Engineering Properties of Agricultural and Food Products

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2022

AGRICULTURAL AND BIOSYSTEMS ENGINEERING


BOARD EXAM REVIEWER

ENGINEERING PROPERTIES
OF AGRICULTURAL AND
FOOD PRODUCTS
by

Engr. Alexis T. Belonio, MS


Agricultural and Biosystems Engineer
ASEAN Engineer

Volume 6 –AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD PROCESS ENGNEERING


Introduction
¾ Knowledge of engineering properties of various agricultural crops
is essential for scientific designs of machines and of structure for
production, handling, processing, and storage of crops and
livestock. It is also helpful in solving problems related to heat and
mass transfer required in grain storage, drying, aeration,
refrigeration, and processing.
Physical Properties

Surface Area

The surface area of the product, especially the paddy grains, is


regarded as cono-elliptical cylinder in shape. It affects the physical
properties of the product, particularly in terms of porosity, angle of
repose, and angle of friction. It is important in designing, cleaning,
and separating equipment, as well as drying and storage facilities.
Surface Area of Various Paddy Varieties

Variety Surface Area (mm2)

Patnai 65.0

Dular 54.5

Taichung 56.7

Kalinpong 62.3
Porosity

Porosity has an important role in the drying and storage of the


product. It indicates the relationship between the volume of the
product and the volume of the mass of the product. Porosity
depends on the shape, dimension and roughness of the product
surface.
Pm = 69.05 – 0.885 M and
P1 = 65.55 – 0.475 M
where:
Pm - porosity for medium size paddy, %
P1 - porosity for long size paddy, %
M - moisture content, % wet basis
Porosity of Three Varieties of Paddy at Various Moisture Range

Crop Moisture Content Porosity


(%) (%)
Rice
Dular 11-25 47-64
IR-8 12-26 47-64
Basmati 10-26 46-52
What is the porosity of a medium-sized paddy having a moisture
content of 21% wet basis? If the paddy will be dried to 14% wet
basis, what is the percentage increase in the porosity of the
sample?

Given:
MCwb1 - 21%
MCwb2 - 14%
Required:
Porosity and percentage increase
if sample is dried to 14%
Solution:
Pm = 69.05 - 0.885 MC (at 21% MC)
= 69.05 – 0.885 (0.21)
= 68.86 %
PM = 69.05 – 0.885 MC (at 14% MC)
= 69.05 – 0.885 (0.14)
= 68.92%
% Increased = (68.92% - 68.86%) x 100 / 68.86%
= 0.1%
Bulk Density

Bulk density is the ratio of the weight and the volume of the
product. It indicates how heavy the product is at a given volume. It
is normally expressed in kg/m3 of lb/ft3. The knowledge of this
property will aid in coming up with an accurate estimate on
determining the size of the holding bin or of the storage structure
required for a certain product to be handled.
Bulk Density of Various Agricultural Crops

Crop Bulk Density Crop Bulk Density


(lb/ft3) (lb/ft3)
Alfalfa 48 Millet 38-40
Barley 38 Mustard 46-84
Beans
Lima, dry 45 Peanuts
Lima, unshelled 26 Unshelled 14-17
Snap 24 Popcorn
Bluegrass 11-24 Earcorn 28
Broomcorn 35-40 Shelled 45
Buckwheat 38-42 Repressed 40-48
Castor Beans 37 Rice, rough 36
Crop Bulk Density Crop Bulk Density
(lb/ft3) (lb/ft3)
Clover 48 Rye 45
Corn Sesame 37
Ear, husked 28 Sorgo 40
Shelled 45 Sorghum 40-45
Green sweet 28 Soybean 48
Cottonseed 26 Sunflower 19-26
Cowpeas 48 Velvet Beans 48
Flaxseed 45 Walnuts 40
Kapok 28-32 Wheat 48
Lentils 48
Ten tons of shelled corn will be stored in a cylindrical silo.
Loading will be done only from the bottom to the top of the
cylindrical container without considering the additional volume of
the cone due to the effect of the angle of repose of the sample. If
the silo requires a ratio of 2D = H, what would be the dimension of
the silo? Assume a bulk density for shelled corn of 45 lb/ft3.

Given:
Sample - shelled corn
Weight of sample - 10 tons
Ratio - 2D = H
Density of sample - 45 lb/ft3
Required:
Dimension of the silo
Solution:

Volume of paddy= Weight/Density


= [10 tons x 1000 kg/ton]/[45 lb/ft3
x kg/2.2lb x (3.28 ft/m)3 ]
= 13.85 m3
πD2 /4 x H = 13.85 m3
πD2/4 x 2D = 13.85 m3
D3 = (8/π) 13.85 m3
D = 2.07 m
H = 4.14 m
Angle of Repose

The angle of repose is the angle at which the product formed a


conical shape from the horizontal after it is allowed to freely flow
from a discharge spout of the bin. This property is important in
the design and construction of bulk storage facilities, and in the
calculations of the dimensions of the intermediate holding bins
and hoppers at a given capacity.
Angle of Repose of Various Agricultural Products

Product Angle of Repose


(Deg)
Barley 28
Corn, shelled 27
Flaxseed 25
Sorghum 33
Oats 28
Rice, rough 36
Rye 26
Soybeans 29
Sugar 30
Tares 29
Vetch 25
Wheat 25
Angle of Friction

The angle of friction refers to the angle measured from the


horizontal at which a product starts to move downward over a
smooth surface and smoothness of the material. Basically, moisture
content affects the angle of friction of the grains. Wet grains has a
greater angle of friction than dried grains.
Coefficient of Friction of Various Agricultural Crops

Crop Steel Smooth Smooth Rough


Concrete Wood Wood
Barley 0.38 0.45 0.32
Corn
Ear - - 0.62 -
Shelled 0.37 0.42 0.31 0.32
Flaxseed 0.34 0.41 0.31 -
Oats 0.41 0.47 0.37
Peas 0.26 0.30 0.27
Rice, rough 0.41 0.52 0.44 0.52

Rye 0.41 0.35 0.33


Sorghum 0.37 0.33 0.30
Crop Steel Smooth Smooth Rough
Concrete Wood Wood
Soybean 0.36 0.44 0.32 0.30
Sugar Beat - 0.52 0.82 0.70

Tares 0.36 0.36 0.39 -


Vetch 0.33 0.24 0.26 -
Wheat 0.40 0.42 0.46 0.35
A receiving pit for rough rice is to be designed for a rice mill. If the
material to be used is concrete, what is the minimum angle of
inclination that will be needed for the pit so it will cause self-
emptying? Consider a coefficient of friction for rough rice to smooth
concrete of 0.52. If steel will be used instead of concrete with
coefficient of friction of 0.46, what will be the inclination needed for
the pit?
Given:
Material - rough rice
Coef of friction to concrete - 0.52
Coef of friction to steel - 0.46
Required:
Minimum angle of friction to concrete
and steel materials
Solution:
= tan -1 0.52 for concrete
= 27.47 degrees
= tan -1 0.46 for steel
= 24.70 degrees
Thermal Properties

Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity is the thermal properties of material that


indicates the amount of heat transfer from one side of the material
to the other side by conduction.

Thermal conductivity of the material increases with an increase in


moisture content. The presence of water in the grains provide a
good conducting medium of heat. Thermal conductivity of paddy
grains and husks increases linearly with an increase in the mean
bulk temperature, bulk density, and moisture content.
Equation
K = 0.0500135
= 0.000767 M

where:
K - thermal conductivity, BTU/hr-ft-°F
M - moisture content, % wet basis
Specific Heat

Specific heat of the product is the amount of heat required to


raise its temperature one degree higher when heat is added.
Data on the specific heat provides information necessary in the
optimum design of drying and cooling equipment.

Equation

C = 0.22008 + 0.01301 M

where:
C - specific heat, BTU/lb-°F
M - moisture content, % wet basis
What is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1.5
tons medium-sized paddy from 27°C to 45°C? The moisture
content of paddy is 14% wet basis.

Given:
Sample - paddy
Weight of sample - 1.5 tons
Initial temperature of sample - 27°C (106.2°F)
Final temperature of sample - 45°C (138.6°F)
Moisture content - 14% wet basis
Required:
Heat energy required to raise the temperature of sample
Solution:
C = 0.22008 + 0.1301 M
= 0.22008 + 0.1301 (0.14)
= 0.22190 BTU/lb-°F
Qs = 1.5 tons x 0.2219 BTU/lb-°F x (138.6°F – 106.2°F)
= 23,725.548 BTU
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

¡ The coefficient of thermal cubical expansion for milled rice at


storage moisture over a temperature of 30°-70°C can be computed
using the formula:

Ck = 0.0002403 per °C; for temperature below 53°C

Ck = 0.0003364 per °C; for temperature above 53°C


¡ Knowledge of the thermal coefficient provide information on
the thermal cracking in grains. Temperature difference above
43°C results in serious grain cracking. For brown rice at a
moisture level of 2.2 to 29.2%db and temperature range of
30° to 70°C, the coefficient of thermal expansion can be
estimated as

Ck = (0.936 + 0.0109 M2 + 0.000329 M3) x 10-4

where:
Ck - coefficient of thermal expansion, decimal
M - moisture content, % dry basis
Heat of Vaporization

¡ The heat of vaporization is the amount of heat required to remove


certain amount of moisture from the product. In estimating the
amount of heat required to dry a product, the information on the
heat of vaporization is of much important. Regression equation
developed by Brook and Foster for the latent heat of vaporization
using the equilibrium moisture content data for the different
varieties of rice is,

HV = 2.32 [1094 – 1.026 (T + 17.780] [1 + 2.4962 Exp (-21.73 M)]

where:
HV - latent heat of vaporization, kJ/kg
T - temperature of air, °C
M - moisture content, dec db
Heat Vaporization of Rough Rice at Various
Moisture Content and Temperatures

Moisture Content Temperature Heat of Vaporization


(% dry basis) (°C) (kJ/kg)
5 10 3563 – 4743
20 3803 – 4470
30 4047 – 4229
40 4015 – 4285
15 10 2698 – 3078
20 2862 – 2953
30 2846 – 2987
40 2753 – 3040
30 10 2474 – 2550
20 2468 – 2508
30 2451 – 2471
40 2426 - 2438
What is the latent heat of vaporization of paddy at 28% moisture
content wet basis and at a temperature of 40°C. If 200kg moisture
will be removed from the bulk of paddy, what is the amount of heat
required to remove the moisture?

Given:
Moisture content - 28% wet basis
Temperature - 40°C
Moisture to be removed - 200 kg
Required:
Latent heat of vaporization and amount of heat required
to remove the moisture
Solution:
HV = 2.32 [1094-1.026(T+17.78)][1+2.4962 – 21.73 M]
= 2.32 [1094 – 1.026 (40°C + 17.78][1+2.496– 21.73 (0.28)]
= 2,409.731 kJ/kg of water
Heat to be removed = HV x Moisture to be removed
= 2,409.731 kJ/kg x 200 kg
= 481,946.2 kJ
Thermal Diffusivity

¡ The thermal diffusivity equations for rough rice components were


found by Steffe and Singh (1980). For starchy endosperm, the
thermal diffusivity equation as a function of the temperature is
given as,

D = 0.00257 Exp ( -0.00257/Ta)

• For the bran layer, the equation is


D = 0.79700 Exp (-0.00511/Ta)

• For ricehull, the equation is


D = 484 Exp (-7380/Ta)

where:
D - Diffusivity, m2/hr
Ta - Absolute dry bulb temperature, °K
Hygroscopic Properties

Equilibrium Moisture Content

The equilibrium moisture content (EMC) is that property of grain


that holds moisture when it is subjected to a prolonged condition of
known temperature and relative humidity. EMC is very important in
the design of convection dryer and storage facilities to protect the
grains from moisture changes.

The EMC of various grains can be computed using the Chung and
Pfost equation:
Md = E – F ln [-R (T + C) ln RH
Chung and Pfost Equilibrium Constant

Grain Constant
A B C E F
Beans, edible 1334.93 14.964 120.098 0.480920 0.066826
Corn, yellow dent 620.56 16.958 30.205 0.379212 0.058970
Peanut, Kernel 506.65 29.243 33.892 0.212966 0.034196
Peanut, Pod 1037.19 37.093 12.354 0.183212 0.026383
Rice, Rough 1181.57 21.733 35.703 0.325535 0.046015
Sorghum 2185.07 19.644 102.849 0.391444 0.050970
Soybean 275.11 14.967 24.576 0.375314 0.066816
Wheat, Durum 1831.40 18.077 112.350 0.415593 0.055318
Wheat, Hard 1052.01 17.609 50.998 0.395155 0.056788
Wheat, Soft 1442.54 23.607 35.662 0.308163 0.042360
What is the equilibrium moisture content of paddy stored in bags at
a storage temperature of 27°C and humidity of 90%. If the
moisture content of paddy stored is 14% wet basis, is there a
danger that the grain will deteriorate when the condition will prevail
for a longer period?

Given: Storage temperature - 27°C


Storage humidity - 90%
Moisture content of sample - 14%

Required: Equilibrium moisture content


Solution:
Md = E – F ln [-R (T+C) ln RH)
= 0.325 – 0.046 ln [-1.987 (27 +35.703) ln (0.90)
= 0.206 or 20.66% moisture dry basis
Mw = Md 100 / (100 – Md)
= 20.6% x 100 / (100 – 20.6%)
= 17.08%
Mass Transfer Coefficient

¡ The mass transfer coefficient for rough rice drying by natural air on
a drying bed can be computed using the regression equation
developed by Chang and Chung (1983). The equation is a
function of the temperature, relative humidity, airflow rate, and
grain bed depth.
Kg = 0.008489 – 0.000225 T + 0.000236 RH – 0.00042

where:
Kg - mass transfer coefficient, moisture decimal
dry basis-cm2/h-m2-kg
T - temperature of drying air, °C
RH - relative humidity, %
Q - airflow rate of drying air, m3/min
Tempering Time

¡ Tempering is the process of allowing the grains to rest in order for


the moisture at the innermost portion of the kernel to equilibrate
with the outer layer. For rice, Steffe and Singh (1979) developed
an equation to compute the tempering time of rough rice if the
moisture reduction or drying time is specified.
• For specified moisture reduction, the regression equation is:
t = 24.145 – 5.344 ln (T) + 0.0253 ln (DELM)
– 0.287 RH + 1.096 Mo

• For tempering with specified drying time, the equation is:


t = 21.5373 – 4.899 ln (T) + 0.131 ln (DTIME)
– 0.491 RH + 2.132 Mo

where:
t -
time of tempering, hr
T -
dry bulb temperature, °C
RH -
relative humidity, decimal
Mo -
initial moisture content, decimal dry basis
DELM -
moisture reduction during one drying pass,
decimal db
DTIME - time elapsed during one drying pass, hr
Dry Matter Loss

Stored grains respire and consume dry matter during storage. This
respiration process occurs when the grains react with oxygen and
produce carbon dioxide, heat, and water. As the grains respire,
there is an equivalent loss in the dry matter in the grain.
¡ To estimate the dry matter loss in order to answer how long can
paddy be stored without economic loss, the mathematical
expression as a function of storage temperature, time, and
moisture content is:

DML = 1 –exp [-(AxtC) exp {D (T – 60} exp {E (W – 0.140}]

where:
DML - dry matter loss, dec
t - storage time, hr/1000
T - temperature, °F
W - moisture content, decimal wb
A,C,D,E- constant
Dry Matter Loss Constants
Grain Size A C D E
Long 0.001889 0.7101 0.02740 31.63

Medium 0.000914 0.6540 0.30756 33.61


Five hundred tons of paddy, at 16% wet basis, is to be stored in a
silo for 6 months. If the storage temperature in the warehouse
will be maintained at 95°F, what would be the expected weight of
paddy after the storage period? Neglect losses due to insect and
pest.

Given: Product - paddy


Weight of product - 500 tons
Storage time - 6 months
Moisture content - 16%
Storage temperature - 95°F

Required: Weight of paddy after storage


Solution:
DML = 1- exp [(A x TC) exp [D (T-60)] exp (E (W-0.14))]
= 1-exp [(-0.000914 x 4.32 0.6540) exp [0.03756
(95-60)] Exp [33.61 (0.16 – 0.14)]]
= 1 – exp [-(0.00237)(3.715)(1.958)]
= 1 – 0.983
= 0.01
Therefore, the weight of paddy after 6 months is 491.45 tons
Aerodynamic Properties

◼ Pressure Drop
◼ Pneumatic Separation
Pressure Drop

¡ Agricultural crops have different resistance to airflow. The


formula for the pressure drop of various grains as a
function of airflow rate, percentage of foreign materials,
moisture content, bed depth, and air velocity is
Pneumatic Separation

¡ The use of air to separate grains from other materials is an


important principle for many agricultural machines. In designing
pneumatic separators, the terminal velocity of seeds is
determined and used. In pneumatic separation, a fan or a blower
is used to create higher pressure which will cause the grains to
move and separate during separation.
Aerodynamic Properties of Paddy Grain and Its By-Product

Variety Flow Rate Terminal Drag Reynold’s


(cc/min) Velocity Coefficient No.
(m/sec) Cd Re
Patnai 4200 6.81 0.49 1142
Dular 37300 6.00 0.50 1100
IR – 8 (68) 43800 7.13 0.47 1470
T-27 35500 5.70 0.52 1175
Padma 35200 5.85 0.55 1105
Rice fractions
Broken - 4.05 - -
Germs - 3.28 - -
Bran - 1.59 - -
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS
1. Unhulled grain of Oryza 4. Coefficient of friction of rice
sativa. to steel material is 0.41. What
a. Palay would be the minimum angle of
b. Paddy the hopper required for the
c. Rough rice system?
d. All of the above a. 22 deg.
b. 30 deg.
2. Fibrous layer of paddy when c. 50 deg.
hull is removed and is d. None of the above
commonly known as the silver
skin of brown rice. 5. Drying temperature of copra
a. Lemma and Palea is ____.
b. Pericarp a. less than 50°C
c. Bran layer b. between 50° to 95°C
d. None of the above c. above 95°C
d. None of the above
3. Angle with tangent equals
the coefficient of friction 6. Density of pig and poultry
between surfaces of the stored feeds is approximately ____.
materials. a. 250 kg/m3
a. Angle of contact b. 450 kg/m3
b. Angle of friction c. 650 kg/m3
c. Angle of repose d. None of the above
d. All of the above
7. Slender type paddy has ____ a. mechanical stress
length to width ratio. b. thermal stress
a. less than 2.0 c. physical stress
b. between 2 to 3 d. All of the above
c. more than 3.0 e. None of the above
d. None of the above
10. Property of a product that
8. Free space between the husk holds moisture when subjected to
of rough rice and the brown rice a prolong condition of known
kernel greatly affects milling in the temperature and relative humidity.
sense that ____. a. Dry matter loss
a. the larger the free space the b. Mass transfer coefficient
greater is the amount of broken c. Equilibrium moisture content
grains d. None of the above
b. the smaller the free space the
lesser its abrasive effect to the 11. Specific gravity of rice.
rubber-roll huller a. 1.11 to 1.12
c. the larger the free space, the b. 1.19 to 1.30
lesser the breakage and losses c. 1.22 to 1.26
d. All of the above d. None of the above

9. Uneven expansion and


contraction of the inner and the
outer layers of the grains that
cause fissuring is a factor of ____.
12. Specific gravity of sorghum. c. Bulk density
a. 1.11 to 1.12 d. Angle of repose
b. 1.19 to 1.30 e. Angle of friction
c. 1.22 to 1.26 f. All of the above
d. None of the above
16. Angle of repose of rough rice.
13. Bulk density of rough rice. a. 27 degrees
a. 25 lbs/ft3 b. 33 degree
b. 36 lbs/ft3 c. 36 degrees
c. 45 lbs/ft3 d. None of the above
d. None of the above
17. Angle of repose of shelled
14. Specific gravity of corn. corn.
a. 1.11 to 1.12 a. 27 degrees
b. 1.19 to 1.30 b. 33 degree
c. 1.22 to 1.26 c. 36 degrees
d. None of the above d. None of the above

15. Physical properties of 18. Angle of repose of sorghum.


important product to agricultural a. 27 degrees
processing. b. 33 degree
a. Surface area c. 36 degrees
b. Porosity d. None of the above
19. Angle-of-friction of rough rice a. Thermal conductivity
in steel. b. Specific heat
a. 0.41 c. Coefficient of thermal
b. 0.37 expansion
c. 0.36 d. Heat of vaporization
d. None of the above e. Thermal diffusivity
f. All of the above
20. Angle-of-friction of shelled
corn in steel. 23. Thermal conductivity of
a. 0.41 paddy grains ____ linearly with
b. 0.37 temperature, bulk density, and
c. 0.36 moisture content.
d. None of the above a. increases
b. decreases
21. Angle-of-friction of soybean c. do not increase or decrease
in steel. d. None of the above
a. 0.41
b. 0.37 24. Bulk density of shelled corn.
c. 0.36 a. 25 lbs/ft3
d. None of the above b. 36 lbs/ft3
c. 45 lbs/ft3
22. Which of the following d. None of the above
thermal properties are important
in agricultural processing?

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