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Global work in a rapidly changing world: Implications for MNEs and

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DOI: 10.1016/j.jwb.2022.101365

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 Journal of World Business 58 (2023) 101365

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Perspective Article

Global work in a rapidly changing world: Implications for MNEs

and individuals
Mila Lazarova a, Paula Caligiuri b, David G. Collings c, *, Helen De Cieri d
a
Beedie School of Business, Simon Fraser University, 500 Granville Street, Vancouver, BC, V6C 1W6, Canada
b
D’Amore McKim School of Business, Northeastern University, 312C Hayden Hall, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, United States
c
DCU Business School, Dublin City University, Glasnevin Campus, Dublin 9, Ireland
d
Monash Business School, Monash University, 900 Dandenong Rd, Caulfield East VIC 3145, Australia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The COVID-19 pandemic has caused a great “reset” and has challenged many assumptions about work and life in
COVID-19 pandemic general. Our focus in this paper is on the future of global work in the context of multinational enterprises (MNEs).
International HRM We take a phenomenon-based approach to describe the important trends and challenges affecting the where, who,
Global work
how and why of global work. As we highlight implications for organizations and individuals, we offer a set of
Macrotrends
research questions to guide future research and inform IHRM practitioners.

1. Introduction explore changes in how we work (e.g., digitization, re-skilling) before

examining social and demographic shifts affecting who is engaging in
The world has changed irrevocably since the World Health Organi­ global work (e.g., enhanced focus on equity, diversity, and inclusion,
zation declared COVID-19 a pandemic in March 2020. The pandemic has increased migration). Finally, we consider two key reasons why these
caused a great “reset” around the globe and has profoundly challenged changes are important, highlighting the increased recognition of the role
assumptions about how employees engage with work (Caligiuri, De and impact of MNEs on environmental sustainability and the health and
Cieri, Minbaeva, Verbeke & Zimmermann, 2020; Collings, Nyberg, et al., safety of employees. In discussing each trend, we identify key implica­
2021; Kniffin et al., 2021). While obvious manifestations of this reset tions for MNEs and individuals. Given the diverse nature of the changes
have been dramatic reductions in global mobility and a massive shift to we are witnessing, we prioritize breadth over depth and paint a complex
working from home (WFH), the pandemic also accelerated trends landscape with somewhat broad strokes, inviting future research to add
already in motion, including the digitization of work and the trans­ details and color to this ever-evolving canvas.
formation of business models, and has brought long-simmering tensions
around diversity and inclusion, migration, and sustainability. Beyond 2. Where is global work done?
their impact on multinational enterprises (MNEs) and their employees,
these ongoing changes are also challenging many of the assumptions, The severe restrictions to travel and international relocations which
boundary conditions, and conclusions of established international resulted from COVID-19 lockdowns have had a significant impact on
human resource management (IHRM) research. employee mobility in MNEs. At the same time, both stay-at-home orders
In this paper we take a phenomenon-based approach (Doh, 2015) and public health measures ushered in an unprecedented wave of WFH
and present our perspective on what we see as the most critical mac­ requirements for many employees. Although such restrictions are now in
rotrends shaping the future of global work, their implications for IHRM, the rear-view mirror, they may have indelibly changed how MNEs
and global work in the context of MNEs. Specifically, we address how approach the issue of where global work is done.
these trends have affected the where, how, who, and why of global work
and the challenges to IHRM in addressing these (Collings, McMackin,
Nyberg & Wright, 2021). We begin by discussing key changes to where 2.1. Changes in global mobility
work is done (e.g., virtual international assignments, WFH). We then
Predictably, global mobility dramatically contracted at the onset of

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M. Lazarova), [email protected] (D.G. Collings).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2022.101365
Received 29 October 2021; Received in revised form 31 May 2022; Accepted 8 June 2022
Available online 24 June 2022
1090-9516/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
M. Lazarova et al. Journal of World Business 58 (2023) 101365

the COVID-19 pandemic. Industry reports indicate that over two-thirds expatriation (Harzing, 2001), a foundational issue in IHRM research.
of MNEs delayed all or some international assignments and many in­
ternational assignees performed their job from a country different to • How would the choice to have fewer in-country (vs. virtual) international
their assignment country (Mercer, 2021). Similarly, 53% of assignees assignments affect key performance outcomes in MNEs? Are there certain
had to return home and continue their work from there (ECA Interna­ roles in which this strategic choice would have a greater impact?
tional, 2020). However, MNEs largely viewed such restriction as tem­ • Would control and coordination between headquarters and subsidiaries
porary, with most (86%) global mobility leaders noting that they were in MNEs that opt for fewer in-country international assignments be less
only postponing – and not cancelling – new international assignments, effective?
with only 20% predicting that the pandemic would result in a decrease • Are there shifts in the strategic reasons for corporate expatriation?
in future international moves (PwC Mobility, 2020). Such reports signal
an expectation that the pandemic will slow, but not eliminate, global Another strategic issue associated with the possible reduction in
mobility in the future. global mobility is leadership development. At a time when researchers
Despite the optimism about the return of international assignments (Hitt, Holmes & Arregle, 2021) are calling for managers to possess a
and global business travel, these same industry reports suggest that three higher level of cross-cultural competence, such as being more resilient
factors could potentially impede the return to pre-pandemic levels of and tolerant of greater levels of ambiguity, the need for developing
mobility. One, countries might continue to restrict the visas necessary effective global leaders has become even more critical. For decades,
for relocation (ECA International, 2020). Two, to achieve their envi­ success in an international assignment was a springboard for a senior
ronmental sustainability goals, MNEs might limit employees’ air travel, global leadership role within MNEs. Even short-term international ex­
thus increasing the amount of virtual international work (ECA Interna­ periences help employees develop critical cross-cultural competencies
tional, 2020). Three, employees might prefer to remain in whatever such as a tolerance for ambiguity and humility (Caligiuri & Tarique,
location they feel most comfortable, fulfilled, and safe (Prudential, 2016). But during the pandemic such developmental opportunities were
2021) which could, in turn, limit the supply of employees willing to greatly reduced. If this trend continues, MNEs might have a dearth of
accept international assignments (Collings & Sheeran, 2020). global leaders in their talent pipelines.

2.1.1. Implications for MNEs: Changing relationships between global • Will the reduced number of in-country international assignments during
mobility and business strategy the pandemic be associated with a smaller pool of global leaders in the
Mobility is intricately linked with the execution of business strategy future?
in MNEs, with almost all (98%) business leaders believing their globally • Are there features of virtual international assignments that could still
mobile professionals are critical for executing on strategy (Santa Fe result in the development of critical cross-cultural competencies?
Relocation, 2021). Such beliefs align with research suggesting that in­
ternational business travel is helpful in developing and sustaining trus­ 2.1.2. Implications for employees: Individual preferences and global
ted social ties within and across units in MNEs (Bozkurt & Mohr, 2011) mobility
and that ties fostered through global mobility might be a foundation for A recent BCG survey of 200,000 employees in 190 countries found
a firm’s competitive advantage (Collings, 2014). As such, companies that most employees globally would like to work from home at least
would be best advised to evaluate the value of international assignment some of the time, with 25% interested in working from home full time
programs rather than move too quickly to significantly cut numbers in a (BCG, 2021). With respect to global mobility, there is a tension between
post-pandemic environment (Collings & Sheeran, 2020). the desire to work from home and the need for future in-country inter­
While there is general acknowledgement of the strategic role of in- national assignees. This reflects a redrawing of individuals’ expectations
person and in-country interactions through assignments, there are also around where work happens and their willingness to travel for work. A
reports that “more companies are forecasting decreases rather than in­ fundamental question, warranting future research, is whether this
creases in numbers for most assignment types compared to their pre- preference for WFH will limit the number of available future candidates
pandemic plan” (ECA International, 2020). This is hardly the first for global mobility.
instance where the imminent demise of international assignments has At the opposite extreme, some employees have an international
been predicted. Yet, it is the first time when, due to either national career orientation which propels them to seek out opportunities to work
public health orders or travel and visa restrictions, MNEs have had to internationally and makes them reluctant to remain in a job with limited
function under conditions of restricted mobility for a prolonged period. opportunities to work in different cultures (Lazarova, Cerdin & Liao,
This raises a practical question regarding the rate at which in-country 2014). With the limited number of international assignments currently
(vs. virtual) international assignments will return. available and the future limits on global business travel likely, how will
Virtual international assignments enable an employee to work from those who actively seek global work be affected? This leads us to some
anywhere. As liberating as this may sound, a work-from-anywhere additional research questions:
model has tremendous implications for HR and global mobility man­
agers (Caligiuri & Jooss, 2022), notably dealing with compensation and • Will the preference for working from home limit the future candidate pool
taxation, ensuring compliance with local labor laws and relevant data of in-country international assignees?
privacy laws, securing location-specific licenses, and facilitating access • Will employees with an international career orientation leave their roles
to technical solutions for secure remote working, cloud computing and at a faster rate in organizations limiting opportunities for global mobility?
online collaboration tools. These shifts may have a long-term effect on
the execution of business strategy in global firms. To refine this question 2.2. Fewer co-located employees
even further, we need to better understand the implications of limiting
in-country international assignments, especially for roles for which As we note above, the pandemic precipitated dramatically increased
face-to-face interactions are viewed as necessary to foster trust, establish levels of WFH. While this trend suggests that employees globally are
credibility, and communicate nuanced information. Relatedly, we need seeking employment allowing them to work remotely, its magnitude
to better understand whether control and coordination across sub­ varies across countries (LinkedIn, 2021). Such differences likely vary by
sidiaries within an MNE will change with fewer employees on in-country culture (e.g., more collectivist and hierarchical cultures might have less
international assignments operating as the bridge between subsidiaries remote work), industry or sectors within a given country (e.g., countries
and headquarters. More broadly, the current environment provides a with higher levels of agriculture and manufacturing would have less
ripe opportunity to re-examine the main reasons for corporate remote work), social and structural features in the country (e.g.,

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M. Lazarova et al. Journal of World Business 58 (2023) 101365

countries in which citizens live in smaller homes or with more family Olafsen & Ryan, 2017). Fulfilling these needs has been shown to be
members might have less interest in remote work) and the like. related to the perception of meaningful work in countries as diverse as
Regardless of such variations, having fewer co-located employees longer Finland, India, and the USA (Martela & Riekki, 2018). Research has also
term has important implications for MNEs and the future of work. found that fulfilling these needs at work can lead to higher levels of job
satisfaction, organizational commitment, and job performance which
2.2.1. Implication for MNEs: Changes to corporate culture can have implications for the future of work in MNEs.
One of the biggest implications of this trend is likely to be on orga­ Maximizing employee motivation in settings with fewer co-located
nizational culture. Reinforced and shared from long-tenured employees employees may have possibly created a new set of conflicting chal­
to newcomers, organizational culture is a collective understanding of lenges. For example, the need for autonomy, reflecting employees’ desire
values, assumptions, expected norms and behaviors among organiza­ for freedom and control, may have turned the pandemic-fostered WFH
tional members. When directed strategically, it can be both an intangible practices into a positive and desirable employment structure. Thus,
organizational asset and a barrier for competitors due to a difficulty in MNEs may need to continue WFH practices in some countries to foster
replication (e.g., Schein, 1985). As much as organizations may be sup­ employee motivation. However, while WFH can be motivating from the
portive of WFH, a PwC (2020) survey found that 68% of company perspective of autonomy, it might impede fulfillment of employees’
leaders globally believed their remote employees should be in the office need for relatedness, especially in more collectivist cultures. The new
three or more days each week to sustain a strong organizational culture. WFH reality might also affect employees’ need for competence,
The intuition of the surveyed leaders notwithstanding, the “3 days” depending on the role within the MNE. For example, employees in
belief warrants future research given our understanding of socialization, complex jobs that did not require collaboration had better performance
cultural variance, and national differences. Organizational cultures, like when working at home (Golden & Gajendran, 2019), a result that would
national cultures, vary on tightness-looseness (i.e., level of variance need to be replicated as collaborative technologies become increasingly
within the culture, Gelfand, Nishii & Raver, 2006). Loose organizational sophisticated.
cultures, with fewer shared behavioral expectations, might need fewer Having a better understanding of how remote work can enhance (or
days of employee co-location to be sustained, while tighter cultures thwart) employee motivation is especially important as employees
might unravel quickly without significant and sustained co-location. globally are quitting their jobs, a trend which has been termed “the great
Understanding the strength of the organizational culture and its in­ resignation.” According to recent industry reports, more than half of
fluence on strategy execution should be investigated considering the employees are thinking about leaving their current employer (EY,
global reduction in employee co-location. There has been a recent call 2021). While resignation trends are global (Tharoor, 2021), we need to
for companies to create agile, innovative, and highly integrated orga­ question whether the solutions to increase employee retention are uni­
nizational cultures and structures to meet the current demands (Hitt versal (Allen & Vardaman, 2021). Research will need to examine
et al., 2021). The need to respond to these current challenges and the whether differences in collectivism and job complexity will produce
nature of a strategically aligned corporate culture as a competitive asset differences in employee motivation resulting from co-locating and WFH.
are becoming even more critical, so the mechanisms through which
WFH will affect corporate culture should be investigated. The outcome • Are there cultural and contextual factors affecting how remote work fa­
might be nuanced as different organizational cultural orientations, such cilitates (or possibly impedes) employee motivation?
as clan, adhocracy, market, and hierarchy (Morgan & Vorhies, 2018), • How can increases in flexible HRM practices affect employee retention in
may warrant different levels of “face-time” to facilitate the desired the various countries in which MNEs operate?
corporate culture in MNEs. For example, a clan-oriented culture, with a
deeper sense of internal cohesiveness, loyalty, and commitment, might 3. How is global work being done?
require greater employee interaction but a market-oriented culture,
focusing on performance and productivity, might be sustained with In addition to accelerating changes regarding where work is done, the
fewer employee interactions and greater merit-based HRM practices. pandemic has also hastened changes in how global work is being done on
While a wide gamut of socialization tactics can be used to foster a global scale. We discuss the two dominant trends that influence this
stronger corporate culture, many of them are predicated on employees dimension of the future of global work: increasing digitization and the
engaging in a common set of experiences, usually together. Compared to changing skills landscape.
collective socialization approaches, individualized socialization tactics
tend to be associated with idiosyncratic experiences and less homoge­ 3.1. Digitization at pace
nous perceptions of the organization (Van Maanen & Schein, 1979). It
remains to be seen how organizational socialization, and its related The Fourth industrial revolution (4IR), reflected in the creation and
implications for organizational culture, may shape environments where deployment of new technologies which merge the physical, digital, and
many employees work remotely. This may also play out differently in biological worlds, has been disrupting industries and labor markets
national cultural settings that vary on individualism and collectivism. As globally for quite some time. As with the other trends we describe, it has
such, some sample questions future research can explore are: been accelerated by COVID-19 (Gallardo-Gallardo & Collings, 2022).
This has resulted in a significant increase of digitization of business.
• How will fewer co-located employees affect strategic dimensions of Notably, Microsoft CEO Satya Nadella argued that the first two months
organizational culture? of the pandemic resulted in digital transformation that would have
• Is there an ideal number of days employees should co-locate to ensure a normally taken two years. Illustratively, by one estimate, the volume of
strong corporate culture? If so, would that number increase in more online delivery of goods increased in eight weeks by the same amount as
collectivist cultures and decrease in more individualist cultures? it had grown in the preceding decade (McKinsey, 2020b).

2.2.2. Implications for employees: Motivation and retention 3.1.1. Implications for MNEs: Evolving business models
The trend of fewer co-located employees will likely also have While firms that are “born digitals” and information and communi­
important implications for employee outcomes, notably their motiva­ cation technology firms have traditionally led this technological change,
tion and retention. Considering motivation, one of the most universally the 4IR combined with the pandemic has forced traditional brick and
applicable theories is self-determination theory, which suggests that mortar MNEs to also compete through digital transformation (Srinivasan
human behavior is motivated by the desire to fulfill three basic psy­ & Eden, 2021), with significant implications. Digital technologies are
chological needs: autonomy, relatedness, and competence (e.g., Deci, changing how MNEs create and deliver value to their customers. The

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M. Lazarova et al. Journal of World Business 58 (2023) 101365

integration of digital technologies into internal organization, adminis­ analytics, data and systematic reasoning to make decisions” (Daven­
tration, operations, and strategy is reflected in MNEs reinventing their port, Harris & Morison, 2010: 4). As Minbaeva (2021) notes, analytics
business models (Minbaeva, 2021). This change is predicted to impact can interrupt how systems generally work, and ultimately do harm to
MNEs’ global value chains (Srinivasan & Eden, 2021). Indeed, the the organization. This is again amplified by the fact that HR practi­
UNCTAD (2020) expects that, in combination, the 4IR and the pandemic tioners often lack key analytical skills limiting the potential of this work
will reshape the landscape of ‘going global’ and predicts a retreat from (Minbaeva, 2021). Key to the effectiveness of analytics in this context is
global production in the coming decade. More broadly, this digital understanding the optimal mix of analytics and human judgement. A
transformation will significantly influence the work experiences of in­ central question becomes how organizations balance the role of digi­
dividual employees in MNEs who will need to adapt to working in a new tized HR systems and human intervention to ensure that digitized HR
way. systems do not lead to unintended consequences, such as making poor
There is little doubt that the pandemic has accelerated the automa­ decisions based on limited understanding of causal relationships around
tion and robotization of work, largely driven by safety and other con­ the impact of key HR interventions. This challenge may be particularly
cerns, but also owing to the attractiveness of substituting labor with acute in the international context where legacy systems in subsidiaries
capital (technology) as a risk mitigation strategy (Brakman, Garretsen & be may not fully integrated with headquarters systems. Further,
van Witteloostuijn, 2021). This technology is also deployed in ways that different attitudes to data recording and entry may mean the raw data
are labor saving. While pre-pandemic predictions suggested that, in the are inaccurate to begin with. This may reflect varying levels of buy-in of
short to medium term, lower skilled work would be impacted by auto­ international staff to data and the principles of data analytics.
mation in a limited way owing to the relative cost of these technologies, Additional questions focus on individual’s experience of the tools
the reality is that significant automation has unfolded in lower skilled that enable virtual work and how these tools impact on individual and
work. organizational performance outcomes. For example, Shockley et al.
Automation also has significant implications for where work is done (2021) found that camera usage on virtual meetings was linked to daily
as location disadvantages around labor costs may be reduced in higher feelings of fatigue, generally termed Zoom fatigue, which in turn
cost countries. As noted above in our discussion on co-location, the impacted negatively on employee voice and engagement during virtual
digitization of work processes reduces the linkage between location and meetings. These impacts were greater for female employees and for
work, offering many opportunities for MNEs to access skills and talent organizational newcomers. The non-verbal overload that individuals
regardless of location. For example, skilled workers in emerging markets experience on virtual platforms are viewed as a key factor in explaining
can compete for jobs in other locations without the need to physically such findings (McNamara & Bailenson, 2021). However, as yet we have
relocate. This can significantly reshape aspects of the global labor little understanding around how different cultural contexts would
market. A key challenge for IHRM will be in designing work and jobs to impact on phenomena such as Zoom fatigue.
facilitate collaboration across borders virtually and to develop appro­ Research should also address important questions around work
priate HR practices to enable this work. effectiveness. For example, one study found that the shift to remote work
resulted in more static and siloed collaboration networks, with fewer
• How can MNEs balance the costs and benefits of the automation of work bridges between disparate members of the network (Yang et al., 2021).
to mitigate risk in production and supply chains? This was reflected in decreased synchronous communication and
• What is the impact of digitization of work for location decisions for MNE increased asynchronous communication. These findings have poten­
activities? tially significant implications for how employees acquire and dissemi­
• How can MNEs design jobs to enable the coordination of work and nate new information in MNEs where networks are even more dispersed
facilitate high performance in employees and teams regardless of than in a domestic context.
location?
• What are the cultural and institutional factors that MNEs should consider • How does the increased volume of data on employee behaviors (digital
in the digitization of HR? exhaust) impact on employees’ experience of work in MNEs?
• How do different cultural contexts impact on employees’ openness to and
3.1.2. Implications for employees: Digital exhaust and employee behaviors perceptions of being managed by algorithm?
For workers, digitization is likely to impact significantly on their • How do different cultural contexts impact on phenomena such as Zoom
experience of work and how they are managed in MNEs, with artificial fatigue and how can MNEs manage virtual communications platforms to
intelligence and other forms of technology playing an increasing role. minimize impacts on employees?
For example, Leonardi (2021) identifies the increased meta-data that • What is the impact of virtual collaboration on geographically dispersed
comprises logs of employees’ online work behavior, which he terms networks and how can MNEs maintain knowledge generation and sharing
digital exhaust, as a key outcome of the increased digitization of work across such networks?
processes. While individual particles from this digital exhaust offer few
insights, when those pieces are combined and examined over time,
patterns of employee behavior may emerge, and it may be possible to 3.2. The changing skills landscape
mine that data to create inferences regarding important variables such
as employee engagement or motivation. The transition to digital work While digitization has increased the efficiency of many elements of
during the pandemic has significantly increased the volume of digital work, organizations globally continue to struggle to meet their skills
exhaust available to MNEs to inform data analysis about employee be­ demands. Eighty-seven percent of executives surveyed by McKinsey
haviors. While this provides potential value in terms of understanding reported skills gaps in their current workforce or expected them in the
key workplace activities and outcomes, it also raises significant ques­ short term (Argawal, De Smet, Lacroix & Reich, 2020). The skill shortage
tions about inter alia, ethics, privacy, and data protection in terms of is undoubtedly linked to the digitization of work, as the pace of change
how the data translate into predictions by artificial intelligence (Leo­ significantly reduces the half-life of skills. Some estimates suggest that
nardi & Treem, 2020). Given different countries are at different stages of over the next five to 10 years, some 15% of roles will be eliminated by
development when it comes to digitization, how national culture im­ technology, while an additional 50% will be augmented by technology,
pacts on individuals’ openness to the use of algorithms in their man­ shifting the skills demands of those roles (Collings & McMackin, 2021).
agement is a timely and important question. These changes have fundamental implications for work and employees
Additionally, MNEs’ capability in data analytics may impact on how and challenge MNEs to adopt a much more strategic approach to man­
these questions play out. Analytics is broadly defined as “the use of aging the future of work through a skills lens.

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M. Lazarova et al. Journal of World Business 58 (2023) 101365

3.2.1. Implications for MNEs: Strategic alignment of skills integrating migrant employees in the workplace. None of these realities
MNEs have long viewed skills as key to competitive advantage and is “caused” by COVID-19 but the collective experience of the pandemic
accessing and controlling skills globally has been a key driver of has fueled increased attention to long-simmering tensions pertaining to
resource seeking foreign direct investment (Farndale, Beamond, these trends.
Corbett-Etchevers & Xu, 2022). However, the pace of change of skills
means that traditional models of planning for skills acquisition and 4.1. More diverse people
development and matching skills to an MNE’s requirements may be
ineffective, and new ways of workforce planning may be required. As While different dimensions dominate the EDI conversation in
pointed out by Collings and McMackin (2021)), there are three key different countries, there is a shared agreement that workforce diversity
initial considerations which should inform evolving approaches to un­ brings both challenges and opportunities, that approaches to EDI should
derstanding skills in organizations. The first is alignment between MNE be deliberate, and that investing in EDI initiatives can be beneficial for
strategy around digitization and technology and skills strategy. How stakeholders across various levels of analysis (Roberson, Holmes &
does the MNE see digitization and technology influencing the nature of Perry, 2017). Nonetheless, research remains at a “critical juncture” and
work in the organization and how is this likely to play out over the is yet to resolve longstanding “paradoxical tensions,” most notably the
current strategic planning cycle? This provides a basis for planning for mismatch between the seemingly widespread support of EDI and the
talent and skills requirement. However, few organizations have a clear dogged persistence of discrimination (Nkomo, Bell, Roberts, Joshi &
understanding of the current skills and capabilities of their workforce Thatcher, 2019). COVID-19, having hit some demographic groups
(Gartner, 2020). Second, undertaking a skills audit has been argued to disproportionately harder than others (Bapuji, Patel, Ertug & Allen,
provide a clear baseline of workforce skills and capabilities for MNEs 2020), has further highlighted the deep inequalities and injustices both
and thus gives invaluable insights into current capability to compete within and across countries. Pandemic disparities, coupled with the
through talent. Third, strategic planning for the future requires an un­ sheer pace of social, political, economic, and demographic changes,
derstanding of how jobs and work are evolving. This provides a basis for mean the EDI conversation has moved into discussions of urgent actions
planning the matching between employees and evolving priorities in intent on producing tangible results.
terms of MNE strategy. How that matching occurs represents a key
question for MNEs. Matching theory provides a useful lens for the 4.1.1. Implications for MNEs: Macro-level contextual factors
consideration of this question (Weller, Hymer, Nyberg & Ebert, 2019). Countries differ in history, relationships with and openness towards
At a macro level, how MNEs engage with government and other stake­ other nations, migration patterns, tolerance towards and support of non-
holders globally to influence skills policy at national or regional level dominant groups, all of which results in rather different “diversity make
and how this stakeholder engagement will impact location decisions are up” and distinct attention (or lack thereof) to EDI matters. For example,
important questions (Tregaskis & Almond, 2019). Another potential female executive representation ranges widely around the world, from
question concerns how MNE can reorient their planning from a 100% of Norwegian companies reporting having at least one female
consideration of work at the level of jobs to at the level of skills and what executive, to other major economies— including Brazil, India, Germany,
this means for IHRM and employees’ experience of work (Jesuthasan & and Japan— where female representation averages under 8%, with over
Boudreau, 2021). 80% of companies having no female executives (McKinsey, 2020a).
Specific local conditions impact on how MNEs engage with EDI issues at
• What are the most effective approaches to matching skills and work? the subsidiary level – but what exactly shapes MNEs’ global and national
• How can MNEs effectively partner with local and regional stakeholders in EDI approaches remains severely understudied (Bader, Froese, Cooke &
ensuring the skills ecosystem in host locations meets emerging skills needs? Schuster, 2022). Research on governmental legislation and social pro­
grams that support traditionally disadvantaged groups is largely
3.2.2. Implications for employees: Skill redundancy and re-skilling confined to assessing outcomes at the macro level (e.g., employment
The changing landscape for skills within MNEs will have many im­ levels of said disadvantaged groups). In contrast, we know little about
plications for individual employees. The first implication is that, how this macro-level context influences management practices in
notwithstanding an increasing focus on reskilling in organizations, there organizations.
is an increased responsibility for individual employees, in partnership The classic MNE localization-standardization dilemma is particularly
with their employer, to ensure their skills remain relevant (Gallardo-­ salient in terms of EDI issues given vast differences in what is prioritized
Gallardo & Collings, 2022). Concomitantly, there is a risk that some of as important across countries. For example, an important consideration
the work currently being done in developing economies (owing to is societal attitudes regarding different dimensions of EDI. Consider the
location cost advantages) will become redundant as technology makes challenges faced by MNEs that wish to advance LGBTQ inclusivity in
the employees’ work obsolete. This risk of skills becoming redundant host countries where homosexuality is a cultural taboo or is even illegal.
might be more pronounced for employees in emerging economies where MNEs operating in Africa experienced tremendous difficulties in
educational systems may be less attuned to proactively addressing attempting to align their global corporate values and policies with local
emerging skills requirements. values and legislative requirements; those that tried were in the minority
and only had limited ability to support local and expatriate LGBTQ
• How do cultural and institutional factors influence the balance between employees (Luiz & Spicer, 2021). Given such tensions, designing and
organizational and individual responsibility for reskilling in different implementing EDI practices that move the needle on EDI issues signifi­
national contexts? cantly but staying within lines drawn by local laws and sensibilities
• What MNE practices will address future skill gaps and upskill employees remains a challenge (Nishii & Özbilgin, 2007). Indeed, the role which
in developing countries? MNEs can play in influencing such laws and sensibilities is a question
worth considering.
4. Who does global work? We must also examine the moderating effect of national context. A
McKinsey report (2020a) found that support for gender diversity led to
The third macro-shift shaping the future of global work concerns the higher financial performance on average but this impact varied across
demographic composition of the workforce. This trend encompasses two countries - the likelihood of superior performance by companies with
concurrent realities: first, an increasingly diverse workforce and the gender-diverse executive teams was a high of 47% in advanced econo­
related heightened attention to equity, diversity, and inclusion (EDI) in mies with high gender parity, such as the US, the UK, and Scandinavia,
MNEs, and second, increased migration and related challenges of but it averaged only 17% in economies with lower gender-parity, such as

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M. Lazarova et al. Journal of World Business 58 (2023) 101365

Brazil, India, and Nigeria. Such findings echo academic diversity higher organizational levels.1
research indicating that contextual factors at multiple levels (including Another interesting line of inquiry is studying reactions to EDI ini­
industry, occupation, team characteristics) influence the performance tiatives that do not target the focal employee and examining whether
outcomes of diversity initiatives (Joshi & Roh, 2009). They are also such reactions differ by country - especially in cases where initiatives are
aligned with specific research in IHRM documenting that even practices launched that are not widely supported by local employees or are simply
introduced to combat a specific source of discrimination may only have seen as irrelevant to their lives (e.g., an emphasis on race where racial
a limited impact on behaviors in the absence of a larger supportive diversity is still limited such as some Eastern European countries). This
context (Donnelly, 2015). Thus, striving for EDI even in the presence of also presents research opportunities around personal authenticity and
supportive legislation can only go so far. True EDI is about far more than agency and can contribute to research on unintended outcomes of EDI
legal compliance aimed at preventing overt discrimination and requires initiatives (Leslie, 2019). Differences in perceptions of and reactions to
proactive management and strategic prioritization. To date we know organizational authenticity in terms of EDI should also be examined, in
relatively little about how inclusion can be achieved in MNEs operating view of research that employee attributions about why practices are
across different cultural contexts. A pertinent discussion point here is the adopted matters greatly for employee outcomes (Nishii, Lepak &
need to distinguish between organizations engaging in highly visible but Schneider, 2008). Indeed, this area of research still poses more questions
performative aspects of EDI (e.g., creating marketing materials featuring than provides answers.
diverse workforce) versus MNEs embracing more mundane but poten­
tially far more impactful practices like setting recruitment quotas or • How are EDI initiatives in MNEs experienced by target- and non-target
instituting recruitment protocols designed to curtail bias in the employees?
day-to-day work of recruiters. Our present discussion barely scratches • What determines whether local employees feel free to voice their concerns
the surface of EDI issues relevant for the future of global work and yet and priorities regarding EDI and what are the outcomes associated with
suggests an abundance of exciting research questions: this?
• What determines employees’ perceptions of employer authenticity for EDI
• How does national context influence the relationship between EDI ini­ and what are employees’ reactions to perceived inauthenticity across
tiatives and EDI outcomes across diverse MNE subsidiaries? countries?
• How can MNEs achieve the precarious balance of designing EDI initiatives
that can both meet corporate EDI aspirations and provide a “fit” to local
subsidiary environments with diverging views on EDI issues? 4.2. More migrants
• What are the differences in EDI outcomes in MNEs that are doing sub­
stantive EDI work vs. MNEs that engage primarily in performative aspects Related to EDI but critically important in its own right is the steady
of EDI? increase of migrants and refugees2 as a part of the talent pool of many
countries (Delios, Perchthold & Capri, 2021). In 2020 there were 281
4.1.2. Implications for employees: Subjective experiences and million migrants, representing 3.6% of the world population (compared
intersectionality to 2.8% in 2000). Migrants now account for over 15% of the population
Looking at the individual level, the experience of EDI issues is sub­ in an increasing number of host countries (ibid). Roughly 10% of mi­
jective, reflecting unique combinations of multiple dimensions of di­ grants are refugees and other forcibly displaced populations, a share that
versity. One line of inquiry could examine the experiences of is likely to grow, given the ongoing refugee crisis (Guo, Al Ariss &
multicultural or multiracial employees, who often occupy “bridging” Brewster, 2020). Although the various mobility restrictions imposed due
roles. As fulfilling as it might be to have one’s identity appreciated by the to COVID-19 have had an impact on migration, there is no expectation
organization, bridging comes with a risk of feeling personally respon­ that migration flows will abate significantly in the long run (IOM,
sible for solving EDI problems within the MNE. Another risk is that 2022b). In early 2022, the number of refugees grew by nearly four
occupying a bridging role can sometimes highlight these employees’ million in the span of a single month, following the Russian invasion of
“uniqueness” but not enhance their “belongingness” (Shore, Cleveland Ukraine (UNHCR, 2022). Regardless of reasons for migration or the
& Sanchez, 2018), whilst both are needed for inclusion. Relatedly, migration path taken, ultimately most migrants end up joining the
despite increasing awareness of intersectionality, limited, if any, workforce in their new country (Hajro, Caprar, Zikic & Stahl, 2021).
research has examined how gendered or racialized inequalities may Social science research has examined many aspects of migration and
intersect and affect individual experiences as ‘talent’ within MNEs. has advanced our understanding of migrant integration into evolving
Another promising focus for future research is to better understand societies. In contrast, research on migrants in the workforce remains un­
the workplace experiences of employees in traditionally disadvantaged derdeveloped and consists primarily of individual level studies with
groups through periods of intense change brought by social movements, limited work on how organizations manage migrant workers and on
such as #MeToo or Black Lives Matter, and doing so across countries, outcomes of migrant related practices (Hajro et al., 2021).
seeking to discern and explain any patterns that may arise. While both Migrants fare differently across countries, but findings about their
movements began in the USA, they have resonated around the world workplace integration are not overly encouraging. Migrants bear a “li­
(McNabb, 2021; Saric, 2021; Silverstein, 2021), often with specific na­ ability of foreignness” (Fang, Samnani, Novicevic & Bing, 2013) and are,
tional “flavor” such as the “#MosqueMeToo” movement, originally on average, less likely to find jobs that match their qualifications and
focusing on sexual misconduct in Mecca but spreading to other pre­ more likely to be paid less compared to native-born workers. Further,
dominantly Muslim regions (Amidi, 2018) or the nation-wide reckoning the more educated the migrants, the less likely they are to find suitable
over atrocities committed during Belgium’s colonization of Congo employment relative to their native-born counterparts, a phenomenon
(Kirby, 2020).
COVID-19 has shown that many jobs that were deemed “essential” 1
during pandemic restrictions are neither highly paid, nor glamorous. We thank a reviewer for suggesting these pertinent research questions.
2
There is no universal legal definition of a “migrant,” with the term used
Such jobs are also often disproportionately filled by more diverse
applied generically to all those who are outside the state of which they are a
employee groups than jobs in the higher organizational echelons. It re­
citizen or a national. In contrast, the meaning of refugee is more specific and
mains to be seen if the newly found appreciation of those who are refers to those fleeing persecution or conflict in their own country of origin.
engaged in such essential work will translate to permanent status in­ ‘Migrant’ is thereby frequently used as a neutral term to describe a group of
crease for them. Similarly, it will be important to investigate whether people who have in common a lack of citizenship attachment to their host
such status increase also spills over into (sustained?) diversity gains at country (OHCHR, n.d.), an approach we adopt in this paper.

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M. Lazarova et al. Journal of World Business 58 (2023) 101365

that has been referred to as “the skill paradox” and has been attributed to • What factors contribute to the successful workplace integration and in­
factors such as the socially constructed nature of labor markets, chal­ clusion of migrants? What is the role of employers relative to other actors?
lenges in recognition of educational and professional credentials, • What are the conceptual boundaries of EDI research when applied to
limited local networks, or lack of culturally specific soft skills (Hajro migrants?
et al., 2021; Lyons, Ng & Schweitzer, 2014). Refugees, who often move • What can increase the visibility – and accessibility – of the migrant talent
under great duress, may be unable to produce proof of educational pool to organizations?
attainment. They may not know how to apply for jobs and may little • How can organizations effectively assess the knowledge, skills, and abil­
access to mentors who can help navigate career options in the new ities of migrant job candidates and lower barriers to employment suitable
country. Often their limited agency means even those who find jobs may for their qualifications?
experience underemployment or precarious jobs (Guo et al., 2020;
Szkudlarek, Nardon, Osland, Adler & Lee, 2021). 4.2.2. Implications for employees: Antecedents and outcomes of workforce
Skilled migrants’ experience varies by industry and occupation, integration
given differences in professional institutions and structural barriers that Transposing this to the individual level, research should examine the
limit entry into certain occupations (Zikic & Richardson, 2016). Fitz­ individual antecedents of migrant professional “success.” One idea is to
simmons, Baggs and Brannen (2020) examined the influence of immi­ draw and adapt ideas from research on work adjustment of expatriates
grant status, race, gender, and mother tongue as barriers to pay and (Hajro, Stahl, Clegg & Lazarova, 2019). For example, what is the role of
career advancement in a sample of Canadian workers. In line with cultural agility – and specifically the use of cultural adaptation, mini­
research on intersectionality, they found that those facing all four bar­ mization and integration – as migrants (re-) establish themselves pro­
riers experienced the largest disadvantage in both compensation and fessionally (Caligiuri & Bonache, 2020)? What role do known coping
supervisory responsibility. The fewer barriers faced, the lesser the strategies play (Stahl & Caligiuri, 2005) and are there unique coping
negative outcomes, with some groups (notably, first generation white strategies that are more salient to migrant work integration?
men working in their mother tongue) reporting a wage premium It has been argued that corporate expatriation represents one end of
compared to the referent group. Highlighting the role of organizational global work experiences, with refugee experiences anchoring the other
context, the authors noted that being employed by an MNE may improve end (Szkudlarek et al., 2021). Whereas expatriates move willingly, have
outcomes for immigrants, non-native language-speakers and people of secure jobs, guaranteed compensation and organizational support, ref­
color, but worsen outcomes for women. ugees’ journeys are often involuntary and harrowing; they are met with
The COVID-19 pandemic has been especially challenging for mi­ suspicion, and they undergo long periods of delay before they can work
grants. Across the world, migrant workers tend to be overrepresented in legally, during which their skills may atrophy or become obsolete.
low-paying and precarious jobs. Those employed in the informal econ­ Refugee experiences are shaped not only by their own predispositions,
omy faced loss of income, especially during periods of lockdown. Many qualifications, and skills, but also by social, economic, and institutional
migrants work in “front-line” jobs, both high-skilled (e.g., medical factors beyond their control. As such, studies should zoom out to un­
professionals) and lowskilled (e.g., care workers, supermarket workers). cover the gamut of factors unique to the migrant experience that shape
Meanwhile, during pandemic restrictions many were excluded from not only employment status, pay, and advancement but also mental
public benefits such as unemployment insurance or access to mental health and wellbeing at work. For example, we should examine the role
health support. The pandemic also fueled misinformation about mi­ of being immersed in an immigrant enclave (Caligiuri & Bonache, 2020)
grants and their contribution to the economy in many countries and as while such enclaves can provide a lot of social support, they may also
created fertile ground for the spread of xenophobic racism, especially influence the degree to which migrants are willing to integrate in the
against migrants of Asian descent (Ittefaq et al., 2022). COVID-19 also host society and their workplaces. Another exciting line of inquiry is
created “forced immobility” - as they waited for their immigration status investigating sources of identity threat as migrants deal with occupa­
to settle, many migrants were stranded, unable to travel, even in cases of tional downgrading that is often a part of the migrant career transitions.
family emergencies (IOM, 2022a, 2022b).
• What enables migrant workplace success? What is the combined influence
4.2.1. Implications for organizations: Workplace integration of migrants of technical skills, language skills, and cultural competencies and what is
There is almost no research on whether organizations deliberately the role of organization and societal context?
consider migrant status and whether they introduce any policies and • What are the best coping strategies as migrants tackle barriers to work­
practices targeting migrants, let alone of the impact of such practices place integration?
(Hajro et al., 2021). Examining such issues is a promising area of in­ • What are the sources of identity threat that migrants deal with in occu­
quiry, especially in the face of an increasing anti-immigrant sentiment. A pational downgrading that is often a part of migrant career transitions?
key question is how we can apply what we know from the EDI literature What is the outcome of these identity threats to the migrants’ well-being?
to the inclusion of migrants: are they “just” another “disadvantaged”
group to be included in existing EDI efforts or do they face unique 5. Why are changes in global work important?
challenges that raise additional barriers to professional (and personal)
success, given that the migrant experience is far more encompassing There are two key reasons why it is important for IHRM scholars and
than simply getting a job and immigrants often lack any support net­ managers to understand and address emerging trends in global work.
works in their host country? First, COVID-19 has raised awareness of the importance – and the
The role of actors beyond employers must also be addressed. For fragility and precariousness – of humanity’s wellbeing. It has made the
example, Nardon, Zhang, Szkudlarek and Gulanowski (2021) studied health and safety of the global workforce “a top of mind” issue for em­
organizations providing professional employment support to migrants ployers all over the world, like no other event in recent history. Second,
and reported that they can have a profound impact on migrants’ identity together with the steadily increasing extreme climate events, the
construction and identity responses, which in turn shape how migrants pandemic has served as the backdrop for growing social pressure for
approach the labor market. This leads to questions regarding the role of MNEs to demonstrate commitment to sustainability to deal with exis­
settlement organizations as newcomers find their footing professionally. tential challenges facing the world. These broad priorities are likely to
Similarly, going up a level, there is need for multilevel studies examining significantly impact on global work and IHRM long into the future.
the role of multiculturalism in societies and its influence on organiza­
tional policies and practices, combined with the impact of individual
level attributes on work-related outcomes of migrants.

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M. Lazarova et al. Journal of World Business 58 (2023) 101365

5.1. Prioritizing health and safety in global work health and hygiene controls, and staggered shifts. MNEs are experienced
in dealing with some of these OHS matters; for example, vaccination
Despite long-term concern among global health experts about the requirements for expatriates are a well-known aspect of global work (De
likelihood of pandemics and a substantial body of research about pre­ Cieri & Lazarova, 2021). However, in the wake of the pandemic our
vious health crises (e.g., Dovlo, 2005) governments and businesses were understanding of the role and responsibilities of MNEs in the roll-out and
unprepared for the shock of COVID-19 (Phan & Wood, 2020). Managing distribution of vaccinations globally is evolving. Other OHS issues have
occupational health and safety (OHS) has always been an important received less attention to date, such as expectations for MNEs to account
requirement for MNEs, particularly considering the well-documented for differences in access to healthcare or amount of paid sick leave
negative consequences of international work such as poor mental available to employees working in different countries. While some
health (e.g., depression), and physical and physiological outcomes (e.g., governments have enacted legislation to deal with short-term crises and
physical injuries, infectious diseases) (De Cieri & Lazarova, 2021). What some MNEs have provided additional supports for workers’ health
is new is the magnitude of the threat to OHS and the urgency for during the pandemic, whether these temporary moves will translate into
responses. inclusive and permanent policy and practices to provide paid sick leave
Prior to COVID-19, 2.78 million deaths a year were linked to work- to the entire workforce remains an open question (Vazquez et al., 2020).
related injury or illness worldwide (ilo.org). Among many OHS prob­ Addressing research questions such as the following could guide
lems, lost productivity resulting from depression and anxiety costs the decision-making about these matters.
global economy US$1 trillion annually (The Lancet, 2020). Adding to
the global burden, by the end of March 2022 over 485 million people • How can MNEs enable global mobility functions to deal with future global
had contracted COVID-19, with over 6 million deaths (JHU, 2022). threats to health and safety? How can they develop inclusive and equi­
While employers’ duty of care for the acute and long-term health of table strategies to support the long-term health and safety of their global
employees is widely recognized, the scale of health challenges brought workforce?
by COVID-19 are extraordinary. COVID-19 has shortened life expec­ • Which HR practices /interventions will be most effective in creating
tancy in many countries, many people will experience “long COVID” mentally healthy workplaces?
(chronic health symptoms), and there is an emerging COVID-19 mental • How will MNEs manage the challenges of a workforce with chronic health
health crisis (Gaspar, Paiva & Matos, 2021). The stark statistics bear problems, such as long-haul COVID-19 symptoms?
important implications for IHRM.
5.1.2. Implications for employees: Protecting health and safety
5.1.1. Implications for MNEs: Duty of care for health and safety in global The shift to working from home has been important in protecting
work many employees from COVID-19. This experience is likely to have been
In response to the pandemic, governments have implemented positive for some, where less travel has brought more time with family
various measures to protect public health (e.g., travel restrictions) and and greater flexibility and autonomy (Gaspar et al., 2021). However,
economic security (e.g., wage subsidies). To deal with jurisdictional there are physical health risks due to long hours spent on
differences in public health policy and health system infrastructure, and computer-based work and mental health risks due to isolation, change of
the quality of data that is required for risk assessments, many MNEs have identity, and work-family conflict (Pfefferbaum & North, 2020).
prioritized OHS and re-shaped their approaches to global mobility to In line with self-determination theory, it is plausible that for in­
deliver their duty of care to keep employees healthy and safe. For dividuals the idea of developing capability for post-traumatic growth
example, Burrowes, Usoro and Campbell (2021) describe how IBM might offer a worthwhile avenue for attention for MNEs. Future research
resourced their response to the COVID-19 pandemic with a globally could explore post-traumatic growth among global workers by evalu­
distributed OHS team designing and delivering a wide range of work­ ating programs that are designed to enable employees to combine
place interventions. Now and in the future, there is a critical need to cognitive and emotional processing after a traumatic experience. These
understand how MNEs can build the capability to manage global programs would allow post-traumatic growth to arise from changes in
mobility and OHS with an integrated approach, like IBM’s, that com­ self-perception, interpersonal relationships, and philosophy of life
bines prevention of harm, proactive management, and effective re­ (Tedeschi, 2020). Relevant research questions include:
sponses to events (Dennerlein et al., 2020).
There is research on managing physical and physiological risks, such • How do individuals harness the learning of the pandemic experience and
as HRM strategies for essential workers (Dovlo, 2005), and studies on build the psychological readiness to deal with future global threats to
the safety risks that impact MNEs’ investment decisions where in­ health and safety?
dividuals’ safety is endangered due to violence or criminality in a spe­ • What are the costs and benefits of travel restrictions and global immobility
cific country (DeGhetto, Lamont & Holmes, 2020). In contrast, the for individuals’ health and safety?
solutions for MNEs in managing mental health, particularly in societies
where mental illness is stigmatized, are less well-documented. MNE 5.2. Progress and roadblocks for sustainability
managers could draw on research such as Dollard and Bailey’s (2021)
study which applied event systems theory to examine how management There are increasing pressures for MNEs, including for IHRM, to
should respond to external shocks. They found that, when top man­ demonstrate commitment to sustainability, which encompasses eco­
agement responded to the COVID-19 shock with a clear message of nomic, environmental, and humanitarian aspects (Collings, Nyberg,
support for mental health, this response was a powerful positive factor in Wright & McMackin, 2021), with mounting urgency for action. Over the
the protection of employees’ mental health. Future research could past decade we have witnessed many instances of MNEs behaving less
examine how MNEs can protect employees’ mental health across a range than admirably. The resulting corporate scandals have inspired new
of cultural and contextual settings. For employees who are required to waves of stakeholder activism. Concurrently, 193 countries adopted the
travel, OHS priorities include risk assessments and guidelines for the 17 United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The SDGs
safe transition to cross-border mobility, evidence-based communication, represent a non-binding agreement, with the aim of achieving sustain­
and access to telemedicine and healthcare (De Cieri & Lazarova, 2021). ability by 2030 (WHO, 2021) and explicitly refer to issues directly
For (previously) mobile employees who transitioned to working from relevant to IHRM such as gender equality and reduced inequality, health
home, priorities included risk assessments and re-design of work and wellbeing, decent work and human rights, and climate action. The
schedules to support work-family boundaries. For co-located employees, COVID-19 crisis has exponentially increased calls for MNEs to commit to
OHS priorities included access to vaccination, physical distancing, implementing strategies that can contribute to sustainability, yet many

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M. Lazarova et al. Journal of World Business 58 (2023) 101365

organizations, and specifically the HR function, have been criticized for • How do MNE sustainability practices influence employee attraction,
being slow to demonstrate action or progress (Stahl, Brewster, Collings motivation, and retention?
& Hajro, 2020). • How do cultural differences affect employees’ perceptions and responses
to MNE sustainability practices?
5.2.1. Implications for MNEs: Delivering sustainable performance
The HR function has been focused on increasing organizational 6. Discussion
(financial) performance and shareholder value. To contribute to sus­
tainability, this focus should broaden significantly. The implications are IHRM leaders are working in a global storm that has resulted from
multi-layered and complex. For example, making changes to MNEs’ the combination of multiple pent-up pressures, the ongoing trauma of
global mobility practices to reduce international travel is a tangible the COVID-19 pandemic, and unusually heightened geo-political insta­
action yet has inherent challenges. While travel and mobility reductions bility (Casson, 2021). Taking a phenomenon-based approach (Doh,
may be viewed as “low-hanging fruit” for companies keen to save money 2015), in this paper we outline major trends that will influence global
on travel budgets, such decisions have important compensation and work for some time to come. While we consider them separately, the
taxation implications. MNEs will need to engage in additional creative changes associated with each are interconnected and cut across indi­
and impactful measures, going well beyond imposing limits on air vidual, organizational, and societal levels and each could be a paper in
travel, to improve their environmental sustainability, and we are yet to its own right. Rather than answering a single focused research question,
see how MNEs’ global mobility strategies will be reshaped in the long we position this paper as a broad call for scholars to examine such
run. critical issues. Illustrating the interconnected nature of the themes dis­
IHRM scholars and practitioners also face criticism for being silent, cussed, Fig. 1 presents sample outcomes that those changes have had (or
insensitive, or slow to act on humanitarian crises such as human rights will have) on MNEs and individuals. Of course, this list is not compre­
abuses and inequality (Bapuji et al., 2020). Although some recent IHRM hensive, and we encourage others to build on these ideas.
studies have brought attention to the needs of vulnerable workers Admittedly, we are joining a crowded space. There have been
(Szkudlarek, Nardon & Toh, 2021), much more could be done to dozens, if not hundreds, of COVID-19 related commentaries published in
encourage action by MNEs. To improve understanding of the (potential) management and business journals, each calling for more research on
role of IHRM in all aspects of sustainability, future research could the “new normal”. This is perhaps a natural reaction of scholars trying to
investigate the extent to which IHRM functions in MNEs are actively make sense of tumultuous times. Beyond this, we have seen many “calls
engaging with strategies such as corporate philanthropy, employee to action” for management and business researchers, most advocating
volunteer programs, social projects in local communities, addressing that research must change, that the “field” (whatever the specific field
human rights issues, and improving the quality of employment condi­ may be) needs revitalization, that we should reconsider our basic as­
tions throughout global supply chains (Bapuji et al., 2020; Wettstein, sumptions, use more expansive theories, ask “bigger” questions, tackle
Giuliani, Santangelo & Stahl, 2019). Research could also monitor and “great societal challenges” and focus our energy on “wicked” problems.
evaluate the progress and outcomes of MNE sustainability initiatives. To Realistically, such calls rarely produce a tidal wave of change, not least
guide future research, we raise the following research questions: because of institutionalized practices such as a well-established system
of incentives, rewards associated with staying within one’s own lane and
• What is most important for MNEs to learn from, and to change, as a result entrenchment of ideas (Bozkurt & Geppert, 2021).
of dealing with global crises and threats, whether they are humanitarian, That said, the COVID-19 pandemic may indeed prove to be an in­
economic, or environmental threats? flection point. While the world of work was already changing, the
• What should the next generation of IHRM look like with respect to hu­ pandemic has necessitated reassessing the priorities for individuals,
manitarian, economic, and environmental sustainability? organizations, and society at large. There is little doubt that globaliza­
• What are the most effective ways to monitor and evaluate MNEs’ progress tion has been to the fore in these discussions. International travel has
towards sustainability targets? been a key means of the international spread of the virus and global
wealth inequalities have resulted in truncated vaccine roll out with
5.2.2. Implications for employees: Individual responses to sustainability wealthy nations striding ahead and poorer nations lagging. Additionally,
For globally mobile employees, awareness of environmental impact global supply chains have been severely disrupted by factory shutdowns,
has been raised by mobile apps that show the carbon emissions impact of shipping infrastructure challenges, staffing shortages and reduced air
their travel plans. Many MNE employees are already being encouraged travel (Hitt et al., 2021). As we write this, a brutal war is causing the
to find sustainable alternatives to air travel and to submit an environ­ largest displacement of people in Europe since WWII.
mental impact statement and evidence of the necessity for jetting off to a Our motivation for the current paper was to reflect on the trajectory
far-flung location before any travel is approved (Black et al., 2021). for the IHRM function and global work as this transformation evolves.
Future research could investigate how MNEs and individuals manage While we offer some specific research questions, there are countless
tensions between demands for environmental sustainability (i.e., more to be explored. Given the breadth of issues we cover and the
reduced travel) and demands for social connection and global career myriad of theories that can apply to each, attempting to pinpoint specific
opportunities. conceptual frameworks to guide future research will at best result in a
In addition, increasing awareness of inequalities and financial theory laundry list of limited utility. Instead, we consider key theoretical
deprivation exacerbated by the pandemic may have already led em­ implications below, using illustrative examples.
ployees in MNEs to question their privilege and seek to increase the Most broadly, the theoretical foundations and research insights that
sustainability of their everyday practices and demand that their em­ we have taken for “tested-and-true” must be scrutinized. Many of the
ployers do the same. For example, employees in MNEs increasingly classic management theories arose in economic, social, and geopolitical
expect their employers to provide opportunities for local nationals and conditions that are “fundamentally different and increasingly distant”
demonstrate positive humanitarian and economic contributions to the from the conditions describing the world today (Howard-Grenville,
communities in which they operate. This may bring greater focus to 2021), and assume (often hierarchically) structured organizations,
organisational purpose and how organizational actions impact on staffed by (mostly) homogenous (and mostly permanent) workforce,
employee commitment and job satisfaction (Collings et al., 2021). This operating in (mostly) stable environments, largely unaffected by de­
raises the following research questions: velopments in faraway countries. Given this, few would disagree that
our theorizing must do better to capture contemporary phenomena. So,
what is it, specifically, that we can do as we move research forward?

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M. Lazarova et al. Journal of World Business 58 (2023) 101365

Fig. 1. COVID-19 Reset Changes in Global Work and Sample Effects on MNEs and Individuals.

First, in applying existing theory, it will be good practice to revisit Second, the boundary conditions of our theories must be revisited, and
the theory’s fundamental assumptions and ask whether they still hold new integrative theories may need to emerge. As an example, core
regarding the where, how, who, and why of global work. For example, a propositions of motivation theory and assumptions about individuals’
core assumption in research on managing employment relations is that needs for belonging and autonomy (Deci et al., 2017) are perhaps un­
“employment relations are bounded by space, time, and task-based job changed. However, the boundary conditions have changed. What does
descriptions, all based on the employer choices” (Minbaeva, 2021). But autonomy mean when employees are not co-located? Researchers (and
such boundaries have become porous or have disappeared altogether. managers) now more than ever should understand what underpins au­
Not only must we examine the impact of such porousness, but we must tonomy and belongingness; we need studies to identify and investigate
also ask if it is here to stay, or if new boundaries will emerge in light of such emerging new boundary conditions. The boundary conditions that
the blur between one’s home and workspaces (Ashforth, Kreiner & create a sense of belonging in employees of the future might be less
Fugate, 2000). A child or pet spontaneously showing up during a work associated with the amount of time co-workers are in the same place and
call, a common occurrence during lockdowns, might become less more associated with the quality of the time they spend together when
endearing over time as some workers move to permanent they are collaborating.
work-from-home arrangements and new boundaries are established. Another example is provided by organizational socialization that has
As another example, consider organizational socialization theories been informed by four theories, each involving the way in which people
which underpin work on organizational culture. They assume relatively see themselves fitting in to the work group or organization: uncertainty
stable organizational environments where transitions into new roles are reduction theory, need for belonging, social exchange theory, and social
conducted via an “initiation” or onboarding process, where individuals identity theory (Chao, 2012). Some of the socialization tactics identified
draw cues on how to act from the “interactional zone” that surrounds (e.g., Van Maanen & Schein, 1979) by these theories would be difficult,
them, and they are guided by organizational insiders (Van Maanen & if not impossible, in a remote work environment. For example,
Schein, 1979). But we likely need to re-examine the meaning of co-located recreational activities are less likely to occur when employees
“interactional” zone when people’s interactions are limited to virtual are working remotely. However, those activities have been identified as
work conversations mediated by digital platforms. Another example opportunities for employees to increase their sense of belonging and
concerns assumptions of where an organization sources talent (Harney reduce uncertainty about the organization (Chao, 2012). With more
& Collings, 2021). Apart from select managerial roles, traditionally or­ employees working remotely, would there be a new approach that is
ganizations (including MNE subsidiaries) have assumed that talent equally effective for creating belonging and reducing uncertainty?
should be sourced locally – yet flexible work arrangements introduced or There are also opportunities associated with examining the moder­
expanded during COVID-19 may change the ‘rules’ of talent, including ating impact of immigrant status in management theories. One obvious
relaxing or widening the geographical perimeter within which talent is example here is assessing the sources and outcomes of social support at
sought. the workplace (Cohen & Wills, 1985) in the case of immigrants. Studies

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may examine the most valued types - and sources - of support and their Some of the research questions investigating emerging aspects of
influence on workplace integration and overall life experiences. Related global work can be best explored via qualitative and exploratory ap­
to this, systematic research is needed in examining embeddedness (Lee, proaches, whereas others will be served best by big data analytics.
Burch & Mitchell, 2014) and its relationship to turnover and career Methodological fit – and methodological pluralism— are critical, and so
success for immigrant employees (see Halvorsen, Treuren & Kulik, are research designs that account for different stakeholder across levels
2015). We also note that while questions related to migrant employees and contexts. Although such studies are likely to encounter logistical
may have appeared on the radar of management scholars only recently, hurdles, they will be best equipped to help us understand the future of
there is a goldmine of relevant insights to be found in the work of global work and IHRM in MNEs. We wholeheartedly agree with
migration researchers who have for years studied a wide gamut of issues Howard-Grenville’s (2021) call for research that offers more than
from acculturation to remittances. reductionist theory that simplifies complex phenomena and that we
Finally, on the point of boundary conditions, international man­ should equip ourselves with the “care, courage, and curiosity” that
agement has long advocated for contextualizing our research and ac­ would enable us to do work that is both rigorous and meaningful.
counting for the broader ecosystem within which the organization As we engage in this conversation, we recognize that the immense
operates (Minbaeva, 2021). This is particularly relevant in a time of challenges faced by individuals, businesses, and governments are highly
crisis where many aspects of the context may change simultaneously so nuanced and differ around the world. To that end, we acknowledge our
accounting for multiple contextual influences, going beyond the obvious blind spots and encourage a broader range of colleagues from various
suspects of culture or “varieties of capitalism,” and how they interact disciplines and geographic perspectives to move the conversation for­
remains critically important. We echo Filatotchev, Ireland and Stahl ward. It is only as we collectively engage in multidisciplinary research,
(2021) call for adopting a “poly-contextual” approach, stepping outside conducted by multicultural teams of scholars that critical issues and
the “confines” of agency theory, and recasting our research questions solutions emerge more clearly. Engaging with the phenomena and
within an “open systems” framework, recognizing that contextual fac­ macrotrends of today, we call on scholars globally to help us better
tors shape both many of the problems organizations face, and the so­ understand and shape the future of global work. Finally, IHRM aca­
lutions they have available to them. On that note, we also heed Cooke’s demics can learn a great deal from HR and IB professionals. To address
(2018) observation (and warning) that context is rarely assessed important problems, future research requires guidance from the expe­
objectively; rather, it reflects the particular ideology of the researchers rience of practitioners. To advance both scholarship and practice, we
that study it, with important implications. need conversations and knowledge exchanges that are mutually
Third, we should deepen our engagement with other disciplines and rewarding and can overcome the science-practice gap.
examine which of their theories we can borrow and apply. As interna­
tional business, HRM, and organizational psychology scholars, our 7. Conclusion
perspective emerges from those disciplines. Truly engaging with the
complexity of the questions we surface here requires insights from This paper focuses on the ways in which global work has changed,
scholars in fields including inter alia, migration and economic geogra­ resulting from the trends that the COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated.
phy, sociology, health, sustainability, equality diversity and inclusion, To illustrate their effect on research, we provided examples of these
and computing and artificial intelligence. For example, our under­ changes and how each trend could potentially affect MNEs and indi­
standing of health and safety will benefit from an understanding of the vidual employees. Our ideas are offered to highlight key changes to
biopsychosocial model (Engel, 1977; Karunamuni, Imayama & Goone­ motivate future research. These ideas are only as good as our ability to
tilleke, 2021), which is based in general systems theory and has been translate them in empirical research which can inform and inspire
dominant in health psychology, yet largely ignored to date in manage­ managerial audiences. There is still much work to be done. Our impact
ment and global mobility research. Take intersectionality (Crenshaw, as academics comes from our ability to effectively generate, re-evaluate,
1991) as another example. Although EDI and management scholars’ and test theories that can predict and guide decisions of the future. This
interest in applying intersectionality theory is relatively recent, the term is an important remit at a time when the world of work is changing
has been an established part of the parlance of feminist scholars for well rapidly. We believe there is substantial scope and opportunity for social
over three decades now. There is much to learn and apply from their scientists to demonstrate our value and to impact organizations’ prac­
work about how distinct factors such as nationality, race, and gender tices and individuals’ experience of global work. We hope our paper
may combine to create unique effects for each factor combination. And offers a small step toward motivating research around these many
those interested in perceptions of authenticity of organizational EDI or important themes.
sustainability practices may survey the marketing literature, particu­
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