Pharmacology

Pharmacology is a branch of medicine, biology and

Pharmacology
pharmaceutical sciences concerned with drug or medication
action,[1] where a drug may be defined as any artificial, natural,
or endogenous (from within the body) molecule which exerts a
biochemical or physiological effect on the cell, tissue, organ, or
organism (sometimes the word pharmacon is used as a term to
encompass these endogenous and exogenous bioactive
species). More specifically, it is the study of the interactions that
occur between a living organism and chemicals that affect
normal or abnormal biochemical function. If substances have
medicinal properties, they are considered pharmaceuticals.

The field encompasses drug composition and

properties,functions,sources,synthesis and drug design, Diagrammatic representation of organ
molecular and cellular mechanisms, organ/systems bath used for studying the effect of
mechanisms, signal transduction/cellular communication, isolated tissues.
molecular diagnostics, interactions, chemical biology, therapy, MeSH D010600 (https://www.ncbi.nl
and medical applications and antipathogenic capabilities. The Unique m.nih.gov/mesh/68010600)
two main areas of pharmacology are pharmacodynamics and
ID
pharmacokinetics. Pharmacodynamics studies the effects of a
drug on biological systems, and pharmacokinetics studies the
effects of biological systems on a drug. In broad terms, pharmacodynamics discusses the chemicals with
biological receptors, and pharmacokinetics discusses the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion
(ADME) of chemicals from the biological systems.

Pharmacology is not synonymous with pharmacy and the two terms are frequently confused.
Pharmacology, a biomedical science, deals with the research, discovery, and characterization of chemicals
which show biological effects and the elucidation of cellular and organismal function in relation to these
chemicals. In contrast, pharmacy, a health services profession, is concerned with the application of the
principles learned from pharmacology in its clinical settings; whether it be in a dispensing or clinical care
role. In either field, the primary contrast between the two is their distinctions between direct-patient care,
pharmacy practice, and the science-oriented research field, driven by pharmacology.

Contents
Etymology
History
Divisions
Systems of the body
Clinical practice and drug discovery
Drug discovery
Wider contexts
Emerging fields
Theory of pharmacology
Systems, receptors and ligands
Pharmacodynamics
Pharmacokinetics
Administration, drug policy and safety
Drug policy
Societies and education
Societies and administration
Education
See also
References
External links
Further reading

Etymology
The word pharmacology is derived from Greek φάρμακον, pharmakon, "drug, poison" and -λογία, -logia
"study of", "knowledge of"[2][3] (cf. the etymology of pharmacy). Pharmakon is related to pharmakos, the
ritualistic sacrifice or exile of a human scapegoat or victim in Ancient Greek religion.

The modern term pharmacon is used more broadly than the term drug because it includes endogenous
substances, and biologically active substances which are not used as drugs. Typically it includes
pharmacological agonists and antagonists, but also enzyme inhibitors (such as monoamine oxidase
inhibitors). [4]

History
The origins of clinical pharmacology date back to the Middle Ages, with pharmacognosy and Avicenna's
The Canon of Medicine, Peter of Spain's Commentary on Isaac, and John of St Amand's Commentary on
the Antedotary of Nicholas.[8] Early pharmacology focused on herbalism and natural substances, mainly
plant extracts. Medicines were compiled in books called pharmacopoeias. Crude drugs have been used
since prehistory as a preparation of substances from natural sources. However, the active ingredient of
crude drugs are not purified and the substance is adulterated with other substances.

Traditional medicine varies between cultures and may be specific to a particular culture, such as in
traditional Chinese, Mongolian, Tibetan and Korean medicine. However much of this has since been
regarded as pseudoscience. Pharmacological substances known as entheogens may have spiritual and
religious use and historical context.

In the 17th century, the English physician Nicholas Culpeper translated and used pharmacological texts.
Culpeper detailed plants and the conditions they could treat. In the 18th century, much of clinical
pharmacology was established by the work of William Withering.[9] Pharmacology as a scientific discipline
did not further advance until the mid-19th century amid the great biomedical resurgence of that period.[10]
Before the second half of the nineteenth century, the remarkable potency and specificity of the actions of
drugs such as morphine, quinine and digitalis were explained vaguely and with reference to extraordinary
chemical powers and affinities to certain organs or tissues.[11] The first pharmacology department was set
up by Rudolf Buchheim in 1847, in recognition of the need to understand how therapeutic drugs and
poisons produced their effects.[10] Subsequently, the first
pharmacology department in England was set up in 1905 at University
College London.

Pharmacology developed in the 19th century as a biomedical science

that applied the principles of scientific experimentation to therapeutic
contexts.[12] The advancement of research techniques propelled
pharmacological research and understanding. The development of the
organ bath preparation, where tissue samples are connected to
recording devices, such as a myograph, and physiological responses
Naturally derived opium from
are recorded after drug application, allowed analysis of drugs' effects
opium poppies has been used as
on tissues. The development of the ligand binding assay in 1945
a drug since before 1100 BCE.[5]
allowed quantification of the binding affinity of drugs at chemical
targets.[13] Modern pharmacologists use techniques from genetics,
molecular biology, biochemistry, and other advanced tools to
transform information about molecular mechanisms and targets into
therapies directed against disease, defects or pathogens, and create
methods for preventive care, diagnostics, and ultimately personalized
medicine.

Divisions
Opium's major active constituent,
The discipline of pharmacology can be divided into many sub morphine, was first isolated in
disciplines each with a specific focus. 1804 and is now known to act as
an opioid agonist.[6][7]

Systems of the body

Pharmacology can also focus on specific systems comprising the

body. Divisions related to bodily systems study the effects of drugs
in different systems of the body. These include
neuropharmacology, in the central and peripheral nervous systems;
immunopharmacology in the immune system. Other divisions
include cardiovascular, renal and endocrine pharmacology.
Psychopharmacology is the study of the use of drugs that affect the
psyche, mind and behavior (e.g. antidepressants) in treating mental A variety of topics involved with
disorders (e.g. depression).[14][15] It incorporates approaches and pharmacology, including
techniques from neuropharmacology, animal behavior and neuropharmacology, renal
behavioral neuroscience, and is interested in the behavioral and pharmacology, human metabolism,
neurobiological mechanisms of action of psychoactive drugs. The intracellular metabolism, and
intracellular regulation.
related field of neuropsychopharmacology focuses on the effects of
drugs at the overlap between the nervous system and the psyche.

Pharmacometabolomics, also known as pharmacometabonomics, is a field which stems from metabolomics,

the quantification and analysis of metabolites produced by the body.[16][17] It refers to the direct
measurement of metabolites in an individual's bodily fluids, in order to predict or evaluate the metabolism
of pharmaceutical compounds, and to better understand the pharmacokinetic profile of a drug.[16][17]
Pharmacometabolomics can be applied to measure metabolite levels following the administration of a drug,
in order to monitor the effects of the drug on metabolic pathways. Pharmacomicrobiomics studies the effect
of microbiome variations on drug disposition, action, and toxicity.[18] Pharmacomicrobiomics is concerned
with the interaction between drugs and the gut microbiome. Pharmacogenomics is the application of
genomic technologies to drug discovery and further characterization of drugs related to an organism's entire
genome. For pharmacology regarding individual genes, pharmacogenetics studies how genetic variation
gives rise to differing responses to drugs. Pharmacoepigenetics studies the underlying epigenetic marking
patterns that lead to variation in an individual's response to medical treatment.[19]

Clinical practice and drug discovery

Pharmacology can be applied within clinical sciences.

Clinical pharmacology is the application of pharmacological
methods and principles in the study of drugs in humans.[20]
An example of this is posology, which is the study of how
medicines are dosed.[21]

Pharmacology is closely related to toxicology. Both

pharmacology and toxicology are scientific disciplines that
focus on understanding the properties and actions of
A toxicologist working in a lab.
chemicals.[22] However, pharmacology emphasizes the
therapeutic effects of chemicals, usually drugs or compounds
that could become drugs, whereas toxicology is the study of
chemical's adverse effects and risk assessment.[22]

Pharmacological knowledge is used to advise pharmacotherapy in medicine and pharmacy.

Drug discovery

Drug discovery is the field of study concerned with creating new drugs. It encompasses the subfields of
drug design and development.[23] Drug discovery starts with drug design, which is the inventive process of
finding new drugs.[24] In the most basic sense, this involves the design of molecules that are
complementary in shape and charge to a given biomolecular target.[25] After a lead compound has been
identified through drug discovery, drug development involves bringing the drug to the market.[23] Drug
discovery is related to pharmacoeconomics, which is the sub-discipline of health economics that considers
the value of drugs[26][27] Pharmacoeconomics evaluates the cost and benefits of drugs in order to guide
optimal healthcare resource allocation.[28] The techniques used for the discovery, formulation,
manufacturing and quality control of drugs discovery is studied by pharmaceutical engineering, a branch of
engineering.[29] Safety pharmacology specialises in detecting and investigating potential undesirable effects
of drugs.[30]

Development of medication is a vital concern to

medicine, but also has strong economical and political
implications. To protect the consumer and prevent
abuse, many governments regulate the manufacture,
sale, and administration of medication. In the United
States, the main body that regulates pharmaceuticals is
the Food and Drug Administration; they enforce
standards set by the United States Pharmacopoeia. In
the European Union, the main body that regulates
pharmaceuticals is the EMA, and they enforce
standards set by the European Pharmacopoeia.
The metabolic stability and the reactivity of a library of
candidate drug compounds have to be assessed for
drug metabolism and toxicological studies. Many
methods have been proposed for quantitative
predictions in drug metabolism; one example of a
recent computational method is SPORCalc.[31] A
slight alteration to the chemical structure of a medicinal
compound could alter its medicinal properties,
depending on how the alteration relates to the structure
of the substrate or receptor site on which it acts: this is
called the structural activity relationship (SAR). When
a useful activity has been identified, chemists will
make many similar compounds called analogues, to try The drug discovery cycle.
to maximize the desired medicinal effect(s). This can
take anywhere from a few years to a decade or more,
and is very expensive.[32] One must also determine
how safe the medicine is to consume, its stability in the human body and the best form for delivery to the
desired organ system, such as tablet or aerosol. After extensive testing, which can take up to six years, the
new medicine is ready for marketing and selling.[32]

Because of these long timescales, and because out of every 5000 potential new medicines typically only
one will ever reach the open market, this is an expensive way of doing things, often costing over 1 billion
dollars. To recoup this outlay pharmaceutical companies may do a number of things:[32]

Carefully research the demand for their potential new product before spending an outlay of
company funds.[32]
Obtain a patent on the new medicine preventing other companies from producing that
medicine for a certain allocation of time.[32]

The inverse benefit law describes the relationship between a drugs therapeutic benefits and its marketing.

When designing drugs, the placebo effect must be considered to assess the drug's true therapeutic value.

Drug development uses techniques from medicinal chemistry to chemically design drugs. This overlaps
with the biological approach of finding targets and physiological effects.

Wider contexts

Pharmacology can be studied in relation to wider contexts than the physiology of individuals. For example,
pharmacoepidemiology concerns the variations of the effects of drugs in or between populations, it is the
bridge between clinical pharmacology and epidemiology.[33][34] Pharmacoenvironmentology or
environmental pharmacology is the study of the effects of used pharmaceuticals and personal care products
(PPCPs) on the environment after their elimination from the body.[35] Human health and ecology are
intimately related so environmental pharmacology studies the environmental effect of drugs and
pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the environment.[36]

Drugs may also have ethnocultural importance, so ethnopharmacology studies the ethnic and cultural
aspects of pharmacology.[37]

Emerging fields
Photopharmacology is an emerging approach in medicine in which drugs are activated and deactivated with
light. The energy of light is used to change for shape and chemical properties of the drug, resulting in
different biological activity.[38] This is done to ultimately achieve control when and where drugs are active
in a reversible manner, to prevent side effects and pollution of drugs into the environment.[39][40]

Theory of pharmacology
The study of chemicals requires
intimate knowledge of the biological
system affected. With the knowledge
of cell biology and biochemistry
increasing, the field of pharmacology
has also changed substantially. It has
become possible, through molecular
analysis of receptors, to design
chemicals that act on specific cellular
signaling or metabolic pathways by
affecting sites directly on cell-surface A trio of dose response curves. Dose response curves are studied
receptors (which modulate and extensively in pharmacology.
mediate cellular signaling pathways
controlling cellular function).

Chemicals can have pharmacologically relevant properties and effects. Pharmacokinetics describes the
effect of the body on the chemical (e.g. half-life and volume of distribution), and pharmacodynamics
describes the chemical's effect on the body (desired or toxic).

Systems, receptors and ligands

Pharmacology is typically studied with respect to particular systems, for example endogenous
neurotransmitter systems. The major systems studied in pharmacology can be categorised by their ligands
and include acetylcholine, adrenaline, glutamate, GABA, dopamine, histamine, serotonin, cannabinoid and
opioid.

Molecular targets in pharmacology include receptors, enzymes and membrane transport proteins. Enzymes
can be targeted with enzyme inhibitors. Receptors are typically categorised based on structure and function.
Major receptor types studied in pharmacology include G protein coupled receptors, ligand gated ion
channels and receptor tyrosine kinases.

Pharmacodynamics

Pharmacodynamics is defined as how the body reacts to the drugs. Pharmacology models include the Hill
equation, Cheng-Prusoff equation and Schild regression. Pharmacodynamics theory often investigates the
binding affinity of ligands to their receptors.

Medication is said to have a narrow or wide therapeutic index, certain safety factor or therapeutic window.
This describes the ratio of desired effect to toxic effect. A compound with a narrow therapeutic index (close
to one) exerts its desired effect at a dose close to its toxic dose. A compound with a wide therapeutic index
(greater than five) exerts its desired effect at a dose substantially below its toxic dose. Those with a narrow
margin are more difficult to dose and administer, and may require therapeutic drug monitoring (examples
are warfarin, some antiepileptics, aminoglycoside
antibiotics). Most anti-cancer drugs have a narrow
therapeutic margin: toxic side-effects are almost
always encountered at doses used to kill tumors.

The effect of drugs can be described with Loewe

additivity which is one of several common reference
models.

Pharmacokinetics

Pharmacokinetics is the study of the bodily absorption,

distribution, metabolism, and excretion of drugs.[41]

When describing the pharmacokinetic properties of the

chemical that is the active ingredient or active
pharmaceutical ingredient (API), pharmacologists are
often interested in L-ADME:

Liberation – How is the API disintegrated (for

solid oral forms (breaking down into smaller
particles), dispersed, or dissolved from the
medication?
Absorption – How is the API absorbed
(through the skin, the intestine, the oral
mucosa)?
Distribution – How does the API spread The cholinergic synapse. Targets in synapses can
through the organism? be modulated with pharmacological agents. In this
Metabolism – Is the API converted chemically case, cholinergics (such as muscarine) and
inside the body, and into which substances. anticholinergics (such as atropine) target
Are these active (as well)? Could they be receptors; transporter inhibitors (such as
toxic? hemicholinium) target membrane transport proteins
Excretion – How is the API excreted (through and anticholinesterases (such as sarin) target
the bile, urine, breath, skin)? enzymes.

Drug metabolism is assessed in pharmacokinetics and

is important in drug research and prescribing.

Administration, drug policy and safety

Drug policy

In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is responsible for creating guidelines for the
approval and use of drugs. The FDA requires that all approved drugs fulfill two requirements:

1. The drug must be found to be effective against the disease for which it is seeking approval
(where 'effective' means only that the drug performed better than placebo or competitors in at
least two trials).
2. The drug must meet safety criteria by being subject to animal and controlled human testing.
Gaining FDA approval usually takes several years. Testing done on animals must be extensive and must
include several species to help in the evaluation of both the effectiveness and toxicity of the drug. The
dosage of any drug approved for use is intended to fall within a range in which the drug produces a
therapeutic effect or desired outcome.[42]

The safety and effectiveness of prescription drugs in the U.S. are regulated by the federal Prescription Drug
Marketing Act of 1987.

The Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) has a similar role in the UK.

Medicare Part D is a prescription drug plan in the U.S.

The Prescription Drug Marketing Act (PDMA) is an act related to drug policy.

Prescription drugs are drugs regulated by legislation.

Societies and education

Societies and administration

The International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, Federation of European Pharmacological
Societies and European Association for Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics are organisations
representing standardisation and regulation of clinical and scientific pharmacology.

Systems for medical classification of drugs with pharmaceutical codes have been developed. These include
the National Drug Code (NDC), administered by Food and Drug Administration.;[43] Drug Identification
Number (DIN), administered by Health Canada under the Food and Drugs Act; Hong Kong Drug
Registration, administered by the Pharmaceutical Service of the Department of Health (Hong Kong) and
National Pharmaceutical Product Index in South Africa. Hierarchical systems have also been developed,
including the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System (AT, or ATC/DDD), administered
by World Health Organization; Generic Product Identifier (GPI), a hierarchical classification number
published by MediSpan and SNOMED, C axis. Ingredients of drugs have been categorised by Unique
Ingredient Identifier.

Education

The study of pharmacology overlaps with biomedical sciences and is the study of the effects of drugs on
living organisms. Pharmacological research can lead to new drug discoveries, and promote a better
understanding of human physiology. Students of pharmacology must have a detailed working knowledge
of aspects in physiology, pathology, and chemistry. They may also require knowledge of plants as sources
of pharmacologically-active compounds.[37] Modern pharmacology is interdisciplinary and involves
biophysical and computational sciences, and analytical chemistry. A pharmacist needs to be well-equipped
with knowledge on pharmacology for application in pharmaceutical research or pharmacy practice in
hospitals or commercial organisations selling to customers. Pharmacologists, however, usually work in a
laboratory undertaking research or development of new products. Pharmacological research is important in
academic research (medical and non-medical), private industrial positions, science writing, scientific patents
and law, consultation, biotech and pharmaceutical employment, the alcohol industry, food industry,
forensics/law enforcement, public health, and environmental/ecological sciences. Pharmacology is often
taught to pharmacy and medicine students as part of a Medical School curriculum.
See also
Cosmeceuticals
List of abbreviations used in medical prescriptions
List of pharmaceutical companies
List of withdrawn drugs
Pharmaceutical company
Pharmaceutical formulation

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External links
American Society for Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics (http://www.aspet.org)
British Pharmacological Society (http://www.bps.ac.uk)
International Conference on Harmonisation (http://www.ich.org/)
US Pharmacopeia (http://www.usp.org)
International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology (http://www.iuphar.org)
IUPHAR Committee on Receptor Nomenclature and Drug Classification (http://www.iuphar-
db.org)
IUPHAR/BPS Guide to Pharmacology (http://www.guidetopharmacology.org/)

Further reading
Foreman JC, Johansen T, Gibb AJ (2009). Textbook of Receptor Pharmacology, Second
Edition (https://books.google.com/books?id=Y9bsUpefYW0C&pg=PA51). CRC Press.
ISBN 9781439887578.
Brunton L (2011). Brunton LL, Chabner B, Knollmann BC (eds.). Goodman and Gilman's
The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goodman_%26_G
ilman%27s_The_Pharmacological_Basis_of_Therapeutics) (12 ed.). New York: McGraw-
Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-162442-8.
Whalen K (2014). Lippincott Illustrated Reviews: Pharmacology.

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