cat command is followed by « and a user-
defined terminator, in this case, EOF The lines following the terminator are used as
input to the cat command, producing a menu of choices on the screen. The input
stops when the terminator is reached on line 2.
990 Chapter 15 • Debugging Shell Scripts

EXPLANATION (continued)

2 The terminator on line 2 must exactly match the one on line 1 or the here document
will not end. In addition, the final terminator cannot be surrounded by any space.
The well-meaning programmer tried to indent the script for better readability but,
in this case indenting the EOF on line 2 causes a syntax error. The solution is to
move the terminating EOF to the far left-hand margin and make sure there is no
space surrounding it. The bash/ksh/sh shells allow one other fix, which is to put a
dash after the « symbol; cat «- EOF. This allows you to use tabs (and only tabs)
to indent the final terminator on line 2.

File-Testing Errors. If you are using external files in a script, it is best to check certain
properties of the files before using them, such as their existence, whether they are read-
able or writable, have any data, are a symbolic link, and so forth. The file tests are quite
similar for each shell, but the test for file existence varies. For example, the C, TC, and
Bash shells use the -e switch to check if a file exists, the Korn shell uses the -a switch,
and the Bourne shell uses the -f switch. With the exception of the TC shell, the file-test-
ing switches cannot be bound together, such as -rw for read and write. Instead a single
file-testing switch precedes the filename. An example of a C shell test for a readable,
writable, and executable file would be if (-r filename && -w filename && -x filename). An
example for a TC shell test would be if (-rwx filename).

Checking for File Existence in the Five Shells

The following error message was generated before file testing was performed in a script.
The file called db did not exist.

grep: db: cannot open [No such file or directory]

The following example demonstrates how to fix this problem for each of the five shells.

EXAMPLE 15.12

(csh/tcsh)
set filedb = db
if ( ! -e $filedb ) then
echo "Sfiledb does not exist"
exit 1
endif

(sh)
filedb=db
if [ ! -f $filedb ]
then
echo "Sfiledb does not exist"
exit 1
fi
15.4 Probable Causes for Syntax Errors 991

EXAMPLE 15.12 (continued)

(ksh)
filedb=db
if [[ ! -a $filedb ]]
then
print "$filedb does not exist"
exit 1
fi

(bash)
filedb=db
if [[ ! -e $filedb ]]
then
echo "Sfiledb does not exist"
exit 1
fi

15.4.3 Common Error Messages from the Big 5 Shells

There are a number of different types of syntax errors that will be reported by the shell
when you run a script. Each shell reports these errors by sending a message to standard
error, and the messages vary from shell to shell. The C shell, for example, is very ver-
bose, and reports errors such as unmatched quotes and undefined variables on the same
line where the error occurred, whereas the Bourne shell error messages are sparse and
quite cryptic. It is often very hard to debug a Bourne shell script because the error is not
reported at all until the script has been completely parsed, and when you get the error
message, it may not tell you anything to help you understand your erring ways.
Because each of the shells has its own style of error reporting, Tables 15.3 through
15.6 illustrate the most common syntax errors, the probable cause, what the error mes-
sage means, and a simple fix.
992 Chapter 15 Debugging Shell Scripts

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1000 Chapter 15 Debugging Shell Scripts

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15.4 Probable Causes for Syntax Errors 1001

15.4.4 Logic Errors and Robustness

Logic errors are hard to find because they do not necessarily cause an error message to
be displayed, but cause the program to behave in an unexpected way Such errors might
be the misuse of a relational, equality, or logical operator, branching incorrectly in a set
of nested conditional statements, or going into an infinite loop. Robustness refers to
errors that should have been spotted if sufficient error checking had been performed,
such as checking for bad user input, insufficient arguments, or null values in variables.

Logical Operator Errors. Example 15.13 shows a logical operator error and a pos-
sible fix for it.

EXAMPLE 15.13

#!/bin/csh
1 echo -n "Enter -n your grade: "
set grade = $<
2 if ( Sgrade < 0 && $grade > 100 ) then
3 echo Illegal grade. # This line will never be executed
exit 1
endif
4 echo "This line will always be executed."

(Output)
Enter your grade: -44
This line will always be executed.

Enter your grade: 234

This line will always be executed.
Enter your grade

— Possible Fix

if ( $grade <0 11 $grade > 100 ) then

EXPLANATION

l The user is asked for input. The input is assigned to the variable grade.

2 With the logical AND (&&) both expressions must be true in order to enter the if
block on line 3. If both expressions are true, the user would have to have entered
a grade that is both lower than 0 and also greater than 100. How could that be
possible? The 11 OR operator should be used. Then only one of the conditions
must be true.

3 This line will never be printed.

4 Because line 2 will never be true, this statement will always be executed.
1002 Chapter 15 • Debugging Shell Scripts

Relational Operator Errors. Example 15.14 shows a relational operator error and a
possible fix for it.

EXAMPLE 15.14

#!/bin/csh
echo -n "Please enter your age "
set age = $<

1 if ( Sage > 12 && Sage < 19 ) then

echo A teenager # What if you enter 20?
2 else if ( Sage > 20 && Sage < 30 ) then
echo A young adult
3 else if ( Sage >= 30 ) then # What if the user enters 125?
echo Moving on in years
else
4 echo "Invalid input"
endif

(Output)
Please enter your age 20
Invalid input

Please enter your age 125

Moving on in years

Possible Fix

if ( Sage > 12 && Sage <= 19 ) then

echo A teenager
else if ( Sage >= 20 && Sage < 30 ) then
echo A young adult
else if ( Sage >= 30 && Sage < 90 ) then
echo Moving on in years
else if ( Sage <=12 ) then
echo still a kid
else
echo "Invalid input"
endi f

EXPLANATION

1 This expression tests for an age between 13 and 18. To check for ages between 13
and 20, the right-hand expression can be changed in two ways: ( Sage <= 19 ) to
include 19, or ( Sage < 20 ).

2 If the age is 19, the program will always go to line 3. This expression tests for ages
between 21 and 29. We need to include 20 in this expression. If the user enters 19
or 20, the program prints Invalid input.
15.4 Probable Causes for Syntax Errors 1003

EXPLANATION (continued)

3 This expression tests for any age older than 29. There is no range here. Unless the
user can be infinitely old, the expression needs to include the outside range.

4 Invalid inputs are 19, 20, and any number below 13.

Branching Errors. Example 15.15 shows a branching error and a possible fix for it.

EXAMPLE 15.15

l set ch = "c"
2 if ( $ch == "a" ) then
3 echo $ch
4 if ( Sch == "b" ) then / This "if" is never evaluated
echo Sch
5 else
6 echo Sch
7 endif
8 endif

(Output)
<770 0UtpUt>

Possible Fix

set ch = "c"
if ( $ch == "a" ) then
echo Sch
else if ( $ch == "b" ) then
echo Sch
else
echo Sch
endif

EXPLANATION

l The variable ch is assigned the letter c.

2 If the value of Sch is an a, then lines 3 to 5 are executed.

3 If the value of Sch is an a, the value of Sch is printed, and the program continues with
the nested if on line 4. This statement will never get executed unless Sch was an a.

4 If the value of Sch were an a, then it could not be a b and line 6 would be executed.

5 This else should be indented so that it is placed under the inner if. The else goes
with the innermost if on line 4.

6 This line will be executed only if Sch is an a.

7 This endif goes with the innermost if on line 4.

8 This endif goes with the outer if on line 2.

1004 Chapter 15 • Debugging Shell Scripts

Exit Status with an if Conditional. When the if command is evaluating the suc-
cess or failure of a command, it checks the exit status of that command. If the exit status
is 0, the command was successful and if nonzero the command failed in some way. If
you are not sure of what exit status a command returns, you should check before using
it, or your program may not perform as expected. Consider the following example. The
awk, sed, and grep commands are all able to use regular expressions for searches in a pat-
tern, but grep is the only one of the three commands that reports a nonzero exit status if
it cannot find the search pattern. The sed and awk programs will return 0, whether the
pattern is found or not. Therefore, neither of these programs would be of any use after
an if condition, because the condition would always be true.

EXAMPLE 15.16

#!/bin/sh
1 name="Fred Fardbuckle"
2 if grep "$name" db > /dev/null 2>&1
then
3 echo Found Sname
else
4 echo "Didn't find Sname" # Fred is not in the db file
fi
5 if awk "/Sname/" db > /dev/null 2>&1
then
6 echo Found Sname
else
echo "Didn't find Sname"
fi
7 if sed -n "/Sname/p" db > /dev/null 2>&1
then
8 echo Found Sname
else
echo "Didn't find Sname"
fi

(Output)
4 grep: Didn't find Fred Fardbuckle
6 awk: Found Fred Fardbuckle
8 sed: Found Fred Fardbuckle

Possible Fix

Check the exit status of the command before using it.

awk "/Sname/" db
echo $? (bash, sh, ksh)
echo Sstatus (tcsh, csh, bash)
15.4 Probable Causes for Syntax Errors 1005

EXPLANATION

Here we see that awk, nawk, and gawk always return an exit status of 0, unless the com-
mand statements are incorrect, grep returns an exit status of 0 if its search is successful,
and a nonzero integer if it cannot find the pattern in the file or if the file does not exist.

Lacking Robustness. A program is robust if it can handle illegal input and other
unexpected situations in a reasonable way. For example, if a program is expecting
numeric data, then it must be able to check to see if that's what it got, and print an error
message and ignore the bad input. Another example of robustness would be if the script
is going to extract data from an external file, but the external file doesn't exist or does
not have read permissions. The robust program would use file testing to check for the
existence of the file before trying to read from it.
Example 15.17 shows how to check for null input.

EXAMPLE 15.17

#!/bin/csh
# Program should check for null input — T and TC shells

1 echo -n "Enter your name: "

set name = $< # If user enters nothing, program will hang
2 if { grep "$name" db >& /dev/null } then
echo Found name
endif

(Output)
Enter your name: El lie
Found name

Enter your name:

<program prints every line in the file Found names

Possible Fix

echo -n "Enter your name: "

set name = $< /If user enters nothing, program will hang
3 while ( $name == "" )
echo "Error: you did not enter anything."
echo -n "Please enter your name"
set name = $<
end
<program continues here>

EXPLANATION

1 The user is asked for input. If he or she presses the Enter key, the variable, name,
will be set to null.
1006 Chapter 15 • Debugging Shell Scripts

EXPLANATION (continued)

2 The first time the program runs, the user types something and grep searches in the
file for that pattern. The next time, the user presses the Enter key. The variable is
set to null, causing the the grep program to search for null. Every line will be print-
ed. Because the errors and output are sent to /dev/null, it is not obvious why the
grep is printing the contents of the entire file.

3 The loop tests for a null value in the variable name. The loop will continue until the
user enters something other than pressing Enter. For ksh, bash, and sh, use the cor-
rect syntax for a while loop (e.g., while [ Sname = " " ] or while [[ $name = " " ]).See
specific character for syntax.

Examples 15.18 and 15.19 show how to check for insufficient arguments.

EXAMPLE 15.18

#!/bin/sh
# Script: renames a file — Bourne shell

1 if [ $# -It 2 ] # Argument checking

2 then
echo "Usage: $0 filel file2 " 1>&2
exit 1
fi
3 if [ -f $1 ] # Check for file existence
then
mv $1 $2 # Rename filel
echo $1 has been renamed to $2
else
echo "$1 doesn't exist"
exit 2
fi

(Output)
$ ./rename filel
Usage: my test filel file?

EXPLANATION

1 If the number of positional parameters (arguments) is less than 2 . . .

2 . . . the error message is sent to standard error and the program exits. The exit sta-
tus will be 1, indicating a problem with the program.

3 The program continues if sufficient arguments are passed in from the command
line. Check correct syntax to convert this program to ksh or bash.
15.4 Probable Causes for Syntax Errors 1007

EXAMPLE 15.19

#!/bin/csh
# Script: renames a file — C/TC shells

1 if ( $#argv < 2 ) then # Argument checking

2 echo "Usage: $0 filel file2 "
3 exit 1
endif
if ( -e $1 ) then # Check for file existence
mv $1 $2 # Rename filel
echo $1 has been renamed to $2
else
echo "$1 doesn't exist"
exit 2
endif

(Output)
% ./rename filel
Usage: mytest filel file?

Examples 15.20 and 15.21 show how to check for numeric input.

EXAMPLE 15.20

(The Script)
$ cat trap.err
#!/bin/l<sh
# This trap checks for any command that exits with a nonzero
# status and then prints the message — Korn shell

1 trap 'print "You gave me a non-integer. Try again. '" ERR

2 typeset -i number # Assignment to number must be integer
3 while true
do
4 print -n "Enter an integer. "
5 read -r number 2> /dev/null
6 if (($?== 0 )) # Mas an integer read in?
then # Mas the exit status zero?
7 break ^
fi y
done
8 trap - ERR # Unset pseudo trap for ERR
n=$number
1008 Chapter 15 • Debugging Shell Scripts

EXAMPLE 15.20 (continued)

9 if grep ZOMBIE /etc/passwd > /dev/null 2>&1

then
■

else
10 print "\Sn is $n. So long"
fi

(The Command Line and Output)

$ trap.err
4 Enter an integer, hello
1 You gave me a non-integer. Try again.
4 Enter an integer, good-bye
1 You gave me a non-integer. Try again.
4 Enter an integer. \\\
1 You gave me a non-integer. Try again.
4 Enter an integer. 5
10 $n is 5. So long.

$ trap.err
4 Enter an integer. 4.5
10 $n is 4. So long.

EXAMPLE 15.21

(The Script)
#!/bin/bash
1 # Scriptname: wholenum
# Purpose:The expr command tests that the user enters an integer — Bash shell

echo "Enter an integer."

read number
2 if expr "Snumber" + 0 >& /dev/null
then
o
J
else
4 echo "You did not enter an integer value."
exit 1
5 fi
15.5 Tracing with Shell Options and the set Command 1009

15.5 Tracing with Shell Options and the set Command

15.5.1 Debugging Bourne Shell Scripts

Bourne Shell Debugging Options. By using the -n option to the sh command, you
can check the sytnax of your scripts without really executing any of the commands. If
there is a syntax error in the script, the shell will report the error. If there are no errors,
nothing is displayed.
The most commonly used method for debugging scripts is to use the set command
with the -x option (set -x), or to use the -x option as an argument to the sh command (sh
-x) followed by the script name. See Table 15.7 for a list of debugging options. These
options allow an execution trace of your script. Each command from the script is dis-
played after substitution has been performed, and then the command is executed. When
a line from your script is displayed, it is preceded with a plus (+) sign.
With the verbose option (set -v) turned on, or by invoking the Bourne shell with the
-v option (sh -v), each line of the script will be displayed just as it was typed in the script,
and then executed.

Table 15.7 Bourne Shell Debugging Options

Command Option What It Does

sh -x scriptname Echo option Displays each line of script after variable

substitutions and before execution.

sh -v scriptname Verbose option Displays each line of script before execution, just
as you typed it.

sh -n scriptname Noexec option Interprets but does not execute commands.

set -u Unbound variables Flags variables that have not been set.

set -x Turns on echo Traces execution in a script.

set +x Turns off echo Turns off tracing.

The set command allows you to turn echoing on or off in a script in order to debug
a portion of the script, not the whole program.

FORMAT

set -x # turns echoing on

<prograni statements go here>
set +x # turns echoing off
1010 Chapter 15 • Debugging Shell Scripts

EXAMPLE 15.22

(The Script)
S cat todebug
#!/bin/sh
1 # Scriptname: todebug
name="]oe Blow"
if [ "Sname" = "Joe Blow" ]
then
echo "Hi Sname"
fi

num=l
while [ Snurn -It 5 ]
do
num=,expr Snum + 1'
done
echo The grand total is Snum

(The Output)
2 $ sh -x todebug
+ name=Joe Blow
+ [ Joe Blow = Joe Blow ]
+ echo Hi Joe Blow

Hi Joe Blow
num=l
+ [ 1-lt 5 ]
+ expr 1 + 1
num=2
+ [ 2 -It 5 ]
+ expr 2 + 1
num=3
+ [ 3 -It 5 ]
+ expr 3 + 1
num=4
+ [ 4 -It 5 ]
+ expr 4 + 1
num=5
+ [ 5 -It 5 ]
+ echo The grand total is 5
The grand total is 5

EXPLANATION

1 The script is called todebug. You can watch the script run with the -x switch turned
on. Each iteration of the loop is displayed and the values of variables are printed
as they are set and when they change.
15.5 Tracing with Shell Options and the set Command 1011

EXPLANATION (continued)

2 The sh command starts the Bourne shell with the -x option. Echoing is turned on.
Each line of the script will be displayed to the screen prepended with a plus sign
(+). Variable substitution is performed before the line is displayed. The result of
the execution of the command appears after the line has been displayed.

15.5.2 Debugging C/TC Shell Scripts

C shell scripts often fail because of some simple syntax error or logic error. Options to
the csh command are provided to help you debug your programs. See Table 15.8.

Table 15.8 echo (-x) and verbose (-v)

As Options to csh (Works the Same in tcsh)

csh -x scriptname Display each line of script after variable substitution and before
execution.

csh -v scriptname Display each line of script before execution, just as you typed it.

csh -n scriptname Interpret but do not execute commands.

As Arguments to the set Command

set echo Display each line of script after variable substitution and before
execution.

set verbose Display each line of script before execution, just as you typed it.

As the First Line in a Script

#!/bin/csh -xv Turns on both echo and verbose. These options can be invoked
separately or combined with other csh/tcsh invocation arguments.

EXAMPLE 15.23

(The -v and -x Options)

1 % cat practice
#!/bin/csh
echo Hello SLOGNAME
echo The date is 'date'
echo Your home shell is SSHELL
echo Good-bye SLOGNAME
1012 Chapter 15 • Debugging Shell Scripts

EXAMPLE 15.23 (continued)

2 % csh -v practice
echo Hello SLOCNAME
Hello ellie
echo The date is 'date'
The date is Sun May 23 12:24:07 POT 2004
echo Your login shell is SSHELL
Your login shell is /bin/csh
echo Good-bye SLOCNAME
Good-bye ellie

3 % csh -x practice
echo Hello ellie
Hello ellie
echo The date is 'date'
date
The date is Sun May 23 12:24:15 POT 2004
echo Your login shell is /bin/csh
Your login shell is /bin/csh
echo Good-bye ellie
Good-bye ellie

EXPLANATION

1 The contents of the C shell script are displayed. Variable and command substitu-
tion lines are included so that you can see how echo and verbose differ.

2 The -v option to the csh command causes the verbose feature to be enabled. Each
line of the script is displayed as it was typed in the script, and then the line is
executed.

3 The -x option to the csh command enables echoing. Each line of the script is dis-
played after variable and command substitution are performed, and then the line
is executed. Because this feature allows you to examine what is being replaced as
a result of command and variable substitution, it is used more often than the verbose
option.

EXAMPLE 15.24

(Echo)
1 % cat practice
#!/bin/csh
echo Hello SLOCNAME
echo The date is 'date'
set echo
echo Your home shell is $SHELL
unset echo
echo Good-bye SLOCNAME
15.5 Tracing with Shell Options and the set Command 1013

EXAMPLE 15.24 (continued)

% chmod +x practice

2 % practice
Hello el lie
The date is Sun May 26 12:25:16 PDT 2004
—> echo Your login shell is /bin/csh
—> Your login shell is /bin/csh
—> unset echo
Good-bye el lie

EXPLANATION

1 The echo option is set and unset within the script. This enables you to debug cer-
tain sections of your script where you have run into a bottleneck, rather than
echoing each line of the entire script.

2 The —> marks where the echoing was turned on. Each line is printed after variable
and command substitution and then executed.

EXAMPLE 15.25

(Verbose)
1 % cat practice
#!/bin/csh
echo Hello SLOCNAME
echo The date is 'date'
set verbose
echo Your home shell is SSHELL
unset verbose
echo Good-bye 5LOGNAME

2 % practice
Hello ellie
The date is Sun May 23 12:30:09 PDT 2001
--> echo Your login shell is $SHELL
--> Your login shell is /bin/csh
--> unset verbose
Good-bye ellie

EXPLANATION

l The verbose option is set and unset within the script.

2 The --> marks where verbose was turned on. The lines are printed just as they were
typed in the script and then executed.
1014 Chapter 15 • Debugging Shell Scripts

15.5.3 Debugging Korn Shell Scripts

By turning on the noexec option or using the -n argument to the ksh command, you can
check the syntax of your scripts without really executing any of the commands. If there
is a syntax error in the script, the shell will report the error. If there are no errors, noth-
ing is displayed.
The most commonly used method for debugging scripts is to turn on the xtrace
option or to use the ksh command with the -x option. These options allow an execution
trace of your script. Each command from your script is displayed after variable substi-
tution has been performed, and then the command is executed. When a line from your
script is displayed, it is preceded with the value of the PS4 prompt, a plus (+) sign. The
PS4 prompt can be changed.
With the verbose option turned on, or by invoking the Korn shell with the -v option
(ksh -v scriptname), each line of the script will be displayed, just as it was typed in the
script, and then executed. See Table 15.9 for debug commands.

Table 15.9 Korn Shell Debugging Commands and Options

Command Function/How It Works

export PS4='$LINEN0 The PS4 prompt by default is a +. You can reset the prompt. In this
example, a line number will be printed for each line.

ksh -n scriptname Invokes ksh with noexec option. Interprets but does not execute
commands.

ksh -u scriptname Checks for unset variables. Displays an error when expanding a
variable that has not been set.

ksh -v scriptname Invokes ksh with verbose option. Displays each line of the script before
execution, just as you typed it.

ksh -x scriptname Invokes ksh with echo option. Displays each line of the script after
variable substitution and before execution.

set +x Turns off echo. Turns off tracing.

set -x or Turns on echo option. Traces execution in a script.

set -o xtrace

trap 'print SLINENO ' DEBUG Foreachscriptcommand, the trap action is performed. See formal for
trap. Prints value of SLINENO for each line in the script.

trap 'print Bad input' ERR If a nonzero exit status is returned, the trap is executed,

trap 'print Exiting from $0' EXIT Prints message when script or function exits.

typeset -ft Turns on tracing. Traces execution in a function.

15.5 Tracing with Shell Options and the set Command 1015

EXAMPLE 15.26

(The Script)
#!/bin/ksh
# Scriptname: todebug
1 name="]oe Blow"
2 if [[ Sname = []]]* ]] then
print Hi Sname
fi
num=l
3 while (( num < 5 ))
do
4 (( num=num+l ))
done
5 print The grand total is $num

(The Command Line and Output)

1 $ ksh -x todebug
2 + name=]oe Blow
+ [[ Joe Blow = [Jj]* ]]
+ print Hi Joe Blow
Hi Joe Blow
+ num=l # The + is the PS4 prompt
+ let num < 5
+ let num=num+l
+ let num < 5
+ let num=num+l
+ let num < 5
+ let num=num+l
+ let num < 5
+ let num=num+l
+ let num < 5
+ print The grand total is 5
The grand total is 5

EXPLANATION

1 The Korn shell is invoked with the -x option. Echoing is turned on. Each line of
the script will be displayed on the screen, followed by the result of executing that
line. Variable substitution is performed. Alternatively, the -x option can be used in
the script instead of at the command line (i.e., #!/bin/ksh -x).

2 The lines are preceded by the plus (+) sign, the PS4 prompt.

3 The while loop is entered. It will loop 4 times.

4 The value of num is incremented by by 1.

5 After the while loop exits, this line is printed.

1016 Chapter 15 • Debugging Shell Scripts

EXAMPLE 15.27

(The Script)
#!/bin/ksh
# Scriptname: todebug?
1 trap 'print "num=$num on line SLINENO"' DEBUG
num=l
while (( num < 5 ))
do
(( nuni=num+l ))
done
print The grand total is Snum

(The Output)
2 num=l on line 3
num=l on line 4
num=2 on line 6
num=2 on line 4
num=3 on line 6
num=3 on line 4
num=4 on line 6
nuni=4 on line 4
num=5 on line 6
num=5 on line 4
The grand total is 5
num=5 on line 8
num=5 on line 8

EXPLANATION

1 LINENO is a special Korn shell variable that holds the number of the current script
line. The DEBUG signal, used with the trap command, causes the string enclosed in
single quotes to be executed every time a command in the script is executed.

2 As the while loop executes, the value of the variable num and the line of the script
are displayed.

15.5.4 Debugging Bash Scripts

By using the -n option to the bash command, you can check the syntax of your scripts
without really executing any of the commands. If there is a syntax error in the script, the
shell will report the error. If there are no errors, nothing is displayed.
The most commonly used method for debugging scripts is the set command with the
-x option, or bash invoked with the -x option and the script name. See Table 15.10 for a
list of debugging options. These options allow an execution trace of your script. Each
command from your script is displayed after substitution has been performed, and then
the command is executed. When a line from your script is displayed, it is preceded with
a plus (+) sign.
15.5 Tracing with Shell Options and the set Command 1017

With the verbose option turned on, or by invoking the shell with the -v option (bash -v
scri ptname), each line of the script will be displayed just as it was typed in the script, and
then executed.

Table 15.10 Bash Debugging Options

Command Option What It Does

bash -x scriptname Echo option Displays each line of script after variable
substitutions and before execution.

bash -v scriptname Verbose option Displays each line of script before execution,
just as you typed it.

bash -n scriptname Noexec option Interprets but does not execute commands.

set -x Turns on echo Traces execution in a script.

set +x Turns off echo Turns off tracing.

Bash Invocation Options. When the shell is started using the bash command, it can
take options to modify its behavior. There are two types of options: single-character
options and multicharacter options. The single-character options consist of a single
leading dash followed by a single character. The multicharacter options consist of two
leading dashes and any number of characters. Multicharacter options must appear
before single-character options. An interactive login shell normally starts up with -i
(start an interactive shell), -s (read from standard input), and -m (enable job control).
See Table 15.11.

Table 15.11 Additional bash Options to Assist in Debugging

Option Meaning

-i Shell is in the interactive mode. TERM, QUIT, and INTERRUPT are ignored.

-r Starts a restricted shell.

— Signals the end of options and disables further option processing. Any arguments
after ~ or - are treated as filenames and arguments.

--help Displays a usage message for a built-in command and exits.

—noprofile When starting up, bash does not read the initialization files:/etc/profile,
~/-bash_profile, ~/-bash_login, or -/-profile.

—none For interactive shells, bash will not read the -/.bashrc file. Turned on by default, if
running shell as sh.
1018 Chapter 15 • Debugging Shell Scripts

Table 15.11 Additional bash Options to Assist in Debugging (continued)

Option Meaning

—posix Changes the behavior of bash to match the POSIX 1003.2 standard, if otherwise
it wouldn't.

—quiet Displays no information at shell startup, the default.

—rcfile file If bash is interactive, uses this intialization file instead of -/-bashrc.

—restricted Starts a restricted shell.

—verbose Turns on verbose; same as -v.

—version Displays version information about this bash shell and exit.

The set Command and Options. The set command can be used to turn shell
options on and off, as well as for handling command-line arguments. To turn an option
on, the dash (-) is prepended to the option; to turn an option off, the plus sign (+) is
prepended to the option.

Table 15.12 The Built-in set Command Options

Shortcut
Name of Option Switch What It Does

all export -a Automatically marks new or modified variables for

export from the time the option is set until unset.

braceexpand -B Enables brace expansion, and is a default setting.3

emacs For command-line editing, uses the emacs built-in

editor, and is a default setting.

errexit -e If a command returns a nonzero exit status (fails),

exits. Not set when reading initialization files.

histexpand -H Enables ! and !! when performing history

substitution, and is a default setting.3

history Enables command-line history; on by default.3

ignoreeof Disables EOF (Cirl-D) from exiting a shell; must

type exit. Same as setting shell variable,
IGNOREEOF=10.

keyword -k Places keyword arguments in the environment for a

command.3
15.5 Tracing with Shell Options and the set Command 1019

Table 15.12 The Built-in set Command Options (continued)

Shortcut
Name of Option Switch What It Does

interactive-comments For interactive shells, a leading # is used to

comment out any text remaining on the line.

monitor -m Allows job control.

noclobber -C Protects files from being overwritten when

redirection is used.

noexec -n Reads commands, but does not execute them. Used

to check the syntax of scripts. Not on when
running interactively.

noglob Disables pathname expansion (i.e., turns off

wildcards).

notify -b Notifies user when background job finishes.

nounset -u Displays an error when expanding a variable that

has not been set.

onecmd -t Exits after reading and executing one command.'1

physical -P If set, does not follow symbolic links when typing

cd or pwd. The physical directory is used instead.

posix Shell behavior is changed if the default operation

doesn't match the POSIX standard.

privileged -P When set, the shell does not read the .profile or ENV
file and shell functions are not inherited from the
environment; automatically set for setuid scripts.

verbose -v Turns on the verbose mode for debugging.

VI For command-line editing, uses the vi built-in

editor.

xtrace -x Turns on the echo mode for debugging.

a. Option applies only to versions of bash 2.x.

1020 Chapter 15 • Debugging Shell Scripts

The shopt Command and Options. The shopt (bash 2.x) command can also be
used to turn shell options on and off.

Table 15.13 The shopt Command Options

Option Meaning

cdable.vars If an argument to the cd built-in command is not a directory, it is assumed to

be the name of a variable whose value is the directory to change to.

cdspell Corrects minor errors in the spelling of a directory name in a cd command.

The errors checked for are transposed characters, a missing character, and a
character too many. If a correction is found, the corrected path is printed, and
the command proceeds. Only used by interactive shells.

checkhash Bash checks that a command found in the hash table exists before trying to
execute it. If a hashed command no longer exists, a normal path search is
performed.

checkwinsize Bash checks the window size after each command and, if necessary, updates
the values of LINES and COLUMNS.

cmdhi st Bash attempts to save all lines of a multiple-line command in the same history
entry. This allows easy re-editing of multiline commands.

dotglob Bash includes filenames beginning with a dot (.) in the results of filename
expansion.

execfail A noninteractive shell will not exit if it cannot execute the file specified as an
argument to the exec built-in command. An interactive shell does not exit if
exec fails.

expand.aliases Aliases are expanded. Enabled by default.

extglob The extended pattern matching features (regular expression metacharacters

derived from Korn shell for filename expansion) are enabled.

histappend The history list is appended to the file named by the value of the HISTFILE
variable when the shell exits, rather than overwriting the file.

histreedit If readline is being used, a user is given the opportunity to re-edit a failed
history substitution.

histverify If set, and readline is being used, the results of history substitution are not
immediately passed to the shell parser. Instead, the resulting line is loaded
into the readline editing buffer, allowing further modification.

hostcomplete If set, and readline is being used, bash will attempt to perform hostname
completion when a word containing an @ is being completed. Enabled by
default.
15.6 Summary 1021

Table 15.13 The shopt Command Options (continued)

Option Meaning

huponexit If set, bash will send SICHUP (hangup signal) to all jobs when an interactive
login shell exits.

interactive_coniments Allows a word beginning with # to cause that word and all remaining
characters on that line to be ignored in an interactive shell. Enabled by
default.

lithist If enabled, and the cmdhist option is enabled, multiline commands are saved
to the history with embedded newlines rather than using semicolon
separators where possible.

mailwarn If set, and a file that bash is checking for mail has been accessed since the last
time it was checked, the message The mail in mail file has been read is
displayed.

nocaseglob If set, bash matches filenames in a case-insensitive fashion when performing

filename expansion.

nullglob If set, bash allows filename patterns that match no files to expand to a null
string, rather than themselves.

promptvars If set, prompt strings undergo variable and parameter expansion after being
expanded. Enabled by default.

restrictecLshell The shell sets this option if it is started in restricted mode. The value may not
be changed. This is not reset when the startup files are executed, allowing the
startup files to discover whether or not a shell is restricted.

shiftverbose If this is set, the shift built-in prints an error message when the shift count
exceeds the number of positional parameters.

sourcepath If set, the source built-in uses the value of PATH to find the directory containing
the file supplied as an argument. Enabled by default.

source A synonym for dot (.).

15.6 Summary

Now that we have covered the major UNIX and Linux shells, you can start reading, writ-
ing, and maintaining scripts. Remember, a lot of time is spent debugging scripts. So
often, you'll have a successful script, but you'll want to make it better. So, back in the
editor you'll go make a few changes, try to run the program, and whoops! It's broken!
With what you've learned in this chapter, you'll be able to keep these surprises to a min-
imum. If you are a system administrator and want to learn more about how the shells
interact with the system, the next chapter will shed some light on topics that typically
apply to the way the shells are used for system administration.
This page intentionally left blank
chapter

The System ^

Administrator and the Shell

Written hy Susan Barr

16.1 Introduction

System administrators are in charge of tasks that require expertise beyond the user level,
such as modifying boot scripts, adding users, fixing installation software, monitoring
processes, mounting filesystems, backups, and much more. Because many of the system
tasks have been automated with shell scripts, the system administrator requires knowl-
edge of shell programming so that he or she can read and modify existing scripts, and
create new scripts when the need arises. This chapter is not meant to be a definitive
guide to system administration, but rather a look at system administration in respect to
the UNIX/Linux shell. It will cover topics such as running shell scripts as root, system
boot scripts, shell initialization scripts, and how to write portable shell scripts. Exam-
ples will be provided from specific UNIX/Linux versions that will run on a majority of
systems. You will need to consult the documentation for your specific release for more
specific information.
If you are familiar with system administration, you may find that the information in
this chapter fills a gap in your knowledge. If you are new to system administration, you
will gain an understanding of shell topics often not used by unprivileged users.

16.2 The Superuser

A newbie to UNIX or Linux forgets his or her password and asks a colleague what to do.
A typical response would be "You can't fix it yourself, unless you're root. Go find a supe-
ruser." Before looking into the details of running scripts as a superuser (also called root
user), you should make sure you understand what the term superuser means.
UNIX/Linux systems come with two types of user accounts, regular and superuser. Reg-
ular accounts have access only to the files and processes they own or that give them spe-
cific permissions, such as group and other. Superuser accounts, on the other hand, have
access to all the files and processes on the system. Superusers can modify, copy, remove,
examine, change permissions, and delete files owned by other users without having spe-

1023
1024 Chapter 16 • The System Administrator and the Shell

cific permissions to do so; they can kill processes without being the process owner. They
are omnipotent and have no restrictions. The most common superuser account is called
root. Many machines also have additional superuser accounts. You can identify a super-
user account by running the id command or by looking at the prompt. If the output of
the id command displays a user identification number (uid) of 0, or the shell prompt is
a pound sign (#), then the account belongs to a superuser. The terms superuser and root
are often used interchangeably.

EXAMPLE 16.1

l # id
uid=0(root) gid=0(root) groups=0(root)
2 # Is -1 /tmp
total 1
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 72 Feb 10 23:29 .
drwxr-xr-x 26 root root 680 Feb 10 23:28 ..
-r 1 ellie users 0 Feb 10 23:29 myfile
3 # cat myfile
This is my file.

EXPLANATION

l First, notice that the prompt is a pound sign (#). Superuser accounts traditionally
use this prompt. When the id command is run, the output shows a uid number of
0, which means that this is a superuser account. (The uid number is your account
number, listed in the third field of /etc/passwd file on your machine.) The output
also shows a login name of root. Although root is commonly the name of the ac-
count, it is technically the uid number of 0 that gives you superuser access; it
doesn't matter whether the account is named root or something else.

2 The Is command displays a file called myfile in the /tmp directory owned by user
ellie. User el 1 ie is the only user who has permission to read the file. All other per-
missions are all turned off.

3 Because this is a superuser account, the file contents can be displayed without
having read access to the file.

16.3 Becoming a Superuser with

the su Command

The su (switch user) command allows you to become another user without logging off.
The su command can take as its argument the name of another user, and if you know that
user's password, a new shell will be started owned by the username you specified, allowing
you to gain the privileges of that user temporarily. If you do not specify a username, the su
command defaults to root, and will ask for a password. If you use a dash (-) option after
the su command (with or without the username), the new shell will inherit the environ-
ment of the specified user, including variables such as SHELL, HOME, and PATH.
16.3 Becoming a Superuser with the su Command 1025

Traditionally, when a system administrator wants to run some commands that require
root privileges, he or she logs onto an unprivileged account first, and then uses the su
command to switch to superuser. A new root-owned shell will be started, and after run-
ning privileged commands (presumably to fix a problem that the user can't handle), the
superuser will exit from the root shell and return to the account of the unprivileged user.

EXAMPLE 16.2

1 $ id # or use whoami instead

uid=501(enie) gid=100(users) groups=100(users)
2 $ echo $PATH
/usr/I oca1/b in :/usr/b in:/b in :/usr/XllR6/b in:.
3 $ su
Password:
4 # id
uid=0(root) gid=0(root) groups=0(root)
5 # echo $PATH
/usr/Ioca1/b in:/usr/b in :/b in:/usr/XllR6/bin:.
6 # exit
exit
7 $ su -
Password:
8 # id
uid=0(root) gid=0(root) groups=0(root)
9 # echo $PATH
/us r/sb/n:/b in:/us r/b in :/sbin :/usr/XllR6/b in

EXPLANATION

1 The id command shows that el lie is the current user.

2 The PATH variable for user el lie is displayed.

3 The su command is run to switch user to root. Note that a password must be provided.

4 The prompt has changed to a pound sign (#). This almost always signifies a super-
user account. The id command is run, showing that the current shell has root per-
missions.

5 When the value of the PATH variable is displayed, it shows the same value as before.
This is because the plain su command (without the dash) was used to become
root. Plain su does not change the value of the PATH variable.

6 Exit is run to terminate the shell created by the su command.

7 The prompt changes back to a dollar sign because the previous command termi-
nated the root-owned shell. The su command is run, this time including the dash
option.

8 The id command verifies that root is the current user.

9 Because this shell was run using the dash option to the su command, the PATH value
from the root account was used. When the value of the PATH variable is echoed, it
shows root's path.
1026 Chapter 16 • The System Administrator and the Shell

If you use the su command to gain root privileges, you should use the dash (-) option
to obtain the root environment, especially the root PATH. The example below shows the
su command being run with and without the dash option. Notice that without the dash,
the wrong version of the useradd command is run.

EXAMPLE 16.3

1 $ id
uid=501(enie) gid=100(users) groups=100(users)
2 $ echo $PATH
/usr/loca 1/b in :/usr/b in :/b in:/usr/XllR6/b in:.
3 $ su
password:
4 # echo $PATH
/usr/loca 1/b in :/usr/b in :/b in :/usr/XllR6/b in:.
5 # cd /tmp
6 # Is -1 useradd
-rwxr-xr-x 1 ellie group 65 Feb 12 11:56 useradd
7 # Is -1 /usr/sbin/useradd
-rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 57348 Mar 17 2003
/usr/sbin/useradd
8 # useradd newguy
this is the useradd script in the /tmp directory
9 # tail -1 /etc/passwd
ellie:x:501:100: :/home/e 11ie:/b in/bash
# exit
10 $ su -
password:
11 # useradd newguy
12 # tail -1 /etc/passwd
newguy :x:502:100::/home/newguy:/b in/bash
13 # exit

EXPLANATION

1 The i d command is run and shows that this shell is owned by the user el 1 i e, a non-
superuser account.

2 The PATH variable is displayed, showing that it does contain the . directory but
does not contain the /usr/sbin directory.

3 The su command is run, starting a new shell owned by root.

4 The PATH variable is displayed, showing that it has not changed.

5 The cd command is run to make /tmp the current directory.

6 The Is command shows that a program called useradd exists in the current direc-
tory, which is the /tmp directory. This program will almost certainly not exist on
your system. This program happens to be in the /tmp directory on this particular
system.
16.3 Becoming a Superuser with the su Command 1027

EXPLANATION (continued)

7 This Is command shows that there is also a useradd program in the /usr/sbin direc-
tory. The version in /usr/sbin is the normal useradd command that the administra-
tor uses to create a new account.

8 The useradd command is run. The shell runs the copy of useradd in the current di-
rectory because of the . (dot) in the PATH. This was not the intention; the useradd
command from the /usr/sbin directory was meant to be run instead. As a result of
this error, the newguy account was never added.

9 The current root-owned shell is terminated with the exit command.

10 The su command is run again, this time using the dash option. The su command
will use root's PATH instead of the PATH from the nonprivileged account when it cre-
ates the new shell (the shell created by the su command).

11 The useradd command is executed again. The shell will use root's PATH to find the
command, and useradd from the /usr/sbin directory will be executed. The useradd
command will add a new line to the end of the /etc/passwd file to create this account.

12 The tail command is used to display the last line of the /etc/passwd file. You can
see that the newguy account has been added.

13 The root-owned shell is exited. This is a good practice—root shells should be ter-
minated when the superuser has finished running commands that require root ac-
cess. If the superuser forgets to exit the root shell, it is wide open to anyone who
uses the account. Not a good idea!

16.3.1 Running Scripts As Root

Running a script from a root account (superuser) requires a slightly different technique
than running a script as a regular user. Traditionally, root accounts have a different value
for the PATH variable than that in nonprivileged accounts. The PATH for root usually con-
sists of directories containing system commands. For example, the /usr/sbin directory is
usually part of root's PATH, but not part of the PATH for a nonroot account. In order to pre-
vent root from accidentally running a program in the current directory, root's PATH vari-
able does not usually contain the current directory, called the dot directory and
represented by a period.

Running a Script in the Current Directory. Because the . (dot) is not pan of root's
PATH, scripts will not run when invoked in the normal manner by typing the script name
by itself at the command line. When you run a script as root, you should precede the
script with the name of the invoking shell.
1028 Chapter 16 • The System Administrator and the Shell

EXAMPLE 16.4

l # cat myscript
#! /bin/sh
echo this is my script
2 # echo $PATH
/usr/sb/n:/b in:/us r/bin :/sbin:/us r/XllR6/b in
3 # myscript
bash: myscript: command not found
4 # /bin/sh myscript

EXPLANATION

l The contents of the shell script, myscript, are displayed. The first line of this script
indicates that it was written for the /bin/sh program, which is the Bourne shell.

2 The value of the PATH variable is displayed. Notice that the PATH does not contain
the dot (.) directory.

3 This command fails because the PATH does not include the . (dot) directory.

4 This command succeeds because the script name is passed as an argument to the
shell, /bin/sh. By invoking the shell in this way, the PATH variable is not used to lo-
cate the script; instead the shell will check the current working directory to see if
the script is there.

Another way to execute a script or any other command in the current working direc-
tory is to precede the program with a . / to indicate that the program is in the current
working directory.

EXAMPLE 16.5

1 # cd /usr/local/bin
2 # myprog
-bash: myprog: command not found
3 # ./myprog
this is my program

EXPLANATION

1 The current directory is changed to /usr/local/bin.

2 This directory contains a program called myprog. An attempt to run the program,
myprog, does not succeed. Without a . in the PATH, the shell cannot locate the pro-
gram.

3 After specifying the location of myprog (the . directory), the command runs suc-
cessfully.
16.3 Becoming a Superuser with the su Command 1029

16.3.2 Scripts That Run As Root (setuid Programs)

Whoever runs a setuid program temporarily becomes the owner of that program and has
the same permissions as the owner. Although most setuid programs are set to root, they
can be set to any user. If a setuid program is set to root, when an unprivileged user runs
such a program, he or she temporarily becomes root. This is kind of a Cinderella story
because when the program exits, the user goes back to his or her lowly station in life and
loses all root privileges. The passwd program is a good example of a setuid program. When
you change your password, you temporarily become root, but only during the execution
of the passwd program. That is why you are able to change your password without going
to a system administrator for help. If you couldn't run as root, you would not be allowed
to access the /etc/passwd (or /etc/shadow) file, which normally is off-limits to regular
users. To identify a setuid program, use the Is -1 command. The x (execute) permission
will be replaced with an s if the program is a setuid program.

EXAMPLE 16.6

1 $ Is -1 /bin/passwd
-r-sr-sr-x 1 root sys 21964 Apr 6 2002 /bin/passwd
2 $ Is -1 /etc/shadow
_r i root sys 4775 May 5 13:33 /etc/shadow

EXPLANATION

1 The output of Is -1 shows that this setuid program will run as root. The letter s
replaces the x (execution bit) in the permissions field.

2 The /etc/shadow file, where passwords are stored (Solaris), shows that this is a root-
owned file, and only root can read it.

Shell programs can be written as setuid programs and are a serious security threat if
they are not monitored by a system administrator. If a shell script is a setuid program (to
root), the shell spawned is a root-owned shell and commands executed from the script
are run as root. Why would a shell script need to be a setuid program? If a file such as a
database or log file contains information that should not be accessible to regular users,
the permissions on that file should be turned off for everyone except the owner. If a
script needs to access the file, and it is executed by a nonprivileged user, the error Per-
mission denied will be displayed and the script will fail. If the script is a setuid script, the
person running the script can take on the identity of the owner of the file and get access
to the data in the file. Not all shells allow scripts setuid to root permission, and even if
the shell allows it, the operating system may not. For example, Bash does not support
setuid scripts, whereas Korn shell has a privileged mode (-p) used to run setuid scripts,
only if allowed by the operating system. The following steps set up a setuid program for
a C/TC shell script.
1030 Chapter 16 • The System Administrator and the Shell

1. In the script, the first line is

#!/bin/csh -feb

The -feb options:

-f fast start up; don't execute .cshrc
-e abort immediately if interrupted
-b this is a setuid script

2. Next, change the permissions on the script so that it can run as a setuid program;

% chmod 4755 script.name

or
% chmod +srx script.name
% Is -1
-rwsr-xr-x 2 ellie 512 Oct 10 17:18 script_name

Because of the security risks involved with setuid programs, most systems will allow
the administrator to disable setuid and setgid programs for individual filesytems. The
UNIX find command can also be used to locate programs that are setuid to root:

# find / -user root -perm -4000 | more

Within a shell script, you can check for files that are setuid programs with the file-testing
operators available for all shells. For example, Korn and Bash shells, the test would be:

if [[ -u filename ]] ; then

for C/TC shell:

if { test -u filename } then

and for Bourne shell:

if test -u filename; then

or

if [ -u filename ]; then

16.4 Boot Scripts

During a system boot, shell scripts are run to perform tasks such as starting daemons
and network services, starting database engines, mounting disks, and so on. They are
also run during system shutdown. These scripts are known as boot scripts, startup and
shutdown scripts, init scripts, or run control scripts, depending on which documenta-
16.4 Boot Scripts 1031

tion you are reading and to whom you are talking. They are frequently called boot scripts,
and that term will be used to refer to these scripts for the rest of the chapter. On almost
all UNIX/Linux systems, the boot scripts are written in Bourne or Bash shells. A UNIX
installation will come with a starter set of boot scripts so that administrators are not
required to write the scripts themselves, but they should be able to debug and modify
scripts when required.
For those familiar with the differences between System V and BSD-style UNIX sys-
tems, this section will focus on the System V-style boot scripts, mainly because they are
the most commonly used.

16.4.1 A Little Terminology

Throughout this text, we have used the terms such as the kernel, init, processes, PIDs,
deamons, and initialization scripts in relation to the shell. This section provides some
further clarification of these terms as they relate to the boot-up process and the scripts
that are started during system initialization.

Th© Kernel and init. When the system boots, the UNIX/Linux kernel is loaded
from disk. It is the program that manages the operating system from boot-up to shut-
down. Initially it initializes device drivers, starts the swapper, and mounts the root file-
system (/). The kernel then creates the first process, called init, the parent of all
processes, with a PID (process identification number) number 1. When init starts, it
reads from an initialization file called /etc/inittab. This file defines what processes to
start during boot-up as well as during normal operation, supervises logins on serial
ports, and defines run levels to determine what processes or groups of processes should
be started.

What Is a Run Level? A run level, also called a system state, determines which set
of processes are currently available on a system. Usually there are eight run levels: 0-6
and s or S. The run levels fit into three general categories; halted, single-user, and mul-
tiuser. In the halted system state, UNIX is not running—it is halted. Moving to a halted
state shuts down the system. Run level 0 is a halted state. On some versions of UNIX,
notably Solaris, run level 5 is also a halted state and unlike run level 0, the machine is
automatically powered off after UNIX is halted. The single-user run level is either S or
1. In single-user mode, the system console is opened, and only root is logged on. (See
"Single-User Mode" on page 1033.) The multiuser run levels are 2-5. The multiuser
mode allows users to log into the system. The run level numbers for multiuser vary quite
a bit from one version of UNIX/Linux to another. To complicate things even more, there
may be more than one multiuser run level on a particular system. For example, under
SuSE Linux, run levels 2 and 5 are both multiuser levels. Level 2 allows users to log in,
but they will log into a text-only single-screen session. Level 5 allows login, and addi-
tional processes are started including window managers such as KDE (the K Desktop
Environment). As superuser, you can change to a different run level with the init (or
telinit) command. Lor example init 0 would move the system into run level 0, thus
shutting it down.
1032 Chapter 16 • The System Administrator and the Shell

The run level numbers can be frustrating since each vendor has a different definition
of what the run levels will do. The only consistent values seem to be 0 for halted and 2
and 3 for multiuser. The who -r command lists the current run level. See Table 16.1.

Table 16.1 Run Levels

Run Level What It Signifies

Solaris

S, s Single-user mode. Filesystems required for basic system operation are

mounted.

0 Halt.

1 System administrator mode. All local filesystems are mounted. Small set of
essential system processes are running. Also a single-user mode.

Put the system in multiuser mode. All multiuser environment terminal

processes and daemons are spawned.

Extend multiuser mode by making local resources available over the

network.

Is available to be defined as an alternative multiuser environment

configuration. It is not necessary for system operation and is usually not
used.

Shut the machine down so that it is safe to remove the power. Have the
machine remove power, if possible.

6 Reboot.

a, b, c Process only those /etc/inittab entries having the a, b, or c run level set.
These are pseudo-states, which may be defined to run certain commands,
but which do not cause the current run level to change.

Q, q Re-examine /etc/inittab.

HP-UX

0 System is completely shut down.

1, s, S Single-user mode. All system services and daemons are terminated and all
filesystems are unmounted.

2 Multiuser mode, except NFS is not enabled.

3,4 Multiuser mode. NFS is enabled.

4 Multiuser mode with NFS and HP's desktop.

6 Reboot.
16.4 Boot Scripts 1033

Table 16.1 Run Levels (continued)

Run Level What It Signifies

OpenBSD

-1 Permanently insecure mode—always run system in level 0 mode.

0 Insecure mode—All devices may be read or written subject to permissions.

1 Secure mode—disks for mounted filesystems, /dev/mem, and /dev/kmem are

read-only.

2 Highly secure mode—same as secure mode, plus disks are always read-only
whether mounted or not and the settimeofday system call can only advance
the time.

Linux

0 Halt the system.

1 Single-user mode.

2, 3 Multiuser modes. Usually identical. Level 2 or 3 is default.

4 Unused.

5 Multiuser with graphical environment (X Windows).

6 Reboot the system.

EXAMPLE 16.7

$ who -r
run-level S Mar 18 14:24 3 05

EXPLANATION

The who -r command displays the current run level of the init process, which in this
case is run level 3, multiuser mode (Solaris).

Single-User Mode. In the single-user states, UNIX is running, but users cannot log
in. Either init 1 or init s will bring your system into a single-user state. The only inter-
action with the system is through a root-owned shell that is started automatically on a
particular window or workstation. Single-user states are for maintenance and not all sys-
tem processes will be started. For example, networking and database processes will usu-
ally not be running. Generally, the system administrator will change the machine to a
single-user state to fix a serious software problem, install software, or perform any other
task where logged in users might see a partially functioning system (and be confused)
or might interfere with system performance (e.g., you don't want users to access files
while you're trying to upgrade the operating system).
1034 Chapter 16 • The System Administrator and the Shell

Boot Scripts. Each of the run levels defined on a system should contain a directory
of scripts that are run for a particular run level. These scripts manage such services as
mai 1, cron, network services, 1 pd, and more. The directory name reflects the run level: The
rc5. d directory contains scripts for run level 5, the rcB. d directory contains scripts for run
level 3, and so on. These directories are located in different places depending upon your
UNIX/Linux version. For example, the scripts for run level 3 are usually stored in one
of the following directories: /etc/rcB.d, /sbin/rcB.d, /etc/init.d/rcB.d, or /etc/rc.d/rcB.d,
Once you find the correct directory, almost all versions of UNIX/Linux use the same gen-
eral scheme for the names of the scripts within those directories. The script names start
with one of the letters S or K, followed by a number, and then a name describing what
the script does. The scripts take an argument of either start or stop. A start argument
asks the script to start services; a stop argument asks it to shut down services. If a script
name starts with an S, that script will be run with a start argument. If the script name
starts with a K, the script is run with a stop argument. The K scripts are useful when the
system is brought to a lower run level, stopping processes, as the machine is brought
down. The scripts are run in the order they are listed with the Is command.

EXAMPLE 16.8

$ cd rcB.d
$ Is
README S34dhcp 577dmi 589sshd slSnfs. server
S13kdc.master SSOapache 580mipagent 590samba s99idled
SUkdc 5521mq 581volmgt 599fixkde
S16boot.server S76snmpdx 584appserv 599snps Imd

EXPLANATION

This example was taken from a system running Solaris 5.9. The contents of the rcB.d
directory (run level 3) are displayed. Check the documentation on your system.

EXAMPLE 16.9

$ cd rcB.d
$ Is
K001inuxconf K25squid K55routed K92iptables 555sshd
K03rhusd K28ams K61dap K95kudzu 556rawdevices
K05anacron K30mcserv K65identd K95reconfig ig 556x1netd
K051nnd K30sendma11 K65kadm1n K961rda 5601pd
<not all output 1s shown>

EXPLANATION

This example was taken from a system running Red Hat Linux. The partial contents
of the rcB.d directory (run level 3) are displayed. Check the documentation on your
system.
16.4 Boot Scripts 1035

What Is a Daemon? A daemon1 is a process that runs in the background and per-
forms one or more tasks on a user's behalf. For example, the printer daemon, Ipsched,
sends files one at a time to a printer. If the Ipsched daemon is not running on systems that
use it for printing, then files will not be sent to the printer. A Web server, such as Apache,
is a daemon; it stays dormant until it is asked for a Web page. The cron (called crond on
some systems) program is also a daemon. It checks the cron instruction files (called
crontab files) once a minute to see if it is time to run any commands specified there.
When the correct time comes, the cron daemon automatically runs the program specified
in the crontab file. For a complete discussion on the cron utility, see "An Example Boot
Script—The cron Utility," below. Many daemon programs, such as cron, are started dur-
ing the boot process and run the whole time the system is booted. Other daemons, such
as telnet, are under the control of a master daemon and are only started when they are
needed (the master daemon does need to run all the time).

16.4.2 An Example Boot Script—The cron Utility

In this section, we will look at a sample boot script from Red Hat Linux. This script starts
the cron daemon during the system boot. The script can also be run manually to control
the daemon. The cron boot script is a good example because it is relatively easy to under-
stand and the cron program exists on virtually every UNIX version. Before we look at the
boot script for cron, it's helpful to know what cron does. The cron utility allows root and
other users to schedule system commands, shell scripts, programs, and more to run at
preset times. The user does not need to be present to interact with the system; cron will
run commands from the user's crontab file, a file that contains a table specifying a list of
commands and specified dates and times when the commands should be executed. The
following example shows that the Solaris cron daemon is running as root.

EXAMPLE 16.10

$ ps -ef | grep cron | grep -v grep

root 202 1 0 Mar 18 ? 0:03 /usr/sbin/cron

Red Hat Linux starts the crond daemon at boot-up.

$ ps aux | grep cron 1 grep -v grep

root 436 0.0 0.5 1552 700 ? 5 06:13 0:0 crond

Creating a cron Instruction File (crontab File). The cron daemon reads the crontab
files that have been submitted by system users. Each line in the crontab file consists of
six fields separated by spaces. The first five fields tell the cron daemon when to run the

1. The term comes from Greek mythology, where daemons were guardian spirits, not to be confused with a
demon, associated with a devil.
1036 Chapter 16 • The System Administrator and the Shell

command that is contained in the sixth field. The values in the first five fields are; min-
utes (00-59), hours of the day (00-23), day of the month (1-31) and months of the year
(1-12), and weekday (0-6). The sixth field is the command that will be executed at the
time specified in the first five fields. See Table 16.2.

Table 16.2 Crontab Field Values

Field Values

minute 00 to 59

hour 00 to 23

day 1 to 31

month 1 to 12

weekday 0 to 6, where 0 = Sunday (Linux uses sun, mon, etc.)

The first five fields can also use any one of the following formats.

• An asterisk (*) matches all values for that field.

• A single integer matches that exact value.
• A comma-separated list of integers (e.g., 1,3,5) to match one of the listed val-
ues. A range of integers separated by a dash (e.g., 4-6) matches values within
the range.

The sample below shows a crontab file submitted to cron using the crontab command.

EXAMPLE I6.ll

1 # crontab -1 > instructions

2 # vi instructions

(There might or might not be lines at the top of this file.

You can ignore any lines except the one added below.)
3 25 1 * * * /root/checkpercent
4 # crontab instructions
5 # crontab -1

(There may not be lines above the entry that was added in item 3.)

25 1 * * * /root/checkpercent
16.4 Boot Scripts 1037

EXPLANATION

1 The output of the crontab -1 command is redirected to the file named instructions.
In this example, because there were not any commands listed in the crontab file,
the instructions file will contain only some comments generated by the crontab
command.

2 The instructions file is edited using vi. This file may or may not contain any lines
to start. It depends on your version of UNIX/Linux and whether or not root has
previously entered instructions for cron.

3 A new instruction is added to the bottom of the file. This instruction tells cron to
run the /root/checkpercent script at 1:25 a.m., every day of every month. Detailed
information on specifying the time in this file (the time is indicated by the num-
bers and asterisks at the beginning of the line) can be found in the crontab man
page.

4 The crontab command is used to submit the instructions file to cron.

5 The crontab -1 command causes cron to display the current set of instructions for
the current user, in this case the root user. This verifies that cron has accepted the
file from the previous command.

The cron Boot Script. Before we look at the contents of the cron boot script, let's look
at the layout of boot scripts in general. The following example displays a partial list of
boot scripts for run level 5 on a Red Hat system. Although most other UNIX versions
have a similar layout for their boot scripts, some, such as Darwin in Mac OS X, are quite
different.
Below is a truncated listing of the directory containing the boot scripts for run level
5 under Red Hat Linux.

EXAMPLE 16.12

l # pwd
/etc/rc5.d
2 # Is
K20nfs K45named SSSsshd S90crond
KSSsmb SUsyslog S80sendmail
3 # Is -1 /etc/rc5.dAcrorb
Irwxrwxrwx 1 root 15 Oct 13 21:19 /etc/rc5.d/S90crond ->
. ./init.d/crond
4 # Is -1 /etc/init.d/crc»u
-rwxr-xr-x 1 root 1316 Feb 19 2004 /etc/init.d/crond

EXPLANATION

l The current directory is /etc/rc5.d, the boot script directory for run level 5 (Red
Hat Linux).

2 The listing shows that some script names begin with S and some begin with K.
1038 Chapter 16 • The System Administrator and the Shell

EXPLANATION (continued)

3 This script starts the cron daemon because the filename starts with an S. If the
script name had started with a K, the script would stop the cron daemon. The out-
put shows that the file is actually a link—the letter I in front of the file permissions
indicates a link. The -> characters point to the linked file, crond, located in the
/etc/init.d directory.

4 Each script in the run-level directory is normally a link to a master copy in the
/etc/init.d directory.

5 This is a listing for the master copy of the boot script for cron. Notice that the mas-
ter copies don't start with S or K and don't contain numbers in their names. There
are frequently multiple links to the master scripts from the boot directories, and
only the link names will contain numbers. This master script can be used to either
start or stop the cron daemon. We'll look at the script in detail in the next section.

The cron boot script, called crond, can be run manually to start or stop the cron dae-
mon. On some releases, it can also be used to check the status or restart cron. Other
releases allow additional arguments. Traditionally, boot scripts are run by preceding the
script name with the shell for which the script was written, followed by the name of the
script. The examples below run the master copy of the crond script from the /etc/init.d
directory. Because they are linked, you could accomplish the same thing by running the
/etc/rc5.d/crond script instead.

EXAMPLE 16.13

1 # cd /etc/init.d
2 # Is crond
crond
3 # sh crond stop
Stopping crond: [OK]
4 # sh crond start
Starting crond: [OK]
5 # sh crond restart
Stopping crond: [OK]
Starting crond: [OK]

EXPLANATION

1 The cd command is used to change to the /etc/init.d directory, which contains the
master copies of the boot scripts.

2 The Is command verifies that the cron boot script exists.

3 The crond script is run with the stop argument to stop the cron daemon. The script
is run by preceding the script name with the shell for which it was written because
root is the current user.
16.4 Boot Scripts 1039

EXPLANATION (continued)

4 The script is run again, this time starting the cron daemon.

5 The script is run a third time. This time the daemon will be stopped, then started
again.

Below is a simplified version of the boot script for the cron daemon from Red Hat
Linux. This script sources another script called functions, which defines daemon and
killproc for the script. The daemon function takes a daemon name as an argument. It
attempts to start that daemon and will return a success or failure code depending on
what happened.

EXAMPLE 16.14

#! /bin/bash
# crond Start/Stop the cron clock daemon.
#
# chkconfig: 2345 90 60
# description: cron is a standard UNIX program that runs
# user-specified programs at periodic scheduled times.
# config: /etc/crontab
# pidfile: /var/run/crond.pid

# Source function library.

1 . /etc/init.d/functions
2 RETVAL=0 ; prog="crond"
3 startO {
4 echo -n $"Starting Sprog: "
5 daemon crond
6 RETVAUS?
7 echo
8 [ SRETVAL -eq 0 ] && touch /var/lock/subsys/crond
9 return RETVAL
}
10 stop() {
11 echo -n S"Stopping Sprog: "
12 killproc crond
13 RETVAL=$?
14 echo
15 [ SRETVAL -eq 0 ] && rm -f /var/lock/subsys/crond
return RETVAL
}
16 restart!) { stop ; start }
17 case "$1" in
18 start) start ;;
19 stop) stop ;;
1040 Chapter 16 • The System Administrator and the Shell

EXAMPLE 16.14 (continued)

20 restart) restart ;;
21 *) echo $"Usage: S0 {start|stop|restart}"
exit 1 ;;
esac

EXPLANATION

1 A script called functions is sourced to make functions defined there available to

this script.

2 The RETVAL variable (which holds the function return value) is initialized to 0 and
the prog variable is initialized to crond.

3 This line begins the definition for the start() function.

4 A message is displayed saying that the cron daemon is starting.

5 The daemon function is called with crond as its argument. (The function was defined
in the functions script sourced at the beginning of the script.) The function at-
tempts to start the crond daemon and returns a value of success (0) or failure (1).

6 The RETVAL variable is assigned the value of the status variable ?. It contains the val-
ue returned by the daemon() function. This value is used by the operating system
to print an OK or FAILED message to the screen during the boot process.

7 The echo command prints a blank line to the screen.

8 If the return value indicates success (0 mean success) then a lock file for the cron
daemon, /var/lock/subsys/crond, is created with the touch command.

9 The RETVAL variable is returned from the function.

10 This line begins the definition for the stop() function.

11 A message is displayed saying that the cron daemon is being stopped.

12 This calls the killprocQ function, which is defined in the functions script sourced
on line 1. It sends an argument of crond to this function. The function attempts to
stop the daemon process and sends a return value based on its success or failure.

13 The RETVAL variable is assigned the value returned by the killprocQ function,
which is stored in $?.

14 A blank line is printed.

15 If the return value indicates success, the lock file for the cron daemon, /var/lock/
subsys/crond, is deleted.

16 This defines the restartQ function, which stops then starts the cron daemon.

17 The case command evaluates $1 and holds the value of the first argument sent to
this script, either start or stop.

18 If the value of $1 is start, then the start() function is run.

19 If the value of $1 is stop, then the stopQ function is run.

20 If the value of $1 is restart, then the restartQ function is run.

21 Otherwise, a usage message is printed and the script will exit with status 1, failure.
16.4 Boot Scripts 1041

16.4.3 Writing a Portable Script

System administrators often write shell scripts that work on multiple UNIX versions.
Because commands change from UNIX to UNIX, your script will need to determine the
UNIX version on which it is being run. This can be done using the uname command.
Listed below are some popular versions of UNIX and the output of the uname command
from each version. To create a script that will port to these different UNIX versions, your
script should check the uname output and modify commands accordingly.

UNIX Version: uname Output:

AIX AIX
FreeBSD FreeBSD
HP-UX HP-UX
IRIX IRIX
Linux Linux
Mac OS X Darwin
NetBSD NetBSD
OpenBSD OpenBSD
SCO OpenServer 5 SCO_SV
Solaris SunOS

A case command is commonly used to check for the operating system you are using.
Example 16.15 checks for Linux (any brand), HP-UX, Solaris, FreeBSD, and Mac OS X
UNIX.

EXAMPLE 16.15

l uname.outUuname1
2 case "Suname.out" in
3 HP-UX) echo "You are running HP-UX"
}J
4 SunOS) echo "You are running Solaris"
>J
FreeBSD) echo "You are running FreeBSD"
»J
Linux) echo "You are running Linux"
JJ
Darwin) echo "You are running Mac OS X"
JJ
5 *) echo "Sorry, $uname_out UNIX "
echo "is not supported by this script"
JJ
6 esac
1042 Chapter 16 • The System Administrator and the Shell

EXPLANATION

1 The variable uname.out is assigned the output of the uname command. This assigns
the name of the current version of UNIX to the variable.

2 The case statement will evaluate the unaine.out variable.

3 If the uname.out variable evaluates to HP-UX, this is Hewlett-Packard's version of

UNIX and You are running HP-UX will be printed.

4 If uname.out evaluates to SunOS, the message is printed. The case statement checks
for other versions of UNIX in subsequent statements.

5 If uname.out contains a value not listed in the above choices, then it will match the
default pattern, an asterisk. In this case, a generic message is printed telling the
user that the operating system is not supported by this script.

6 The case statement is ended using the esac statement.

Example 16.16 is a sample script to tell the administrator when any of a machine's
filesystems are getting full. This script does not check for all versions of UNIX, although
you can modify the script for any version of UNIX. The sample script changes the form
of the df command to accommodate four types of UNIX.

EXAMPLE 16.16

# cat /root/checkpercent
1 #! /bin/sh
2 rm $HOME/df_output SHOME/message 2> /dev/null
3 uname.out^uname1
4 case "$uname_out" in
5 HP-UX)
6 bdf i awk '{print $5,$6}' | awk -F% '$1>90 {print $0}' \
> $HOME/df_output

7 SunOS)
1
8 df -k | awk '{print $5,56} | awk -F% '$1>90 {print $0}' \
> $HOME/df_output
JJ
9 Linux)
10 df | awk '{print $5,$6}' | awk -F% '$1>90 {print $0}' \
> $HOME/df_output
jj
11 Darwin)
12 df | awk '{print $5,$6}' | awk -F% 'Sl>90 {print $0}' \
> $HOME/df_output
16.4 Boot Scripts 1043

EXAMPLE 16.16 (continued)

13 *)
echo "Sorry, Suname.out UNIX not supported by this script"

JJ
esac

14 if [ -s $HOME/df_output ]
then
15 echo "** WARNING **" > $HOME/message
echo "The following file systems are filling up." » SHOME/message
echo "You may want to look into the situation." » SHOME/message
cat $HOME/df_output » $HOME/message
16 cat $HOME/message
17 echo "This warning message is stored in the file SHOME/message"
echo "You should create a copy of the file now if you would"
echo "like to save this message."
fi
18 rm $HOME/df_output

EXPLANATION

1 The shell name is /bin/sh. On some systems, /bin/sh is Bourne, on others it is bash,
or the POSIX shell—all of these shells are compatible with the Bourne shell. To
make sure this is a portable script, use Bourne shell syntax.

2 This command will remove the $HOME/df_output and $HOME/message files if they exist.
Any error messages generated by this command are discarded by redirecting them
to the /dev/null file. Removing the files is a precaution—if either of these files ex-
ist, they might cause a problem with this script. Remember that $HOME is a variable
that stores a user's home directory, so SHOME/message indicates a file called message in
the home directory of the person running the script. $HOME/df_output indicates a file
called df_output in the user's home directory.

3 The output of the uname command is assigned to a variable called uname.out. As in

the previous example, note that this command is using backward single quotes
(backquotes) and not regular single quotes.

4 This case statement evaluates the variable, uname.out, which contains the name of
the operating system.

5 If the variable evaluates to HP-UX , the case statement on line 6 is executed.

6 The HP-UX version of the df command, bdf, is run. The output of the bdf com-
mand is piped through awk to select fields 5 and 6, which are the percent full and
the filesystem name. These two values are then piped through a second awk, which
will print lines that have a percent full of greater than 90. (The $0 prints the whole
line as long as the first field is greater than 90.) The output is then stored in the
$HOME/df_output file.

7 If this is a Sun system . . .

1044 Chapter 16 • The System Administrator and the Shell

EXPLANATION (continued)

8 ... then run the Solaris version of the df command, df -k. The rest of the command
is the same as the HP-UX version.

9 If this is a Linux system . . .

10 ... then the plain df command is run for Linux. The rest of the command is the
same as the HP-UX version.

11 If this is an OS X system . . .

12 ... the df command is run. Notice that this is the same command used for Linux.
These two could be combined into one case statement.

13 If the variable uname.out contains any other value, the error message shown is
printed.

14 This if statement checks to see if the file $HOME/df_output contains any text. This
true/false test results in a true value if the file $HOME/df_output contains any text and
a false value if the file is empty or does not exist. If the $HOME/df_output file does
exist. . .

15 ... then a message is generated and stored in the $HOME/message file. The three echo
commands print a warning message and then the $HOME/df_output file is appended
to the SHOME/message file.

16 The contents of the SHOME/message file are displayed. This will display the warning
message with a list of full filesystems.

17 The script prints a reminder that the information is in the SHOME/message file.

18 The $HOME/df_output is removed because it is no longer needed.

16.4.4 User-Specific Initialization Files

When user accounts are initially created, the administrator normally places login files,
such as .profile and .login, in the user's home directory The administrator must under-
stand the syntax of the shells in order to write a version of these files that will be suitable
for their users.
Each shell has one or more initialization files that can be placed in a user's home
directory As administrator, you may wish to place a starter copy of these initialization
files in your user's home directory when it is first created. Most versions of UNIX help
you automate this process through the /etc/skel directory, although sometimes the direc-
tory name is slightly different. When creating a new account using the useradd command,
all files from /etc/skel are copied to a user's home directory.

EXAMPLE 16.17

1 # Is -a /etc/skel
. ,, .profile .cshrc
2 # useradd -m newguyl
3 # Is -a /home/newguyl
. .. .profile .cshrc
16.4 Boot Scripts 1045

EXAMPLE 16.17 (continued)

4 # useradd newguyZ
5 # Is -a /home/newguyZ
Is: /home/newguy2: No such file or directory

EXPLANATION

l This particular /etc/skel directory contains the two files, .profile and .cshrc.

2 The -m option tells useradd to create the home directory for the new account. By
default the directory will be /home/newguyl. The useradd program automatically cop-
ies the files from /etc/skel. Both .profile and .cshrc will be copied to /home/newguyl.

3 The Is command verifies that the /home/newguyl directory contains the .profile and
.cshrc files.

4 Without the -m option, the useradd command does not create a home directory for
this account. The /etc/skel files are not copied.

5 The Is command shows that newguy2 does not have a home directory.

Possible Files for /etc/skel. You should put a set of starter initialization files in the
home directory of a new user when you create his or her home directory A chart of the
initialization files used by the five major UNIX shells is listed in Table 16.3. You might
want to create a generic version of all of these files and place them in the /etc/skel direc-
tory. These files will be copied into a user's home directory whenever a new account is cre-
ated, giving the user a starter copy of the initialization files needed for his or her login
shell. See the other chapters for individual shells for more details on the initialization files.

Table 16.3 Initialization Files Used by the Five Shells

Bourne Bash Korn C TC

.profile ✓ ✓ ✓

.kshrc ✓

.bash_profile ✓

.bashjogin ✓

.bashrc ✓

.bashjogout ✓

.login ✓ ✓

.cshrc ✓ ✓

.tcshrc ✓

.logout ✓ ✓
1046 Chapter 16 • The System Administrator and the Shell

16.4.5 System-Wide Initialization Files

The system administrator is responsible for maintaining a set of system-wide initializa-

tion files used by various login shells. The administrator will often perform tasks such
as setting an initial value for the PATH and MANPATH variables in these files. For a login shell,
/etc/profile is the system-wide intialization file for the Bourne, Korn, and Bash shells
and /etc/.cshrc or /etc/csh.login are system-wide initialization files for the C and TC
shells (filenames vary on different systems). See Table 16.4. Most UNIX installations
come with a starter set of these files that can be customized for a particular system.

Table 16.4 System-Wide Initialization Files

Versions
Shell Filename Implemented On Notes

/bi n/sh /etc/profile Most versions Run at login only.

/etc/profile.local SuSE Linux Run at login only in addition to /etc/profile.

Used for local settings. The SuSE /etc/profile
contains a comment asking you not to modify
/etc/profile, but instead to modify
/etc/profile.local.

/etc/1ogin.conf FreeBSD Run at login only.

/bin/ksh /etc/profile Most versions Run at login only.

/etc/profile.local SuSE Linux Run at login only in addition to /etc/profile.

Used for local settings. The SuSE /etc/profile
contains a comment asking you not to modify
/etc/profile, but instead to modify
/etc/profile.local.

/bin/bash /etc/profile Most versions Run at login only.

/etc/profile.local SuSE Linux Run at login only in addition to /etc/profile.

Used for local settings. The SuSE /etc/profile
contains a comment asking you not to modify
/etc/profile, but instead to modify
/etc/profile.local.

/etc/bash.bashrc SuSE Linux Run each shell invocation.

/etc/bashrc Some versions of Run when bash is started manually. If this

Linux script isn't run automatically by your UNIX
version, you can call it from the user's local
.bashrc file. See "/etc/bashre" on page 1049
for details on how to do this.
16.4 Boot Scripts 1047

Table 16.4 System-Wide Initialization Files (continued)

Versions
Shell Filename Implemented On Notes

/bin/csh /etc/csh.login Linux, FreeBSD, Same for tcsh.

HP-UX,

OSX Run at login only.

/etc/.login Solaris Run at login only.

/etc/csh.cshrc Linux, FreeBSD, Run for each shell invocation.

OSX

/etc/.cshrc Solaris Run by tcsh, but not by csh, each time a tcsh is
run.

In addition to the system initialization files, the local initialization files are also run
when a user logs in. If, for example, a user logs into the TC shell on a Red Hat system,
the files listed below will be sourced in the order listed. The first two files are system files
and the last two files are local files. The value of the HOME environment variable is the path
of the user's home directory.

/etc/csh.cshrc
/etc/csh.login
SHOME/.tcshrc
$H0ME/.login

/etc/profile. The /etc/profile file contains commands that are automatically run
when a user logs into a system using the Bourne, Bash, or Korn shell. A starter copy of
/etc/profile will be provided during the installation process. This file is normally modi-
fied by the system administrator to accomodate the needs of a particular system.

EXAMPLE 16.18

# cat /etc/profile
# System-wide environment and startup programs, for login setup
# Functions and aliases go in /etc/bashrc

1 pathmunge () {
2 if ! echo SPATH | /bin/egrep -q "(A|:)S1(S|:)" ; then
3 if [ "$2" = "after" ] ; then
4 PATH=$PATH:$1
else
5 PATH=$1:SPATH
fi
fi
1048 Chapter 16 • The System Administrator and the Shell

EXAMPLE 16.18 (continued)

6 }
# Path manipulation
7 if [ 'id -u' = 0 ]; then
8 pathmunge /sbin
9 pathmunge /usr/sbin
10 pathmunge /usr/local/sbin
fi
11 pathmunge /usr/XllR6/bin after
12 unset pathmunge
# No core files by default
13 ulimit -S -c 0 > /dev/null 2>&1

14 USER="'id -un'"
15 LOGNAME=$USER
16 MAIL="/var/spool/mai1/SUSER"
17 HOSTNAME=Vbin/hostname>
18 HISTSIZE=1000

19 if [ -z "SINPUTRC" -a ! -f "SHOME/.inputrc" ]; then

INPUTRC=/etc/inputrc
fi
20 export PATH USER LOGNAME MAIL HOSTNAME HISTSIZE INPUTRC
21 for i in /etc/profile.dA.sh ; do
22 if [ -r "$i" ]; then
23 . $i
fi
done
unset i

EXPLANATION

1 Starts the definition for the function called pathmungeQ. This function takes a di-
rectory name as an argument. Its purpose is to prepend the directory, given as an
argument, to the PATH variable. The function can optionally take a second argu-
ment of after, which will append the directory to the PATH. Note that the function
definition simply places the code for pathmungeQ into memory; the function will
not be activated until it is called.

2 Checks to see if the directory to be added is already in the user's PATH.

3 Checks to see if the optional argument after was included in the function call.

4 Adds the directory (the first argument to the pathmunge function) to the beginning
of the PATH. This line is only executed if the optional argument after was not in-
cluded in the function call.

5 Adds the directory (the first argument to the pathmunge function) to the end of the
PATH. This line is only executed if the optional argument after was included in the
function call.
16.4 Boot Scripts 1049

EXPLANATION (continued)

6 Ends the pathmunge definition.

7 If the user's UID equals 0 (in other words, if he or she is a superuser), then . . .

8 . . . calls the pathmunge() function, which adds the /sbin directory to the PATH.

9 Adds the /usr/sbin directory to the PATH.

10 Adds the /usr/local/sbin directory to the PATH.

11 Adds the /usr/XllR6/bin directory to the end of the PATH. Because this line is not in-
side the if statement, it will always be executed.

12 Removes the pathmunge() function definition from memory.

13 Sets the maximum coredump size to 0—this effectively stops the user from gen-
erating coredump files.

14 Sets the USER variable to the user's login name.

15 Sets the 10GNAME variable to the same value as USER.

16 Sets the MAIL variable to the user's incoming mailbox file.

17 Sets the HOSTNAME variable to this system's hostname.

18 Sets the history list size to a maximum of 1,000 commands.

19 If the INPUTRC variable has no value and SHOME/.inputrc does not exist, then sets the
INPUTRC variable to /etc/inputrc.

20 Exports all variables set in this script.

21 This for loop will cycle through all the files in the /etc/profile.d directory.

22 If the user has read permission on the file currently being processed by the for
loop . . .

23 . . . then source the file.

/etc/bashrc. The /etc/bashrc file is used on some UNIX releases, such as Red Hat
Linux, to run bash commands whenever a bash shell is run. This file should contain set-
tings that are not passed automatically to child processes, such as command aliases.

EXAMPLE 16.19

1 $ cat /etc/bashrc
2 alias ls="ls -F"
3 alias grep="grep -i"

EXPLANATION

1 The contents of the /etc/bashrc file are displayed.

2 An alias for the Is command is defined as Is -F. When Is is typed, Is -F will be

executed, modifying the display of Is.

3 An alias for the grep command is defined as grep -i. When the grep command is
used, it will be case insensitive.
1050 Chapter 16 • The System Administrator and the Shell

If you wish to use /etc/bashrc and your UNIX doesn't source it automatically you can
include it in the user's personal .bashrc file in his or her home directory

EXAMPLE 16.20

l $ cat .bashrc
2 if [ -f /etc/bashrc ]
then
3 . /etc/bashrc
fi
4 alias dir=ls

EXPLANATION I

1 The .bashrc file, found in the user's home directory, is sourced.

2 If the /etc/bashrc file exists and is a regular file, then go to line 3. Some machines run
/etc/bashrc automatically; on those machines this if statement will not be required.

3 The dot command sources the /etc/bashrc file (runs the commands from the file
in context of the current shell process; i.e., does not create a child process).

4 An alias for the di r command is defined. Notice that this is a personal alias created
by the user in his .bashrc file.

/etc/csh. 1 ogi n. The /etc/csh. 1 ogi n file is sourced by the C and TC shells during the
login process. Example 16.21 is an /etc/csh.login file from a Red Hat Linux system. Like
the .login file, this file is run at login time by the login shell, and not by any child shells
spawned thereafter. It is used to set environment variables for the shell and any other
commands that will be executed by the login shell.

EXAMPLE 16.21

# cat /etc/csh.login
# System-wide environment and startup programs, for login setup
1 if ($?PATH) then
2 setenv PATH "${PATH}:/usr/XllR6/bin"
else
3 setenv PATH 7bin:/usr/bin:/usr/local/bin:/usr/XllR6/bin"
endif

4 limit coredumpsize unlimited

5 setenv HOSTNAME '/bin/hostname'

6 set history=1000

7 if ( -f SHOME/.inputrc ) then
8 setenv INPUTRC /etc/inputrc
endif
16.4 Boot Scripts 1051

EXAMPLE 16.21 (continued)

9 if ( $?tcsh ) then
10 bindkey "a[[3~" delete-char
endif

EXPLANATION

l If the PATH variable has been set, the ? evaluates to true.

2 /usr/XllR6/bin is added to the PATH environment variable.

3 Otherwise, the PATH is assigned an initial value of /bin:/usr/bin:/usr/local/bin:/

usr/XllR6/bin.

4 The limit command restricts an upper limit on the size of a coredump.

5 The HOSTNAME variable is assigned the output of the hostname command, the system's
hostname.

6 The history list size is set to a maximum of 1,000 commands.

7 The .inputrc file sets editing modes, key bindings, and so forth for the Readline
library. This line checks to see if SHOME/.inputrc exists.

8 If SHOME/.inputrc does exist, then set the INPUTRC variable to /etc/inputrc.

9 If tcsh is the current shell, ? will return true, and line 10 will be executed.

10 The bindkey command sets an escape sequence for the Delete key used in com-
mand-line editing.

/etc/csh.cshrc. The /etc/csh.cshrc file is sourced by the C and TC shells whenever

they are run. C and TC shells can be started at login time (if it has been specified as a
user's login shell) when running a C or TC shell script, or when opening a shell window
that runs the C or TC shell. The example /etc/csh. cshrc file given below is from a Red Hat
Linux system. The /etc/csh.cshrc file should include items that are not exported to child
processes, such as setting a umask or setting the prompt. Note that in the C and TC shell
the prompt variable is local, which means it will not be passed to child processes.

EXAMPLE 16.22

# cat /etc/csh.cshrc
1 umask 022
2 if ($?prompt) then
3 if ($?tcsh) then
4 set prompt=,[%n(a%m %c]$ '
else
5 set prompt=\rid -nuThostname -sA]\$\
endif
endif
1052 Chapter 16 • The System Administrator and the Shell

EXAMPLE 16.22 (continued)

6 if ( -d /etc/profile.d ) then
7 set nonomatch
8 foreach i ( /etc/profile.d/*.csh )
9 if ( -r $i ) then
10 source Si
endif
end
11 unset i nonomatch
endif

EXPLANATION

1 Sets the umask to 022, which will block write permissions from being set on per-
missions for the group and others on newly created files.

2 The ? is used to check if the prompt variable has a value. If it does, then this is an
interactive shell.

3 The ? is used to see if the tcsh variable has a value. This variable is set only if we
are in the tcsh; it is not set in the C shell.

4 If this is a TC shell, then the prompt is set to the username (%n), followed by an @
symbol, followed by the host name (%h), followed by the current directory (%c).

5 If this is a C shell, then the prompt is set to the username (the output of the id
-nu command), followed by an @ symbol, followed by the hostname (the output of
the hostname -s command), followed by a dollar sign.

6 If the /etc/profile.d directory exists, then go to line 7.

7 The nonomatch is set to suppress any error messages produced if a shell wildcard
doesn't match a filename. This setting is in effect until the unset command is run.

8 This foreach loop will cycle through any files in the /etc/profile.d directory whose
name ends in .csh, assigning each name, in turn, to the variable i. Notice that if
*.csh does not match any of the filenames in the /etc/profile.d directory, an error
message, No match, would normally be displayed. Because of the nonomatch setting,
this will not happen.

9 If the user running this script has read permission on the file, whose name is cur-
rently stored in the variable i, then go to line 10.

10 The file is sourced.

11 The nonomatch variable is unset. This means that error messages will again be dis-
played if a shell wildcard doesn't match any filenames. The i variable is also unset,
which removes its value from memory. Shell scripts that are run in the regular
manner, that is, by typing the script name in at the command line, are run in a
subshell, making it uneccessary to unset variables because when the script exits,
the subshell also exits, and the variables will be removed from memory automat-
ically. Because this script is sourced, a subshell is not created, and the variables
will remain in the memory of the current shell. Because they are no longer needed,
the variables should be unset.
16.5 Summary 1053

16.5 Summary

As a system administrator you are the superuser and supreme in your power. Like a god,
you can create or destroy systems with just a few keystrokes. For such responsibility, a
little knowledge is a dangerous thing. Understanding how the shell works and how to
read, write, and modify shell scripts is crucial to your job, not only for automating every-
day tasks, but for keeping the environment safe and clean for those users who depend
on you. Shell scripts are run from the time the system boots to when it shuts down. They
are used for system initialization, monitoring processes, installing software, checking
disk usage, scheduling tasks, and so on. Beyond system chores, much of your time will
be devoted to managing user accounts that start with a login shell, run initialization
scripts, execute commands in a shell, and exit when the shell exits. This book was writ-
ten to help all types of UNIX/Linux users understand how the major shells work and
how to read and write scripts. This chapter was added to outline some of the shell scripts
that pertain to system administration and how they interact with the system and its
users. There are many topics that are not relevant here, but are important in the overall
subject of system administration. You may find the following list of resources helpful.

Nemeth, E., Snyder, G., Seebass, S., Flein, T. R., UNIX System Administration Handbook,
3rd Ed., Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall PTR, 2000. ISBN; 0131510517.

Nemeth, E., Snyder, G., Hein, T. R., Linux Administration Handbook, Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall PTR, 2002. ISBN: 0130084662.

Gagne, M., Linux System Administration: A User's Guide, Boston; Addison-Wesley, 2001.
ISBN: 0201719347.

Sobell, M. G., A Practical Guide to Red Hat Linux: Ledora Core and Red Hat Enterprise
Linux, 2nd Ld., Pearson Education, 2004. ISBN; 0131470248.

See also www.ugu.com, Unix Guru Universe: The Official Home Page for Unix System
Administrators.
This page intentionally left blank
appendix

Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities

for Shell Programmers

apropos—searches the whati S database for strings

apropos keyword ,

apropos searches a set of database files (see directory /usr/man/whatis) containing short
descriptions of system commands for keywords and displays the result on the standard
output. Same as man -k.

EXAMPLE A. 1

1 $ apropos bash
bash (1) - GNU Bourne-Again SHell

2 $ man -k tcsh
tsh (1) - C shell with filename completionand command-!ine editing

EXPLANATION

1 apropos searches for the keyword bash and prints a short description of what it is.

2 man -k behaves the same as apropos.

arch—prints the machine architecture (see uname -m)

arch

On current Linux systems, arch prints things such as 1386, i486,1586, alpha, spare, arm,
ni68k, mips, or ppc.

EXAMPLE A.2

$ arch
1386

1055
1056 Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers

at, batch—executes commands at a later time

at [-csm] [-f script] [-qqueue] time [date] [+ increment]

at -1 [ job...]
at -r job...
batch

at and batch read commands from standard input to be executed at a later time, at
allows you to specify when the commands should be executed, whereas jobs queued
with batch will execute when system load level permits. Executes commands read from
stdin or a file at some later time. Unless redirected, the output is mailed to the user.

EXAMPLE A.3

l at 6:30am Dec 12 < program

2 at noon tomorrow < program
3 at 1945 pm August 9 < program
4 at now + 3 hours < program
5 at 8:30am Jan 4 < program
6 at -r 83883555320.a

EXPLANATION

1 At 6:30 in the morning on December 12, start the job.

2 At noon tomorrow start the job.

3 At 7:45 in the evening on August 9, start the job.

4 In three hours start the job.

5 At 8:30 in the morning on January 4, start the job.

6 Removes previously scheduled job 83883555320.a.

awk—pattern scanning and processing language

awk [ -fprog ram-file ] [ -Fc ] [ prog ] [ parameters ] [ filename...]

awk scans each input filename for lines that match any of a set of patterns specified in prog.

EXAMPLE A.4

1 awk '{print $1, $2}' file

2 awk '/lohn/fprint $3, $4}' file
3 awk -F: '{print $3}' /etc/passwd
4 date | awk '{print $6}'

EXPLANATION

1 Prints the first two fields of file where fields are separated by whitespace.

2 Prints fields 3 and 4 if the pattern John is found.

3 Using a colon as the field separator, prints the third field of the /etc/passwd file.

4 Sends the output of the date command to awk and prints the sixth field.
Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers 1057

banner—makes posters
banner prints its arguments (each up to 10 characters long) in large letters on the stan-
dard output.

EXAMPLE A.5

banner Happy Birthday

EXPLANATION

Displays in banner format the string Happy Bi rthday.

basename—with a directory name delivers portions of the pathname

basename string [ suffix ]

dirnatne string

basename deletes any prefix ending in / (forward slash) and the suffix (if present in
string) from string, and prints the result on the standard output.

EXAMPLE A.6

1 basename /usr/local/bin
2 sc^iptname=",basename $0'"

EXPLANATION

1 Strips off the prefix /usr/local/ and displays bin.

2 Assigns just the name of the script, $0, to the variable scriptname.

bash—GNU Bourne Again Shell

bash [options] [file[argunients]]

sh [options] [fi]e[argunients]]

bash is Copyright © 1989, 1991 by the Free Software Foundation, Inc. bash is a sh-
compatible command language interpreter that executes commands read from the stan-
dard input or from a file, bash also incorporates useful features from the Korn and C
shells (ksh and csh).

be—processes precision arithmetic

be [ -c ] [ -1 ] [ filename...]

be is an interactive processor for a language that resembles C, but provides unlimited

precision arithmetic. It takes input from any files given, then reads the standard input.
1058 Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers

EXAMPLE A.7

1 be « EOF
scale=3
4.5 + 5.6/3
EOF
Output : 6.366

2 be
ibase=2
5
101 (Output)
20
10100 (Output
AD

EXPLANATION

1 This is a here document. From the first EOF to the last EOF input is given to the be com-
mand. The scale specifies the number of digits to the right of the decimal point.
The result of the calculation is displayed on the screen.

2 The number base is 2. The number is converted to binary (AT&T only).

bdiff—compares two big files

bdiff compares two files that are too large for diff.

cal—displays a calendar

cal [ [ month ] year ]

cal prints a calendar for the specified year. If a month is also specified, a calendar just
for that month is printed. If neither is specified, a calendar for the present month is
printed.

EXAMPLE A.8

1 cal 1997
2 cal 5 1978

EXPLANATION

1 Prints the calendar year 1997.

2 Prints the month of May for 1978.

cat—concatenates and displays files

cat [ -bnsuvet ] filename...

Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers 1059

cat reads each filename in sequence and writes it on the standard output. If no input
file is given, or if the argument - is encountered, cat reads from the standard input file.

EXAMPLE A.9

1 cat /etc/passwd
2 cat -n filel file2 » fileB

EXPLANATION

1 Displays the contents of the /etc/passwd file.

2 Concatenates filel and file2 and appends output to fileB. The -n switch causes
each line to be numbered.

chfn—changes the finger information

chfn [ -f full-name ] [ -o office ] [ -poffice-phone ]

[ -h home-phone ] [ -u ] [ -v ] [ username ]

chfn is used to change your finger information. This information is stored in the
/etc/passwd file, and is displayed by the finger program. The Linux finger command will
display four pieces of information that can be changed by chfn; your real name, your
work room and phone, and your home phone.

chmod—changes the permissions mode of a file

chmod [ -fR ] mode filename...

chmod [ugoa ]{ + i - i = }[ rwxlsStlugo] filename...

chmod changes or assigns the mode of a file. The mode of a file specifies its permissions
and other attributes. The mode may be absolute or symbolic.

EXAMPLE A.10

1 chmod +x script.file
2 chmod u+x.g-x file
3 chmod 755 *

EXPLANATION

1 Turns on execute permission for user, group, and others on sen'pt.fi 1 e.

2 Turns on execute permission for user, and removes it from group on file.

3 Turns on read, write, and execute for the user, read and execute for the group, and
read and execute for others on all files in the current working directory. The value
is octal ( 111 101 101 ).
rwxxr-xr-x
1060 Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers

chown—changes owner of file

chown [ -fhR ] owner filename ...

chown changes the owner of the files to owner. The owner may be either a decimal user
ID or a login name found in /etc/passwd file. Only the owner of a file (or the superuser)
may change the owner of that file.

EXAMPLE A.ll

1 chown john filex

2 chown -R ellie ellie

EXPLANATION

1 Changes the user ID of filex to john.

2 Recursively changes the ownership to ellie for all files in the ellie directory.

chsh—changes your login shell

chsh [ -s shell ] [ -1 ] [ -u ] [ -v ] [ username ]

chsh is used to change your login shell. If a shell is not given on the command line,
chsh prompts for one. All valid shells are listed in the /etc/shells file.

-s, --shell Specifies your login shell.

-1, -list-shells Prints the list of shells listed in /etc/shells and exits.
-u, —help Prints a usage message and exits.
-v, --version Prints version information and exits.

EXAMPLE A.12

1 $ chsh -1
/bin/bash
/bin/sh
/bin/ash
/bin/bsh
/bin/tcsh
/bin/csh
/bin/ksh
/bin/zsh

2 $ chsh
Changing shell for ellie.
New shell [/bin/sh] tcsh
chsh: shell ust be a full pathname.
Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers 1061

EXPLANATION

1 Lists all available shells on this Linux system.

2 Asks the user to type in the full pathname for a new login shell. Fails unless a full
pathname, such as /bin/tcsh, is given.

clear—clears the terminal screen

cmp—compares two files

cmp [ -1 ] [ -s ] filenamel filename2

The two files are compared, cmp makes no comment if the files are the same; if they
differ, it announces the byte and line numbers at which the first difference occurred.

EXAMPLE A.13

cmp file.new file.old

EXPLANATION

If the files differ, the character number and the line number are displayed.

compress—compress, uncompress, zcat compress, uncompress files, or display

expanded files

compress [ -cfv ] [ -b bits ] [ filename... ]

uncompress [ -cv ] [ filename... ]
zcat [ filename... ]

compress reduces the size of the named files using adaptive Lempel-Ziv coding. When-
ever possible, each file is replaced by one with a .Z extension. The ownership modes,
access time, and modification time will stay the same. If no files are specified, the stan-
dard input is compressed to the standard output.

EXAMPLE A.14

1 compress -v book
book:Compression:35.07% — replaced with book.Z
2 Is
book.Z

EXPLANATION

1 Compresses the book into a file called book.Z and displays the percentage that the
file was compressed and its new name.
1062 Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers

cp—copies files

cp [ -i ] [ -p ] [ -r ] [ filename ... ] target

The cp command copies filename to another target, which is either a file or directory.
The filename and target cannot have the same name. If the target is not a directory, only
one file may be specified before it; if it is a directory, more than one file may be specified.
If target does not exist, cp creates a file named target. If target exists and is not a directory,
its contents are overwritten. If target is a directory, the file(s) are copied to that directory.

EXAMPLE A.15

1 cp filel file2
2 cp chapterl book
3 cp -r desktop /usr/bin/tester

EXPLANATION

1 Copies the contents of filel to file2.

2 Copies the contents of chapterl to the book directory. In the book directory, chapterl
has its original name.

3 Recursively copies the entire desktop directory into /usr/bin/tester.

cpio—copies file archives in and out

cpio -i [ bBcdfkmrsStuvVG ] [ -C bufsize ] [ -E filename ]

[ -H header ] [ -I filename [ -M message ] ] [ -R id ] [ pattern ... ]
cpio -o [ aABclvV ] [ -C bufsize ] [ -H header ]
[ -0 filename [ -M message ] ]
cpio -p [ adllmuvV ] [ -R id ] directory

cpio copies file archives according to the modifiers given, usually for backup to a tape
or directory.

EXAMPLE A.16

find . -depth -print | cpio -pdmv /home/john/tmp

EXPLANATION

Starting at the current directory, find descends the directory hierarchy, printing each en-
try of the directory even if the directory does not have write permission, and sends the
filenames to cpio to be copied into the john/tmp directory in the /home partition.

cron—the clock daemon

cron executes commands at specified dates and times. Regularly scheduled jobs can
be specified in the /etc/crontab file. In order to use cron, one of the following must be
true; (1) you are superuser; (2) you are regular user, but your user ID is listed in the
Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers 1063

/etc/cron. al 1 ow file; (3) you are regular user, but your system contains a file /etc/cron. deny,
which is empty

crypt—encodes or decodes a file

crypt [ password ]

crypt encrypts and decrypts the contents of a file. The password is a key that selects
a type of transformation.

cut—removes selected fields or characters from each line of a file

cut -clist [ filename ... ]

cut -flist [ -de ] [ -s ] [ filename ... ]

The cut command cuts out columns or characters from a line of a file; if no files are
given, uses standard input. The -d option specifies the field delimiter. The default delim-
iter is a tab.

EXAMPLE A.17

1 cut -d: -fl,3 /etc/passwd

2 cut -d: -fl-5 /etc/passwd
3 cut -cl-3,8-12 /etc/passwd
4 date | cut -cl-3

EXPLANATION

l Using the colon as a field delimiter, displays fields 1 and 3 of the /etc/passwd file.

2 Using the colon as a field separator, displays fields 1 through 5 of the etc/passwd
file.

3 Cuts and displays characters 1 through 3 and 8 through 12 of each line from the
/etc/passwd file.

4 Sends the output of the date command as input to cut. The first three characters
are printed.

date—displays the date and time or sets the date

[ -u ] [ -a [ - ] sss.fff ] [ yymmddhhmm [ .ss ] ] [+format ]

Without arguments, the date command displays the date and time. If the command-
line argument starts with a plus sign, the rest of the argument is used to format the output.
If a percent sign is used, the next character is a formatting character to extract a particular
part of the date, such as just the year or weekday. To set the date, the command-line argu-
ment is expressed in digits representing the year, month, day, hours, and minutes.
1064 Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers

EXAMPLE A.18

1 date +%\
2 date +20%y
3 date "+It i s now %in/%d /%y"

EXPLANATION

1 Displays the time as 20:25:51.

2 Displays 2096.

3 Displays It is now 07/25/96.

dd—converts a file while copying it

dd [—help] [—version] [if=file] [of=file][ibs=bytes] [obs=bytes]

[bs=bytes] [cbs=bytes] [skip=blocks] [seek=b]ocks] [count=blocks]
[conv={ascii,ebcdic,ibm,block,unblock,lease,ucase,swab,noerror,notrunc, sync}]

Copies a file from one place to another, most commonly to and from tape drives or
from different operating systems.

EXAMPLE A.19

1 $ dd —help
2 $ dd if=inputfile of=outputfile conv=ucase

EXPLANATION

1 Prints all options and flags with a short description of each.

2 Converts all characters in inputfile to uppercase and sends output to outputfile.

diff—compares two files for differences

[-bitw] [-c | -Cn]

Compares two files and displays the differences on a line-by-line basis. Also displays
commands that you would use with the ed editor to make changes.

EXAMPLE A.20

diff filel file2

Id
< hello there

> Hello there.

2a3
> I'm fine.
Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers 1065

EXPLANATION

Shows how each line of filel and fileZ differs. The first file is represented by the < sym-
bol, and the second file by the > symbol. Each line is preceded by an ed command in-
dicating the editing command that would be used to make the files the same.

dos, xdos, dosexec, dosdebug—a Linux DOS emulator that runs MS-DOS and
MS-DOS programs under Linux

(See Linux man page for a complete description. It's long . . .)

df—summarizes free disk space

df [-aikPv] [-t fstype] [-x fstype] [—all][—1 nodes][—type=fstype]

[—exclude-type=fstype][—kilobytes] [—portability] [-print-type]
[—help] [—version] [filename...]

The df command shows information about the filesystem on which each file resides,
or all filesystems by default.

EXAMPLE A.21

df
Filesystem 1024-blocks Used Available Capacity
Mounted on
/dev/hda5 1787100 1115587 579141 66% /

du—summarizes disk usage

du [-arskod] [name ...]

The du command reports the number of 512-byte blocks contained in all files and
(recursively) directories within each directory and file specified.

EXAMPLE A.22

1 du -s /desktop
2 du -a

EXPLANATION

1 Displays a summary of the block usage for all the files in /desktop and its sub-
directories.

2 Displays block usage for each file in this directory and subdirectories.
1066 Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers

echo—echoes arguments

echo [ argument ] ...

echo [ -n ] [ argument ]

echo writes its arguments separated by blanks and terminated by a newline on the
standard output.

System V echo options:

\b backspace
\c suppress newline
\f form feed
\n newline
\r return
\t tab
\v vertical tab
\\ backslash
\0n n is a 1, 2, or 3, octal value

egrep—searches a file for a pattern using full regular expressions

egrep [ -bchilnsv ] [ -e special-expression ][ -f filename ]

[ strings ] [ filename ... ]

egrep (expression grep) searches files for a pattern of characters and prints all lines
that contain that pattern, egrep uses full regular expressions (expressions with string val-
ues that use the full set of alphanumeric and special characters) to match the patterns.

EXAMPLE A.23

1 egrep 'Tom|John1 datafile

2 egrep 'a [A-Zli* file

EXPLANATION

1 Displays all lines in datafile containing the pattern either Tom or John.

2 Displays all lines starting with one or more uppercase letters.

expr—evaluates arguments as an expression

expr arguments

The arguments are taken as an expression. After evaluation, the result is written to
the standard output. The terms of the expression must be separated by blanks. Charac-
ters special to the shell must be escaped. Used in Bourne shell scripts for performing
simple arithmetic operations.
Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers 1067

EXAMPLE A.24

1 expr 5 + 4
2 expr 5 \* 3
3 nuin=0
numAexpr Snutn + 1'

EXPLANATION

l Prints the sum of 5 + 4

2 Prints the result of 5 * 3. The asterisk is protected from shell expansion.

3 After assigning 0 to variable num, the expr command adds 1 to num and result is as-
signed to num.

fgrep—searches a file for a character string

fgrep [ -bchilnsvx ] [ -e special string ]

[ -f filename ] [ strings ] [ filename ... ]

fgrep (fast grep) searches files for a character string and prints all lines that contain
that string, fgrep is different from grep and eg rep because it interprets regular expression
metacharacters as literals.

EXAMPLE A.25

1 fgrep '***' *
2 fgrep '[]*?$' filex

EXPLANATION

1 Displays any line containing three asterisks from each file in the present directory.
All characters are treated as themselves (i.e., metacharacters are not special).

2 Displays any lines in filex containing the string enclosed in quotes.

file—determines the type of a file by looking at its contents

file [[ -f ffile ][ -cl ] [ -m mfile ] filename...

file performs a series of tests on each filename in an attempt to determine what it

contains. If the contents of the file appear to be ASCII text, file examines the first 512
bytes and tries to guess its language.

EXAMPLE A.26

1 file bin/Is
/bin/Is: spare pure dynamically linked executable
2 file go
go: executable shell script
3 file junk
junk: English text
1068 Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers

EXPLANATION

1 Is is a binary file dynamically linked when executed.

2 go is an executable shell script.

3 junk is a file containing ASCII text.

find—finds files

find path-name-list expression

find recursively descends the directory hierarchy for each pathname in the pathname
list (i.e., one or more pathnames) seeking files that match options. The first argument is
the path where the search starts. The rest of the arguments specify some criteria by
which to find the files, such as name, size, owner, permissions, and so on. Check the
UNIX manual pages for different syntax.

EXAMPLE A.27

1 find . -name \*.c -print

2 find .. -type f -print
3 find . -type d -print
4 find / -size 0 - exec rm "{}" \;
5 find ~ -perm 644 -print
6 find . -type f -size +500C -atime +21 -ok rm -f "{}" \;
7 find . -name core -print 2> /dev/null (Bourne and Korn Shells)
( find . -name core -print > /dev/tty ) >& /dev/null (C shell)
8 find / -user ellie xdev -print
9 find ~ -atime +31 -exec mv {} /old/{} \; -print

EXPLANATION

l Starting at the present working directory (dot), finds all files ending in .c and
prints the full pathname of the files.

2 Starting at the parent directory (dot dot), finds all files of type file (i.e., files that
are not directories).

3 Starting at the present directory (dot), finds all directory files.

4 Starting at the root directory, finds all files of size 0 and removes them. The {} are
used as a placeholder for the name of each file as it is found.

5 Starting at the user's home directory ~ (Korn and C shells), finds all files that have
permissions 644 (read and write for the owner, and read permission for the group
and others).

6 Starting at the present working directory, finds files that are over 500 bytes and
have not been accessed in the last 21 days and asks if it is okay to remove them.

7 Starting at the present working directory, finds and displays all files named core
and sends errors to /dev/null, the UNIX bit bucket.
Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers 1069

EXPLANATION (continued)

8 Prints all files on the root partition that belong to user el lie.

9 Moves files that are older than 31 days into a directory, /old, and prints the files as
it moves them.

finger—displays information about local and remote users

finger [ -bfhilmpqsw ] [ username... ]

finger [-1] usernamedhostname...

By default, the finger command displays information about each logged-in user,
including login name, full name, terminal name (prepended with an * if write permis-
sion is denied), idle time, login time, and location if known.

fmt—simple text formatters

fmt [ -c ] [ -s ] [ -w width | -width ] [ inputfile... ]

fmt is a simple text formatter that fills and joins lines to produce output lines of (up
to) the number of characters specified in the -w width option. The default width is 72.
fmt concatenates the input files listed as arguments. If none are given, fmt formats text
from the standard input.

EXAMPLE A.28

fmt -c -w45 letter

EXPLANATION

Formats letter. The -c switch preserves the indentation of the first two lines within the
paragraph and aligns the left margin of each subsequent line with that of the second
line. The -w switch fills the output line of up to 45 columns.

fol d—folds long lines

fold [ -w width | -width ] [ filename ... ]

Folds the contents of the specified filenames, or the standard input if no files are spec-
ified, breaking the lines to have maximum width. The default for width is 80. Width
should be a multiple of 8 if tabs are present, or the tabs should be expanded.

ftp—file transfer program

ftp [ -dgintv ] [ hostname ]

The ftp command is the user interface to the Internet standard File Transfer Protocol
(FTP), ftp transfers files to and from a remote network site. The file transfer program is
not limited to UNIX machines.
1070 Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers

EXAMPLE A.29

1 ftp ftp.uu.net
2 ftp -n 127.150.28.56

EXPLANATION

1 ftp to the machine ftp.uu.net, a large repository run by the UUNET service that
handles e-mail and net news for UNIX systems.

2 Opens a connection to the machine at 127.45.4.1 and does not attempt to auto-
login.

free—displays amount of free and used memory in the system

free [-b i -k | -m] [-o] [-s delay ] [-t] [-V]

free displays the total amount of free and used physical and swap memory in the sys-
tem, as well as the shared memory and buffers used by the kernel.

EXAMPLE A.30 1

% free
total used free shared buffers cached
Mem: 64148 54528 9620 45632 3460 29056
-/+ buffers/cache: 22012 42136
Swap: 96352 0 96352

fuser—identifies processes using files or sockets

fuser [-a|-s] [-n space] [-signal] [-kmuv] name ...[-] [-n space]
[-signal] [-kmuv] name ...
fuser -1
fuser -V

The fuser command displays the PIDs of processes using the specified file or filesys-
tems. In the default display mode, each filename is followed by a letter denoting the type
of access.

EXAMPLE A.31

% fuser —help
usage: fuser [ -a I -q ][ -n space ] [ -signal ] [ -kmuv ]
filename ...[-][ -n space ] [ -signal ] [ -kmuv ] name

fuser -1
fuser -V
-a display unused files too
-k kill processes accessing that file
Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers 1071

EXAMPLE A.31 (continued)

-7 list signal names

-m mounted FS
-n space search in the specified name space (file, udp, or tcp)
-5 silent operation
-signal send signal instead of SIGKILL
-u display user ids
-V verbose output
-V display version information
- reset options

udp/tcp names: [locaLport][,[rmt_host][,[rmt_port]]]

gawk—pattern scanning and processing language

gawk [ POSIX or GNU style options ] -f program-file [— ] file ...

gawk [ POSIX or GNU style options ] [ — ]prog ram-text file ...

gawk is the GNU Project's implementation of the awk programming language. It con-
forms to the definition of the language in the POSIX 1003.2 Command Language And
Utilities Standard. This version in turn is based on the description in The AWK Program-
ming Language, by Aho, Kernighan, and Weinberger, with the additional features found
in the System V Release 4 version of UNIX awk. gawk also provides more recent Bell Labs
awk extensions, and some GNU-specific extensions.

gcc, g++—GNU project C and C++ Compiler (v2.7)

gcc [ option | filename ]...

g++ [ option | filename ]...

getopt(s)—parses command-line options

The getopts command supersedes getopt. getopts is used to break up options in com-
mand lines for easy parsing by shell procedures and to check for legal options.

grep—searches a file for a pattern

grep [ -bchilnsvw ] limited-regular-expression [ filename ... ]

grep searches files for a pattern and prints all lines that contain that pattern. Uses reg-
ular expression metacharacters to match the patterns, eg rep has an extended set of meta-
characters.

EXAMPLE A.32

1 grep Tom filel fileZ fileB

2 grep -in 'Atom savage' *
1072 Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers

EXPLANATION

1 Grep displays all lines in filel, file2, and fileB that contain the pattern Tom.

2 Grep displays all lines with line numbers from the files in the current working di-
rectory that contain torn savage if torn savage is at the beginning of the line, ignoring
case.

groups—prints group membership of user

groups [ user... ]

The command groups prints on standard output the groups to which you or the
optionally specified user belong.

gzip, gunzip, zcat—compresses or expands files

gzip [ -acdfhlLnNrtvV19 ] [-S suffix] [ name ... ]

gunzip [ -acfhlLnNrtvV ] [-S suffix] [ name ... ]
zcat [ -fhLV ] [ name ... ]

gzip reduces the size of the named files using Lempel-Ziv encoding (LZ77). When-
ever possible, each file is replaced by one with the extension .CZ, while keeping the same
ownership modes, access, and modification times.

head—outputs the first ten lines of a file(s)

head [-c N[bkm]] [-n N] [-qv] [--bytes=N[bkm]] [—lines=N] [--quiet]

[—silent] [—verbose] [—help] [—version] [file...]
head [-Nbcklmqv] [file...]

head displays the first ten lines of each file to standard output. With more than one
file, it precedes each file with a header giving the filename. With no file, or when file is
-, reads from standard input.

host—prints information about specified hosts or zones in DNS

host [1] [-v] [-w] [-r] [-d] [-t querytype] [a] host [server]

The host command prints information about specified Internet hosts. It gets its infor-
mation from a set of interconnected servers spread across the country. By default, it con-
verts between hostnames and IP addresses. With the -a or -t switch, all information is
printed.

id—prints the username, user ID, group name, and group ID

/usr/bin/id [ -a ]

id displays your user ID, username, group ID, and group name. If your real ID and
your effective IDs do not match, both are printed.
Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers 1073

jsh—the standard, job control shell

jsh [ -acefhiknprstuvx ] [ argument...]

The command jsh is an interface to the standard Bourne shell that provides all of the
functionality of the Bourne shell and enables job control.

kill—sends a signal to terminate one or more processes

kill [

kill sends a signal to terminate one or more process IDs.

ki 11 all —kills processes by name

less—opposite of more

less -?
less —help
less -V
less --version
less [-[+]aBcCdeEfgGiImMnNqQrsSuUVwX][-b bufs] [-h lines] [-j line]
[-k keyfile][-{oO} logfile] [-p pattern] [-P prompt] [-t tag]
[-T tagsfile] [-x tab] [-y lines] [-[z] lines] [+[+]cmd] [—]
[filename]...

less is a program similar to more, but which allows backward movement in the file as
well as forward movement. Also, less does not have to read the entire input file before
starting, so with large input files it starts up faster than text editors like vi. less uses ter-
mcal (or terminfo on some systems), so it can run on a variety of terminals. There is even
limited support for hardcopy terminals.

1 ine—reads one line

line copies one line (up to a newline) from the standard input and writes it on the
standard output. It returns an exit code of 1 on EOF and always prints at least a newline.
It is often used within shell files to read from the user's terminal.

1 n—creates hard links to files

In [options] source [dest]

In [options] source... directory
Options:
[-bdfinsvF] [-S backup-suffix] [-V {numbered,existing,simple}]
[—version-control={numbered,existing,simple}] [—backup]
[--directory] [--force][--interactive] [--no-dereference] [--symbolic]
[—verbose] [—suffix=backup-suffix] [—help] [—version]
1074 Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers

If the last argument names an existing directory, 1 n links each other given file into a
file with the same name in that directory. If only one file is given, it links that file into
the current directory. Otherwise, if only two files are given, it links the first onto the sec-
ond. It is an error if the last argument is not a directory and more than two files are given.
Symbolic links are used if crossing a partition.

OPTIONS:

-b, —backup Makes backups of files that are about to be removed.

-d, -F, —directory Allows the superuser to make hard links to directories.

-f, —force Removes existing destination files.

i, —interactive Prompts whether to remove existing destination files.

-n, -no-dereference When the specified destination is a symbolic link to a directory,

attempts to replace the symbolic link rather than dereferencing
it to create a link in the directory to which it points. This
option is most useful in conjunction with --force.

-s, —symbolic Makes symbolic links instead of hard links.

-v, —verbose Prints the name of each file before linking it.

-help Prints a usage message on standard output; exits successfully.

—version Prints version information on standard output; exits

successfully.

-S,—suffix backup-suffix The suffix used for making simple backup files can be set with
the SIMPLE_BACKUP_SUFFIX environment variable, which can be
overridden by this option. If neither of those is given, the
default is ~, as it is in emacs.

-V, -version-control The type of backups made can be set with the VERSION.CONTROL
{numbered,exi sti ng,si mpl e} environment variable.

EXAMPLE A.33

1 Is -1
total 2
drwxrwsr-x 2 ellie root 1024 Jan 19 18:34 dir
-rw-rw-r— 1 ellie root 16 Jan 19 18:34 filex
2 % In filex dir
3 % cd dir
4 % Is -1
total 1
-rw-rw-r-- 2 ellie root 16 Jan 19 18:34 filex
Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers 1075

EXPLANATION

1 The output of the 1 s command displays a long listing for a directory called di r and
a file called filex. The number of links on a directory is always at least two, one
for the directory itself, and one for its parent. The number of links for a file is al-
ways at least one, one to link it to the directory where it was created. When you
remove a file, its link count drops to zero.

2 The In command creates a hard link, fllex is now linked to the directory, dir, as
well as the current directory. A link does not create a new file. It simply gives an
existing file an additional name or directory where it can be found. If you remove
one of the links, you'll still have one left. Any changes made to one of the linked
files, results in changes to the other, because they are the same file.

3 Change to the directory where filex was linked.

4 The link count for filex is 2. It is the same file but can now be accessed in this
directory as well as the parent directory.

logname—gets the name of the user running the process

100k—displays lines beginning with a given string

look [-dfa] [-t termchar] string [file]

look displays any lines in a file that contain a string as a prefix. As look performs a
binary search, the lines in the file must be sorted. If a file is not specified, the file
/usr/dict/words is used, only alphanumeric characters are compared, and the case of
alphabetic characters is ignored.

OPTIONS:

-d Dictionary character set and order; i.e., only alphanumeric characters are
compared.

-f Ignores the case of alphabetic characters.

-a Uses the alternate dictionary /usr/dict/web2.

-t Specifies a string termination character; i.e., only the characters in string

up to and including the first occurrence of the termination character are
compared.

The look utility exits 0 if one or more lines were found and displayed, 1 if no lines
were found, and >1 if an error occurred.
1076 Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers

EXAMPLE A.34

l % look sunb
sunbeam
sunbeams
Sunbelt
sunbonnet
sunburn
sunburnt
2 % look karen sorted.datebook
3 % look Karen sorted.datebook
Karen Evich:284-758-2857:23 Edged iff Place, Lincoln, m
92086:7/25/53:85100
Karen Evich:284-758-2867:23 Edgecliff Place, Lincoln, NB
92743:11/3/35:58200
Karen Evich:284-758-2867:23 Edgecliff Place, Lincoln, NB
92743:11/3/35:58200
4 % look -f karen sorted.datebook
Karen Evich:284-758-2857:23 Edgecliff Place, Lincoln, NB
92086:7/25/53:85100
Karen Evich:284-758-2867:23 Edgecliff Place, Lincoln, NB
92743:11/3/35:58200
Karen Evich:284-758-2867:23 Edgecliff Place, Lincoln, NB
92743:11/3/35:58200

EXPLANATION

1 look displays all lines in /usr/dict/words that start with the string sunb, assuming
/usr/dict/words is in the current directory.

2 look cannot find a line that starts with karen in a file called sorted.datebook. (The
file must be sorted or look will not find anything.)

3 look displays all lines with lines starting with the string, Karen, in file, sorted.date-
book.

4 The -f option folds upper and lowercase in the search string (i.e., turns off case-
sensitivity).

lp—sends output to a printer (AT&T)

Ip [ -cmsw ] [ -ddest ] [ -number ] [ -ooption ] [ -ttitle ] filename ...

cancel [ ids ] [ printers ]

lp, cancel sends or cancels requests to a lineprinter.

EXAMPLE A.35

1 lp -n5 filea fileb

2 lp -dShakespeare filex
Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers 1077

EXPLANATION

1 Send five copies of fi 1 ea and fi 1 eb to the printer.

2 Specify Shakespeare as the printer where filex will be printed.

Ipr—sends output to a printer (UCB)

Ipr [ -Pprinter ] [ -#copies ] [ -Cclass ] [ -Jjob ]

[ -Ttitle ] [ -i [ indent ] ] [ -1234font ] [ -wcols ]
[ -r ] [ -in ] [ -h ] [ -s ] [ -filter-option ] [ filename ... ]

Ipr creates a printer job in a spooling area for subsequent printing as facilities become
available. Each printer job consists of a control job and one or more data files.

EXAMPLE A.36

1 Ipr -#5 filea fileb

2 Ipr -PShakespeare filex

EXPLANATION

1 Sends five copies of filea and fileb to the printer.

2 Specifies Shakespeare as the printer where fi 1 ex will be printed.

IpStat—prints information about the status of the LP print service (AT&T)

Ipq—prints information about the status of the printer (UCB)

1S—lists contents of directory

Is [ -abcCdfFgilLmnopqrRstuxl ] [ names ]

For each directory argument, Is lists the contents of the directory; for each file argu-
ment, Is repeats its name and any other information requested. The output is sorted
alphabetically by default. When no argument is given, the current directory is listed.

EXAMPLE A.37

1 Is -alF
2 Is -d a*
3 Is -i

EXPLANATION

1 The -a lists invisible files (those files beginning with a dot), the -1 is a long listing
showing attributes of the file, the -F puts a slash at the end of directory filenames,
an * at the end of executable script names, and an @ symbol at the end of symbol-
ically linked files.
1078 Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers

EXPLANATION (continued)

2 If the argument to the -d switch is a directory, only the name of the directory is
displayed, not its contents.

3 The -i switch causes each filename to be preceded by its inode number.

mail, rmail—reads mail or sends mail to users

Sending mail
mail [ -tw ] [ -m message_type ] recipient...
rmail [ -tw ] [ -m message_type ] recipient...
Reading mail
mail [ -ehpPqr ] [ -f filename ]
Forwarding mail
mail -F recipient...
Debugging
mail [ -x debugJevel ] [ other_mail.options ] recipient...
mail [ -T mailsurr.file ] recipient...

A recipient is usually a username recognized by login. When recipients are named,

mail assumes a message is being sent. It reads from the standard input up to an end-of-
file (Ctrl-D), or if reading from a terminal, until it reads a line consisting of just a period.
When either of those indicators is received, mail adds the letter to the mailfile for each
recipient.

mailx—interactive message processing system

mailx [ -deHilnNUvV ] [ -f [ filenamel+folder ]]

[ -T filename ] [ -u user ] [ recipient... ]
mailx [ -dFinUv ] [ -h number ] [ -r address ][ -s subject ] recipient...

The mail utilities listed above provide an interactive interface for sending, receiving,
and manipulating mail messages. Basic Networking Utilities must be installed for some
of the features to work. Incoming mail is stored in a file called mai 1 box, and after it is read,
is sent to a file called mbox.

make—maintains, updates, and regenerates groups of related programs and files

make [ -f makefile ] ... [ -d ] [ -dd ] [ -D ]

[ -DD ] [ -e ] [ -i ] [ -k ] [ -n ] [ -p ] [ -P ]
[ -q ] [ -r ] [ -s ] [ -S ] [ -t ] [ target ... ]
[ macro=value ... ]

make updates files according to commands listed in a description file, and if the target
file is newer than the dependency file of the same name, make will update the target file.
Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers 1079

man—formats and displays the online manual pages

man [-acdfhktwW] [-m system] [-p string] [-C config_fi]e] [-M path]
[-P pager] [-S sectionjist] [section] name...

manpath—determines user's search path for man pages

man [-acdfhkKtwW] [-m system] [-p string][-C config_file][-M path]

[-P pager] [-S section_list][section] name ...

man formats and displays the online manual pages. This version knows about the MAN-
PATH and (MAN)PAGER environment variables, so you can have your own set(s) of personal
man pages and choose whatever program you like to display the formatted pages. If sec-
tion is specified, man only looks in that section of the manual.

mesg—permits or denies messages resulting from the write command

mesg [ -n ] [ -y ]

mesg with argument -n forbids messages via write by revoking nonuser write permis-
sion on the user's terminal, mesg with argument -y reinstates permission. All by itself, mesg
reports the current state without changing it.

Itlkdir—creates a directory

mkdir [ -p ] dirname ...

more—browses or pages through a text file

more [ -cdflrsuw ] [ -lines ] [ +linenumber ] [ +/pattern ] [ filename ... ]

page [ -cdflrsuw ] [ -lines ] [ +linenumber ] [ +/pattern ] [ filename ... ]

more is a filter that displays the contents of a text file on the terminal, one screenful at
a time. It normally pauses after each screenful, and prints -More- at the bottom of the
screen.

mtool S—utilities to access DOS disks in UNIX

mtool s is a public domain collection of tools to allow UNIX systems to manipulate MS-
DOS files read, write, and move around files on an MS-DOS file system (typically a
floppy disk). Where reasonable, each program attempts to emulate the MS-DOS equiv-
alent command. However, unnecessary restrictions and oddities of DOS are not emu-
lated. For instance, it is possible to move subdirectories from one subdirectory to
another, mtool s can be found at the following places (and their mirrors);

http://mtools.1tnb.1u/mtools-3.9.1.tar.gz

ftp://www.tux.org/pub/knaff/mtools/mtools-B.9.1.tar.gz

ftp://sunsi te.unc.edu/pub/Li nux/uti1s/di sk-management/mtools-B.9.1.tar.gz

1080 Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers

mv—moves or renames files

mv [ -f ] [ -i ] filenamel [ filename2 ...] target

The mv command moves a source filename to a target filename. The filename and the
target may not have the same name. If target is not a directory, only one file may be spec-
ified before it; if it is a directory more than one file may be specified. If target does not
exist, mv creates a file named target. If target exists and is not a directory, its contents are
overwritten. If target is a directory, the file(s) are moved to that directory.

EXAMPLE A.38

1 mv filel newname
2 mv -i testl test2 train

EXPLANATION

1 Renames fil el to newname. If newname exists its contents are overwritten.

2 Moves files testl and test2 to the train directory. The -i switch is for interactive
mode, meaning it asks before moving the files.

nawk—pattern scanning and processing language

nawk [ -F re ] [ -v var=value ] [ 'prog' ] [ filename ... ]

nawk [ -F re ] [ -v var=value ] [ -f progfile ][ filename ... ]

nawk scans each input filename for lines that match any of a set of patterns. The com-
mand string must be enclosed in single quotes (') to protect it from the shell. Awk pro-
grams consist of a set of pattern/action statements used to filter specific information
from a file, pipe, or stdin.

newgrp—logs into a new group

newgrp [-] [ group ]

newgrp logs a user into a new group by changing a user's real and effective group ID.
The user remains logged in and the current directory is unchanged. The execution of
newgrp always replaces the current shell with a new shell, even if the command termi-
nates with an error (unknown group).

news—prints news items

news [ -a ] [ -n ] [ -s ] [ items ]

news is used to keep the user informed of current events. By convention, these events
are described by files in the directory /var/news. When invoked without arguments, news
prints the contents of all current files in /var/news, most recent first, with each preceded
by an appropriate header.
Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers 1081

nice—runs a command at low priority

nice [ -increment ] command [ arguments ]

/usr/bin/nice executes a command with a lower CPU scheduling priority. The invok-
ing process (generally the user's shell) must be in the time-sharing scheduling class. The
command is executed in the time-sharing class. An increment of 10 is the default. The
increment value must be in a range between 1 and 19, unless you are the superuser. Also
a csh built-in.

nohup—makes commands immune to hangups and quits

/usr/bin/nohup command [ arguments ]

There are three distinct versions of nohup. nohup is built into the C shell and is an exe-
cutable program available in /usr/bin/nohup when using the Bourne shell. The Bourne
shell version of nohup executes commands such that they are immune to HUP (hangup)
and TERM (terminate) signals. If the standard output is a terminal, it is redirected to the
file nohup.out. The standard error is redirected to follow the standard output. The priority
is incremented by five, nohup should be invoked from the shell with & in order to prevent
it from responding to interrupts or input from the next user.

EXAMPLE A.39

nohup lookup &

EXPLANATION

The lookup program will run in the background and continue to run until it has com-
pleted, even if the user logs off. Any output generated goes to a file in the current di-
rectory called nohup.out.

od—octal dump

od [ -bcCDdFfOoSsvXx ] [ filename ] [ [ + ] offset [ . ] [ b ] ]

od displays a filename in one or more formats, as selected by the first argument. If the
first argument is missing, -o is default (e.g., the file can be displayed in bytes octal,
ASCII, decimal, hex, etc.).

pack, peat, unpack—compresses and expands files

pack [ - ] [ -f ] name ...

peat name ...
unpack name ...

pack compresses files. Wherever possible (and useful), each input file name is replaced
by a packed file name.z with the same access modes, access and modified dates, and
owner as those of name. Typically, text files are reduced to 60-75% of their original size.
1082 Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers

peat does for packed files what cat does for ordinary files, except that peat cannot be used
as a filter. The specified files are unpacked and written to the standard output. Thus, to
view a packed file named name.z, use peat name.z or just peat name, unpack expands files cre-
ated by pack.

passwd—changes the login password and password attributes

passwd [ name ]
passwd [ -d | -1 ] [ -f ] [ -n min ] [ -w warn ][ -x max ] name
passwd -s [ -a ]
passwd -s [ name ]

The passwd command changes the password or lists password attributes associated
with the user's login name. Additionally, privileged users may use passwd to install or
change passwords and attributes associated with any login name.

paste—merges same lines of several files or subsequent lines of one file

paste filenamel filenameZ...

paste -d list filenamel filenameZ...
paste -s [ -d list ] filenamel filenameZ...

paste concatenates corresponding lines of the given input files fil enamel, filenameZ, and
so on. It treats each file as a column or columns of a table and pastes them together hor-
izontally (see cut).

EXAMPLE A.40

1 Is | paste
Z paste -s -d"\t\n" testfilel testfileZ
3 paste filel fileZ

EXPLANATION

1 Files are listed in three columns and glued together with a tab.

2 Combines a pair of lines into a single line using a tab and newline as the delimiter
(i.e., the first pair of lines are glued with a tab; the next pair are glued by a newline,
the next pair by a tab, etc.). The -s switch causes subsequent lines from testfilel
to be pasted first and then subsequent lines from testfileZ.

3 A line from fil el is pasted to a line from fileZ, glued together by a tab so that the
file lines appear as two columns.

peat—(see pack)

pine—a Program for Internet News and E-mail

pine [ options ] [ address, address ]

pinef [ options ] [ address, address ]
Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers 1083

pine is a screen-oriented message-handling tool. In its default configuration, pine

offers an intentionally limited set of functions geared toward the novice user, but it also
has a growing list of options and "power-user" and personal-preference features, pinef
is a variant of pine that uses function keys rather than mnemonic single-letter com-
mands. pine's basic feature set includes: View, Save, Export, Delete, Print, Reply, and For-
ward messages.

pg—displays files one page at a time

pg [ -number ] [ -p string ] [ -cefnrs ] [ +1inenumber ]

[ +/pattern/ ] [ filename ... ]

The pg command is a filter that allows you to page through filenames one screenful
at a time on a terminal. If no filename is specified or if it encounters the filename -, pg
reads from standard input. Each screenful is followed by a prompt. If the user types a
return, another page is displayed. It allows you to back up and review something that
has already passed. (See more.)

pr—prints files

pr [[-columns] [-wwidth] [-a]] [-eck] [-ick] [-drtfp]

[+page] [-nek] [-ooffset] [-llength] [-sseparator]
[- hheader] [-F] [filename ...]
pr [[-m] [-wwidth]] [-eck] [-ick] [-drtfp] [+page] [-nek]
[-ooffset] [-llength] [-sseparator] [-hheader] [-F]
[filenamel filename2 ...]

The pr command formats and prints the contents of a file according to different for-
mat options. By default, the listing is sent to stdout and is separated into pages, each
headed by the page number, the date and time that the file was last modified, and the
name of the file. If no options are specified, the default file format is 66 lines with a five-
line header and five-line trailer.

EXAMPLE A.41

pr -2dh "TITLE" filel file?

EXPLANATION

Prints two columns double-sided with header "TITLE" for fil el and fileZ.

ping—reports if a remote system is reachable and alive

ping [-dfnqrvR] [-c count] [-i wait] [-1 preload] [-p pattern]
[-s packetsize]

ping sends ICMP ECHO_REQUEST packets to a host machine and waits for a response to tell
you if the host or gateway is reachable and alive. It is used to track down network con-
nectivity problems. If pi ng does not receive any reply packets at all it will exit with code
1084 Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers

1. On error it exits with code 2. Otherwise it exits with code 0. This makes it possible to
use the exit code to see if a host is alive or not.
This program is intended for use in network testing, measurement, and management.
Because of the load it can impose on the network, it is unwise to use pi ng during normal
operations or from automated scripts.

ps—reports process status

ps [ -acdefjl ] [ -g grplist ] [ -p proclist ]

[ -s sidlist ] [ -t term ] [ -u uidlist ]

ps prints information about active processes. Without options, ps prints information

about processes associated with the controlling terminal. The output contains only the
process ID, terminal identifier, cumulative execution time, and the command name.
Otherwise, the information that is displayed is controlled by the options. The ps options
are not the same for AT&T and Berkeley type versions of UNIX.

EXAMPLE A.42

1 ps -aux | grep 'Alinda' # ucb

2 ps -ef | grep 'a Oinda' # at&t

EXPLANATION

1 Prints all processes running and pipes the output to the grep program, and print-
ing only those processes owned by user linda, where linda is at the beginning of
each line. (UCB version)

2 Same as the first example, only the AT&T version.

pstree—displays a tree of processes

pstree [-a] [-c] [-h] [-1] [-n] [-p] [-u] [-G|-U][pid|user]

pstree -V

pstree shows running processes as a tree. The tree is rooted at either pid or init if pid
is omitted. If a username is specified, all process trees rooted at processes owned by that
user are shown, pstree visually merges identical branches by putting them in square
brackets and prefixing them with the repetition count, for example:

init-+-getty
|-getty
l-getty
'-getty

becomes

i nit—4* [getty]
Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers 1085

pwd—displays the present working directory name

quota—displays users' disk usage and limits

quota [ -guvv | q ]
quota [ -uvv | q ] user
quota [ -gvv | q ] group

quota displays users' disk usage and limits. By default, only the user quotas are
printed.

-g Prints group quotas for the group of which the user is a member,
-u An optional flag, equivalent to the default.
-v Displays quotas on file systems where no storage is allocated.
-q Prints a more terse message, containing only information on filesystems where
usage is over quota.

rep—remote file copy

rep [ -p ] filenamel filename2

rep [ -pr ] filename...directory

The rep command copies files between machines in the following form;

reniotehostname:path
user@hostname:file
[email protected] nname:fi1e

EXAMPLE A.43

1 rep dolphin:filename /tmp/newfilename

2 rep filename broncos:newfilename

EXPLANATION

1 Copies filename from remote machine dolphin to /tmp/newfilename on this machine.

2 Copies fi 1 ename from this machine to remote machine broncos and names it newfi 1 e-
name.

rdate—gets the date and time via the network

rdate [-p] [-s] [host...]

rdate uses TCP to retrieve the current time of another machine using the protocol
described in RFC 868. With the -p option, rdate prints the time retrieved from the remote
machines. This is the default mode. With the -s option, rdate sets the local system time
from the time retrieved from the remote machine. Only the superuser can reset the time.
The time for each system is returned in ctime(3) format.
1086 Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers

1 rdate homebound atlantis

(Output)
[homebound] Tue Jan 18 20:35:41 2000
[atlantis] Tue Jan 18 20:36:19 2000

rgrep—a recursive, highlighting grep program

rgrep [ options] pattern [file]

rgrep, unlike grep and egrep, can recursively descend directories. The traditional way
of performing this kind of search on UNIX systems utilizes the find command in con-
junction with grep. Using rgrep results in much better performance. See also xargs com-
mand.

COMMAND-LINE OPTIONS:

_? Additional help (use -? to avoid shell expansion on some systems).

-c Count matches.

h Highlight match (ANSI-compatible terminal assumed).

-H Output match instead of entire line containing match.

-i Ignore case.

-1 List filename only.

-n Print line number of match.

-F Follow links.

-r Recursively scan through directory tree.

N Do NOT perform a recursive search.

-R pat Like -r except that only those files matching pat are checked.

-v Print only lines that do NOT match the specified pattern.

-x ext Check only files with extension given by ext.

-D Print all directories that would be searched. This option is for debugging
purposes only. No file is grepped with this option.

-W len Lines are len characters long (not newline terminated).

Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers 1087

SUPPORTED REGULAR EXPRESSIONS:

Matches any character except newline.

\d Matches any digit.

\e Matches ESC char.

* Matches zero or more occurrences of previous RE.

+ Matches one or more occurrences of previous RE.

? Matches zero or one occurrence of previous RE.

A
Matches beginning of line.

$ Matches end of line.

[ •■■ ] Matches any single character between brackets. For example,

[-02468] matches - or any even digit, and [-0-9a-z] matches - and
any digit between 0 and 9 as well as letters a through z.

\{ ..Al Used for repetition; e.g., x\{9\} matches nine x characters

\( ■ ■ A) Used for backreferencing. Pattern in \(.. A) is tagged and saved.

Starting at the left-hand side of the regular expression, allowed up
to nine tags. To restore saved pattern, \1, \2 ... \9 are used.

\2 \1, =, \9 Matches match specified by nth\( ... \) expression. For example,

\([ \t] [a-zA-Z]+\)\l[ \t] matches any word repeated consecutively.

EXAMPLE A.45

1 rgrep -n -R hv.c' 'Aint'

2 rgrep -n -xc 'Aint'

EXPLANATION

1 Look in all files with a "c" extension in current directory and all its subdirectories
looking for matches of "int" at the beginning of a line, printing the line contain-
ing the match with its line number.

2 Look in all files with a ".c" extension, printing the line beginning with "int" and
preceded with its line number. (Same as above.)

rlogin—remote login

rlogin [ -L ] [ -8 ] [ -ec ] [ -1 username ] hostname

rlogin establishes a remote login session from your terminal to the remote machine
named hostname. Hostnames are listed in the host's database, which may be contained in
the /etc/hosts file, the Network Information Service (NIS) hosts map, the Internet
1088 Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers

domain name server, or a combination of these. Each host has one official name (the first
name in the database entry), and, optionally, one or more nicknames. Either official
hostnames or nicknames may be specified in hostname. A list of trusted hostnames can be
stored in the machine's file /etc/hosts.equiv.

rm—removes files from directories

rm [-f] [-i] filename...

rm -r [-f] [-1] dirname...[filename...]

rm removes the entries for one or more files from a directory if the file has write per-
mission. If filename is a symbolic link, the link will be removed, but the file or directory
to which it refers will not be deleted. A user does not need write permission on a sym-
bolic link to remove it, provided he or she has write permissions in the directory.

EXAMPLE A.46

1 rm filel file2
2 rm -i *
3 rm -rf dir

EXPLANATION

1 Removes fi 1 el and fi 1 e2 from the directory.

2 Removes all files in the present working directory, but asks first if it is okay.

3 Recursively removes all files and directories below di r and ignores error messages.

rmdir—removes a directory

rmdir [-p] [-s] dirname...

Removes a directory if it is empty. With -p, parent directories are also removed.

rsh—starts a remote shell

rsh [ -n ] [ -1 username ] hostname command

rsh hostname [ -n ] [ -1 username ] command

rsh connects to the specified hostname and executes the specified command, rsh cop-
ies its standard input to the remote command, the standard output of the remote com-
mand to its standard output, and the standard error of the remote command to its
standard error. Interrupt, quit, and terminate signals are propagated to the remote com-
mand; rsh normally terminates when the remote command does. If a command is not
given, then rsh logs you on to the remote host using rlogin.

EXAMPLE A.47

1 rsh bluebird ps -ef

2 rsh -1 john owl Is; echo SPAIN;cat .profile
Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers 1089

EXPLANATION

1 Connects to machine bl uebi rd and displays all processes running on that machine.

2 Goes to the remote machine owl as user John and executes all three commands.

ruptime—shows the host status of local machines

ruptime [ -alrtu ]

ruptime gives a status line-like uptime for each machine on the local network; these
are formed from packets broadcast by each host on the network once a minute.
Machines for which no status report has been received for five minutes are shown as
being down. Normally, the listing is sorted by hostname, but this order can be changed
by specifying one of ruptime's options.

rwho—who is logged in on local machines

rwho [ -a ]

The rwho command produces output similar to who, but for all machines on your net-
work. However, it does not work through gateways and host must have the directory
/var/spool/rwho as well as the rwho daemon running. If no report has been received from
a machine for five minutes, rwho assumes the machine is down, and does not report users
last known to be logged into that machine. If a user has not typed to the system for a
minute or more, rwho reports this idle time. If a user has not typed to the system for an
hour or more, the user is omitted from the output of rwho, unless the -a flag is given.

script—creates a typescript of a terminal session

script [ -a ] [ filename ]

script makes a typescript of everything printed on your terminal. The typescript is

written to a filename. If no filename is given, the typescript is saved in the file called
typescript. The script ends when the shell exits or when Ctrl-D is typed.

EXAMPLE A.48

1 script
2 script myfile

EXPLANATION

1 Starts up a script session in a new shell. Everything displayed on the terminal is

A
stored in a file called typescript. Must press d or exit to end the session.

2 Starts up a script session in a new shell, storing everything displayed on the ter-
A
minal in myfile. Must press d or exit to end the session.
1090 Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers

sed—streamlined editor

sed [-n] [-e script] [-f sfilename] [filename ...]

sed copies the named filename (standard input default) to the standard output, edited
according to a script or command. Does not change the original file.

EXAMPLE A.49

1 sed 's/Elizabeth/lizzy/g' file

2 sed '/Dork/d' file
B sed -n 'IS.ZOp' file

EXPLANATION

1 Substitute all occurrences of El i zabeth with Li zzy in file and display on the terminal
screen.

2 Remove all lines containing Dork and print the remaining lines on the screen.

3 Print only lines 15 through 20.

size—prints section sizes in bytes of object files

size [ -f ] [ -F ] [ -n ] [ -o ] [ -V ] [ -x ] filename...

The size command produces segment or section size information in bytes for each
loaded section in ELF or COFF object files, size prints out the size of the text, data, and bss
(uninitialized data) segments (or sections) and their total.

sl eep—suspends execution for some number of seconds

sleep time

sleep suspends execution for time seconds. It is used to execute a command after a cer-
tain amount of time.

EXAMPLE A.50

1 (sleep 105; command)&

2 (In Script)
while true
do
command
sleep 60
done

EXPLANATION

1 After 105 seconds, command is executed. Prompt returns immediately.

2 Enters loop; executes command and sleeps for a minute before entering the loop
again.
Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers 1091

sort—sorts and/or merges files

sort [ -emu ] [ -ooutput ] [ -T directory ] [ -ykmem ]

[ -dfiMnr ] [ -btx ] [ +posl [ -pos2 ]] [ filename...]

The sort command sorts (ASCII) lines of all the named files together and writes the
result on the standard output. Comparisons are based on one or more sort keys extracted
from each line of input. By default, there is one sort key, the entire input line, and order-
ing is lexicographic by bytes in machine collating sequence.

EXAMPLE A.51

l sort filename
2 sort -u filename
3 sort -r filename
4 sort +1 -2 filename
5 sort -2n filename
6 sort -t: +2n -3 filename
7 sort -f filename
8 sort -b +1 filename

EXPLANATION

1 Sorts the lines alphabetically.

2 Sorts out duplicate entries.

3 Sorts in reverse.

4 Sorts starting on field 1 (fields are separated by whitespace and start at field 0),
stopping at field 2 rather than sorting to the end of the line.

5 Sorts the third field numerically.

6 Sorts numerically starting at field 2 and stopping at field 3, with the colon desig-
nated as the field separator (-t:).

7 Sorts folding in uppercase and lowercase letters.

8 Sorts starting at field 1, removing leading blanks.

spell—finds spelling errors

spell [ -blvx ] [ -d hlist ] [ -s hstop ] [ +local_file ] [ filename]...

spell collects words from the named filenames and looks them up in a spelling list.
Words that neither occur among nor are derivable from (by applying certain inflections,
prefixes, and/or suffixes) words in the spelling list are printed on the standard output.
If no filenames are named, words are collected from the standard input.

split—splits a file into pieces

split [ -n ] [ filename [ name ] ]

1092 Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers

split reads filename and writes it in n line pieces into a set of output files. The first
output file is named with aa appended, and so on lexicographically, up to zz (a maximum
of 676 files). The maximum length of name is 2 characters less than the maximum file-
name length allowed by the filesystem. See statvfs. If no output name is given, x is used
as the default. (Output files will be called xaa, xab, etc.)

EXAMPLE A.52

1 split -500 filea

2 split -1000 fileb out

EXPLANATION

1 Splits filea into 500-line files. Files are named xaa, xab, xac, and so on.

2 Splits fileb into 1,000-hne files named out.aa, out.ab, and so on.

Strings—finds any printable strings in an object or binary file

strings [ -a ] [ -o ] [ -number ] [ filename... ]

The stri ngs command looks for ASCII strings in a binary file. A string is any sequence
of four or more printing characters ending with a newline or a null character, strings is
useful for identifying random object files and many other things.

EXAMPLE A.53

strings /bin/nawk | head -2

EXPLANATION

Prints any ASCII text in the first two lines of the binary executable /bin/nawk.

Stty—sets the options for a terminal

stty [ -a ] [ -g ] [ modes ]

stty sets certain terminal I/O options for the device that is the current standard input;
without arguments, it reports the settings of certain options.

EXAMPLE A.54

1 stty erase <Press backspace key> or Ah

2 stty -echo; read secretword; stty echo
3 stty -a (AT&T) or stty -everything (BSD)

EXPLANATION

1 Sets the Backspace key to erase.

2 Turns off echoing; waits for user input; turns echoing back on.

3 Lists all possible options to stty.

Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers 1093

SU—become superuser or another user

su [ - ] [ username [ arg ... ] ]

su allows one to become another user without logging off. The default username is
root (superuser). To use su, the appropriate password must be supplied (unless the
invoker is already root). If the password is correct, su creates a new shell process that has
the real and effective user ID, group IDs, and supplementary group list set to those of
the specified username. The new shell will be the shell specified in the shell field of user-
name's password file entry. If no shell is specified, sh (Bourne shell) is used. To return to
normal user ID privileges, type Ctrl-D to exit the new shell. The - option specifies a com-
plete login.

sum—calculates a checksum for a file

sync—updates the superblock and sends changed blocks to disk

tabs—sets tab stops on a terminal

tail—displays the tail end of a file

tail +[-nuniber [ Ibc ] [ f ] [ filename ]

tail +[-number [ 1 ] [ rf ] [ filename ]

When a plus sign precedes the number, tail displays blocks, characters, or lines
counting from the beginning of the file. If a hyphen precedes the number, tail counts
from the end of the file.

EXAMPLE A.55

1 tail +50 filex

2 tail -20 filex
3 tail filex

EXPLANATION

1 Displays contents of filex starting at line 50.

2 Displays the last 20 lines of filex.

3 Displays the last 10 lines of filex.

tal k—allows you to talk to another user

talk username [ ttyname ]

talk is a visual communications program that copies lines from your terminal to that
of another user.
1094 Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers

EXAMPLE A.56

talk joelcowboys

EXPLANATION

Opens a request to talk to user joe on a machine called cowboys.

tar—stores and retrieves files from an archive file, normally a tape device

tar [ - ] c|r|t|u|x [ bBefFhilmopvwX0134778 ] [ tarfile ]

[ blocksize ] [ exclude-file ] [ -I include-file ]
filenamel filenameZ . . . -C directory filenameN ...

EXAMPLE A.57

1 tar cvf /dev/diskette

2 tar tvf /dev/fd0
3 tar xvf /dev/fd0

EXPLANATION

1 Sends all files under the present working directory to tape at device /dev/diskette,
and prints the files that are being sent.

2 Displays the table of contents of what is on tape device /dev/fd0.

3 Extracts all files from tape and prints which files were extracted.

tee—replicates the standard output

tee [ -ai ] [ filename ]

tee copies the standard input to the standard output and one or more files, as in 1 s | tee
outfile. Output goes to screen and to outfile.

EXAMPLE A.58

date I tee nowfile

EXPLANATION

The output of the date command is displayed on the screen and also stored in nowfile.

tel net—communicates with a remote host

EXAMPLE A.59

telnet necom.com

EXPLANATION

Opens a session with the remote host necom.com.

Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers 1095

test—evaluates an expression

test evaluates an expression and returns an exit status indicating that the expression
is either true (0) or false (not zero). Used primarily by Bourne and Korn shell for string,
numeric, and file testing. The C shell has most of the tests built-in.

EXAMPLE A.60

1 test 5 gt 6
2 echo $? ( Bourne and Korn shells)
(Output is 1, meaning the result of the test is not true.)

EXPLANATION

1 The test command performs an integer test to see if 5 is greater than 6.

2 The $? variable contains the exit status of the last command. If a nonzero status is
reported, the test results are not true; if the return status is 0, the the test result is
true.

time—displays a summary of time used by this shell and its children

timex—times a command; reports process data and system activity

timex [ -o ] [ -p [ -fhkmrt ] ] [ -s ] command

The given command is executed; the elapsed time, user time, and system time spent
in execution are reported in seconds. Optionally, process accounting data for the com-
mand and all its children can be listed or summarized, and total system activity during
the execution interval can be reported. The output of timex is written on standard error.

top—displays top CPU processes

top [-] [d delay] [q] [c] [S] [s] [i]

top provides an ongoing look at the CPU's activity in real time and a listing of the
most CPU-intensive tasks.

touch—updates access time and/or modification time of a file

touch [ -amc ] [ mmddhhmm [ yy ] ] filename...

touch causes the access and modification times of each argument to be updated. The
filename is created if it does not exist. If no time is specified the current time is used.

EXAMPLE A.61

touch a b c

EXPLANATION

Three files, a, b, and c are created. If any of them already exist, the modification time-
stamp on the files is updated.
1096 Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers

tput—initializes a terminal or queries the terminfo database

tput [ -Ttype ] capname [ parms...]

tput [ -Ttype ] init
tput [ -Ttype ] reset
tput [ -Ttype ] longname
tput -S «

tput uses the terminfo database to make the values of terminal-dependent capabilities
and information available to the shell (see sh), to initialize or reset the terminal, or return
the long name of the requested terminal type.

EXAMPLE A.62

1 tput longname
2 bold=,tput smso"
unbold=>tput rmso'
echo "${bold}Enter your id: S{offbold}\c"

EXPLANATION

1 Displays a long name for the terminal from the terminfo database.

2 Sets the shell variable bold to turn on the highlighting of displayed text. Then sets
the shell variable unbold to return to normal text display. The line Enter your id: is
highlighted in black with white letters. Further text is displayed normally.

tr—translates characters

tr [ -cds ] [ stringl [ stringZ ] ]

tr copies the standard input to the standard output with substitution or deletion of
selected characters. Input characters found in stringl are mapped into the corresponding
characters of stringZ. The forward slash can be used with an octal digit to represent the
ASCII code. When stringZ (with any repetitions of characters) contains fewer characters
than stringl, characters in stringl with no corresponding character in string? are not
translated. Octal values for characters may be used when preceded with a backslash:

\11 Tab
\12 Newline
\042 Single quote
\047 Double quote

EXAMPLE A.63

1 tr 'A' T < filex

2 tr '[A-Z]' [a-z]' < filex
3 tr -d ' ' < filex
Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers 1097

EXAMPLE A.63 (continued)

4 tr -s Ml' 'Ml' < filex

5 tr -s < filex
6 tr 'W '\m'

EXPLANATION

l Translates As to Bs in filex.

2 Translates all uppercase letters to lowercase letters.

3 Deletes all spaces from filex.

4 Replaces (squeezes) multiple tabs with single tabs in filex.

5 Squeezes multiple colons into single spaces in filex.

6 Translates double quotes to single quotes in text coming from standard input.

true—provides successful exit status

true does nothing, successfully, meaning that it always returns a 0 exit status, indicat-
ing success. Used in Bourne and Korn shell programs as a command to start an infinite
loop.

while true
do
command
done

tsort—topological sort

/usr/ccs/bin/tsort [filename]

The tsort command produces, on the standard output, an ordered list of items con-
sistent with a partial ordering of items mentioned in the input filename. If no filename
is specified, the standard input is understood. The input consists of pairs of items (non-
empty strings) separated by blanks. Pairs of different items indicate ordering. Pairs of
identical items indicate presence, but not ordering.

tty—gets the name of the terminal

tty [ -1 ] [ -s ]

tty prints the pathname of the user's terminal.

umask—sets file-creation mode mask for permissions

umask [ ooo ]

The user file-creation mode mask is set to 000. The three octal digits refer to
read/write/execute permissions for owner, group, and other, respectively. The value of
each specified digit is subtracted from the corresponding "digit" specified by the system
1098 Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers

for the creation of a file. For example, umask 022 removes write permission for group and
other (files normally created with mode 777 become mode 755; files created with mode
666 become mode 644). If 000 is omitted, the current value of the mask is printed, utnask
is recognized and executed by the shell.

EXAMPLE A.64

1 umask
2 umask 027

EXPLANATION

1 Displays the current file permission mask.

2 The directory permissions, 777, minus the umask 027 is 750. The file permissions,
666, minus the umask 027 is 640. When created, directories and files will be as-
signed the permissions created by umask.

uname—prints name of current machine

uname [ -amnprsv ]
uname [ -S system_name ]

uname prints information about the current system on the standard output. If no
options are specified, uname prints the current operating system's name. The options print
selected information returned by uname and/or sysinfo.

EXAMPLE A.65

1 uname -n
2 uname -a

EXPLANATION

1 Prints the name of the host machine.

2 Prints the machine hardware name, network nodename, operating system release
number, the operating system name, and the operating system version—same as
-m, -n, -r, -s, and -v.

uncompress—restores files to their original state after they have been compressed
using the compress command

uncompress [ -cFv ] [ file . . . ]

EXAMPLE A.66

uncompress file.Z

EXPLANATION

Restores file.Z back to its original state (i.e., what it was before being compressed).
Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers 1099

Utliq—reports on duplicate lines in a file

uniq [ [ -u ] [ -d ] [ -c ] [ +n ] [ -n ] ] [ input [ output ] ]

uniq reads the input file, comparing adjacent lines. In the normal case, the second and
succeeding copies of repeated lines are removed; the remainder is written on the output
file. Input and output should always be different.

EXAMPLE A.67

1 uniq filel file2

2 uniq -d -2 fileB

EXPLANATION

1 Removes duplicate adjacent lines from filel and puts output in file2.

2 Displays the duplicate lines where the duplicate starts at third field.

units—converts quantities expressed in standard scales to other scales

units converts quantities expressed in various standard scales to their equivalents in

other scales. It works interactively in this fashion:

You have: inch

You want: cm
* 2.540000e+00
/ 3.937008e-01

unpack—expands files created by pack

unpack expands files created by pack. For each filename specified in the command, a
search is made for a file called name.z (or just name, if name ends in .z). If this file appears
to be a packed file, it is replaced by its expanded version. The new file has the .z suffix
stripped from its name, and has the same access modes, access and modification dates,
and owner as those of the packed file.

UUCp—copies files to another system, UNIX-to-UNIX system copy

uucp [ -c | -C ] [ -d | -f ] [ -ggrade ][-]][ -m ] [ -nuser ] [ -r ]

[ -sfile ] [ -xdebugjevel ] source-file destination-file

uucp copies files named by the source-file arguments to the destination-file argument.

uuencode, uudecode—encodes a binary file into ASCII text in order to send it

through e-mail, or converts it back into its original form

uuencode [ source-file ] file-label

uudecode [ encoded-file ]

uuencode converts a binary file into an ASCII-encoded representation that can be sent
using mail. The label argument specifies the output filename to use when decoding. If
1100 Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers

no file is given, stdi n is encoded, uudecode reads an encoded file, strips off any leading and
trailing lines added by mailer programs, and re-creates the original binary data with the
filename and the mode and owner specified in the header. The encoded file is an ordi-
nary ASCII text file; it can be edited by any text editor. But it is best only to change the
mode or file label in the header to avoid corrupting the decoded binary.

EXAMPLE A.68

1 uuencode mybinfile decodedname > uumybinfile.tosend

2 uudecode uumybinfile.tosend

EXPLANATION

1 The first argument, mybinfile, is the existing file to be encoded. The second argu-
ment is the name to be used for the uudecoded file, after mailing the file, and uumy-
binfile.tosend is the file that is sent through the mail.

2 This decodes the uuencoded file and creates a filename as given as the second argu-
ment to uuencode.

WC—counts lines, words, and characters

wc [ -Iwc ] [ filename ... ]

wc counts lines, words, and characters in a file or in the standard input if no filename
is given. A word is a string of characters delimited by a space, tab, or newline.

EXAMPLE A.69

1 wc fi1 ex
2 who | wc -1
3 wc -1 filex

EXPLANATION

1 Prints the number of lines, words, and characters in filex.

2 The output of the who command is piped to wc, displaying the number of lines
counted.

3 Prints the number of lines in filex.

what—extracts SCCS version information from a file by printing information

found after the @(#) pattern

what [ -s] filename

what searches each filename for the occurrence of the pattern @(#), which the SCCS get
command substitutes for the %Z% keyword, and prints what follows up to a " >, newline,
\, or null character.
Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers 1101

which—locates a command and displays its pathname or alias (UCB)

which [ filename ]

which takes a list of names and looks for the files that would be executed had the
names been given as commands. Each argument is expanded if it is aliased, and searched
for along the user's path. Both aliases and path are taken from the user's .cshrc file. Only
.cshrc file is used.

whereis—locates the binary, source, and manual page files for a command (UCB)

whereis [ -bmsu ] [ -BMS directory ... -f ] filename

who—displays who is logged on the system

write—writes a message to another user

write username [ ttyname ]

write copies lines from your terminal to another user's terminal.

xargs—constructs an argument list(s) and executes a command

xargs [ flags ] [ command [ initial-arguments ] ]

xargs allows you to transfer contents of files into a command line and dynamically
build command lines.

EXAMPLE A.70

1 Is $1 | xargs -i -t mv $!/{} $2/{}

2 Is | xargs -p -1 rm -rf

EXPLANATION

1 Moves all files from directory $1 to directory $2, and echos each mv command just
before executing.

2 Prompts (-p) the user which files are to be removed one at a time and removes
each one.

zcat—uncompresses a compressed file to standard output; Same as uncompress -C

zcat [file ... ]

EXAMPLE A.71

zcat book.doc.Z I more

EXPLANATION

Uncompresses book.doc.Z and pipes the output to more.

1102 Appendix A • Useful UNIX/Linux Utilities for Shell Programmers

zipinfo—lists detailed information about a ZIP archive

zipinfo [-12smlvhMtTz] file[.zip][file(s)...] [-x xfile(s) ...]

zipinfo lists technical information about files in a ZIP archive, most commonly found
on MS-DOS systems. Such information includes file access permissions, encryption sta-
tus, type of compression, version and operating system or file system of compressing
program, and the like. The default behavior (with no options) is to list single-line entries
for each file in the archive, with header and trailer lines providing summary information
for the entire archive. The format is a cross between UNIX Is -1 and unzip -v output.

zmore—file perusal filter for crt viewing of compressed text

zmore [ name ... ]

zmore is a filter which allows examination of compressed or plain text files one screen-
ful at a time on a soft-copy terminal, zmore works on files compressed with compress,
pack, or gzip,and also on uncompressed files. If a file does not exist, zmore looks for a
file of the same name with the addition of a .gz, .z, or .Z suffix. Behaves like the more com-
mand, printing a screenful at a time.
appendix

Comparison of

the Shells

B.1 The Shells Compared

Feature Bourne C TC Korn Bash

Aliases no yes yes yes yes

Advanced Pattern Matching no no no yes yes

Command-Line Editing no no yes yes* yes

Directory Stacks (pushd, popd) no yes yes no yes

Filename Completion no yes* yes yes yes

Functions yes no no yes yes

Flistory no yes yes yes yes

Job Control no yes yes yes yes

Key Binding no no yes no yes

Prompt Formatting no no yes no yes

Spelling Correction no no yes* no yes1

* not a default setting; must be set by the user.

' cdspell is a shopt option set to correct minor spelling errors in directory names when cd is used.

1103
1104 Appendix B • Comparison of the Shells

B.2 tcsh versus csh

The TC shell (tcsh) is an enhanced version of the Berkeley C shell (csh). Listed here are
some of the new features.

• An enhanced history mechanism

• A built-in command line editor (emacs or vi) for editing the command line

• Formatting the prompts

• A spelling correction facility and special prompts for spelling correction

and looping

• Enhanced and programmed word completion for completing commands,

filenames, variables, user names, etc.

• Ability to create and modify key bindings

• Automatic, periodic, and timed events (scheduled events, special aliases,

automatic logout, terminal locking, etc.)

• New built-in commands (hup, Is -F, newgrp, printenv, which, where, etc.)

• New built-in variables (gid, loginsh, old, shlvl, tty, uid, version, HOST,
REMOTEHOST, VENDOR, OSTYPE, MACHTYPE)

• Read-only variables

• Better bug reporting facility

B.3 bash versus sh

The Bourne Again (bash) shell has the following features not found in the traditional
Bourne shell (sh).

• Formatting the prompts

• History (csh style)

• Aliases

• A built-in command line editor (emacs or vi) for editing the command line

• Directory manipulation with pushd and popd

• Csh-type job control to stop or run jobs in the background, bring them to the
foreground, etc. with command such as bg, fg, Ctrl-Z, etc.

• Tilde, brace, and parameter expansion

• Key bindings to customize key sequences

• Advanced pattern matching

• Arrays

• The select loop (from Korn shell)

• Many new built-in commands

Appendix B • Comparison of the Shells 1105

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1106 Appendix B • Comparison of the Shells

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Appendix B • Comparison of the Shells 1107

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Appendix B • Comparison of the Shells 1109

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Index

Symbols -a GNU grep option, 114

! command, 129 access permissions:

$, 527, 528 user and group identification, 18

$* variable: see also permissions

$@ variable versus, 331 actions:

wordlists and Bash, 906 awk, 172

wordlists and Bourne shell, 352 awk simple action example, 179

wordlists and Korn shell, 689 patterns and, 182

$< variable, 528 addressing, 128

$? variable; alias substitution;

C shell, 539 backslashes, 642

Korn shell, 668 when defined, 10
$@ variable: aliases:
$* variable versus, 331 Bash, 798

wordlists and Bash, 906 C shell, 418

wordlists and Bourne shell, 352 command type evaluation order, 10

wordlists and Korn shell, 689 creating:

$0 variable, 167 Bash, 798

? variable, 889 C shell, 605
Korn shell, 492
debugging and sneaky aliases, 973
Numerics
defined, 10
022 umask value, 19
deleting:
666 permissions, 19
Bash, 799
777 permissions, 19
Korn shell, 605
TC shell, 493
A error messages, creating with, 544
a command, 129, 143 functions and Korn shell, 641
-A GNU grep option, 114 Korn shell, 604

1113
1114 Index

aliases (cont.): arithmetic operators:

listing: awk, 191, 197
Bash,798 C shell, 529
C shell, 491 arrays:
Korn shell, 604 awk, 233-239
TC shell, 491 Bash, 59, 838
ampersand: Bourne shell, 43
awk, 191 C shell, 36, 447
background jobs, 423 declare -a command, 59
sed, 133 Korn shell, 51, 707-709
appending: set -A command, 51
arrays and subscripts, 453 set command, 43
C shell extensions to variables, 451 shift command, 36
output to an existing file, 436 C shell, 448
sed, 143 Korn shell, 709
apropros utility, 1055 strings, C shell, 449
arch utility, 1055 assignment operators, 201, 204
arguments: associativity and C shell, 537
Bash, 59 asterisk metacharacter, 73
C shell, 36 Bash,802
command line: Bourne shell, 291
gawk, 271 C shell, 427
nawk, 239 egrep, 95
function arguments and return value, 373 GNU, 95
invocation, 740 GNU egrep, 105
Korn shell, 51 GNU grep, 101
argv: grep, 90
ARGV array and nawk, 239 Korn shell, 610
positional parameters, 534 sed, 132
arithmetic; at utility, 1056
awk, 190 authentication:
Bash, 60, 871 awk data validation program, 192
be utility, 1057 init process, 9
Bourne shell, 44, 325 autolist variable:
built-in functions, 246 defined, 515
C shell, 37, 529 example, 483, 487
expansion, 837 TC shell, 482
floating-point: autoloaded functions in Korn shell, 714
Bash,874 awk:
Bourne shell, 327 $0 variable, 167
C shell, 530 action example, 179
Korn shell, 51, 660 actions, 172
let command, 678 arithmetic operators, 191, 197
see also decrement operators; increment arrays, 233-239
operators assignment operators, 201, 204
Index 1115

BEGIN patterns, 208, 219 NR variable, 168

commands from within a file, 166 OFMT variable, 163
commands in script file, 177 OFS variable, 170
comparison expressions, 188-193 operators:
compound patterns, 191 decrement, 214
computation, 190 increment, 214
conditional expressions, 190 options on command line, 275
conditional operators, 200 origin, 157
conditional statements, 227-230 output;
constants, 203 formatting, 161
data validation sample program, 192 redirection, 209
decrement operators, 204 pattern-matching example, 178
defined, 157 patterns, 171
END patterns, 208, 220 defined, 158
equality testing, 194 pipes, 212-213, 224
exercises, 187, 202 closing, 213, 225
-f option, 166 opening, 225
fields, 168 print function, 161
empty, 257 printf function, 163, 223
fixed, 256 printing, 161
input field separators, 184 program control statements, 232
separators, 169 random number generator, 247
files, closing, 213 range operators, 200
form letters, 260 range patterns, 192
FS variable, 169 record separator, 167
functions: records, 167
built-in, 242, 264 multiline, 258
integer, 246 redirection, 224
random number generator, 247 regular expression metacharacters, 69
string, 242, 265 regular expressions, 173-177
getline function, 210 matching on an entire line, 175
how it works, 160 pattern and action combination, 182
increment operators, 204 relational operators, 195, 196
input; review and example, 178
field separators, 184 scripting, 186
from commands, 159 shell interaction, 262
from files, 158 split function, 203
redirection, 210-211 system function, 213
logical operators, 191 tilde operator, 175
loops, 230-231 variables, 203-209
match operator, 175 built-in, 206, 215
metacharacters, 174 constants, 203
negation operator, 197 field, 205
NF variable, 168 initialization, 203
nf variable, 239 user-defined, 203, 205
1116 Index

awk utility, 1056 listing, 798

arguments, 59
B arithmetic, 60, 871
-B GNU grep option, 114 arrays, 59, 838
-b GNU grep option, 114 asterisk, 802
-b grep option, 84, 121 backslash, 832
background: bases, 872
bg command, 425 bash utility, 1057
commands: BASH.ENV variable, 759
Bash, 780 .bashjogin file, 756
Bourne shell, 289 .bashjogout file, 763
C shell, 412 .bash_profile file, 756, 758
Korn shell, 595 .bashrc file, 759
job signal, 31 command line, 774, 943
jobs, 423 command line history, 785
Bash, 781 commands;
C shell, 423 background, 780
Korn shell, 606 built-in, 857, 957
loops: changing order of processing, 776
Bash,925 conditional execution, 779
Bourne shell, 368 grouping, 779
Korn shell, 704 looping, 903
suspend key sequence, 424 looping control commands, 917
backslash: order of processing, 774
Bourne shell, 307 re-executing, 790
escaping metacharacters, 293 set command, 763
Korn shell, 636 shopt command, 763
metacharacters: substitution, 60, 835
Bash, 832 comments, 58
C shell, 455 conditions, 61, 879
grep, 90 constructs, 879
bang: directory stack, manipulating, 799
history, 413 dot command, 773, 932
re-executing history commands: double quotes, 834
Bash,790 editors, selecting, 793
C shell, 416 environment, 756
banner utility, 1057 error messages, 992, 999
basename utility, 1057 /etc/bashrc file, 761
bases and integers: /etc/profile file, 756
Bash, 872 example script, 64
Korn shell, 661 execution, preventing, 763
Bash; exercises, 861
aliases, 798 exit status, 777
creating, 798 testing, 879
deleting, 799 filename completion, 783
Index 1117

files, testing, 896 primary prompt, 768

floating-point arithmetic, 874 secondary prompt, 770
flow control, 879 question mark, 803
functions, 63, 927-935 redirection, 25, 844, 923
defining, 841 scripts:
exported, 928 creating, 865
introduction, 841-844 debugging, 941
listing, 844 executable, making, 866
unsetting, 844 set command, 763
global variables, 59 shbang line, 58
hash command, 772 shell, changing at command line, 755
help command, 775 shopt command, 763
history: signals, trapping, 935
accessing commands, 786 single quotes, 833
command line, 785 source command, 773, 932
if command, 886 specifying shell to use, 9
if constructs, 879 square brackets metacharacter, 804
initialization files, 1045 standard input, 844
input, 59 standard output, 844
input and here document, 851 startup, 754
.inputrc file, 763 stderr, 868
integers, 871 stdin, 868
invocation options, 852 stdout, 868
debugging, 1017 subshells, 923
job control, 781 syntax and constructs, 58
let command, 873 see also Korn shell
local variables, 58 variables, 810-831
loops, 62 extracting values from, 59
background, 925 null values, 891
internal field separator, 926 PATH variable, 771
menus: wildcards, 58
here document, 901 BASH.ENV variable, 759
select command, 912 .bashjogin file:
metacharacters, 801, 802 Bash, 756
escaping, 806 initialization files for each shell, 1045
quoting, 831 .bashjogout file;
multiple commands, 779 example, 807
operators, 60, 881 initialization files for each shell, 1045
options, 852, 951-957 .bash_profile file:
origin, 7, 753 Bash, 756
output, 58 initialization files for each shell, 1045
pipes, 849 .bashrc file:
positional parameters, 874 Bash, 759
prompts, 768 initialization files for each shell, 1045
escape sequences, 769 batch utility, 1056
Index 1119

secondary prompt, 284 metacharacter, 74, 75

question mark, 291 Bash,804
redirection, 25, 312, 365 Bourne shell, 292
scripts: C shell, 429
creating, 321 egrep, 95
debugging, 383 GNU egrep, 105
executable, making, 322 GNU grep, 101, 102
set command, 43 grep, 83
shbang line, 41 Korn shell, 612
signals, trapping, 378 sed, 132
single quotes, 308, 636 branching;
square brackets metacharacter, 292 Bash, 900
standard I/O, 312 debugging, 1003
standard input, 312 Korn shell, 684
and exec command, 369 break command, 38
standard output, 312 Bash, 919
startup, 280 Bourne shell, 361
subshells, 365 C shell, 566
substitution and filenames, 290 Korn shell, 699
syntax and constructs, 41 BSD;
test command, using in Korn shell, 676, GNU egrep variants, 110
678 GNU grep variants, 110
until loop, 45 buffer and sed, 126
using, 279-320 built-in commands:
variable expansion, 301 Bash, 764, 857, 957
variables: Bourne shell, 394
environment, 296 C shell, 572
extracting values from, 42 command type evaluation order, 10
local, 294 defined, 10
PATH variable, 285 help command, Bash, 775
printing, 298 Korn shell, 735
set, 298 TC shell, 503
special, 305 built-in functions:
unsetting, 299 arithmetic, 246
while loop, 45 awk, 242, 246, 264
wildcards, 42 built-in variables:
see also shells awk, 206, 215
Bourne, Stephen, 6 local, 444
braces:
metacharacter, 429 c

see also curly braces c command, 129

brackets: for sed, 145

bracketed character class and POSIX, 103, -C GNU grep option, 114

176 -c GNU grep option, 114

1118 Index

be utility, 1057 error messages, 992, 994

bdiff utility, 1058 /etc/profile file, 280
BEGIN patterns, 208, 219 example script, 47
beginning-of-line anchor, 69 exercises, 395
Bell Labs, 1 exit status, 287
bg command, 425 testing, 334
bibliography, 1053 expr command, 325
binary operators, 673 files:
binary permission modes, 20 name substitution, 290
bindkey command, 475 testing, 46, 344
b metacharacter, 102 floating-point arithmetic, 327
boot scripts, 1030-1052 flow control, 333
cron boot script, 1037 for loop, 45
daemons, 1035 functions, 372-378
example, 1035 introduction, 310-311
kernel and init, 1031 traps, 382
run level, 1031 hash command, 285
single-user mode, 1033 history of, 6
Bourne Again shell: if command, 335
history of, 7 if constructs, 333
see also Bash initialization files, 1045
Bourne shell, 43 input and here document, 318
arguments invocation options, 392
arithmetic, 44, 325 local variables, 42
arrays, 43 loops, 45
asterisk, 291 background, 368
backslash, 307 internal field separator, 370
command line, 287, 384-392 nested, 364
multiple commands, 288 menus and here document, 348
parsing, 391 metacharacters, 290
commands: escaping, 293
background, 289 quoting, 306
built-in, 394 null values, checking, 339
conditional execution, 288 operators, 44
looping, 349 output, 42
looping control commands, 358 overview, 4
substitution, 43, 309 parameters:
comments, 41 S* versus $@, 331
conditions, 44, 333 positional, 303, 327
constructs, 333 pipes, 316
dot command, 286 .profile file, 280, 282
double quotes, 308 programming, 321-401
environment, 280 prompts, 283
environment variables, 42 primary prompt, 283
1118 Index

be utility, 1057 error messages, 992, 994

bdiff utility, 1058 /etc/profile file, 280
BEGIN patterns, 208, 219 example script, 47
beginning-of-line anchor, 69 exercises, 395
Bell Labs, 1 exit status, 287
bg command, 425 testing, 334
bibliography, 1053 expr command, 325
binary operators, 673 files:
binary permission modes, 20 name substitution, 290
bindkey command, 475 testing, 46, 344
b metacharacter, 102 floating-point arithmetic, 327
boot scripts, 1030-1052 flow control, 333
cron boot script, 1037 for loop, 45
daemons, 1035 functions, 372-378
example, 1035 introduction, 310-311
kernel and init, 1031 traps, 382
run level, 1031 hash command, 285
single-user mode, 1033 history of, 6
Bourne Again shell: if command, 335
history of, 7 if constructs, 333
see also Bash initialization files, 1045
Bourne shell, 43 input and here document, 318
arguments invocation options, 392
arithmetic, 44, 325 local variables, 42
arrays, 43 loops, 45
asterisk, 291 background, 368
backslash, 307 internal field separator, 370
command line, 287, 384-392 nested, 364
multiple commands, 288 menus and here document, 348
parsing, 391 metacharacters, 290
commands: escaping, 293
background, 289 quoting, 306
built-in, 394 null values, checking, 339
conditional execution, 288 operators, 44
looping, 349 output, 42
looping control commands, 358 overview, 4
substitution, 43, 309 parameters:
comments, 41 S* versus $@, 331
conditions, 44, 333 positional, 303, 327
constructs, 333 pipes, 316
dot command, 286 .profile file, 280, 282
double quotes, 308 programming, 321-401
environment, 280 prompts, 283
environment variables, 42 primary prompt, 283
Index 1119

secondary prompt, 284 metacharacter, 74, 75

question mark, 291 Bash,804
redirection, 25, 312, 365 Bourne shell, 292
scripts: C shell, 429
creating, 321 egrep, 95
debugging, 383 GNU egrep, 105
executable, making, 322 GNU grep, 101, 102
set command, 43 grep, 83
shbang line, 41 Korn shell, 612
signals, trapping, 378 sed, 132
single quotes, 308, 636 branching;
square brackets metacharacter, 292 Bash, 900
standard I/O, 312 debugging, 1003
standard input, 312 Korn shell, 684
and exec command, 369 break command, 38
standard output, 312 Bash, 919
startup, 280 Bourne shell, 361
subshells, 365 C shell, 566
substitution and filenames, 290 Korn shell, 699
syntax and constructs, 41 BSD;
test command, using in Korn shell, 676, GNU egrep variants, 110
678 GNU grep variants, 110
until loop, 45 buffer and sed, 126
using, 279-320 built-in commands:
variable expansion, 301 Bash, 764, 857, 957
variables: Bourne shell, 394
environment, 296 C shell, 572
extracting values from, 42 command type evaluation order, 10
local, 294 defined, 10
PATH variable, 285 help command, Bash, 775
printing, 298 Korn shell, 735
set, 298 TC shell, 503
special, 305 built-in functions:
unsetting, 299 arithmetic, 246
while loop, 45 awk, 242, 246, 264
wildcards, 42 built-in variables:
see also shells awk, 206, 215
Bourne, Stephen, 6 local, 444
braces:
metacharacter, 429 c

see also curly braces c command, 129

brackets: for sed, 145

bracketed character class and POSIX, 103, -C GNU grep option, 114

176 -c GNU grep option, 114

1120 Index

-c grep option, 84, 93, 117 flow control, 535

C shell: hashstat command, 408
aliases, 418 history of, 7
creating, 605 history, command line, 413
listing, 491 if constructs, 538
arguments, 36 if/else constructs, 540
arithmetic, 37, 529 initialization files, 1045
arrays, 36, 447 input:
shift command, 448 here document, 433
strings, 449 reading, 35
asterisk, 427 redirecting, 433
backslash, 455 interrupt handling, 570
command line, 410, 534-535 job control, 423
command line history, 413 logical expressions, 540
commands: .login file, 406
background, 412 loops, 38, 561-570
built-in, 572 menus and here document, 560
conditional execution, 412 metacharacters, 426
conditions, evaluating within, 546 escaping, 430
looping, 561 quoting, 455
looping control commands, 566 turning off, 431
re-executing, 416 multiple commands, 411
substitution, 36, 452 operators, 37
comments, 34 arithmetic, 529
conditions, 37 comparison, 536
constructs, 535 logical, 536
evaluating commands within, 546 output:
nesting, 550 appending to existing file, 436
.cshrc file, 405 redirection, to a file, 435
curly braces metacharacter, 429 overview, 4
directory stack, manipulating, 420 positional parameters, 534
displaying output, 35 programming, 525-582
double quotes, 457 prompts, 409
environment, 404 primary prompt, 409
environment variables, 35 secondary prompt, 409
errors: question mark, 428
messages, 992 redirection, 25, 432
separating output from, 438 rehash command, 408
example script, 39 scripts:
exit status, 410, 543 creating, 525
filename completion, 431 debugging, 531
files: executable, making, 526
name substitution, 427 storing, 572
testing, 38, 548 shbang line, 34
floating-point arithmetic, 530 single quotes, 456
Index 1121

source command, 408 case labels, 557

specifying shell to use, 9 case sensitivity, turning off, 91
square brackets metacharacter, 429 cat utility, 1058
standard I/O, 432 cd command, 23
standard input, 432 change command for sed, 145
standard output, 432 characters;
startup, 403 bracketed character class, awk, 176
substitution, filenames, 427 international, 103
syntax and constructs, 34 interpreting literally, see wildcards
TC shell versus, 7 metacharacters, 69
testing expressions, 536 one-character match, 69
using, 403-524 POS1X character class, 176
variables, 440-452 regular expressions, 67
built-in, 444 special characters in fields, 257
extracting value from, 35 zero or more character match, 69
local, 440 checksum, calculating, 1093
PATH variable, 407 chfn utility, 1059
special, 450 child processes, 14, 31
wildcards, 35 child shell redirection, 646
see also shells chmod command, 20
cal utility, 1058 chmod utility, 1059
calendar: chown command, 21
cal utility, 1058 chown utility, 1060
date utility, 1063 chsh utility, 1060
rdate utility, 1085 clear utility, 1061
cannot be caught signal, 31 closing:
capitalization, transform command, 146 pipes, 225
caret metacharacter, 71, 75 standard input and exec command, 369
egrep, 96 cmp utility, 1061
GNU egrep, 105 colon command:
GNUgrep, 101 Bash,898
grep, 86, 88 Bourne shell, 344
sed, 132 Korn shell, 683
case command, 52 command line:
Bash,900 arguments:
Bourne shell, 346 Bash, 874
debugging, 978 Bourne shell, 327
here document: C shell, 534
Bash,901 Kom shell, 665
Bourne shell, 348 nawk, 271
C shell, 560 Bash,774,943
Kom shell, 685 Bourne shell, 287, 384-392
Korn shell, 684 C shell, 410, 534-535
case construct, 45 eval command, 949
1122 Index

command line (cont.): Korn shell, 594

getopts function: conditions, evaluting within, 546
Bash, 943 emacs;
Korn shell, 728 Korn shell, 600
history, 413, 595, 785 TC shell, 476
Korn shell, 592, 728-734 executing from scripts, 32
multiple commands: grouping:
Bash, 779 Bash,779
Bourne shell, 288 Bourne shell, 288
C shell, 411 Korn shell, 594
Korn shell, 594 help command, 775
options; job control:
awk, 275 Bash,781
gawk, 275 C shell, 423
parsing, 9, 391 Korn shell, 606
processing order, 10 looping;
programs, running from, 9 Bash,903
switches, 520 Bourne shell, 349
TC shell, 410, 464-480 C shell, 561
variables, user-defined, 205 Korn shell, 686
commands; looping control commands;
aliases: Bash, 917
Bash, 798 Bourne shell, 358
C shell, 418 C shell, 566
Korn shell, 604 Korn shell, 697
awk input, 159 negating, 130
background: order of execution on command line, 10
Bash, 780 order of processing:
Bourne shell, 289 Bash,774
C shell, 412 Korn shell, 592
Korn shell, 595 piping loop output to:
built-in; Bourne shell, 368
Bash,764, 857, 957 Korn shell, 703
Bourne shell, 394 recalling with bang character, 413
C shell, 572 re-executing:
Korn shell, 735 Bash, 790
TC shell, 503 C shell, 416
changing order of processing, 776 Korn shell, 597, 598
command-line arguments, 239 script file and awk, 177
command type evaluation order, 10 sed, 128-131
completion of varaibles, 482 shell, embedding in, 262
conditional execution; substitution:
Bash, 779 Bash, 60, 835
Bourne shell, 288 Bourne shell, 43, 309
C shell, 412 C shell, 36, 452
Index 1123

Kom shell, 52, 638 conditions:

substitution, when performed, 10 Bash, 61
timing, 650 Bourne shell, 44
types, 10 C shell, 37
vi: commands, evaluating within, 546
Kom shell, 599 conditional command execution:
TC shell, 475 Bash, 779
within file, 166 Bourne shell, 288
wordlists, 453 C shell, 412
comments, 49 Kom shell, 594
Bash, 58 conditional expressions, 190
Bourne shell, 41 conditional operators, 200
C shell, 34 conditional statements, 227-230
debugging issues, 967 constructs:
Korn shell, 49, 602 Bash, 879
comparing: Bourne shell, 333
bdiff utility, 1058 C shell, 535
cmp utility, 1061 Kom shell, 668
diff utility, 1064 debugging, 977, 1004
comparison expressions, 188-193 if/el if/else command:
comparison operators in C shell, 536 Bash, 893
complete variable, 484 Bourne shell, 342
completion: Kom shell, 679
filenames: if/else command:
Bash, 783 Bash, 891
C shell, 431 Bourne shell, 340
pathnames: Korn shell, 679
Bash,805,806 internal field separator:
C shell, 430 Bash, 926
Korn shell, 602, 613 Bourne shell, 370
programming, TC shell, 485 Korn shell, 706
compound patterns, awk, 191 Korn shell, 52
compress utility, 1061 nesting, C shell, 550
compression: see also if, 675
compress utility, 1061 constants and awk, 203
gunzip utility, 1072 continue command, 38
gzip utility, 1072 Bash,920
pack utility, 1081 Bourne shell, 362
peat utility, 1081 Korn shell, 700
ucompress utility, 1098 continue statement, 569
unpack utility, 1081 coprocesses, 722-725
zcat utility, 1072, 1101 copying:
computation and awk, 190 cp utility, 1062
concatenation utility, 1058 cpio utility, 1062
dd utility, 1064
1124 Index

counting, wc utility, 1100 file testing, 990

cp utility, 1062 here document, 989
cpio utility, 1062 incomplete statements, 976
cron: Korn shell error messages, 996
boot script, 1037 logical operator errors, 1001
daemon, 1035 loops, 977
instruction file, 1035 metacharacters, 983
utility, 1035, 1062 naming convention issues, 969
crontab file, 1035 operator error, 981
crypt utility, 1063 operators, missing, 982
csh, see C shell paths, 970
.cshrc file: permissions, 970
C shell, 405 quotes, 983
initialization files for each shell, 1045 relational operator errors, 1002
curly braces: robustness, lacking, 1005
metacharacter, 429 runtime errors, 969
pathname expansion, 805 scripts:
currencies and POSIX bracketed character Bash, 941
class, 103 Bourne shell, 383
cut utility, 1063 C shell, 531
Korn shell, 725
D shbang line, 972
d command, 129, 134 shell scripts, 967-1021
-D GNU grep option, 114 Bash, 1016
daemons, 1035 Bourne shell, 1009
DARPA and the Internet, 2 C shell, 1011
dash metacharacter, 74 Korn shell, 1014
date utility, 1063 TC shell, 1011
dates; style issues, 967
date command, 272 syntax errors, 975
POSIX bracketed character class, 103 variables, 967, 975
dd utility, 1064 decimal permission modes, 20
debugging: decimal places and integer functions, 246
aliases, sneaky, 973 declare:
Bash error messages, 999 -a command, 59
Bash invocation options, 1017 function, 59
Bourne shell error messages, 994 -i command, 60
branching, 1003 declare command, Bash, 844, 871
case command, 978 decrement operators, 204
comments, 967 delete command, 134
conditional constructs, 977 descriptors, see file descriptors
debugger signal, 31 df command, 160
error messages, 992 df utility, 1065
error types, 968 diff utility, 1064
exit status, 1004 dir command, 373
Index 1125

directories: Bourne shell, 286, 375

cd command, 23 Korn shell, 591
changing ownership, 21 dot metacharacter, 72
changing permissions, 20 GNU egrep, 105
completion: GNU grep, 101, 102
Bash,805,806 grep, 87
C shell, 430 sed, 132
Korn shell, 602, 613 double quotes;
expansion; Bourne shell, 308
Bash,805,806 C shell, 457
C shell, 430 combining with single quotes, 458
Kom shell, 602, 613 debugging, 983
home directory, 23 Korn shell, 637
Is utility, 1077 metacharacters, 834
mkdir utility, 1079 du utility, 1065
pwd utility, 1085
rm utility, 1088 E

rindi r utility, 1088 e command, 141

directory stack: -E GNU grep option, 101

manipulating: -e GNU grep option, 114

Bash, 799 -e grep option, 121

C shell, 420 -e option, 130

variables: sed, 130

C shell, 421 echo command:

dirs command, 799 output, 35

disk: printing variables, 300, 624

free space, 1065 echo option, 531

usage, 1065 echo utility, 1066

division by zero signal, 31 editing:

dollar sign metacharacter, 72 sed, 141

GNU egrep, 105 specific lines, see addressing

GNU grep, 101 editors:

grep, 87 files, modifying with sed, 130

sed, 132 vi and emacs;

dollar sign prompt: Bash, 793

Bash, 768 Korn shell, 599

Bourne shell, 283 TC shell, 474

Korn shell, 589 see also ex; sed; vi

done keyword, 45 EGID, 18

DOS utilities, 1079 egrep, 95-99

dos utility, 1065 defined, 81

dosdebug utility, 1065 egrep utility, 1066

dosexec utility, 1065 examples, 106

dot command; regular expression metacharacters, 69

Bash,773,932 see also GNU grep

1126 Index

ellipsis metacharacter, 102 standard:

emacs: Bash,868
Bash, 793 Korn shell, 658
commands; syntax error causes, 975
Korn shell, 600 TC shell, 992
TC shell, 476 see also stderr
Korn shell, 599 escape, 70
selecting as editor, 475 Bash prompt, 769
TC shell, 474 escape sequences, Korn shell, 626
empty fields, 257 escaping metacharacters:
end-of-line anchor, 69 Bash,806
END patterns, 208, 220 Bourne shell, 293
env command, 24 C shell, 430
Bourne shell, 298 Korn shell, 613
ENV variable, 587, 759 metacharacters, 70
environment variables: recognition, 7
Bourne shell, 42, 296 /etc/bashrc file:
C shell, 35 Bash, 761
declare function, 59 system-wide initialization files, 1046
displaying, 24 using, 1049
Korn shell, 50, 618 /etc/csh.cshrc file, 1051
overview, 23 /etc/csh.login file, 1050
printing, 445 /etc/profile file;
see also variables Bash, 756
equality operators: Bourne shell, 280
Bash, 60 Korn shell, 584
Bourne shell, 44 system-wide initialization files, 1046
C shell, 37 using, 1047
Korn shell, 52 /etc/skel, 1045
equality testing, awk, 194 EUID, 18
errors: eval command:
Bash,992,999 Bash, 949
Bourne shell, 992, 994 Bourne shell, 391
C shell, 992 ex regular expression metacharacters, 69
common error messages, 991 exchanging and sed, 151
debugging error messages, 992 exclamation point:
debugging tips, 968 operator, 191
Korn shell, 992, 996 awk, 197
messages: sed, 130
creating with alias, 544 exec command:
sed, 131-132 Bash, 846
output; Bourne shell, 313
redirecting, 436 Korn shell, 645
separating from, 438 loops:
Bourne shell, 369
Index 1127

Kom shell, 705 exported functions;

exec system call, 15 Bash,928
executable: Korn shell, 712
command type evaluation order, 10 expr command, 325
scripts, making: Bourne shell, 326
Bash,866 expr function, 1066
Bourne shell, 322 expressions:
C shell, 526 arithmetic, expansion, 837
Korn shell, 654 associativity and precedence, 537
executing: comparison expressions, 188-193
preventing execution, Bash, 763 conditional, 190
scripts, preventing from: expansion order, 838
Bash,941 logical, 540
Bourne shell, 383 numeric, 678
Korn shell, 725 regular, 173-177
exit command: see also regular expressions
Bash, 889 test command, 677
Bourne shell, 337 test utility, 1095
C shell, 544 testing, 536, 673
Korn shell, 681 testing, exit command, 681
EXIT signal, 31
exit status: F

Bash, 777,880 -F GNU grep option, 101

Bourne shell, 287 -f GNU grep option, 114

C shell, 410 -F grep option, 113

debugging, 1004 -f grep option, 122

grep, 85, 127 -f option, 130

Korn shell, 593, 668 awk, 166

script, using in, 545 fc command:

sed, 131 Bash, 787, 796

test command: Korn shell, 601

Bash,880 FCEDIT variable:

Bourne shell, 333 Bash,796

Korn shell, 670 Korn shell, 601

testing: fg command, 425

Bash, 879 fgrep, 81,99, 113

Bourne shell, 334 fgrep utility, 1067

C shell, 543 see also GNU grep; grep

Kom shell, 668 fi keyword, 44, 52

true utility, 1097 fields:

exit system call, 15 awk, 168

expansion: creating, 256

arithmetic, 837 defined, 168

order, 838 empty, 257

exponent operator, 191 fixed, 256

1128 Index

fields (cont): loop output, redirecting to:

input field separators, 184 Bash,923
separators: Bourne shell, 365
awk, 169 Korn shell, 702
Bash,926 modifying, 130
Bourne shell, 370 mv utility, 1080
Korn shell, 706 output, appendiing to, 436
output field separator, 170 permissions, where stored in, 20
using more than one, 170 rep utility, 1085
variable, 169 reading from, 141
special characters in, 257 rm utility, 1088
variable for number of, 168 split utility, 1091
variables, 205 tail utility, 1093
fignore variable, 484 tar utility, 1094
file descriptors: testing;
defined, 24 Bash,896
types, 24 Bourne shell, 46, 344
filec variable, 431 C shell, 38, 548
filenames: debugging, 990
completion: Korn shell, 55
Bash, 783 upack utility, 1099
C shell, 431 user-specific initialization files, 1044
TC shell, 482 uucp utility, 1099
filec variable, 431 whereis utility, 1101
substitution: writing to, 142
Bash, 802 filetest command, 554
C shell, 427 find utility, 1068
Kom shell, 610 finger utility, 1069
turning off, 431, 615 fix command, 787
when performed on command line, 10 fixed fields, 256
wildcards, 427, 610, 807 flags, file testing, 673
files: floating-point:
awk input, 158 arithmetic commands:
changing ownership, 21 Bash, 874
changing permissions, 20 Bourne shell, 327
closing, 213 C shell, 530
commands from within, 166 integers:
comparing, 1058 Bash,871
cpio utility, 1062 Kom shell, 660
crypt utility, 1063 flow control:
default permissions Bash, 879
file utility, 1067 Bourne shell, 333
find utility, 1068 C shell, 535
fuser utility, 1070 Korn shell, 668
links and In utility, 1073 fmt utility, 1069
Index 1129

fold utility, 1069 return values, Bash, 929

for command: source command, 932
Bash,903 string, 265
Korn shell, 686 string awk, 242
for loop: time, 269
Bash, 62 traps:
Bourne shell, 45, 349 Bash,940
debugging, 979 Bourne shell, 382
Korn shell, 54 Korn shell, 721
foreach loop, C shell, 38, 561 unsetting:
fork system call, 14 Bash,844,928
form letters, 260 Korn shell, 643, 710
formatting: user-defined, nawk, 248, 274
fmt utility, 1069 see also utilities
output, 161 fuser utility, 1070
forward slash metacharacter, 71
Free Software Foundation, 3 G

free utility, 1070 C command, 129

FS variable, 161, 169 g command, 129, 148

ftp utility, 1069 g flag, 129
function keyword, 55 -G GNU grep option, 101

functions: g++ utility, 1071

aliases and Korn shell, 641 gawk:

arguments and return value, 373 defined, 157

autoloaded, 714 gawk utility, 1071

Bash, 63,841-844,927-935 options on command line, 275

Bourne shell, 310-311, 372-378 POSIX character class, 176

built-in, awk, 246 time functions, 269

command line, when defined, 10 tolower function, 268

command type evaluation order, 10 toupper function, 268

defined, 10 see also awk

defining: gcc utility, 1071

Bash,841 German characters, 103

Korn shell, 640, 710 getline:

exported: command, 272

Bash, 928 function, 210, 260

Korn shell, 712 getopt utility, 1071

integer, awk, 246 getopts function:

invocation arguments, 740, 852 Bash,943

Korn shell, 55, 639-643, 709-716 Korn shell, 728

listing: getting with sed, 148

Bash,844 global variables:

Korn shell, 642 Bash, 59

options for typeset command, 714 see also environment variables

1130 Index

globbing, 290 using, 81-124

Bash,807 group info, printing, 1072
Korn shell, 610 groups utility, 1072
when performed on command-line input, gsub function, 242, 257
10 gunzip utility, 1072
see also filenames, substitution; substitu- gzip utility, 1072
tion
GNU awk, 157 H

GNU egrep: H command, 129

examples, 106-109 h command, 129, 148, 151

extended regular expressions, 105-113 -h GNU grep option, 114

metacharacters, 102, 105 -h grep option, 84, 123

variants, 110 hash command:

GNU fgrep metacharacters, 102 Bash, 772

GNU grep: Bourne shell, 285

basic regular expressions, 104-105 hashstat command, 408

fgrep, 113 head utility, 1072

metacharacters, 101 help command, 775

options, 101, 114, 118-123 -help GNU grep option, 114

POSIX, 103 here document:

regular expressions, 100 Bash,851

using, 105, 113 Bourne shell, 318, 348, 560, 685, 901

GNU sed options, 131 C shell, 433

GNU's Not UNIX, 3 case command:

goto command, 547 Bash,901

greater than metacharacter, 133 Bourne shell, 348

grep: C shell, 560

commands summary, 94 Korn shell, 685

-E, see egrep debugging, 989

exit status, 85, 127 Korn shell, 648

-F, see fgrep history:
fgrep utility, 1067 bang character, 413
gawk utility, 1071 command line, 595
GNU grep, 100, 104, 105, 113 file, accessing commands, 786
metacharacters, 83 history command, Korn shell, 595

name origin, 81 history variable, C shell, 414

options, 91 substitution, when performed, 10

pipes, 94 updating, when performed, 10

-R, see rgrep variables:

regular expression examples, 94 Bash, 785
regular expression metacharacters, 69 C shell, 414
regular expressions, 86 HISTSIZE variable, 595

rgrep, 113 holding:

rgrep utility, 1086 buffer, exchanging pattern, 151

Solaris directory, 81 sed, 151

Index 1131

holding command, sed, 148 boot scripts, 1031

home directory, 23 overview, 9
HOME variable, 9 initialization files:
host utility, 1072 for each shell, 1045
hyphens and pathname expansion, 806 system-wide, 1046
user-specific, 1044
I input, 43
i command, 129, 144 Bash, 59
-i GNU grep option, 114 Bourne shell, 43
-i grep option, 84, 91, 116 C shell, reading, 35
id utility, 1072 command line, parsing, 9
if command: here document:
Bash, 886 Bash, 851
Bourne shell, 335 Bourne shell, 318
debugging, 1004 C shell, 433
Korn shell, 675 Korn shell, 648
if constructs, 37, 44, 61 Korn shell, 50
Bash,879 pipes, grep, 94
Bourne shell, 333 reading, nawk, 272
C shell, 538 redirection, 25
Korn, 52 awk, 210-211
Korn shell, 668 Bash, 923
if statements, nested, 891 Bourne shell, 365
if/elif/else command: C shell, 433
Bash, 893 Korn shell, 702
Bourne shell, 342 pipes, 24
Korn shell, 679 sed, 126
if/else command, 52 standard
Bash, 891 Bash,868
Bourne shell, 340 Korn shell, 658
Korn shell, 679 user, reading, 323, 527, 656, 867
if/else construct, 44, 53, 540 see also pipes; stdin
if/else if statement, 37 input field separators, 184
if/else/else if construct, 45, 53, 61 .inputrc file:
if/endif constructs, debugging, 977 Bash, 763
illegal hardware instruction signal, 31 example, 1048
incomplete statements, debugging, 976 variable, 1049
increment operators, 204 insert command, 144
indentation: integers;
debugging, 976 bases:
if blocks, 675 Bash,872
index function, 243 Korn shell, 661
inheritance and shells, 18-31 Bash,871
i ni t: functions, awk, 246
authentication, 9 Korn shell, 660
1132 Index

interactive stop signal, 31 aliases, 604

internal field separator: deleting, 605
Bash, 926 listing, 604
Bourne shell, 370 arguments, 51
Korn shell, 706 invocation, 740
internationalization and POSIX, 103 arithmetic, 51, 660
Internet and DARPA, 2 arrays, 51, 707-709
interprocess communication, 28 asterisk, 610
interrupt handling, 570 backslash, 636
invalid memory references signal, 31 bases, 661
invitation example scripts, 34 child shell, 646
invocation arguments: command line, 592, 728-734
Bash,852 history, 595
Korn shell, 740 commands:
invocation options, Bash, 1017 background, 595
built-in, 735
J conditional execution, 594
job control: grouping, 594
Bash, 781 looping, 686
C shell, 423 looping control commands, 697
Korn shell, 606 order of processing, 592
TC shell, 495 re-executing, 597, 598
jobs: substitution, 52, 638
background, 423 timing, 650
suspend key sequence, 424 comments, 602
jobs command, 424 conditions, 52, 668
jsh utility, 1073 coprocesses, 722-725
TC shell, 495 creating, 492
Joy, Bill, 7 dot command, 591
jsh utility, 1073 double quotes, 637
editors, selecting, 599
K environment variables, 50
kernel: error messages, 992, 996
defined, 1 escape sequences, 626
init and, 1031 /etc/profile file, 584
redirection and pipes, 24 example script, 56
keywords; exercises, 741
command type evaluation order, 10 exit status, 593, 668
debugging, 976 files, testing, 55
kill command, 1073 flow control, 668
Bourne shell, 379 function options, 714
Korn shell, 716 functions, 55, 709-716
processes, 17 aliases and, 641
kill all command, 1073 autoloaded, 714
Korn shell, 49 defining, 640
Index 1133

exported, 712 debugging, 725

introduction, 639-643 executable, making, 654
listing, 642 security, 735
unsetting, 643 select command, 693
here document, 648 shbang line, 49
history of, 7 shift command, 709
if command, 675 signals, trapping, 716
if constructs, 668 specifying shell to use, 9
initialization files, 1045 square brackets metacharacter, 612
input, 50 standard I/O, 643
integers, 660 standard input, 643
invocation arguments, 740 standard output, 643
job control, 606 startup, 583
.kshrc file, 584 stderr, 658
let command, 662 stdin, 658
local variables, 50 stdout, 658
logical operators, 670 subshells, 702
loops, 54 syntax and constructs, 49
background, 704 test command, 677
internal field separator, 706 Bourne version, 676, 678
nested, 701 testing files with flags, 673
menus: using, 583-651
here document, 685 variable expansion, 630
select command, 693 variable expansion modifiers, 627
metacharacters, 607, 610 variables, 616-635
escaping, 613 $? variable, 668
new, 614 attributes, 631
quoting, 636 ENV variable, 587
turning off, 615 environment, 618
multiple commands, 594 extracting values from, 50
operating systems, 7 local, 616
operators, 52 PATH variable, 591
output, 50 printing, 621
overview, 5 set, 621
parameters, positional, 633, 665 special, 635
pipes, 646 unsetting, 624
.profile file, 585 wildcards, 50
prompts, 589 Windows download URL, 5
primary prompt, 589 see also shells
secondary prompt, 590 Korn, David, 7
public domain version, 5 ksh, see Korn shell
question mark, 611 .kshrc file:
redirection, 25, 643, 646, 702 initialization files for each shell, 1045
scripts: startup, 584
creating, 653 see also ENV file
1134 Index

L lists:

1 command, 129 wordlists and $, 528

-L GNU grep option, 115 wordlists and $* variable:

-1 GNU grep option, 115 Bash,906

-1 grep option, 84, 92, 117 Bourne shell, 352

length function, 243 Korn shell, 689

less than metacharacter, 133 In utility, 1073

less utility, 1073 local function, 929

let command, 51, 60 local variables:

arithmetic operators, 662 Bash, 58

Bash,873,880 Bourne shell, 42, 294

Bourne shell, 678 C shell, 440

Korn shell, 662 Korn shell, 50, 616

letters, form, 260 overview, 23

lexical analysis, see parsing command line; private to, 23

tokens return value, 711
line utility, 1073 see also variables
lines: locales and POSIX bracketed character class,
editing specific, see addressing 103
RE, matching entire line, 175 logical expressions, 540
reading next, 145 logical operators:
selecting range, sed, 139 awk, 191

links and In utility, 1073 Bash,60,881

Linux: Bourne shell, 44

distributers, 3 C shell, 37, 536

GNU egrep variants, 110 common errors, 1001

GNU grep variants, 110 debugging issues, 968

number of users, 3 Korn shell, 52, 670

origin, 2 .login file;

shells, 5-6 C shell, 406

shells available, listing, 5 initialization files for each shell, 1045

utilities, 1055-1102 login program, 9

listing: login shell, 9-11

aliases: logname utility, 1075

Bash,798 LOGNAME variable, 9

C shell, 491 .logout file:

Korn shell, 604 example, 587, 763

functions: initialization files for each shell, 1045

Bash,844 look utility, 1075

Korn shell, 642 loops:

traps; awk, 230-231

Bash, 938 Bash, 62

Bourne shell, 380 Bourne shell, 45

Korn shell, 718 breaking out of, 568
Index 1135

C shell, 38, 561-570 mail:

commands: mail utility, 1078
Bash,903 pine utility, 1082
Bourne shell, 349 rmail utility, 1078
C shell, 561 mail merge, see form letters
Kom shell, 686 mailx utility, 1078
control commands, looping: make utility, 1078
Bash, 917 man utility, 1079
Bourne shell, 358 manpath utility, 1079
C shell, 566 match function, 244
Korn shell, 697 match operator, 175
debugging, 977, 979 mathematical functions, see arithmetic
exec command: memory, displaying free and used, 1070
Bourne shell, 369 menus:
Korn shell, 705 creating:
goto command, 547 Bash,901
Korn shell, 54 Bourne shell, 348
nested: C shell, 560
Bash,921 Korn shell, 685
Bourne shell, 364 here document:
C shell, 568 Bash,901

Korn shell, 701 Bourne shell, 348

piping output to UNIX command: C shell, 560
Bourne shell, 368 Korn shell, 685
Korn shell, 703 select command:

redirecting output of to a file: Bash, 912

Bash,923 Kom shell, 693

Bourne shell, 365 mesg utility, 1079

Korn shell, 702 metacharacters, 70

running in background: asterisk:

Bash, 925 Bash,802

Bourne shell, 368 Bourne shell, 291

Korn shell, 704 C shell, 427
switch command, 557 Korn shell, 610

lowercase, transform command, 146 awk, 174

Ip utility, 1076 backslash, 307

Ipq utility, 1077 Bash,832

Ipr utility, 1077 Bourne shell, 307

Ipsched daemon, 1035 C shell, 455

Ipstat utility, 1077 Kom shell, 636
Is utility, 1077 Bash, 801,802
Bourne shell, 290
C shell, 426
debugging, 983
-m GNU grep option, 115
double quotes, 834
1136 Index

metacharacters (cont.): multiline records, 258

Bourne shell, 308 mv utility, 1080
C shell, 457
Korn shell, 637 N

escaping; n command, 129, 145

Bash, 806 -n GNU grep option, 115

Bourne shell, 293 -n grep option, 84, 91

C shell, 430 -n option, 130

Korn shell, 613 naming:

example, 69 debugging issues, 969

filename substitution: variable name errors, 975

Bourne shell, 290 nawk:

C shell, 427 arguments, command line, 271

GNU egrep, 102, 105 command arguments, 239

GNU egrep variants, 110 defined, 157

GNU fgrep, 102 exercises, 226, 255

GNUgrep, 101 functions, user-defined, 248, 274

grep, 83 input, reading, 272

Korn shell, 607, 610 see also awk

new, 614 nawk utility, 1080

question mark; negation operator, 191, 197

Bash,803 nested:

Bourne shell, 291 if statements, 891

C shell, 428 loops:

Korn shell, 611 Bash,921

quoting: C shell, 568

Bash,831 Bourne shell, 364

Bourne shell, 306 Korn shell, 701

C shell, 455 switches, 558

Korn shell, 636 see also loops

redirection, 432 newgrp utility, 1080

regular expression metacharacters, 69 news utility, 1080

sed, 132-133 next command, 145

single quotes: NF variable, 168

Bash, 833 nf variable, 239

Bourne shell, 308 nice utility, 1081

C shell, 456 noclobber variable, 439

Korn shell, 636 noglob variable, 431

turning off: Korn shell, 615

C shell, 431 nohup utility, 1081

Korn shell, 615 NOT operator, 197

mkdir utility, 1079 Novell, 2

modulus operator, 191 NR variable, awk, 168

more utility, 1079 null command:

mtools utility, 1079 Bash,898

Index 1137

Bourne shell, 344 redirection, 432

Korn shell, 683 Bourne shell, 312
null values, checking, 339, 891 Korn shell, 644
null variable, 539 relational:
numbers, random generator, 247 awk, 196
debugging, 1002
o TC shell file testing, 554
octal: see also arithmetic; conditions, conditional
bases in Bash, 872 operators; logical operators
bases in Korn shell, 661 options:
see also bases and integers eval command, 953
od utility, 1081 GNU grep examples, 118-123
OFMT variable, 163 grep, 91
OFS variable, 161, 170 invocation, Bash, 852
opening: sed, 128
exec command, 369 shopt command, 955
pipes, 225 output:
operator error, debugging issues, 981 appending to existing file, 436
operators: Bash, 58
arithmetic: Bourne shell, 42
Bourne shell, 326 C shell, 35
C shell, 529 formatting, 161
expr command, 326 Korn shell, 50
Korn shell, 662 printing to screen with echo, 35
let command, 662 redirecting, 436
awk, 188 redirection:
Bash, 60 awk, 209
binary, 673 Bash, 923
Bourne shell, 44 Bourne shell, 365
C shell, 37 C shell, 435
comparison, 536 Korn shell, 702
debugging missing, 982 pipes, 24
decrement, awk, 214 separating from errors, 438
file testing; standard;
Bash,896 Bash,868
increment, awk, 214 Korn shell, 658
Korn shell, 52 see also pipes; stdout
logical: ownership, 20
Bash,881 chown command, 21
C shell, 536 shells and identity, 18
debugging, 1001
expression testing, 673 P
Korn shell, 670 p command, 129, 134
precedence: P flag, 129
C shell, 537 -P GNU grep option, 101
1138 Index

pack utility, 1081 awk simple pattern matching example, 178

parameters: BEGIN, 208, 219
positional: compound, 191
Bash,874 defined, 171
Bourne shell, 303, 327 END, 208, 220
C shell, 534 ranges, 192
Korn shell, 633, 665 peat utility, 1081
see also arguments pdksh shell;
parent processes, 14 public domain version, 5
parentheses metacharacter: see also Korn shell
egrep, 96 period, see dot command; dot metacharacter
GNU egrep, 106 permissions, 18
GNU grep, 102 changing, 20
parsing command line, 9, 949 chmod command, 20, 1059
party invitation example scripts, 34 debugging, 970
passwd command, 1082 file creation mask, 19
passwd file, 9 modes, 20
passwords: spawned processes, 19
awk data validation program, 192 umask utility, 1097
init process, 9 where stored in file, 20
paste utility, 1082 pg utility, 1083
path debugging issues, 970 BID:
PATH variable, 407 finding for process, 17
Bash,771 killing process by, 17
Bourne shell, 285 pine utility, 1082
Korn shell, 591 ping utility, 1083
pathnames: pipe system call, 28
basename utility, 1057 pipes, 24, 28
expansion; awk, 212-213, 224
Bash,805,806 Bash, 849
C shell, 430 Bourne shell, 316
Korn shell, 602, 613 closing, 213, 225
variable modifiers, 451 egrep, 96
pattern buffer: GNU egrep, 106
exchanging pattern in holding buffer, 151 GNU grep, 102
reading next line into, 145 Korn shell, 646
pattern matching, 67-79 loop output, piping to UNIX command:
grep options, 91 Bourne shell, 368
metacharacters, 69 Korn shell, 703
see also metacharacters; regular expres- opening, 225
sions operator, 191
pattern space, 126 pi pe command syntax, 28
patterns: signal for broken pipe connection, 31
action and pattern combinations, 182 when set up, 10
awk, 158, 171 who command, 28
Index 1139

plus sign metacharacter; echo command, 300, 624

GNU egrep, 106 Korn shell, 621
GNU grep, 96, 102 TC shell, 499
popd command: privileges:
Bash, 800 privileged scripts, 735
C shell, 420 su command, 1024
portable scripts, 1041 processes:
positional parameters: communicating using pipes, 28
$* versus $@, 331 creating new, 14
argv command, 534 defined, 11
Bash,874 exec system call, 15
Bourne shell, 303, 327 exit status, 287
C shell, 534 exit system call, 15
Korn shell, 633, 665 fork system call, 14
set command: killing, 17
Bash,876 parent and child, 14
Bourne shell, 329 permissions for spawned, 19
Kom shell, 665 ps command, 12
POSIX: pstree command, 13
awk, 157 ptree command, 13
character class, 176 responses to signals, 30
defined, 6 shell and, 11-18
GNU grep, 103 system calls, 14
postamble, 805 UID of zero, 19
posters, printing, 1057 wait system call, 15
post-increment operator, 204 processing order, command line:
pr utility, 1083 changing, 776
preamble, 805 command order, 10
precedence, 537 .profile file:
pre-increment operator, 205 Bash,758,762
print function, 161 Bourne shell, 280, 282
printf function, 163, 223 initialization files for each shell, 1045
printing: Korn shell, 585
awk, 161 user-specific initialization files, 1044
environment variables, 445 program control statements, 232
Ip utility, 1076 programming;
Ipq utility, 1077 C and TC shells, 525-582
Ipr utility, 1077 completions, 485
Ipstat utility, 1077 shell, 33-65
pattern buffer, 134 shell scripts as interpreted programming
pr utility, 1083 languages, 8
script utility, 1089 see also scripts
sed, 134 programs:
variables: command type evaluation order, 10
Bourne shell, 298 finding program to run, 9
1140 Index

programs (cont.): quickstart on shell programming, 33-65

job control, 423, 606, 781 quiet grep option, 123
termination signal, 31 quit command, 147
prompts: quota utility, 1085
Bash, 768 quote processing, when performed, 10
Bourne shell, 283 quotes:
C shell, 409 debugging, 983
Korn shell, 589 guidelines for use, 985
primary prompt: see also double quotes; single quotes
Bash, 768 quoting:
Bourne shell, 283 debugging, 983
C shell, 409 metacharacters:
Kom shell, 589 Bash,831
secondary prompt: Bourne shell, 306
Bash, 770 C shell, 455
Bourne shell, 284 Korn shell, 636
C shell, 409 see also double quotes; single quotes
Kom shell, 590
ps command: R

example, 12 r command, 129, 141

finding PID, 17 -R GNU grep option, 115

ps utility, 1084 -r GNU grep option, 115

PS2 prompt: rand function, 247

Bash, 770 random number generator, 247

Bourne shell, 284 ranges:

Korn shell, 590 awk, 200

pstree command, 13 lines and sed, 139

pstree utility, 1084 patterns, 192
ptree command, 13 range operators, 200
pushd command: rep utility, 1085

Bash, 800 read command:

C shell, 420 Bash:

pwd utility, 1085 file descriptors, 868

user input, 867
Q Bourne shell, 323
q command, 129, 147 Korn shell:
-q GNU grep option, 115 file descriptors, 658
question mark metacharacter, 96 user input, 656
Bash, 803 streams, 658, 868
Bourne shell, 291 while loop, 659
C shell, 428 readers, 28
GNU egrep, 106 reading:
GNU grep, 102 input, 272
Korn shell, 611 sed, 141
question mark variable, 337 user input, 323, 527, 656, 867
Index 1141

records; see also metacharacters; pattern matching

awk, 167 rehash command, 408
multiline, 258 relational operators:
separator, awk, 167 awk, 188, 195, 196
redirection, 24, 25 Bash, 60
awk, 224 Bourne shell, 44
Bash,844 C shell, 37
Bourne shell, 312 common errors, 1002
C shell, 432 Korn shell, 52
child shell, 646 repeat command, C shell, 565, 568
exec command; reports, awk, 157-277
Bash,846 resetting:
Bourne shell, 313 signals:
Korn shell, 645 Bash,937
I/O redirection: Bourne shell, 379
Bash,923 Korn shell, 718
Bourne shell, 365 restricted scripts, Korn shell, 735
Kom shell, 702 return function, Bash, 929
input, 433 return values:
Korn shell, 643 function arguments and, 373
operators; Bash,929
Bourne shell, 312 local variables, 711
C shell, 432 rgrep:
Korn shell, 644 defined, 81

output, 435 example, 82

error, 436 features, 113

when set up, 10 how it works, 82
regular expressions, 67-79 rgrep utility, 1086

awk, 173-177 rlogin utility, 1087

case sensitivity, 91 rm utility, 1088

defined, 67 rmail utility, 1078

egrep examples, 106-109 rmdir utility, 1088

example, 68, 71-79 roles:

extended GNU grep, 100 su command, 1024

GNU basic grep, 104-105 superuser, 1023

GNU extended egrep, 105-113 root;

GNU grep, 100 running scripts as, 1027

metacharacters, 101 scripts that run as, 1029

grep, 86 UID, 19

command, 81-124 rsh utility, 1088

examples, 94 run level, 1031

matching on an entire line, 175 runtime errors, debugging, 969

metacharacters, 69 ruptime utility, 1089

POSIX, 103 rusers command, 160

sed, 126 rwho utility, 1089

1142 Index

rw-rw-rw- permissions, 19 running, preventing from:

rwxrwxrwx permissions, 19 Bash,941
Bourne shell, 383
s Korn shell, 725
s command, 129, 136 sample, 33-65
-s GNU grep option, 115 sed, 151
-s grep option, 84 commands overview, 154
SCCS version information, 1100 examples, 152
screen; storing, 572
displaying output to, 42 writing, 32
printing output to with echo, 35 see also shell scripts
script utility, 1089 search path:
scripts: Bash, 771
awk example, 186 Bourne shell, 285
boot scripts, 1030-1052 C shell, 407
Bourne shell, 321-395 Korn shell, 591
commands, 177 search path variable, login program, 9
executing from, 32 searching, see grep; pattern matching; regular
creating: expressions
Bash,865 security;
Bourne shell, 321 changing permissions, 20
C shell, 525 Korn shell, 735
Korn shell, 653 permissions, debugging, 970
debugging, 967-1021 setuid, 19
Bash,941 see also permissions
Bourne shell, 383 sed, 125-156
C shell, 531 addressing, 128
Korn shell, 725 appending, 143
executable, making: buffer, 126
Bash,866 changing command, 145
Bourne shell, 322 commands, 128-131
C shell, 526 deleting, 134
Korn shell, 654 editing, 141
exiting, 544 error messages, 131-132
interrupt handling, 570 examples, 133-151
menus: exchanging, 151
Bash, 901 exit status, 131
Bourne shell, 348 files:
C shell, 560 modifying, 130
Korn shell, 685 reading from, 141
portable, 1041 writing to, 142
privileged, 735 getting, 148
programming quicks tart, 33-65 GNU options, 131
restricted, 735 holding, 151
root, running as, 1027, 1029 holding command, 148
Index 1143

how it works, 126 Korn shell, 621

inserting, 144 setuid:
lines, selecting range, 139 C shell scripts, 571
metacharacters, 132-133 programs, 1029
next command, 145 sh, see Bourne shell

options, 128 shbang line:

pattern space, 126 Bash, 58
printing, 134 Bourne shell, 41
quit command, 147 C shell, 34

reading, 141 debugging, 972

regular expression metacharacters, 69 Korn shell, 49

regular expressions, 126 shell scripts:
scripting, 151-155 creating:

sed utility, 1090 Bash, 865

substitution, 136 Bourne shell, 321

flags, 129 C shell, 525

transforming, 146 Korn shell, 653

versions, 125 debugging, 967-1021

writing, 142 Bash, 1016

select command: Bourne shell, 1009

Bash, 912 C shell, 1011

Korn shell, 693 Korn shell, 1014
select loop: TC shell, 1011
Bash, 62 exiting, 544

Korn shell, 54 portable scripts, 1041

separators: programming language, interpreted, 8

field: programming quickstart, 33-65

awk, 169 SHELL variable, 9

using more than one, 170 shells:

input field separators, 184 awk and, 262

output field separators, 170 Bourne shell, 279-320, 321-401

set -A command, 51 startup, 280

set command: changing at command line, 755

arrays, 43 command line:

Bash, 763,853,953 parsing, 9

Bourne shell, 298, 393 processing order, 10

debugging, 1018 command type evaluation order, 10

positional parameters: comparison of C, TC, Bash, Bourne, and
Bash, 876 Korn,1103-1112

Bourne shell, 329 defined, 1, 11

Korn shell, 665 determining which is run, 9

tracing with, 1009 environment and inheritance, 18-31

-set options, 588 error messages, 991

set variables: excuting commands from scripts, 32

Bourne shell, 298 history, 6

1144 Index

shells (cont.): signals:

history of, 6-8 fake, 717
init process, 9 how sent, 30
initialization files for, 1045 ignoring;
installed on a Linux system, finding, 5 Bash, 938
interpreted program language, using as, 8 Bourne shell, 380
introduction to, 3-6 Korn shell, 718
invocation options, 392 overview, 30
Korn shell: process responses to, 30
startup, 583 resetting:
using, 583-651 Bash,937
Linux, 5-6 Bourne shell, 379
login shell, 9 Kom shell, 718
major functions, 8 standard, 31
metacharacters, 290, 610, 802 trapping;
Bash,801 Bash,935
C shell, 426 Bourne shell, 378
Kom shell, 607 defined, 31
overview, 4 Korn shell, 716
ownership, 18 single quotes:
permissions, 18 Bourne shell, 308
processes, 11-18 combining with double quotes, 458
programming quickstart, 33-65 debugging, 983
prompts: Korn shell, 636
Bash,768 metacharacters:
C shell, 409 Bash, 833
Korn shell, 589 C shell, 456
quotes, guidelines for use, 985 single-user mode, 1033
sample scripts, 33-65 size utility, 1090
signals, 30 slash metacharacter, 71
system administrator and, 1023-1053 sleep command, 18
tracing with, 1009 sleep utility, 1090
variable types, 23 sneaky aliases, debugging, 973
.sh_hi story file, 595 Solaris;
shift command: GNU eg rep variants, 110
arrays, 36, 43 GNU grep variants, 110
Bash, 917 sort utility, 1091
Bourne shell, 359 source command:
C shell, 448, 566 Bash,773,932
Korn shell, 697, 709 C shell, 408
shopt command: space metacharacter, 87
Bash,763,855,955 special variables:
debugging, 1020 Bourne shell, 305
sigchild signal, 15 Korn shell, 635
Index 1145

spell utility, 1091 Bourne shell, 280

spelling correction, TC shell, 490 C shell, 403
split function: Korn shell, 583
awk, 203, 245 not executing startup files, 763
nawk, 273 user-specific initialization files, 1044
split utility, 1091 statements, incomplete, debugging, 976
sprintf function, 245 stderr:
square brackets metacharacter, 74, 75 Bash,844,868

Bash,804 Bourne shell, 312

Bourne shell, 292 C shell, 432

C shell, 429 defined, 9
egrep, 95 Korn shell, 643, 658

GNU, 101 stdin:

GNU egrep, 105 Bash,844,868

GNU grep, 102 Bourne shell, 312

grep, 83 C shell, 432

Korn shell, 612 defined, 9

sed, 132 Korn shell, 643, 658

stand function, 247 stdout:

stack, directory: Bash,844,868

Bash, 799 Bourne shell, 312

C shell, 420 C shell, 432

C shell variables, 421 defined, 9

standard errors; Korn shell, 643, 658

Bash, 868 stop, interactive, signal for, 31

Korn shell, 658 stopped job signal, 31

see also stderr streams;

stderr:
standard input:
Bash,868
Bash,844,868
Korn shell, 658
Bourne shell, 312
stdin:
C shell, 432
Bash,868
exec command, 369
Korn shell, 658
Korn shell, 643, 658
stdout:
see also stdin
Bash,868
standard output:
Korn shell, 658
Bash, 844,868
strftime function, 269
Bourne shell, 312
strings:
C shell, 432
apropros utility, 1055
Korn shell, 643, 658
arrays, 449
replicating, 1094
fgrep utility, 1067
see also stdout
functions, 265
startup:
awk, 242
Bash, 754, 763
string utility, 1092
boot scripts, 1030-1052
1146 Index

strings (cont.): scripts that run as root, 1029

testing: su command, 1024
Bash,881 Swedish characters, 103
Bourne shell, 333 switch command:
Korn shell, 670 C shell, 557
variable expansion of substrings, 630 debugging, 978
stty utility, 1092 sync utility, 1093
style issues, debugging, 967 syntax:
su command, 1024 Bash, 58
sub function, 242 Bourne shell, 41
subshells; C shell, 34
Bash, 923 errors, debugging, 975
Bourne shell, 365 Korn shell, 49
Korn shell, 702 system administrator and the shell, 1023-
substitution: 1053
command substitution; system calls:
Bash, 835 defined, 14
Bourne shell, 309 fork system call, 14
C shell, 452 system function, 213
Korn shell, 638 system startup, 9-11
commands; system state, 1031
Bash, 60 system-wide initialization files, 1046
Bourne shell, 43 systime function, 269
C shell, 36
Korn shell, 52 T

filename: tabs utility, 1093

Bourne shell, 290 tail utility, 1093

C shell, 427 talk utility, 1093

noglob variable, 431, 615 tar utility, 1094

sed, 136 TC shell:

sed flags, 129 aliases, 491
when performed in command-line input, deleting, 493

10 C shell versus, 7

wordlists, 453 command line, 410, 464-480

see also pattern matching; regular expres- command-line switches, 520

sions commands, built-in, 503

substr function, 244 completion, 482

awk, 256 download location, 5

substrings, variable expansion, 630 editors, selecting, 474

sum utility, 1093 error messages, 992

superblock, updating, 1093 exercises, 522

superuser: files:
overview, 1023 testing, 551

process U1D, 19 testing operators, 554

running scripts as root, 1027 history of, 7

Index 1147

initialization files, 1045 strings:

job control, 495 Bash,881
more information, 8 Bourne shell, 333
new features, 460-464 Korn shell, 670
programming, 525-582 text:
programming completions, 485 fmt utility, 1069
redirection, 25 printing, 134
spelling correction, 490 sed, 134
T, stands for, 7 reading from files, 141
.tcshrc file, 405 substitution, 136
using, 403-524 text editors:
variables, printing, 499 FCEDIT variable, 797
wildcards, 35 see also ex; sed; vi
see also C shell then keyword, 44
tcsh, see TC shell tilde:
.tcshrc file: operator, 175
initialization files for each shell, 1045 pathname expansion:
TC shell, 405 Bash,806
tee utility, 1094 C shell, 430
telnet utility, 1094 Korn shell, 602, 613
terminal disconnect signal, 31 time:
test command, 38, 44, 46, 52, 55, 60, 676 commands, 650
Bash, 880 cron utility, 1062
Bourne shell, 333, 334 functions, 269
Bourne version, using in Korn shell, 678 POSIX bracketed character class, 103
C shell, 549 rdate utility, 1085
Korn shell, 670, 677 time utility, 1095
test utility, 1095 timex utility, 1095
testing: touch utility, 1095
binary operators, 673 time command, 650
equality, awk, 194 timeout signal, 31
expressions: timex utility, 1095
C shell, 536 TMOUT variable, 651
logical operators, 673 tokens;
files: defined, 9
Bash, 896 parsing command-line input, 9
Bourne shell, 46 when created, 10
C shell, 38, 548 tolower function, 268
debugging, 990 top utility, 1095
flags, 673 Torvalds, Linus, 2
Korn shell, 55 touch utility, 1095
TC shell, 551 toupper function, 268
TC shell operators, 554 tput utility, 1096
null or unset variables, 539 tr utility, 1096
1148 Index

tracing shell options and set command, 1009 Korn shell, 643, 710
transforming using sed, 146 until command:
trapping signals: Bash, 910
Bash, 935 Bourne shell, 357
Bourne shell, 378 Korn shell, 692
Korn shell, 716 until loop:
traps: Bash, 62
Bash, 940 Bourne shell, 45
Korn shell, 721 Korn shell, 54
listing: upack utility, 1099
Bash, 938 uppercase, transform command, 146
Bourne shell, 380 user info, printing, 1072
Korn shell, 718 USER variable, 9
trigonometric functions, see arithmetic user-defined functions, 248, 274
true utility, 1097 user-defined variables, 205
tsort utility, 1097 user-specific initialization files, 1044
tty utility, 1097 utilities, 1055-1102
typeset command: uucp utility, 1099
Bash,60,928 uudecode utility, 1099
Korn shell, 631, 642, 660, 710, 711, 714 uuencode utility, 1099
typeset -i command, 51
V
U -V GNU grep option, 114
-U GNU grep option, 115 -v GNU grep option, 115
-u GNU grep option, 115 -V grep option, 119
ucompress utility, 1098 -v grep option, 84, 92
UIDs, 19 -v option:
umask command, 19 awk, 205
umask utility, 1097 C shell, 531
uname utility, 1098 validation program, 192
uniq utility, 1099 values, null, checking for, 339
units utility, 1099 variables:
UNIX: $? variable, 668
Novell and, 2 arithmetic, 37
origin, 1 attributes:
types chart, 2 Korn shell, 631
utilities, 1055-1102 awk, 203-209
unpack utility, 1081 Bash,810-831
unset command: BASH.ENV variable, 759
Bash, 928 built-in:
Bourne shell, 299, 373 awk, 206, 215
Korn shell, 710 C shell, 444
unsetting functions: C shell, 440-452
Bash,844,928 debugging issues, 967, 975
Index 1149

directory stack, 421 Korn shell, 624

environment: user-defined, 205
Bourne shell, 296 variable expansion modifiers:
Korn shell, 618 Bourne shell, 301
exit status: Korn shell, 627
Bourne shell, 335 see also environment variables; local vari-
C shell, 543 ables
using in script, 545 verbose option, 531
extracting values from: vi;
Bash, 59 Bash, 793
Bourne shell, 42 commands;
C shell, 35 Korn shell, 599
Kom shell, 50 TC shell, 475
field, 205 Korn shell, 599
history; regular expression metacharacters, 69
Bash, 785 selecting as editor, 475
C shell, 414 TC shell, 474
initialization, 203
integers: W

Bash, 871,872 w command, 142

Korn shell, 660, 661 w flag, 129

Korn shell, 616-635 -w GNU grep option, 115

local, 711 -w grep option, 84, 118

Bourne shell, 294 w metacharacter, 102, 106

C shell, 440 wait system call, 15

Kom shell, 616 wc utility, 1100

nawk user-defined functions, 249 what utility, 1100

null or unset, 539 whereis utility, 1101

pathname modifiers, 451 which utility, 1101

printing, 445 while command:

Bourne shell, 298 Bash,907

echo command, 300, 624 Korn shell, 689

Kom shell, 621 while loop;

TC shell, 499 Bash, 62

set: Bourne shell, 45, 354

Bourne shell, 298 C shell, 38, 564

Korn shell, 621 Korn shell, 54

special: read command, 659

Bourne shell, 305 whitespace metacharacter, 87

C shell, 450 who command, 28

Kom shell, 635 who utility, 1101

substitution, 10 wildcards:

types, 23 Bash, 58
unsetting: Bourne shell, 42

Bourne shell, 299 C shell, 35

1150 Index

wildcards (cont.): -x GNU grep option, 115

globbing: -x grep option, 121
Bash,807 -x option, 531
C shell, 427 xargs utility, 1101
Korn shell, 610 xdos utility, 1065
Korn shell, 50
see also metacharacters Y

wordlists; y command, 146

arrays, 449 Y flag, 129

C shell, 453 -y GNU grep option, 115

foreach command, 561

working directory, 23 Z

write command, 142 -Z GNU grep option, 115

write utility, 1101 Z shell download site, 5

writers, 28 zcat utility, 1072

writing, sed, 142 zipinfo utility, 1102

zmore utility, 1102
X
x command, 151
x flag, 129
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