ATOMIC & NUCLEAR PHYSICS

15.0 ATOMIC & NUCLEAR PHYSICS

15.1 RUTHERFORD’S ATOMIC MODEL

In the early 1900’s the most popular model of the atom was ‘the plum pudding’
model; which assumed that the atom is composed of electrons surrounded by a
soup of positive charge to balance the electron's negative charge, like negatively-
charged ‘plums’ surrounded by positively-charged ‘pudding. This was disapproved
by Ernest Rutherford.

Ernest Rutherford’s gold foil experiment

In 1909 the New Zealand physicist Ernest Rutherford carried out the following
experiment;
He fired alpha particles at a very thin sheet of gold foil.
The alpha particles could be detected by small flashes of light that they produced
on a fluorescent screen (see diagram).

He
found
that:
 Most alpha particles were undeflected and passed straight through the gold foil.
 Some were deflected through small angles.
 A very small number were turned back through angles greater than 900!

Obviously this couldn’t be explained using the ‘plum pudding’ interpretation.

Instead Rutherford interpreted his results as follows:
 The atom is mostly empty space, but there is a solid centre, which has a
positive charge. It is this positive centre which deflected the positively
charged alpha particles.
 We now call this positive centre the nucleus.

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We now know that the radius of a nucleus is about 10-15 m, while the radius of
an atom is about 10-10 m.
 The electrons orbit the nucleus.
We now know that the positive nucleus consists of positively-charged protons and
along with neutrons, which have no charge (neutral).
Rutherford’s experiment gave birth to the modern atomic model explained below.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE

SUB-ATOMIC PARTICLES
An atom is the smallest part of a chemical element that has the chemical
properties of that element (reacts in the same way).
It isn't the smallest thing that exists despite what you may have heard.

All atoms are made up of three sub-atomic particles - particles smaller than an
atom.
Protons and neutrons are nucleons because they are found in the nucleus.
All nucleons have a relative mass of 1.
Protons have a relative electric charge of +1.
Neutrons have a relative electric charge of 0.

Electrons are not nucleons because they are not found in the nucleus.
Electrons are found around the outside of the atom in shells.
They have a relative charge of -1 but almost no mass (1/1840 of the mass of a
proton).

Mass and Atomic numbers

Radiation is emitted from the nuclei of atoms so it is important that we know
something about what is in an atom.

The nuclide notation

Nuclide notation is representing an atom with a symbol. The nuclide notation is as
follows:

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e.g. the nuclide notation for Helium is as follows:

The atomic (proton) number tells us the number of protons in an atom's nucleus.
eg. 8O has 8 protons while 20Ca has 20 protons.
Atomic number also tells us the number of electrons in an electrically neutral atom
That is, Z= proton number = number of electrons.

The mass (nucleon) number tells us the total number of nucleons (this is the
number of protons + the number of neutrons).
So, a 146C atom contains 6 protons because its atomic number is 6, the remaining 8
nucleons must be neutrons.
Isotopes
Neutrons make no difference to the chemistry of an element. They just make
atoms heavier.
So, different versions of the same element can exist - they must have the same
number of protons in their nuclei, but the number of neutrons can vary.
These are isotopes.
Definition: Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the same proton
(atomic) number but different numbers of neutrons.
Isotopes have the same chemical properties because they have the same number
of electrons, but different physical properties (e.g. mass, density) because they
have different masses.
6
Li, 73Li, and 83Li exist and all of these isotopes have the same chemical properties
3
(react in the same way because each of them have 3 protons in their nucleus and 3
electrons in their shells).

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But 63Li has 6 - 3 = 3 neutrons.
7
3Li has 7 - 3 = 4 neutrons.
8
3Li has 8 - 3 = 5 neutrons.
7
3Li has stable nuclei - it is not radioactive.
6 8
3Li and 3Li are both unstable - their nuclei emit radiation and change.

TRY THIS QUESTION

1. a). Taking the symbol 35

17 Cl to represent an atom of Chlorine, state

i.) the atomic number,

ii.) the number of neutrons,
iii.) the number of electrons,
iv.) the mass number of the chlorine atom. [4]

b). (i) If another atom is represented as37

17 Cl , what term would be used to state
35
its relation to 17Cl ? [1]
35 37
(ii) Complete this table that shows the difference between 17 Cl and 17 Cl. [8]

ATOM ELECTRONS PROTONS NEUTRONS MASS NUMBER

35
17 Cl

37
17 Cl

EXPECTED ANSWERS
1. a). (i). 17
(ii). 35-17 =18
(iii). 17
(iv). 35 [4]

b). (i). Isotope. [1]

(ii)
ATOM ELECTRONS PROTONS NEUTRONS MASS NUMBER
(Atomic No.) (A-Z) (A)
Z
35
17 Cl 17 17 18 35
37
17 Cl 17 17 20 37

[8]

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15.2 RADIOACTIVITY

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STABLE AND UNSTABLE ATOMS

STABLE ATOM

 Has stable nucleus with the same number of protons and neutrons.

UNSTABLE ATOMS

 Many large atoms have unstable nuclei because they have

1. Too many neutrons than protons
2. Too few protons than neutrons
3. Too many nucleons i.e. too massive/heavy
4. Too much energy.
 Therefore unstable atoms breakdown (decay) to form smaller and stable atoms.
 The breakdown (decay) is called radioactivity and the atom is said to be radioactive.

RADIOACTIVE DECAY

 Is the breakdown of a large unstable nucleus with the emission (release) of nuclear
particles to form stable nuclei of other elements.

What is RADIOACTIVITY?

 Is the spontaneous random emission of particles from within the nucleus of an atom.
 Spontaneous means the process is unpredictable.
 Random means particles are emitted any time with no set pattern and in any direction.
 Spontaneous random means unpredictable emission of particles, at any time, with no set
pattern and in any direction.
 When a massive atom breaks down the emitted nuclear particles and energy are called
nuclear radiation.

NUCLEAR RADIATION

 Consist of two nuclear particles namely alpha (α) particles and beta (β) particles plus
gamma (γ) radiation.
Table: The Nature of nuclear radiation

NUCLEAR SYMBOL CONSTITUENCY CHARGE MASS

RADIATIO
N
Alpha α or 42α or 42He 2+ A helium nucleus. +2 4
2 protons and 2 neutrons

Beta β or −10e or −10 β Electron -1 Negligibl

e
1
1840
Gamma γ Short wave, high frequency 0 0
electromagnetic waves

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THE NATURE AND PROPERTIES OF NUCLEAR RADIATION

NUCLEAR PARTICLE/ ALPHA (α) α) ) BETA (α) β) PARTICLE) PARTICLE GAMMA (α) γ) RAYS) RAYS
RADIATION PARTICLES
1. NATURE Helium nuclei 42He 2+ Fast-moving electron Electromagnetic (e.m)
0 waves
−1 e

2. IONISING Strongly Weakly Very weakly

3. SPEED IN A Slow. Fast. Speed of light.
VACUUM 1 9 3 x 108 m/s
About the speed
20 the speed of light 10
of light
4. DEFLECTION BY A Small deflection to Large deflection to No deflection.
MAGNETIC FIELD South Pole North Pole
5. DEFLECTION BY AN Small deflection to Large deflection to No deflection.
ELECTRIC FIELD negative plate positive plate
6. PENETRATING Absorbed/stopped by a Absorbed/stopped by Absorbed/stopped by
POWER thick sheet of paper or a few mm of at least 3cm of Lead or
skin or a few cm of air Aluminium. several metres of
concrete
* Small penetrating * Penetrating power *Penetrating power 10
power 100 times that of α- 000 times that of β-
particle. particle.
7. DISTANCE A few cm A few m A few km
TRAVELLED
THROUGH AIR.

PENETRATING POWER

 A Geiger Muller (GM) tube is a device used to measure nuclear radiation.

 Alpha (α) particles, beta (β) particles and gamma (γ) radiation can be fired at a variety of
objects with the GM tube placed at the end to see whether they penetrate the objects.
 GM tube is connected to a scale that shows amount of radiation.

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Explanation

1. A GM tube is placed close to the radioactive source. A large count rate is measured.
2. Paper, aluminium and lead (or thick concrete) are placed in line with source.
3. A GM tube is placed behind the paper. There is a large decrease in the count rate
showing that alpha (α) particles are absorbed/stopped by paper.
4. A GM tube is placed behind the aluminium sheet. There is a very small decrease in the
count rate showing that beta (β) particles have been absorbed/stopped by the aluminium
sheet.
5. A GM tube is placed behind the lead (or thick concrete). No count rate is detected. This
shows that gamma (γ) radiation is absorbed/stopped by lead (or thick concrete).
6. This experiment shows that the penetrating power of alpha (α) particles is much smaller
and the penetrating power of gamma (γ) radiation is much bigger than that of either
alpha (α) particles or beta (β) particles.
7. When nuclear radiation is fired at an object, some of it is absorbed, some passes through
and some is reflected.

Conclusion

 Alpha particles have very poor penetrating power. These cannot even pass through a thin
sheet of paper.
 Beta particles have penetrating power more than alpha rays. These can easily pass
through a thin sheet of paper but are stopped by thin sheet of aluminium metal.
 Gamma rays can easily pass through aluminium sheets but are stopped by a thick block of
lead metal

Why nuclear particles have different penetrating powers

 Alpha (α) particles are larger and therefore have greater chances of colliding with other
particles of matter and so have less likelihood of travelling or penetrating far.

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 Gamma (γ) rays are less massive than either alpha or beta particles and therefore
penetrate or travel the furthest.
 Beta (β) particles are smaller than Alpha (α) particles and therefore penetrate further.
 The larger the particle the more the collision with other particles of matter and
therefore the smaller the distance it penetrates or travel.
 When a nuclear particle collides with an atom it ionises the atom by knocking off
electrons from it.

Alpha and beta particles have different ionising powers

 Alpha (α) particles are strongly positive so they easily pull off electrons from atoms of
matter.
 An alpha (α) particle ionises more atoms than a beta (β) particle and therefore lose its
kinetic energy faster. That is why an alpha (α) particle has a small penetrating power.
 Alpha (α) particles are strongly ionising. If you breathe in alpha (α) particle they can
damage your lung.
 A beta (β) particle has a smaller charge than an alpha (α) particle as well as a smaller
mass and a higher speed. Therefore it penetrates further than the alpha (α) particle.
 A beta (β) particle penetrates better than alpha (α) particle and is therefore less
dangerous in the body.

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 Alpha (α) particles experience a smaller deflection because they are heavier.
 Beta (β) particles experience a larger deflection because they are lighter.
 Alpha (α) particles and beta (β) particles are deflected because they are charged.
 Gamma (γ) rays are not deflected because they are not charged.
 Unlike charges attract. Therefore negatively charged beta particles are attracted to the
positive plate and positively charged alpha particles are attracted to the negative plate.
 Beta particles are attracted to the North Pole of the magnet since they are negatively
charged.
 Alpha particles are attracted to the South Pole of the magnet since they are positively
charged.

NUCLEAR EQUATIONS

 A nuclear equation is a short statement that summarises a nuclear reaction.

Alpha (α) decay

 Occurs in heavy nuclides.
 Heavy nuclides have 82 protons or more e.g. radium and uranium.
 The nuclei of these atoms are too heavy to be stable.
 The general nuclear equation for Alpha (α) decay is:

 An alpha particle is identical to a helium nucleus.

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EXAMPLES

1. Uranium undergoes Alpha (α) decay to Thorium. The balanced nuclear

equation is

2. Radium undergoes α-decay to radon. State the nuclear equation.

 During α- decay mass number (nucleon number) decreases by 4 and

proton number decreases by 2.
 When an atom undergoes α-decay, it forms an element 2 places before it
on the periodic table.

QUESTION
A polonium–212 nucleus decays spontaneously while at rest, with the emission of an alpha-
particle. What daughter nucleus is produced during this alpha-decay?
Solution
212 4 ?
84 Po → 2 He+ ? X The total number on top on the left must equal the total number on top
on the right.
The same applies for the bottom.
Once you realise that the atomic number of the daughter product is 82 you then go to the
periodic table of elements to identify this atom – it this case the element ‘lead’ has an
atomic number of 82
212
84 Po → 42 He+ 208
82 Pb

Beta (β)β)) decay

 When a beta (β) particle is emitted
i. Mass number stays the same
ii. Proton number increases by 1.

 A beta particle is identical to a fast moving electron. Charge = -1.

 You must include the term ‘fast moving’.
 Beta particles are less ionising and therefore more penetrative than alpha
particles.

EXAMPLE
1. Carbon-14 undergoes β –decay to Nitrogen.decay to Nitrogen.

2. Rhemium undergoes beta decay to osmium.

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 During ββ –decay to Nitrogen.decay a proton is created.

 One of the neutrons (n) in the nucleus is changed into a proton (p):

 β –decay to Nitrogen.decay occurs in atoms with more neutrons than protons.

 Proton number increases by 1.
 The extra proton comes from a neutron that is converted into a proton.

QUESTION
Cobalt−60 is a radioactive isotope and emits beta particles.
Write an equation to represent the decay of cobalt−60.

Solution
60
Co → −10e + ?? X
27

The total number on top on the left must equal the total number on top on the
right.
The same applies for the bottom.
Once you realise that the atomic number of the daughter product is 28 you then go
to the periodic table of elements to identify this atom – it this case the element
‘Nickel’ has an atomic number of 28.
60 0 60
27 Co → −1e + 28 ¿

Gamma (β)γ) ) decay

 Is emitted from a nucleus with too much energy.
 When an α-particle or β-particle is emitted, the daughter nuclide is usually
left in an excited state i.e. with too much energy. It loses its spare energy by
emitting Gamma (γ) rays.
 Proton number and nucleon do not change, the daughter nuclide is the same
element as the parent nuclide
 General equation of Gamma (γ) decay:

Where the * sign indicates that the daughter nuclide is the same element as the
parent nuclide.

 Gamma radiation is radiation of very short wavelength (and therefore high

frequency and therefore high energy.
 It is uncharged and so its ionising ability is relativity poor but it is highly
penetrating.

ACTIVITY AND HALF-LIFE

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 Activity of a radioactive sample is the number of atoms that decay every
second.
 The symbol for ‘Activity’ is A.

The unit of activity is the Becquerel (Bq).

One Bq = one disintegration per second.

This leads to a definition for half-life:

The half-life (T1/2) of an element is the time taken for the activity (of that sample) to be
halved.

Obviously, the more atoms that are present, the greater will be the activity (the number
of disintegrations per second).

Other definitions of Half-life (T1/2) :

 Half- life (T1/2) of an element is the average time it takes for the number of
undecayed atoms to halve.
 Half- life is the time taken for the amount of a radioactive isotope to fall to half its
original value.
 Half- life is the time for the radioactivity of an isotope to be reduced to half its
initial value.
 The longer the half -life of an isotope the longer it stays radioactive.

DECAY CURVES

Three types of decay curves:

1. Number of undecayed atoms (N) against time. Number of undecayed atoms

decrease exponentially (inversely).
2. Count rate against time graph. Count rate decreases inversely.
3. Activity against time graph. Activity decreases exponentially.

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How to calculate half-life from the graph

Half-life = T1/2 - 0

Or Half-life = 2T1/2 - T1/2 etc.

STEPS TO FIND HALF-LIFE FROM A DECAY CURVE

STEP 1: Read off the value of count rate/amount of particles where t = 0.
STEP 2: Go to half the original value.
STEP 3: Draw a horizontal line to the curve and a vertical line to the x-axis.
STEP 4: Read off the half-life where the line meets the x-axis.
STEP 5: Check the units in the x-axis carefully.
STEP 6: Check your answer by repeating steps 1 to 4 using a ¼ of the original
value.
See example given below.

Measuring Half-life from a Graph

How can Half-life be measured from a Graph?

A graph showing how the count rate decreases as time goes by will have a curve like
the one shown in the picture below.
For any particular radioisotope the count rate and time will be different but the shape
of the curve will be the same.

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The easiest way to measure the half-life from the graph is to

1. Read the original count rate at zero days.

On our graph the reading is 1640 counts.

2. Go down to half the original count rate (820 counts) and draw a horizontal line to
the curve.
Then draw a vertical line down from the curve.
You can read off the half-life where the line crosses the time axis.

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On our graph the half-life is 20 days.

TRY THIS QUESTION

The graph shows the pattern of decay of a radioactive substance.

What is the half life of the substance?

Using Half-life to Calculate the Count Rate

Calculations using Half-life

There are two types of calculation using half-life.

1. If you are given two count rates and you know how long it takes to get from one to
the other, then you can calculate the half-life of the material.
The method for this is shown below.

2. If you know the half-life of a material, you can calculate what the count rate will be
at some time in the future.
The method for this is shown below.

How Half-life can be used to calculate the Count Rate.

Question
The half-life of a material is 3 hours. If the initial count rate is 544 Bq, what will the
count rate be after 15 hours?

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Answer.
Put the count rate in boxes and use arrows to represent the half-life.

We are told that the half-life of the material is 3 hours.

In 15 hours there are 15 ÷ 3 half-lives = 5 half-lives.
After each half-life the count rate is halved.

After five half-lives the count rate is 17 Bq.

How to Calculate the Half-life from the Count Rate

Calculations using Half-life

There are two types of calculation using half-life.

1. If you know the half-life of a material, you can calculate what the count rate will be
at some time in the future.
The method for this is shown on the section.

2. If you are given two count rates and you know how long it takes to get from one to
the other, then you can calculate the half-life of the material.
The method for this is shown below.

How the Half-life can be calculated from the Count Rate.

Question
The count rate of a material is 2016 Bq.
After 35 days it has fallen to 63. What is the half-life?

Answer.
Put the count rate in boxes and use arrows to represent the half-life.
After each half-life the count rate is halved.

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In going from 2016 to 63 there are 5 half-lives.

If 5 half-lives take 35 days, each half-life is 35 ÷ 5 = 7 days.
The half-life of the material is 7 days.

FORMULAE USED IN RADIOACTIVITY CALCULATIONS

1.Half-life is calculated using these two formulae.
Ao
= 2n
An
Where Ao = original count rate
An = final count rate
n = number of half- lives.
time interval
Therefore Half-life =
n
2.Final count rate (An) is calculated using this formula

An = Ao ( 12 ) n

Where Ao = original count rate

An = final count rate
n = number of half- lives.

WORKED EXAMPLES
Q1. A radioactive source registers 1000 counts per minute when first used. 6 minutes later
the count rate falls to 125 counts per minute. Calculate the half-life this radioisotope.
Ans 1. Original count rate AO = 1000
LET number of half-lives = n
Final count rate An= 125
Ao
= 2n
An

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1000
= 2n
125
8 =2n
23 = 2n
n= 3
Thus the activity has halved 3 times during the 6 minute interval.
time interval
THEREFORE, Half-life =
n
6
=3

= 2 minutes

ALTERNATIVELY USING COUNT DOWN

Number of Half=lives (n) COUNT RATE
FALLS FROM TO
1ST 1000 500
2ND 500 250
3RD 250 125
N.B. stop the countdown when you reach the value given in the question.
time interval
THEREFORE, Half-life =
n
6 minutes
=
3

= 2 minutes

Q2. The original count rate of a radioactive source is 2000. What will be the
count rate after 20 hours if its half-life is 5 hours?

time interval
Ans2. n =
half −life

20
=
5

=4
1
An = Ao
2 () n

= 2000 ( 12 ) 4

2000
=
16

= 125

Q3. In 168 s the activity Thorium falls to 1/8 of its original value. What is its
half-life?

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Ao = 1 whole
1
An =
8

Ao
An = 2n
1
1/ 8 =2n

8 = 2n
23 =2n
n=3

timeinterval
Half-life =
n

168 s
=
3

= 56 seconds

ALTERNATIVELY USING COUNT DOWN

HALF-LIFE FRACTION REMAINING

0 1
1st 1/2
2nd 1/4
3rd 1/8

time interval
Half-life =
n

168 s
=
3

= 56 seconds

Q4. Given that the half-life of radium-226 is 1620 years, calculate the time it
takes for 100g of Radium to have its activity fall to 1/8 its original value. [3]
1
An = Ao 2 n ()
1
8 x 100g = 100g ( 12 ) n

1
8 = ( 12 ) n

2n = 23

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n=3
Time taken = Half-life x n
= 1620 years x 3
= 4860 years

Nuclear Fission

 Nuclear Fission is the process in which the nucleus of a heavy atom, such as
Uranium-235 or Plotonium-236, is split into two smaller or daughter nuclei and
three neutrons along with the release of energy when bombarded by a slow
moving neutron.

 Nuclear fission releases a tremendous amount of energy. The mass of products

from the fission reaction are slightly less than the mass of the parent nucleus.
The mass that is lost in the reaction has been converted to energy.

 The amount of energy released from this mass can be calculated using Einstein's
equation below:

Energy Released = mass x [velocity of light]2

(Joules) (kilograms) (meters per second)

or E = mc2

 The energy resulting from the mass loss is in the form of kinetic energy of the
daughter nuclei and neutron and electromagnetic radiation in the form of gamma
rays.

 The released energy (heat) by nuclear fission is usually used to generate

electricity.

Explaining nuclear fission

1. A slow moving neutron bombards a heavy Uranium-235 nucleus. The neutron is

absorbed by the nucleus to produce a Uranium-236 nucleus. This neutron rich
nucleus is unstable and begins to oscillate.

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2. The unstable energetic nucleus distorts and the repulsion between the protons
begins to separate the nucleus.

3. The repulsion between the protons becomes strong enough to separate the
nucleus into two separate nuclei along with the release of a large amount of
energy.

4. Two daughter nuclei are formed from the fission and possess a large amount of
the energy from the nuclear reaction in the form of kinetic energy. These are
accompanied with three neutrons.

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5. The neutrons that are released can go on to collide with other uranium atoms
causing more fission and more neutrons to be released. This is called a chain
reaction.

 The new atoms that are formed are radioactive and are called daughter nuclei.

 Nuclear fission is releases large amounts of heat energy that can be used to
generate electricity.

 The amount of energy released during nuclear fission is much larger than the
energy released when substances react chemically. For instance, 1 kg of
uranium undergoing fission can release the same energy as burning 10 000kg of
coal!

 Uranium is not the only element that can be used in nuclear power. Plutonium is
an alternative fuel.

 Example of nuclear fission of uranium:

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QUESTION
Nuclear disintegrations occur in radioactivity and in fission. Distinguish between
radioactivity and fission.

SOLUTION
Radioactivity is the breaking down of unstable nuclei with the emission of one or
more types of radiation.
Nuclear Fission is the breaking down of a large nucleus into two smaller nuclei with
the release of energy (and neutrons).

Nuclear fusion

 Nuclear fusion is the joining of two light nuclei to form a heavier nucleus. It is
the process by which energy is released in stars e.g. the sun.
 An example of a fusion reaction is that of two deuterium nuclei fusing together
to give a helium nucleus. Deuterium is an isotope of hydrogen. The reaction is as
follows:

 Fusion reactions are accompanied by a much greater mass to energy

conversion than in fission reactions.
 Nuclear fusion requires extremely high temperatures. This is because the
small nuclei require enough kinetic energy to overcome their electrostatic
repulsion. The energy we receive from the sun is from nuclear fusion. The
sun is made up mainly of hydrogen and helium. Within the sun the
temperature is millions of degrees Celsius, there is the constant fusion of
small nuclei into larger nuclei.

 Both nuclei contain 1 proton and 1 neutron. They carry a positive charge
and repel each other. An increase in temperature increases the kinetic
energy of the nuclei and they move around at increasing speeds.

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 At very high temperatures (millions of degrees Celsius) the kinetic energies of

the nuclei overcome their forces of repulsion and collide. The collision results in
the two Deuterium nuclei fusing to form a Helium nucleus along with a
tremendous amount of energy.

Question

Determine the decrease in the mass of the sun when it releases 1.8 x 106 J of
energy.

Solution

E
E = mc2 therefore m =
c2

1.8 x 106
m= 2
(3 x 10 8)

= 2 x 10-11 kg

Therefore mass decrease of the sun = 2 x 10-11 kg

USES OF RADIOACTIVITY

 Radiotherapy/ treatment of cancer.

 Archaeological dating/ carbon-14 dating
 Geological dating/ Dating rocks
 Thickness gauging
 Empty packet detection
 Biochemical tracers (Tracing metabolic pathways)
 Detection of leaks in pipes
 Sterilizing medical instruments and dressing
 Power generation
 Food irradiation to kill microorganism.

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Applications (uses) of Radioisotopes in Different Fields

Applications of radioisotopes in Medicine

1. To diagnose of thyroid disease using iodine-123.

2. To treat an overactive thyroid gland and certain kinds of thyroid cancer by using
sodium iodide labelled with radioactive iodine.
3. To detect position of blood clots or thrombosis using Sodium-24 injected in the
bloodstream.
4. To detect and treat brain tumor using phosphorus-32
5. To study the circulation of iron in the blood using iron-59
6. To sterilise medical equipments and to destroy cancer cells in radiotherapy
radioisotope cobalt-60 is used.

Applications of radioisotopes in Industries

1. The thickness of paper, plastics, clothes and metal sheets need to be
standardised and this is done by placing a radioactive source at one side of the
material and a detector on the other side.
2. For sheets of metal, gamma ray is used. For plastics, clothes and paper, beta
particles are used.
3. The detector will register a higher count if the material is too thin and lower
register if too thick. The computer will make adjustments according to the
thickness of the material.
4. This mechanism is also used to ensure that containers such as cans and food
packages are filled to the specified amount.
5. Radioisotope is added to engine oil so that its level of wear and tear can be
determined.
6. In order to kill germs that cause food to spoil quickly, gamma rays are used.
7. If exposed to gamma ray, latex becomes harder without the need for adding
sulphur.

Applications of radioisotopes in Agriculture

1. Pests can be killed using radioactive rays especially using gamma rays.
2. To stop pests from reproducing, induced mutation by using gamma rays can be
employed. But this has the probability of producing GMO and resistant pests.
3. To be used as tracers in the effectiveness of fertilisers using nitrogen-15 and
phosphorus -32.
4. To induce genetic mutation in a plant in order to produce a better strain which
has higher resistance against pest and diseases.

Applications of radioisotopes in Archaeology

1. To determine the age of artefacts, the carbon dating method is used.

Consider this paragraph:

Cosmic radiations from outer space displaced neutrons from nuclei in the
Earth's outer atmosphere. These neutrons then collide with nitrogen nuclei to
produce carbon-14. Living organisms like plants and animals absorb and give
out carbon-14 when they are alive. The half-life of carbon-14 is about 5730
years. So there is negligible disintegration over the lifetime of most organisms.
However when they die, no more absorption of carbon-14 occurs. The C-14

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taken starts to decay into N-14 by beta emission. The percentage of carbon 14
in dead plant decreases as the carbon 14 disintegrates. After 5730 years, the
percentage of carbon 14 falls to 50 percent of its initial value. The activity of
atoms is proportional to the number of undecayed atoms. By comparing the
activity of the dead sample of the same mass of the living sample, its age can
be estimated.

2. To measure geological time.

During the formation of rocks, some radioisotopes such as uranium-238 are

trapped. As the decay continues, the proportion of uranium-238 decreases
slowly resulting in the equally slow growth of its product lead-206. An estimate
of the age of the rock can be inferred from the relative proportions of lead and
uranium in the rock.

BACKGROUND RADIATION
 Is the radiation we are exposed to in our atmosphere.
 It comes from both natural and artificial sources.
 Natural sources of radiation are cosmic rays, the sun, rocks in the earth’s
crust, air and naturally occurring radioisotopes.
 Artificial sources include atomic/nuclear bombs, nuclear power stations,
medical isotopes, industrial radioisotopes, food and nuclear wastes.

DANGERS OF RADIOACTIVITY
 We cannot avoid exposure of radiation in small doses due to background
radiation; however large doses are dangerous to our health.
 The effects of human exposure to large doses of radioactive radiation
include:
a) Damage to cells and tissues of the body due to the ionising effect of
radiation.
b) Mutation of genes.
c) Leukaemia/cancer of the blood
d) Damage to blood leading to lower resistance to normal diseases.
e) Sterility
f) Serious abnormalities
g) Burns, redness and sores on the skin.
 Danger from alpha-particles is small unless they enter the body.
 Beta-particles and gamma rays cause burns and delayed effects such as eye
cataracts and cancer.
 Large exposure to beta-particles and gamma rays can lead to radiation
sickness and death.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

1. The handling and storage of radioactive material in schools in order to

minimise radioactive radiation should be done as follows:
a) Store radioactive sources in lead boxes.
b) Handle radioactive sources with tongs or forceps and never by hand.
c) The user should always wear protective clothing, goggles and gloves.
d) Never point a radioactive source at persons.
e) Never take food when working with radioactive sources.
f) Never smoke near a radioactive source.

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g) A radioactive source should be handled a distance from the body.
REASON: during decay the source can produce a radioactive gas which
when inhaled can damage body cells.

2. Safety precautions in industry and the medical field

a) In the medical field bio-chemical tracers with a short half-life should be used.
Reason: A medical tracer must have a short half-life because this will
minimize the harm done to the cells of the body. A short half-life means that
the amount of radioactivity being emitted from the tracer in the pipe would
decrease quickly.
b) Wear lead coated protective clothing.
c) Wear goggles and gloves.
d) Wear radiation dose badges or photographic emulsion badges which keep a
check on the amount of radiation the user is exposed to during work.
The badge contains windows which absorb radiation. When developed the film is
darkest where radiation was highest.

3. Radioactive Hazard signs

 Radiation signs are used to warn people of the presence of radioactive

radiation. They are usually installed in hospital x-ray rooms and at nuclear
power stations.

RADIOACTIVE WASTE DISPOSAL

 One method to dispose of radioactive/nuclear waste is to enclose the waste

in steel containers which are buried in concrete tunnels.
 Possible leakages can occur and contaminate underground water leading to
radiation entering the food chains.

EFFECTS OF RADIOACTIVE EMISSION ON THE ENVIRONMENT

1. Soil may give low crop yields due to excess exposure.

2. Water may not be safe to drink if it has a high content of radiation.
3. Plants can absorb the radiation which can then enter food chains.
4. Plants and animals can die or suffer from gene mutation which can cause
abnormalities.

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NOTES COMPILED BY GLADMORE TARUVINGA 2015

HBScED (BUSE).

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