The circulatory system

is a network consisting of blood, blood vessels, and the heart. This

network supplies tissues in the body with oxygen and other nutrients,
transports hormones, and removes unnecessary waste products
THE HEART

1. The central organ of the cardiovascular system is the heart. This is a hollow,
muscular organ that contracts at regular intervals, forcing blood through the
circulatory system.

2. The heart is cone-shaped, about the size of a fist, and is located in the centre of
the thorax, between the lungs, directly behind the sternum (breastbone). The heart
is tilted so that the base is tilted to the left.
3. The walls of the heart are made up of three layers of tissue:

a) The outer and inner layers are epithelial tissue.

b) The middle layer, comprising the cardiac muscle of the heart itself, is called the
myocardium.

4. For obvious reasons, the cardiac muscle is not under the conscious control of the
nervous system, and can generate its own electrical rhythm (myogenic). For the
same reasons, cardiac muscle cannot respire anaerobically and so the muscle
cannot get tired (or develop cramp!)

5. Cardiac muscle has a rich supply of blood, which ensures that it gets plenty of
oxygen. This is brought to the heart through the coronary artery. Since the heart
relies on aerobic respiration to supply its energy needs, cardiac muscle cells are
richly supplied with mitochondria.

6. Our hearts beat about once every second of every day of our lives, or over 2.5
million times in an average life span. The only time the heart gets a rest is between
beats.

HOW THE HEART WORKS

1. The heart can be thought of as two pumps sitting side by side – each of which has
an upper atrium and a lower ventricle – a total of 4 chambers. It functions as two
pumps inside one.

2. The right side of the heart pumps ‘deoxygenated blood’ (actually, blood low in
oxygen) from the body into the lungs, where gas exchange takes place. In that
process, carbon dioxide is lost to the air and oxygen is absorbed. This oxygen is
almost all carried by the Red Blood Cells (RBC’s).
3. The left side of the heart pumps oxygenated blood from the lungs to the rest of
the body.

4. The heart is enclosed in a protective membrane-like sac called the pericardium,

which surrounds the heart and secretes a fluid that reduces friction as the heart beats.

5. The atria (upper chambers) of the heart receive blood coming into the heart. Then
have thin walls, so allowing them to be filled easily. They pump the blood into the
ventricles (lower chambers), thus filling them.

6. The ventricles pump blood out of the heart and the left ventricle has the thickest
walls of the heart because it has to do most of the work to pump blood to all parts of
the body. This is where the blood has the highest pressure.

7. Vertically dividing the two sides of the heart is a wall, known as the septum. The
septum prevents the mixing of oxygenated (left side) and deoxygenated (right side)
blood.

8. It also carries electrical signals instructing the ventricles when to contract. These
impulses pass down specially-modified muscle cells (Purkinje fibres), collectively
known as the Bundle of His.

THE RIGHT SIDE OF THE HEART

1. Deoxygenated blood from the body enters the right side of the heart through two
large veins called the vena cavae. The superior vena cava returns blood from the
head and arms; the inferior vena cava from the rest of the body (except, of course,
the lungs!)
2. Both empty into the right atrium. This is where the blood pressure is lowest
(even negative). When the heart relaxes (between beats), pressure in the circulatory
system causes the right atrium to fill with blood.

3. When the atria contract, pressure inside it rises, the right atrio-ventricular (AV)
valve opens, and blood is squeezed from the right atrium into the right ventricle.
This valve is also known as the tricuspid valve. The closing of this valve makes a
sound – ‘lub’.

4. When the atrium is empty, the pressure inside it falls, and the pressure inside the
ventricle begins to rise. This causes the atrio-ventricular valve to

shut quickly, preventing the back-flow of blood. 5. The general purpose of all valves
in the circulatory

and so ensure that blood flows in only one direction. 6. When the right ventricle
contracts, blood is forced out through the semi-lunar valve (also known as the
pulmonary valve), into the pulmona

only arteries to carry deoxygenated blood. 7. When the right ventricle is empty, the
pressure inside falls below that in the pulmonary artery, and this causes the semi-
lunar valve to snap shu

‘d

THE LEFT SIDE OF THE HEART 1. Oxygenated blood leaves the lungs and
returns to the heart through the

pulmonary veins. These are the only veins to carry oxygenated blood. 2. This blood
enters the left atrium, which, when full, forces blood into the left ventricle, filling
it. The valve which opens is called the left atrio-ventricular (AV) valve, (or
bicuspid or mitral valve). As on the right side of the heart, this valve clos
begins to rise in the ventricle. 3. From the left ventricle, blood is forced at very high
pressure through another semi-lunar valve (the aortic valve), into th

blood throughout the body (apart from the lungs!). 4. This surge of blood from the
ventricles causes the walls of the aor

expand and the muscles within to stretch – we can detect this as a pulse. 5. When
the ventricle is almost empty, the pressure begins to fall below that in the aorta, and
this causes the semi-lunar valve to sna

Atria contract

Ventricles contract system is to prevent the back-flow of blood, ry arteries, where

it goes to the lungs. These are the t. The closing of these valves also causes a sound
– up’. A normal heart-beat is thus ‘lub…dup’. e es when the atrium is empty and
pressure e aorta, which carries ta to p shut, as the elastic walls of the aorta
recoil, thus preventing back-flow of blood into the heart.
BLOOD VESSELS (ARTERIES, VEINS and CAPILLARIES)
1. The Circulatory System is known as a closed system because the blood is
contained within either the heart or blood vessels at all times – always flowing in
one direction. The path is the same –
heart (ventricles) → arteries → arterioles → organ (capillaries) → veins →
heart (atrium)
2. Except for the capillaries, all blood vessels have walls made of 3 layers of tissue.
This provides for both strength and elasticity:
A. The inner layer is made of epithelial tissue.
B. The middle layer is smooth muscle.
C. The outer layer is connective tissue.
ARTERIES and ARTERIOLES
1. Arteries carry blood from the heart to the capillaries of the organs in the body.
2. The walls of arteries are thicker than those of veins. The smooth muscle and
elastic fibres that make up their walls enable them to withstand the high pressure of
blood as it is pumped from the heart. The force that blood exerts on the walls of
blood vessels is known as blood pressure and it cycles with each heart-beat (see
below).
3. Each artery expands when the pulse of blood passes through and the elastic recoil
of the fibres cause it to spring back afterwards, thus helping the blood along. This
is known as secondary circulation, and it reduces the load on the heart.
4. Other than the pulmonary arteries, all arteries carry oxygenated blood.
5. The aorta carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to all parts of the body
except the lungs. It has the largest diameter (25mm) and carries blood at the highest
pressure.
6. As the aorta travels away from the heart, it branches into smaller arteries so that
all parts of the body are supplied. The smallest of these are called arterioles.
7. Arterioles can dilate or constrict to alter their diameter and so alter the flow of
blood through the organ supplied by that arteriole. Examples include muscles (when
running) and skin (when hot or blushing). Since the volume of blood remains the
same, if more blood flows through one organ, less must flow through another.
8. Two organs which always have the same blood flow are the brain and the kidneys.
Popular organs to have blood flow reduced are the guts (between meals), muscles
(when resting) and skin (when cold).
CAPILLARIES
1. Arterioles branch into networks of very small blood vessels – the capillaries.
These have a very large surface area and thin walls that are only one (epithelial)
cell thick.
2. It is in the capillaries that exchanges take place between the blood and the tissues
of the body.
3. Capillaries are also narrow. This slows the blood down allowing time for
diffusion to take occur. In most capillaries, blood cells must flow in single file.
4. Tissue fluid is formed in the capillaries, for their walls are leaky (see below).
VEINS

1. After leaving the capillaries, the blood enters a network of small venules, which
feed into veins. These, in turn, carry the blood back to the atria of the heart.

2. Like arteries, the walls of veins are lined with epithelium and contain smooth
muscle. The walls of veins are thinner and less elastic than arteries, but they are also
more flexible.

3. Veins tend to run between the muscle blocks of the body and nearer to the surface
than arteries.

4. The larger veins contain valves that maintain the direction of blood-flow. This is
important where blood must flow against the force of gravity.

5. The flow of blood in veins is helped by contractions of the skeletal muscles,

especially those in the arms and legs. When muscles contract they squeeze against
the veins and help to force the blood back towards the heart. Once again, this is
known as secondary circulation.