PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION

TECHNIQUES
Personalities and History of Personal Identification
7000 BC Jericho:

Neolithic bricks from the ancient city were discovered to contain thumbprints of bricklayers.
This information was reported in a modern publication in Archeology of the Holy Land, a
book researched and written by Dame K. Kenyon.

3000 BC Northwest Europe at New Grange, Republic of Ireland, and Brittany, France:

Artifacts have been found in these locations to contain carvings of fingerprints. Artifacts such
as the inner burial chamber passages and tombs possess images of fingerprint ridges.
Although some say that the prints were coincidentally placed on the artifacts by the artisans
the Stockis theory states that the placement of prints was intentional.

1955-1913 BC Babylon (Hammurabi):

It is said fingerprints were used to seal contracts.

600-700 AD Ancient China

Kia Kung-Yen, a Chinese historian of the Tang period mentions fingerprints being used to
seal contracts and legal documents.
Yung-Hwui, a law book, specified that in order to divorce a husband must present a
document giving the reasons for the action.
All letters must be in his handwriting, but if unable to write, he must sign with his
fingerprints. It is also said that sales of children were to be sealed with their sole and
handprints.

1684 Dr. Nehemiah Grew

A fellow of the Royal College of Physicians and a plant morphologist, commented on the
ridge formations of the fingers.
He is seen as the first pioneer to study and describe sweat pores, epidermal ridges and
furrows, and their various arrangements on both the hands and feet, his work also included
publications with accurate drawings. Dr. grew died in 1712.

1685 Govard Bidloo

Bidloo, anatomist in Amsterdam, Holland, published a book on human anatomy illustrating

friction ridges and pore structure on the underside of the fingers.
His comments were morphological in nature and he did not refer to or mentioned the
individuality of friction ridges.

1686 Marcello Malphigi

Forensic 2 - Personal Identification Techniques

1
 A professor of anatomy at the University of Bologna, Italy, and a contemporary of Grew, took
up his own studies and with the aid of a new device, the microscope, conducted his own
research.
He wrote many treatises on the palmar surfaces. His papers were primarily focused on
functions, form, and structure of the friction skin as a tactile organ and its use in the
enhancement of traction for walking and grasping.
He is credited with nothing diverse figures on the palmar surfaces which appeared to be
loops and spirals. For his research, and in recognition of his contributions, a layer of skin was
named in his honor, the Malphigian layer, which is located on the stratum mucosum or
the lower (inner) portion of the epidermal layer of the skin.
Malphigi failed to pursue further research in this area, and the developments he pioneered
fell silent for more than one hundred years.
He is known as the “Grandfather of Fingerprints”.

1788 Johann Cristoph Andreas (JCA) Meyer

A German scientist, became the first to expound on the theory that the arrangement of skin
ridges is never duplicated in two individuals. “although the arrangements of skin ridges are
never duplicated in two persons, nevertheless the similarities are closer among some
individuals.
In others the differences are marked, yet in spite of their peculiarities of arrangement all
have a certain likeness”.

1823 Johannes Purkinje (or John Evangelist Purkinje or Jonnes Evangelista Purkinje)

A Prussian, published a thesis in which he described friction ridge patterns and classified the
fingerprints, dividing them into nine categories and laying down the rules for their
interpretation.
This was the first time prints were classified into patterns. Four basic patterns emerged:
arch, tent, loop, and whorl.
He is known as the “Father of Dactyloscopy”

1856 Herman Welcker

German anthropologist of the University of Halle led the way in the study of friction ridge skin
permanence.
Welcker began by printing his own right hand in 1856 and then again in 1897 to prove that
the prints do not change, thus gaining credit as the first person to start a permanence study.

1858 Sir William Herschel

British chief administrative officer of the Hooghly District, Bengal, India, is credited with the
first known official use of fingerprints on a large scale. He required natives to affix their
fingerprints as well as signatures to contracts.
In 1877, Herschel submitted a request to the Home Office to use fingerprints extensively
throughout India. He failed, however, to establish an effective fingerprint classification
system. Herschel also published an article in 1880 after reading articles by Dr. Henry Faulds
which led to allegations of plagiarism.

1880 Dr. Henry Faulds

Forensic 2 - Personal Identification Techniques

2
 A Scottish medical missionary who spent a year in India, later traveled to Japan and arrived
in March of 1874. He set up a hospital in Tsuki, Tokyo.
He suggested the use of fingerprints not only for identification, but also for criminal
investigation and is credited with making the earliest known identification from a crime
scene.
He claimed two cases, one to convict and one to exonerate. It is also said that Faulds
recommended the use of printer’s ink for known fingerprint recording. Printer’s ink is still
used today to record many fingerprints.

1882 Gilbert Thompson

From the US Geological Survey, recorded his own prints to prevent their forgery on
commissary orders. The first such known use of fingerprints in the United States.

1882 Alphonse Bertillion

Devised anthropometry (also known as Bertillonage) while clerk in the Paris Police
Identification Bureau. Later named head of Surete Nationale, his system of identification was
adopted throughout France.
Bertillon claimed one of the first identifications using his system in February 20, 1883.
Bertillon’s system of body measurements was supplemented by the presence of fingerprints
registered on the rear of his anthropometry cards, which are alleged to have led to more
identification than his system anthropometry.
He is known as the “Father of Personal Identification”

1883 Mark Twain

In his book “Life on the Mississippi”, Twain refers to the identification of a murderer by his
thumbprint.
Ten years later in another book, “Pudd’nhead Wilson”, a theme centered on a fingerprint
identification demonstrated during a court trial in which the infallibility of fingerprint
identification was espoused. What is remarkable about this notation is its date and Twain’s
knowledge of fingerprints.

1891 Juan Vucetich (Dr. Ivan Vucetich)

Was employed as statistician with the Central Police Department, La Plata, Argentina.
Ordered to set up the Bertillonage system. He read an article by pioneer Francis Galton,
formulated his own identification system and implemented the system in September 1891.
His system became known as “Vucetichissimo”. Subsequently he was ordered to discard
his system and revert back to Bertillonage. Fortunately, in 1896, before the revision could
take place, Argentina abandoned Bertillonage and Vucetichissimo was retained.
Vucetich’s system is still used in South America. Vucetich claimed to make one of the first
criminal identifications in 1892 in La Plata, Argentina.

1850-1931 Sir Edward Richard Henry

At the same time that Vucetich was experimenting with fingerprinting in Argentina, another
classification system was being developed in India and this system was called “The Henry
Classification System.”
He is known as the “Father of Modern Fingerprint Science”

Forensic 2 - Personal Identification Techniques

3
1892 Sir Francis Galton

A British anthropologist and cousin of Charles Darwin, began observation that led to the to
the publication of “Fingerprints”. This publication was the first on fingerprints. In it, Galton
made the statement that fingerprints remain unchanged for life and they are permanent.
He also devised the first scientific method of classifying fingerprint patterns into arches,
loops, and whorls. Galton also pointed out ridge characteristics and described a method for
taking prints.
In recognition of the contributions by Galton, ridge characteristics were named in his honor
and today are known as “Galton” details.

1901 Dr. Henry P. De Forest

Dr. De Forest is responsible for the first large-scale documented instance of fingerprints
being used as a systematic method of identification in the United States.
Dr. De Forest installed the system to prevent cheating by applicants for the New York Civil
Service Commission. The system was installed in December 1902.

1903 Captain James Parke

The New York State Prison system installed the first systematic use of fingerprints in the
United States for use in identification of criminals. The system was officially adopted June of
1903.

1904 Sgt. John K. Ferrier

He instructed American police in the Henry system. Subsequently, a young woman named
Mary Holland, who was a student learning the Henry system, went throughout the US
teaching the Henry system to many law enforcement agencies.

1904 Mary K Holland

Is said to have been one of the Henry system and single-handedly was responsible for the
accelerated acceptance of the Henry system throughout the United States.
She was the first American instructor in Dactyloscopy.

1918 Edmond Locard

He wrote that if 12 points (Galton’s Details) were same between two fingerprints, it would
suffice a positive identification. This is where the often quoted (12 points) originated.
The variations of the individual friction ridge feature which he noted, has evolved into
“ridgeology”, which is a coined phrase describing the use of those features in the fingerprint
identification process.
He is also known as the father of poroscopy and edgeoscopy.

1924 Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)

The identification division was developed and instituted in 1924 with the files drawn from the
records at Ft. Leavenworth, as was the National Bureau of Criminal Identification, which
consisted of many submissions by police departments throughout the country to the FBI.

1933 FBI

Forensic 2 - Personal Identification Techniques

4
 The FBI established a latent fingerprint section for making technical examinations of latent
prints or inked prints on an individual basis. A civil identification section was also established
the same year.

1974 Golden Anniversary of the FBI Identification Division

The world’s largest repository of fingerprints.

1980’s Development of various automated fingerprint identification system (AFIS)

Throughout the world, technology met fingerprints, and various types of AFIS system began
making their appearance with various law enforcement agencies. With the advent of AFIS,
the process of filing and searching of fingerprints was considerably shortened.

2000 and beyond

The speed and accuracy of the various AFISs being used worldwide would only increase. As
employees became more familiar with the operating systems, the ability to solve crimes and
make identifications became astounding.
The issue of disparate operating system posed significant issues in the various system could
interface due to proprietary issues. The FBI, in establishing a super-AFIS, mandated that the
new Integrated AFIS (IAFIS) be capable of interfacing with all current AFISs. That mandate
has been a reality for several years.

History of Fingerprint in the Philippines

1900 Mr. Jones

He was the first to teach fingerprints in the Philippine Constabulary.

1918 Bureau of Prisons (Bureau of Corrections)

Records show that the fingerprints already existed in the “carpetas”.

1933 People vs. Medina

The first conviction based on fingerprints was handed by the Supreme Court of the
Philippines.

Agripino Ruiz
A constabulary agent and fingerprint expert, successfully defended his finding in 10 points of
comparison based on the decision of the SC in the case of Marciano Medina y Diokno.

1937 Generoso Reyes

The first Filipino fingerprint technician employed by the Philippine Constabulary.

Isabela Bernales
The first Filipina fingerprint technician.

Lt. Asa N. Darby

Under his management during the re-occupation of the Philippines by the American Forces, a
modern and complete Fingerprint File has been established in the Philippine Commonwealth.

Capt. Thomas Dugan (NYPD) and Mr. Flaviano Gurrero (FBI)

Forensic 2 - Personal Identification Techniques

5
 Gave the first examinations of fingerprint in the Philippines

Plaridel Educational Institution (PEI), now the Philippine College of Criminology (PCCr),
It is the first governmental recognized school to teach the science of fingerprints and other
police sciences in the Philippines.

Personal Identification Techniques

I. Forensic Anthropology
Is a special sub-field of physical anthropology (the study of human remains) that involves
applying skeletal analysis and techniques in archaeology to solving criminal cases.

II. Forensic Odontology

This system measures the teeth structure as a means of identification.
It is commonly used in cases where a skull or skeletal remains are found and no other means of
identification can be established.
It is also used to those victims of arson or any fie incident, disasters on sea and other related
incidents.

III. DNA Profiling

Deoxyribonucleic Acid is another method of identifying person by means of molecule that carries
the hereditary materials in humans.
Every cell in a person’s body has the same DNA.
DNA has four chemical bases: adenine (A), Guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T).

IV. Fingerprint Identification

This system of I dentification is the most positive means of personal identification.
It has been found out that the intricate patterns on the fingers are permanent and never undergo
a natural change except in the size of the pattern.

Definition of Terms
1. Fingerprint - an impression, designed by the ridges on the inside of the end joint of the fingers
and thumb on any smooth surface through the media of ink, sweat or any reagents capable of
producing visibility.
2. Dactyloscopy – the science that deals with the study of fingerprints as a means of personal
identification that involves manual comparison of fingerprints.
3. Dactylography – the scientific study and analysis of fingerprints as a means of identification.
4. Dactylomancy –the study of fingerprints for the purpose of interpreting one’s personality.

Origin of the Word “Dactyloscopy”

Derived from two Greek words:
1. Dactyl- means finger
2. Skopein - means to study or to examine.

Related Sciences in the Study of Fingerprints

I. Chiroscopy
The science of palm print identification.
Derived from Greek words:
1. Cheir - means “a hand” and
2. Skopein - means “to examine.”

Forensic 2 - Personal Identification Techniques

6
Pattern Zones of Palm print

1. Thenar zone – the base of the thumb.

2. Hypothenar zone – the base of the little finger.
3. Palmar zone/Interdigital – base of the four fingers.

II. Podoscopy
The science of footprints and footwear identification.
Derived from two Greek words:
1. Podo - means “the foot” and
2. Skopein - means “to examine.”

III. Poroscopy
The study of the pore structure for the purpose of identification.
Derived from the Greek words:
1. Poros - means “a pore” and
2. Skopein - means “to examine.”

IV. Edgeoscopy
The study of the edges and shapes of the ridges.
This includes the study of endings, puckering, bifurcations and others.

V. Ridgeology
combination of poroscopy, edgeoscopy and ridge characteristics.
Introduced by Sgt. David R. Ashbaugh (1946-present).
Title of Book “Quantitative-Qualitative Friction Ridge Analysis: An Introduction to
Basic and Advanced Ridgeology.”

VI. Dermatoglyphics
The study of the lines, tracings, ridges of the skin of fingers, palms and hands.
Derived from the words:
1. “derma” - means “skin” and
2. “glyphein” - means “to study”

Principles of Fingerprints (Dogmatic Principle)

I. Principle of Permanency (Constancy/Persistency)

States that fingerprints are unchanging or constant from birth until the decomposition of the
body of the person.

II. Principle of Individuality

There are no two fingerprints that are exactly alike,”
Except if two fingerprints were taken from the same finger and the same person.
Two fingerprints maybe alike in its pattern or design but considering its minute characteristics,
they differ.
Fingerprints of two persons can be similar but NOT Identical.

III. Principle of Infallibility

Fingerprinting is one of the most reliable means of personal identification.
Fingerprints cannot be forged.

Forensic 2 - Personal Identification Techniques

7
 DNA Fingerprinting is only applied to high profile and celebrated cases. It is also applied when
fingerprinting is not applicable (ex: when corpse is burned).

Papillary Structure

Papillary/Friction/Epidermal Skin
It is an epidermal hairless skin on the ventral or lower surface of the hands and feet.
The strips of skin on the inside of the end joints of our fingers and thumbs by which fingerprints
are made.

I. Ridge Formation

Friction Ridges
are found on every Friction skin/epidermal skin/papillary skin.

Minutiae (Galton’s detail)

are friction ridges which are considerably minute in sizes such as delta, core, dot, short ridge,
bifurcation, recurving ridges, etc.

Components of the Friction Skin

1. Ridges - are hill like, elevated, appear as black lines with tiny white dots called pores in an inked
impression.
2. Furrows - canal-like, depressed portions found between the ridges which appear white lines.
3. Pores (sometimes called islands) - are small opening found on skin and appear white on plain
impression.
4. Sweat Duct - is a long-host like structure that serves as the passage way for the sweat.
5. Sweat Glands - produces sweat/perspiration.

Development of Ridges
3rd - 4th month - ridges start to develop
About 6 months - ridges are fully developed
Fingerprints remain constant until during the decomposition stage of the skin of the corpse.
Fingerprint size - may change
Ridge characteristics and pattern - does not change

Fingerprints in Other Species

Koala - is one of the few mammals, native in Australia that has fingerprints almost the same as
human.
Monkeys - have fingerprints which are almost the same with human beings. It is proven that
fingerprints of monkeys are mistakenly identified as human fingerprints.

II. Ridge destruction

Reasons of Destruction of Ridges
Manual works
Skin diseases (Warts)
Burns
Scars

Remember: If Dermis and/or Hypodermis is damaged, ridges maybe destroyed or deformed.

Persons Who Attempted to Erase Fingerprints

1. John Herbert Dillinger (1902-1934)

Forensic 2 - Personal Identification Techniques

8
 An American criminal who attempted to erase his fingerprints with the use of ACID, committed
crimes over a period of 13 months in 1933 and 1934.
While in prison, Dillinger formed a gang, which included “Baby Face” Nelson and “Pretty
Boy” Floyd, both of whom were later killed in gun battles with law officers.
The “public enemy number one” in the United States.

2. Roberts James Pitts

Gained the fame as the “man without fingerprints” after knowing from an inmate of a
possible destruction of fingerprints.
He is known by name Roscoe Pitts.

3. Edmond Locard & Witkowsji

Performed painful experiments on themselves by burning their fingertips with boiling water
and oil with hot metals to find out whether it can destroy the ridges of a finger.

Classification of Scene Fingerprints (latent prints)

I. Visible prints
are impressions made by fingers smeared with colored substance, such as blood, ink, grease, dirt
or paint.

II. Semi-visible prints

are molded or plastic impressions.
they are prints made in plastic materials such as soap, melted candles, wax, tar, pitch, paraffin,
putty, the adhesive gun on envelopes and postage stamps, and the like.

III. Invisible prints (True Latent Prints)

are the most common type of chance impressions.

Factors Affecting the Latent prints

1. Climate/Climatic Condition – windy, sunny and wet seasons affects the stability of latent
print.
2. Subject Factor – Degree of acidity.
3. Nature of the Surface – whether the surface is smooth or rough.

Scientific way of taking fingerprints (PNP Fingerprint Examiner’s Manual Revised 2015)

Important Points to be Considered in Taking Standard Prints

1. Cleanliness of equipment (ink slab, ink roller, card holder).
2. The right and correct amount of ink.
3. Proper distribution of ink on the glass slab or inking plate.
4. The distance of the subject from the inking plate or the fingerprint card.
5. The operator’s advice to the subject “to relax and never aid in the operation”.
6. The pressure to be exerted must be slight and even, and rolling should be continuous movement
including the lifting.
7. The nails of a finger should be at the right angle to the glass slab or to the card before rolling.
Always roll the finger until the other side of the nail is reached.
8. The inking and printing must always reach below the first joint of the finger.
9. The thumb should be rolled towards the subject’s body while all others away from the subject’s body
10. While rolling the fingers, the subject’s hand should be held/controlled properly to prevent twisting
and slipping of the fingers.

Forensic 2 - Personal Identification Techniques

9
11. Add a small of amount of ink if necessary and distribute the ink properly using the roller by rolling
over the ink on the inking plate.
12. Place the subjects palm on the inking plate the press, use the ink roller to completely cover the entire
palm with the ink. Do the same with the other palm.
13. Record the palm at the other side of the card carefully, position it following the arrow sign as
provided in the space for the palms, then press the palm onto the card sing firm, even pressure with
the fingers slightly spread. Do the same with the other palm.
14. Record the side of the palm by positioning the palm 45 degrees slanting towards the subject’s body,
then press.
15. Always consider proper alignment.

Types of Impressions

Real Impressions
Impressions of the finger bulbs with the use of the fingerprint ink on the surface of the paper
through any coloring materials, which will produce visibility.

Two methods of producing impressions:

1. Rolled Impressions – requires that the thumb be rolled away from the center of the subject’s
body.
2. Plain Impressions – requires that the fingers be taken or printed simultaneously, then the
thumbs without rolling.

Congenital abnormalities of fingers and toes

Branchydactyly – abnormal shortness of fingers or toes.
Oligodactyly – presence of fewer than five fingers or toes.
Orthodactyly – a condition in which fingers cannot be flexed.
Polydactyly (extra fingers) – having more than the required number of fingers.
Symbranchydactyly (missing fingers) - having less than the required number of fingers.
Syndactyly (webbed fingers) – two or more digits are fused together.

Problem in Recording Inked Fingerprint (PNP Fingerprint Examiner’s Manual Revised 2015)

1. When the subject is illiterate.

The IOC or any of the subjects nearest kin should fill out the information as required in the
fingerprint card and place a notation on the box provided for the signature of the person’s
fingerprints or in the remarks portion that the subject is illiterate.
2. When the subject’s birth date is not known or could not be recalled.
The IOC may refer to the subject’s nearest kin. If the nearest kin is not available, the investigator
may estimate the age of the subject (e.g between 18 to 25 years old), and be noted in the box
provided for the date of the birth.
3. When the subject refuses to give information and or to sign.
After taking the standard prints of the subject, the IOC may fill out the card utilizing those
compiled information about the subject and shall place a note that the subject refuses to give
information and/or sign.
4. When the subject’s fingers have fresh cut wounds or bandage.
Note: in the corresponding space on the card eg., fresh cut, bandage finger, etc., and when the
wound has healed, retake another set of standard fingerprint.
5. When the hand are perspiring excessively.

Forensic 2 - Personal Identification Techniques

10
 Wipe the finger with clean cloth before inking. If the perspiration cannot be controlled, wipe the
fingers with alcohol.
6. When the fingers are very dry.
Rub the finger with oil, cream or lotion.
7. When the fingers are very fine.
Use a very little amount of ink or spread a very thin coating of ink on the glass slab.
8. When one or more of the fingers are lacking or missing.
Record the present fingers and place a notation on the corresponding space in the card (e.g.
missing at birth or amputated at the first joint).
9. When the fingers are bent, broken or crippled.
The tools (e.g. special ink roller or spatula and a curved strip holder) that are used for obtaining
prints from deceased individuals can also be used to record the friction ridge details.
10. When the subject has extra finger which appear anywhere or between any of the fingers.
Record the thumb and the next four fingers, then the extra finger/s. Record only the fully-
developed on an extra fingerprint card with a note as to where it appears.
11. In case of a split thumb, a thumb having two nails, or when the subject has two or more
fingers, webbed or grown together, which make it impossible to roll such fingers on its
side.
Print in the usual manner just like any normal thumb and make a notation at the back of the
card, on the box for the identifying marks or space for the remarks.
12. When the print is not properly rolled (caused by slip or slide), very long or very short, has
too much ink or short of ink, or a plane instead of a rolled.
Cover the wrong print using the correction paper, but have the correct print impressed on the
correction paper first. Use correction paper twice at most.

Ridge Characteristics/Minutia/Galton’s Details

1. Appendage - a short ridge at the top or summit of a recurve usually at right angle.
2. Bifurcation/Bifurcating Ridges - a single ridge which splits into two forming a “Y” shape,
formation or structure.
3. Bridge Ridge - this is a connecting ridge between two ridges.
4. Converging Ridges - two or more lines forming an angle, a ridge whose closed end is angular and
serves as a point of convergent.
5. Core - a point on a ridge formation usually located at the center or heart of a pattern.
6. Creases - are thin, usually straight narrow white lines running transversely or formed side to side,
across the print, causing the puckering of the ridges.
7. Delta - a point on the first ridge formation directly at or in front or near the center of the divergence
of the type lines.
8. Diverging Ridges - two ridges running side by side and suddenly separating, one ridge going one
way and the other ridge in another way.
9. Dissociated Ridges - are unusual ridge structures having no well-defined patterns; the ridges are
extremely short, appear like a series of “patches” caused by a disturbance of developmental process
at early fetal life of the individual.
10. Dot Ridge - they are fragmentary ridges formed like a dot or dots.
11. Enclosure - a bifurcation which does not remain open but which the legs of the bifurcation, after
running along side by side for a short distance, come together again to form a single ridge once
more.
12. Envelop - is a single recurving ridge enclosing one or more rods or bars.
13. Fragmentary Ridges - they consist of disconnected sequences of short ridges embodied intensely.
These ridges are considered in the classification of fingerprints if they appear as dark and as thick as
the surrounded ridges within the pattern area.
14. Furrows depressed portion of human skin between the ridges

Forensic 2 - Personal Identification Techniques

11
15. Hook - it is a ridge that divides to form two ridges which are shorter in length than the main ridge.
16. Incipient/Nascent Ridge - this is a kind of ridge which is madly formed, thin, short or broken
which appear or appears in the depressions between two well-formed ridges.
17. Puckering Ridge - as growth ceases at several ends, the ends curls slightly.
18. Recurving Ridge - is the ridge that curves back in the direction in which it started. It looks like a
hair pin.
19. Rod/Bar - is a single ending ridge at the center of a recurving ridge of a loop pattern.
20. Shoulder of a Loop - it is that point at which the recurving ridge definitely turns or curve.
21. Spike -an ending ridge at the center of a pattern which forms the upthrust.
22. Staple -single recurving ridge at the center of the pattern area.
23. Sufficient Recurve - the space between shoulders of a loop, free of any appendage, and abutting
at right angle.
24. Up thrust - is an ending ridge of any length rising at a sufficient degree from a horizontal place.

Type lines
The two outermost ridges which tend to surround the pattern area.
The basic boundaries of most fingerprint patterns.
The skeleton of each pattern.

Pattern Area
The area surrounded by the typelines.
The area of a loop or whorl which contains the ridge details.
It is the area inside the type lines and the only part of a fingerprint which is of importance in
regard to interpretation and classification.

Point of Divergence (also known as Area of Divergence)

The area where delta can be found inside the two diverging ridges.

Diverging Ridges
Are two ridges running side by side and suddenly separating, one ridge going one way and the
other ridge going another way.

FORMATION AND RULES GOVERNING THE SELECTION OF DELTA AND CORE

Delta (also known as outer terminus and tri-radius)

Found at, in front an/or near the point of divergence.
The word delta is an old Greek word, and is the fourth letter of the Greek alphabet.

Six Delta Formations:

1. Bifurcation
2. Dot
3. Meeting of two ridges
4. Looping ridge (where no other choice of delta)
5. Ending ridge
6. Starting ridge

Rules in Locating Delta

Forensic 2 - Personal Identification Techniques

12
 RULE 1

The bifurcation that is open towards the core is chosen as the delta.

RULE 2

If the bifurcation does not open towards the core, the ending point of the bifurcation
nearest to the core is chosen as the delta.

RULE 3

When there is a choice between a bifurcation and another type of delta,

the bifurcation is chosen as the delta.

RULE 4

When there is a choice between two or more possible deltas (except bifurcation),
the delta nearest to the core is chosen.

Forensic 2 - Personal Identification Techniques

13
 RULE 5

When there is a series of bifurcations that open towards the core at the point of divergence,
the bifurcation nearest to the core is chosen as the delta.

RULE 6

If a ridge enters the pattern area, where no other choice of delta,

the starting point of the ridge is chosen as the delta.

RULE 7. If a ridge enters the pattern area from outside, and no other choice of delta, the ending
point of the ridge is chosen as the delta.
RULE 8. If there is no visible ridge that may be chosen as delta, the looping ridge or whorl ridge
infront of the area of divergence maybe chosen as the delta.

Core (also known as inner terminus)

Forensic 2 - Personal Identification Techniques

14
 The heart of the pattern.
The approximate center of the pattern

Rules in Locating Core

RULE 1. If the innermost sufficient recurve does not contain any rod or bar, the core is
placed on the shoulder of the loop farther from the delta.
RULE 2. If the innermost sufficient recurve contains odd number of rods/bars rising as high
as the shoulders, the core is placed upon the summit of the center rod, whether it touches the
looping ridges or not.
RULE 3. If the innermost sufficient recurve contains even number of rods/bars rising as high
as the shoulders, the core is placed upon the summit of the farther one of the two
center rods.
RULE 4. If the pattern is a whorl, it is a possibility that there could be two or more deltas. Most
whorls, houses the core/s in its center. 

Ridge Counting
is the process of counting the ridges that touch or cross an imaginary line drawn between the
core and the delta of a loop pattern.

Ridges Subject to Ridge Counting

(Depending on the travel of imaginary line)

3 Ridge Count
Envelop
trifurcation
2 Ridge Count
An island/lake/eye, and enclosure.
Criss-crossing of ridges
Bifurcation
Converging ridge
1 Ridge Count
A short ridge, long ridge, dot ridge,
An abrupt ending of ridges is given one ridge count.
Ridge that bifurcates

Ridge Tracing  
The process of tracing the ridges intervening between the tracing ridge (flows from the left
delta to the right delta) and the right delta.

Rules

In a whorl pattern, look for the left delta and trace towards the front of the right delta.
When the ridge being traced abruptly ends, drop to the next ridge just below the original tracing
ridge and continue the tracing until it reaches the point nearest to the right delta.
When the left delta is a dot, the same procedure in No. 1 shall be followed.
When the ridge that is being traced is a bifurcation, always follow the lower branch until tracing
is completed.
Determine whether the tracing ridge flows inside (above) or outside (below) the right delta.
Draw and imaginary line between the tracing ridge (refers to the left delta that was moved
towards the right delta) and the right delta and count the intervening ridge that touch or cross it.
Exclude the tracing ridge and deltas when counting the intervening ridges.

Forensic 2 - Personal Identification Techniques

15
Fingerprint Pattern Group (Loop, Arch, Whorl)

I. Loops
A type of fingerprint pattern in which one or more of the ridges enters on either side of the
impression, recurve, touch or pass an imaginary line drawn from the delta to the core, and
terminate or tend to terminate on or toward the same side of the impression from which such
ridge or ridges entered.

Types of Loop

b. Ulnar Loop - Loops a. Radial Loop – loops

which flow in the which flow or recurve
direction of the ulna towards the radial bone
bone or towards the or thumb.
Ulnar loop (Left little finger. hand) Radial loop
(Right hand)

Essentials of a Loop
It must have a core
It must have a delta
An imaginary line must pass between the core and the delta.
It must have a ridge count of a minimum of at least one (1) across a looping ridge.

II. Arches
The ridges go from one side of the pattern to another, never turning back to make a loop.

Types of Arch

a. Plain Arch - A pattern in which the ridges enter on one side of the pattern,
then flow or tend to flow towards the other side, with a rise or wave in the
center, with no angular ridge formation and no upthrust.

Plain arch

b. Tented Arch
A fingerprint pattern where majority of the ridges form an arch and one
or more ridges at the center shape a tent in outline giving an angle of
90 degrees or less;
or one with an upward thrust having an angle of 45% or more;
or a pattern similar to a loop but lacking one or two of its essential
Tented arch elements.

UPTHRUST
is an ending ridge of any length rising at a sufficient degree from the horizontal plane; i.e. is
450 or more

Forensic 2 - Personal Identification Techniques

16
III. Whorls
A whorl is that type of pattern in which at least two deltas are present with a recurve in front of
each.

Types Whorls

a. Plain Whorl
A fingerprint pattern consisting of two deltas and in which at least one
ridge makes a turn through one complete circuit of 360 degrees.

Plain whorl

Essentials of a Plain Whorl:

It must have a complete circuit;
It must have at least two deltas; and
At least one circuiting ridge is touched or crossed by an imaginary line traversing the two
deltas.

b. Central Pocket Loop Whorl

A fingerprint pattern which possesses two deltas, with one or more ridges
forming a complete circuit which may be oval, spiral, circular, or any
variant of a circle.
Sometimes called a composite pattern.
Means, there are two patterns in one, a whorl inside loop.
Central pocket loop
whorl

Etssentials of a Central Pocket Loop Whorl:

There must be at least one recurving ridge that rises at right angle.
It must have at least two deltas
There must be no whorl ridge that touches the imaginary line drawn between the two deltas.

c. Double Loop Whorl

A fingerprint pattern consisting of two separate and distinct loop
formations with two sets of shoulders, and two deltas.

Double loop whorl

Essentials of a Double Loop Whorl: 

There must be two separate loop formations
There must be two separate and distinct sets of shoulders
There must be two or more cores and deltas.
A fingerprint pattern consisting of a combination of two different patterns such as:

Forensic 2 - Personal Identification Techniques

17
 d. Accidental Whorl
A combination of a loop and any whorl but it cannot be the
combination of an arch with any other pattern.

Accidental whorl

Fingerprint Classification
Refers to the formula derived for the complete set of ten fingerprint patterns or the arrangement of
fingerprint records into groups or subgroups for filing purposes.

Classification - is the method of obtaining a formula for a set of fingerprints whereby it may be
located in the filling cabinet.
Classification Formula - is the numerical description for a set of classified fingerprints which is
composed of figure and letters written above the horizontal line like a fraction.
Blocking – is an act of inserting the appropriate information consisting of numbers, letters, and
symbols in the appropriate places on the card.

Henry with FBI Extension

A fingerprint classification system named for Sir Edward Richard Henry which originally consisted
of four parts: primary, secondary, sub-secondary, and final.
This system undergone changes and now includes an FBI (U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation)
extension, which changes the original composition from four to six categories.
There is a seventh if a second subsecondary is used.

Current Components of the Henry System

1. Key
2. Major
3. Primary
4. Secondary
5. Subsecondary
6. Final

Key Major Primary Secondary Subsecondary Final

5 M 5 R III 9_
M 1 U OMO

Primary Classification
It is the sum total of all numerical values of whose found in fingerprint set expressed as the
numerator and the denominator plus the pre-established fraction of 1/1.

How to Get the Primary Classification

I. Pairing
Right Hand
N16 N8
Thumb Middle Little
Index Ring
D16 D8 D4

Left Hand

Forensic 2 - Personal Identification Techniques

18
 N4 N2 N1
Index Ring
Thumb Middle Little
D2 D1

First Pair - Right Thumb and Right Index - 16

Second Pair - Right Middle and Right Ring - 8
Third Pair - Right Little and Left Thumb - 4
Fourth Pair - Left Index and Left Middle - 2
Fifth Pair - Left Ring and Left Little - 1

II. Numerators and Denominators

Even Number Fingers (2, 4, 6, 8, and 10)- Numerator

Odd Number Fingers (1, 3, 5, 7, and 9) - Denominator

III. Assigning Numerical Values

Right Hand
N16 N8
W W C
W C
D16 D8 D4

Left Hand
N4 N2 N1
D D
D D D
D2 D1

Fingerprint Patterns Without Numerical Value: A, T, R, U

Fingerprint Patterns With Numerical Value: W, C, D, X

K M Primary S SS F

___________32 ____
32

IV. Summing up the numerical values of whorls assigned to the fingers plus the pre-established
fraction of 1/1

N= 16+8+4+2+1 = 31+1 = 32
D= 16+8+4+2+1 = 31+1 = 32

Purpose of Fixed Count of One:

The purpose is to avoid a classification of zero over zero (0/0) in a set of prints in which this
might be mistaken for a letter “O” which has another specific meaning in the classification.

Number of Possible Combination

 There are 1,024 possible combinations for primary classification from 1/1 to 32/32.
 1/1 – if no whorls appeared in the fingerprint classification.
 32/32 – if all fingerprint patterns appeared in the classification is whorls.

Forensic 2 - Personal Identification Techniques

19
Note: Whorl type of pattern is the only fingerprint patterns with numerical values and an arbitrary count
of one (1) is always added.

Secondary Classification
 It is the exhibition of the pattern type of both index fingers and is always indicated by a capital
letter.
 For classification purposes, the right hand is indicated above the line while the left hand is
indicated below the line.

Right Hand
N16 N8
R T C
W C
D16 D8 D4

Left Hand
N4 N2 N1
D D
U A A
D2 D1

K M P Secondary SS F

___________ ___ W_______ __

D
Secondary Small Letter Classification - It is the exhibition of small letter symbols of arch (a), tented
(t) arch and radial loop (r) found before and after the index finger of both hands.
Right Hand
N16 N8
R T C
W C
D16 D8 D4

Left Hand
N4 N2 N1
D D
U A A
D2 D1

Note: When other patterns appear on the card is not included in the small letter groups (r,a,t). It is
indicated by a hyphen (-).
K M P Secondary SS F

___________ ___rWt_______ __
Da-a
Note: When two or more of the small letters occur next to each other, it is indicated by a number with
the letter.
Right Hand
N16 N8
R T C
W T
D16 D8 D4

Left Hand
N4 N2 N1
D A
U A A
D2 D1

K M P Secondary SS F

___________ ___rW2t_______ __
D3a

Forensic 2 - Personal Identification Techniques

20
Number of Possible Combination
 There are 25 possible combinations which may appear in the index finger from A/A to W/W
without C, D, and X. (Collins)
 There are 64 combinations for filing from A/A to X/X. (Collins)
 7 to 10 percent of all patterns are small letter types. (Hawthorne, 2009)

Sub Secondary Classification

 It is the grouping of ridge count and/or whorl trace symbols for the index, middle, and ring
fingerprints appearing on the card.
 For classification purposes, the right hand is indicated above the line while the left hand is
indicated below the line.

Loop Sub- Secondary by Ridge Counting - It is the exhibition of the resultant symbol for the ridge
counting in loops as expressed by symbol IO.

Fingers (both hands) Inner (I) Outer (O)

Index Finger 1 to 9 10+
Middle Finger 1 to 10 11+
Ring Finger 1 to 13 14+

Whorl Sub- Secondary by Ridge Tracing - when the whorl is found on the index, middle and ring
fingers of both hands the ridges are traced to obtain the resultant symbol IMO.

Symbols Ridge Trace

Inner (I) 3 or more ridges above/inside the right delta
Meeting (M) 0 to 2 ridges inside or outside the right delta
Outer (O) 3 or more ridges below/outside the right delta

For Tented Arch and Plain Arch - If a Plain Arch or Tented arch are present on the index, middle, and
ring fingers of both hands, just put a dash (-) for the sub-secondary classification.

Right Hand
19 RT=1

R W A
Left Hand
10 10 RT=2

R R W

K M P S SubSecondary F

_______ _____ OM-__ __

OIM

Number of Possible Combination

 All loop sets of prints using the Index, Middle, and Ring fingers of both hands has 64
combinations.

Forensic 2 - Personal Identification Techniques

21
  All whorl type patterns in the Index, Middle, and Ring fingers of both hands has 729 possible
Sub-secondary combinations

Major Classification
 It is the grouping of ridge count and/or whorl trace symbols for the index, middle, and ring
fingerprints appearing on the card.
 For classification purposes, the right hand is indicated above the line while the left hand is
indicated below the line.
 Loop counts must be converted into small (S), medium (M), or large (L).
 Whorl trace values will be indicated by inner (I), meeting (M), or outer (O).

3 Kinds of Major Division

1) Loop Major Division – When the loop is found on the thumb of both hands, the ridges are
counted and compared to the pre- established table of Whorl Major Division.

Conversion
Smaller Larger
1 to 11 small (S) 1 to 17 small (S)
12 to 16 medium (M) 18 to 22 medium (M)
17+ large (L) 23+ large (L)

Note: when deciding which value to assign the thumbs for a loop conversion, always count the left
thumb first.

Rules Right Thumb Left Thumb

If the ridge count of
left thumb is 16 or Smaller Conversion Smaller Conversion
fewer
If the ridge count of
left thumb is 17 or Larger Conversion Larger Conversion
more

Note: where whorl appears in the left thumb print, the right thumb is converted as though the left thumb
had a ridge count of fewer than 17.

2) Whorl Major Division – When the whorl is found on the thumbs of both hands, the ridges
are traced to obtain the resultant symbol IMO.

Symbols Ridge Trace

Inner (I) 3 or more ridges above/inside the right delta
Meeting (M) 0 to 2 ridges inside or outside the right delta
Outer (O) 3 or more ridges below/outside the right delta

3) Combination of Loop and Whorl Major Division – When one of the thumbs is loop, the
resultant symbol SML is used and when the other thumb is whorl, the resultant symbol IMO is
used. For T and A just put dash in the classification line.

Final Classification
 It is the ridge count of a loop appearing in the fingerprints of little fingers. It is located or placed
on the extreme right of the classification line.
 For T and A just put dash in the classification line.

Forensic 2 - Personal Identification Techniques

22
 K M P S SS Final

_______ _______ 10__

Order of Preference:
1. The right little finger is examined first to see to if there is a loop pattern.
2. If there is no loop pattern in the right little finger, then the left little finger is examined.
3. If neither the prints from the right nor the left little fingers possess a loop, there will be no final

However: in large whorl sections, whorls can also be counted.

Rules:

1. When a whorl is found on the right little finger, ridges are counted from left delta to the core.
2. When the whorl is found on the left little finger, ridges are counted from right delta to the core.
3. If there are two cores, count from the delta to the core which is the fewest number of ridges
away.
4. If the pattern is double loop, count from the delta to the core of the upright loop.
5. If loops are horizontal, use the one nearest to the core.

Key Classification
 It is the ridge count of the first loop from the right thumb to the left ring finger excluding little
fingers of both hands.
 In the absence of loop, the ridge count of the first whorl will be utilized as the key treated as
ulnar loop.
 The Key Classification is placed on the extreme left of the classification line and is always
represented as numerator, no matter where it is taken.
 For T and A just put dash in the classification line.

Classification of Scarred Patterns, Amputated Fingers, Bandaged and Unprintable Fingers

Scarred Patterns
When the following cannot be determined Give
a. Pattern type and value Class of opposite finger
b. Pattern only Pattern of opposite finger with actual value and
reference
c. Count or trace value Probable with reference
d. Opposite fingers scarred Whorls with meeting (M) trace

Amputated Fingers (AMP)

Missing Fingers Class
a. One Same as opposite with all references
b. Two or more Same as opposite with no references
c. Opposite Whorls with meeting (M) trace

Note:

 Fingers Missing at Birth (FMB) are treated as Amputations.

Forensic 2 - Personal Identification Techniques

23
  If all ten fingers are missing, the classification is: M 32 W MMM
M 32 W MMM

Bandaged and Unprintable Fingers

a. One lacking all references – opposite fingers
b. Two or more Opposite class with no references
c. Opposites Whorls with meeting (M) trace

Note:
 If pattern can be seen, it can be described. For example, “Radial loop of about 5 ridge count.”
 When the injury is healed, make all possible attempts to print the individual.

Referencing
 Is an alternate choice that is displayed on the classification to indicate that although the
classification may be indicated a certain way, it may also be something else.
 It is used when one may not be certain of interpretation of patterns, type, ridge count or trace
value.

Example:
Key Major Primary Secondary Subsecondary Final
Class 5 M 5 R III 9_
M 1 U OMO

Ref 4 MMM 8_

Factors Making Referencing Necessary

 Individual judgement and eyesight

 Amount of ink and/or pressure used
 Differences in width of the rolled impression
 Worn ridges caused by diseases, age, or occupation
 AMP, temporary or permanent scars, and bandaged fingers
 Crippled hands

NCIC Classification
The acronym NCIC stands for National Crime Information Center, which is a computerized system
based in Washington D.C.
This system is a computer database of wanted person.
This system is based on the Henry system
The classification process used with this method is much easier than is than Henry system as
there are few rules to follow.
In this system, each finger will be represented by two characters.
There are four categories to this system that are considered for inclusion namely: Arches,
Whorls, Loops, and Others.

Arches

Forensic 2 - Personal Identification Techniques

24
 Type of Arch Character/Symbol
Plain Arch AA
Tented Arch TT

Whorls
a ridge trace value is included in the characters
I = inner, M = meeting, O= Outer
Types of Whorl Character/Symbol
Plain Whorl PI, PM, PO
Central Pocket Loop Whorl CI, CM, CO
Double Loop Whorl DI, DM, DO
Accidental Whorl XI, XM, XO

Loops
Must have two digits.
If the number is lower than 10, a 0 must be placed in front.

Types of Loop Character/Symbol

Ulnar Loop Actual ridge count: 1-9 = 01-09
Radial Loop Actual ridge count + 50

Others
Missing/Amputated XX
Scarred SR
Example:

PI09CI121462AAPMDMTT

I 9 I 12 14

W U C U U
12 M M

R A W D T

Forensic 2 - Personal Identification Techniques

25