EE E6820: Speech & Audio Processing & Recognition

Lecture 3: Acoustics

1 The wave equation 2 Acoustic tubes: reections & resonance 3 Oscillations & musical acoustics 4 Spherical waves & room acoustics

Dan Ellis <[email protected]> http://www.ee.columbia.edu/~dpwe/courses/e6820-2001-01

E6820 SAPR - Acoustics - Dan Ellis

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Acoustics & sound

Acoustics is the study of physical waves (Acoustic) waves transmit energy without permanently displacing matter (e.g. ocean waves) Same math recurs in many domains Intuition: pulse going down a rope

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The wave equation

Consider a small section of the rope:
y 2 S x

1 S

displacement is y(x), tension S, mass dx

lateral force is F y = S sin ( 2 ) S sin ( 1 ) 2

= S

y x

dx

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Wave equation (2)

Newtons law: F = ma 2 2

y x
2

dx = dx

y t
2

Call c

= S (tension to mass-per-length)

hence the wave equation:

2 y y = 2 2

.. partial DE relating curvature and acceleration

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Solution to the wave equation

If y ( x, t ) = f ( x ct ) then

y = f ' ( x ct ) x y x
2 2

y = c f ' ( x ct ) t y t
2 2

= f '' ( x ct )

= c f '' ( x ct )

also works for y ( x, t ) = f ( x + ct ) Hence, general solution:

2 y y = 2 2

y ( x, t ) = y ( x ct ) + y ( x + ct )
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Solution to the wave equation (2)

-

y ( x ct ) and y ( x + ct ) are travelling waves

shape stays constant but changes position: y y+ time 0: yx = cT time T: x y+ y-

c is travelling wave velocity ( x / t ) y+ moves right, y moves left resultant y(x) is sum of the two waves
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Wave equation solutions (3)

What is the form of y+, y ? - any doubly-differentiable function will satisfy wave equation Actual waveshapes dictated by boundary conditions - y(x) at t = 0 - constraints on y at particular xs e.g. input motion y(0, t) = m(t) rigid termination y(L, t) = 0
y

y(0,t) = m(t) y+(x,t)

y(L,t) = 0

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Terminations and reections

System constraints: - initial y(x, 0) = 0 (at rope) - input y(0, t) = m(t) (at agents hand) ( y+) - termination y(L, t) = 0 (xed end) - wave equation y(x,t) = y+(x - ct) + y(x + ct) At termination: y(L, t) = 0 y+(L - ct) = y(L + ct) i.e. y+ and y are mirrored in time and amplitude around x=L inverted reection at termination
y+

y(x,t) = y+ + y y x=L

simulation [travel1.m]
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Acoustic tubes
Sound waves travel down acoustic tubes:

pressure

- 1-dimensional; very similar to strings Common situation: - wind instrument bores - ear canal - vocal tract

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Pressure and velocity

Consider air particle displacement ( x, t ) :

(x)
x

Particle velocity v ( x, t ) =

t hence volume velocity u ( x, t ) = A v ( x, t ) 1 x

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Air pressure p ( x, t ) = -- -

E6820 SAPR - Acoustics - Dan Ellis

Wave equation for a tube

Consider elemental volume: Area dA Force pdA Force (p+p/xdx)dA

Volume dAdx Mass dAdx Newtons law: F = ma

v p dx dA = dAdx t x p v = x t
2 2

2 Hence c = 2 2

1 c = ---------
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E6820 SAPR - Acoustics - Dan Ellis

Acoustic tube traveling waves

Traveling waves in particle displacement: + -

( x, t ) = ( x ct ) + ( x + ct )
+

+ () Call u ( ) = cA c Z 0 = ----A
Then pressure: + 1 p ( x, t ) = -- = Z 0 [ u ( x ct ) + u ( x + ct ) ] x Volume velocity: + = u ( x ct ) u ( x + ct ) t

u ( x, t ) = A

(Scaled) sum and difference of traveling waves

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E6820 SAPR - Acoustics - Dan Ellis

Acoustic tube traveling waves (2)

Different residuals for pressure and vol. veloc.: Acoustic tube x c u+ c uu(x,t) = u+ - up(x,t) = Z0[u+ + u-]

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Terminations in tubes
Equivalent of xed point for tubes? Solid wall forces hence u+ = uu(x,t) = 0

u0(t)
(Volume velocity input)

Open end forces p(x,t) = 0 hence u+ = -u

Open end is like xed point for rope: reects wave back inverted
Unlike xed point, solid wall reects traveling wave without inversion
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Standing waves
Consider (complex) sinusoidal input: jt u0 ( t ) = U 0 e At any point, values will have form Ke Hence traveling waves: j ( kx + t + A ) + j ( t + )

u ( x ct ) = A e
-

u ( x + ct ) = B e where k = c (spatial frequency, rad/m) (wavelength = c f = 2c )

Pressure / vol. veloc. resultants show stationary pattern: standing waves - even when |A| |B| simulation [sintwavemov.m]
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j ( kx + t + B )

E6820 SAPR - Acoustics - Dan Ellis

Standing waves (2)

U0 ejt
kx = x=/2 pressure = 0 (node) vol.veloc. = max (antinode)

For lossless termination (|u+| = |u-|), have true nodes & antinodes Pressure and vol. veloc. are phase shifted - in space and in time

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Transfer function
Consider tube excited by u 0 ( t ) = U 0 e - sinusoidal traveling waves must satisfy termination boundary conditions - satised by complex constants A and B in + jt :

u ( x, t ) = u ( x ct ) + u ( x + ct ) = Ae = e
j ( kx + t )

+ Be

j ( kx + t ) jkx

jt

( Ae

jkx

+ Be

- standing wave pattern will scale with input magnitude - point of excitation makes a big difference

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Transfer function (2)

For open-ended tube of length L excited at x = 0 jt by U 0 e : jt cos k ( L x ) u ( x, t ) = ---------------------------- U 0 e cos kL (works at x = 0) i.e. standing wave pattern e.g. varying L for a given (and hence k):

k = -- c

U0 ejt U0 ejt

U0

UL

U0

UL

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Transfer function (3)

Varying for a given L: - at x = L, --------------- = -------------- = --------------------------u(L) u(0) L

u ( L, t ) u ( 0, t )

1 cos kL

1 cos ( L c )

u(L) u(0)

at L/c = (2r+1)/2, r = 0,1,2...

Output vol. veloc. always larger than input

Unbounded for L = ( 2r + 1 ) ------ = ( 2r + 1 ) -i.e. resonance

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c 2

E6820 SAPR - Acoustics - Dan Ellis

Resonant modes
For lossless tube

with L = m -- , m odd, wavelength, u ( L ) is unbounded, meaning: ---------u(0)

- transfer function has pole on frequency axis - energy at that frequency sustains indenitely L = 3 1/4 1 = 30

L = 0/4 e.g 17.5 cm vocal tract, c = 350 m/s 0 = 2 500 Hz (then 1500, 2500 ...)
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E6820 SAPR - Acoustics - Dan Ellis

Scattering junctions
At abrupt change in area: pressure must be continuous pk(x, t) = pk+1(x, t) vol. veloc. must be continuous uk(x, t) = uk+1(x, t) traveling waves u+k, u-k, u+k+1, u-k+1 will be different

u+

u-k

u+k+1 u-k+1 Area Ak+1

Area Ak

Solve e.g. for u-k and u+k+1: (generalized term.)

2r 1+r
+

u+k 1-r 1+r u-k

+

u+k+1 r-1 r+1 r= u-k+1

Ak+1 Ak

Area ratio

2 r+1

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Concatenated tube model

Discrete approximation to varying-diameter tube:

Ak, Lk

Ak+1, Lk+1
x Can solve for resonances Reasonable approx to human vocal tract Vowel formants from tube resonances

sound example? ah ee oo

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Oscillations & musical acoustics

Pitch (periodicity) is essence of music:

- why? why music? Different kinds of oscillators: - simple harmonic motion (tuning fork) - relaxation oscillator (voice) - string traveling wave (plucked/struck/bowed) - air column (nonlinear energy element)

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Simple harmonic motion

Basic mechanical oscillation: 2

x = x F = kx

x = A cos ( t + )

Spring + mass ( + damper)

m x
e.g. tuning fork Not great for music: - fundamental (cost) only - relatively low energy 2= k

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Relaxation oscillator
Multi-state process: - one state builds up potential (e.g. pressure) - switch to second (release) state - revert to rst state etc. e.g. vocal folds:

Oscillation period depends on force (tension) - easy to change - hard to keep stable less used in music
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E6820 SAPR - Acoustics - Dan Ellis

Ringing string
e.g. our original rope example

tension S mass/length
2 2= S L2

L
Many musical instruments - guitar (plucked) - piano (struck) - violin (bowed)

Control period (pitch): - change length (fretting) - change tension (tuning piano) - change mass (piano strings) Inuence of excitation ... [pluck1a.m]
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E6820 SAPR - Acoustics - Dan Ellis

Wind tube
Resonant tube + energy input nonlinear scattering junction element (tonehole) acoustic waveguide

energy

c 2L

(quarter wavelength)

e.g. clarinet - lip pressure keeps reed closed - reected pressure wave opens reed - reinforced pressure wave passes through Finger holes determine rst reection effective waveguide length

e.g.
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Room acoustics
Sound in free air expands spherically:

radius r Spherical wave equation: 2 2

2 p 1 p = ---- + -- 2 2 2 r r c t r p

P 0 j ( t kr ) solved by p ( r, t ) = ----- e r

1 2 Intensity p falls as ---2 r

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E6820 SAPR - Acoustics - Dan Ellis

Effect of rooms (1): Images

Ideal reections are like multiple sources: virtual (image) sources reflected path

source

listener

Early echos in room impulse response: direct path early echos hroom(t)

t Actual reection may be href(t), not (t)

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E6820 SAPR - Acoustics - Dan Ellis

Effect of rooms (2): modes

Regularly-spaced echos behave like acoustic tubes:

Real rooms have lots of modes! - dense, sustained echos in impulse response - complex pattern of peaks in frequency response

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Reverberation
Exponential decay of reections: hroom(t) ~e-t/T

t Frequency-dependent - greater absorption at high frequencies faster decay Size-dependent - larger rooms longer delays slower decay Sabines equation:

0.049V RT 60 = ----------------S
Time constant as size, absorption [e.g.]
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Summary
Travelling waves Acoustic tubes & resonance Musical acoustics & periodicity Room acoustics & reverberation

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