Modulo 1

25/02/20
LANGUAGE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

camera angle can give an idea of authority and authenticity.

Fowler (linguist) ​ ​ anything that is said or written about the world is articulated from a
particular ideological position: language is not a clear window but a refracting structuring
medium.

CONTEXT OF SITUATION
- Field of discourse​ : what is happening in the communication, what activity is going
on?
- Tenor (or style) of discourse​: who is taking part in the communicative situation /
what is their social relationship?
- Medium (or mode) of discourse​: the means (mezzo) of communication adopted
(written, spoken..)

LANGUAGE STRUCTURE
“why is language as it is?”
The nature of language is closely related to the demands that we make on it.

Jakobson’s COMMUNICATION MODEL AND THE FUNCTION OF LANGUAGE

CONTEXT REFERENTIAL

​SENDER EXPRESSIVE​ ​MESSAGE POETIC​ ​RECEIVER CONATIVE

​ HANNEL PHATIC
C
CODE METALINGUAL

LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS
- Emotive (expressive)​: language which describes the communicator’s feelings.
Language which is ​centred around the author
- Referential (informative)​: language used to give information. The language is a
content centred
- Conative (directive)​: language used to persuade and convince. The language is
reader-centred
- Poetic (aesthetic)​: the form of the communication is as important as the content of
the message. The language is used for special aesthetic effect.
 - Phatic (inter-personal)​: language used to establish and maintain contact for social
reasons (expressions like “how do you do?”, “It’s a nice day, isn’t?”)
- Metalingual​: language used to speak itself. When language is employed to talk about
language.

27/02/2020
WORDS AND WORDS CLASSES

stance​: atteggiamento/posizione ideologica

bias​: influenza/manipolazione (anche verbo)

There are ​9 classes​:

1.noun,
2.pronoun,
3.verbs,
4.adverbs,
5.adjectives,
6.conjunctions,
7.determiner,
8.interjection,
9.prepositions

Classes can be open or closed:

Open classes (no fixed number): Lexical words​, they carry meaning or evaluation
(significato)
- Nouns (common nouns, proper nouns)
- Adjective (attributive, predicative)
- Lexical verb (different from auxiliary verbs), ​lexical words​ = open class, they’re
infinite
- Adverb

Closed classes: Function words​, they have a grammar function but they don’t have a
meaning (funzione grammaticale ma non hanno un significato).
- Determiners ( wh words, numerals, articles, demonstratives, quantifiers, possessive
adjectives), they characterise the noun
- Pronouns
- Auxiliary verbs
- Prepositions, ​function words = ​closed class
- Adverbial particles
- Conjunctions (coordinating and subordinating conjunctions)

- Interjections ​ ​ ​inserts

PRONOUNS:
 - Personal pronouns
- Demonstrative pronouns
- Reflexive pronouns
- Reciprocal pronouns
- Possessive pronouns
- Indefinite pronouns
- Relative pronouns
- Interrogative pronouns

THE CLAUSE
Clause types​:
There are 4 basic types of clause:
1) declarative
2) interrogative
3) imperative
4) exclamatory

Types of clauses can be linked to the communicative functions.

Seven syntactic Types of clause​:

S=subject V=verbs O=object C=complement A=adverbs

1) SV: the sun (s) is shining (v)
2) SVO: that lesson (s) interested (v) me (o)
3) SVP: your dinner seems ready
4) SVA: my office is in the next building
5) SVOO: I must send my parents an anniversary card
6) SVOP: most students have found her reasonably helpful
7) SVOA: you can put the dish on the table

CLAUSE RELATIONSHIPS
- Parataxis​: relation between clauses of equal grammatical status. Parataxis is a
literary device in which there is a juxtaposition of short, simple, independent clauses
without subordinating conjunctions. Parataxis examples sometimes include no
conjunctions at all.
- Hypotaxis​: relation between clauses of unequal grammatical status. An arrangement
of clauses, phrases, or words independent of subordinate relationships. The phrase
hypotactic style refers to writing that uses subordination to reflect logical, casual,
temporal, or spatial relationships. In any event, parataxis is a feature of ordinary
speaking.

INFORMATION FLOW PRINCIPLE

- Given ​ ​ new information
Inside the house Mr. Summers found a family of cats shut in the bathroom.
Given information: inside the house, Mr Summers
 - New
DOUBLE FOCUS
● The focus normally occurs at the end of a clause and is called end-focus principle
● Another potential point of focus is the beginning of the clause
WORD ORDER IN A CLAUSE
● Unmarked word order in a simple clause: SVO= Russia is trying to help Bernie
● Marked

3/03/2020

FOCUS, EMPHASIS, PROMINENCE

Any clause has at least one point of focus.

This focus occurs naturally in the last lexical item in the clause.
Es: I had a wonderful time last summer (last summer: end focus principle).
In any clause there is another potential point of focus that we can use for special emphasis:
THE BEGINNING.
Es: a wonderful time had last summer (wonderful time: initial focus ​ ​ prominence) ​
marked clause, we have a double focus.

SYNTACTIC FORM OF EMPHASIS

Unmarked sentences
Russia is trying to help Bernie sander’s campaign

Marked sentences

1) Clefting​: it’s a grammatical construction with information broken into two clauses, to
provide extra focus to one piece of information. Es: it’s Bernie Sander’s campaign
that Russia is trying to help.
(​Ita​: ​è una costruzione grammaticale con informazioni suddivise in due parti, per
fornire ulteriore attenzione a un pezzo di informazione.)
2) Fronting​: when you place in initial position a clause element (for example and
adverbial or a complement) which is normally found after the verb. Es: Bernie
Sander’s campaign Russia is trying to help.
(​Ita​: ​quando metti in posizione iniziale un elemento clausola (ad esempio un
avverbiale o un complemento) che normalmente si trova dopo il verbo.)
3) Passive​: clause with a verb construction marked by be + past participle. It is generally
used to give less prominence to the agent of the clause. The agent may not be
expressed because it is unknown, redundant, irrelevant or ideologically
controversial. In that case we have a short dynamic passive.
(Ita:​clausola con una costruzione verbale contrassegnata da essere + participio passato.
Viene generalmente utilizzato per dare meno risalto all'agente della clausola. L'agente
potrebbe non essere espresso perché sconosciuto, ridondante, irrilevante o ideologicamente
controverso. In tal caso abbiamo una breve dinamica passiva.)
09/03/2020

TEXT AND TEXTUALITY

A written or spoken word or group of words become a TEXT if it has TEXTUALITY.
Textuality is a property of a text, a group of words can be considered a text only if it meets
textuality.
7 principles of textuality :
1) Cohesion​: lexico-syntactic ties which create continuity in a text
2) Coherence​: semantic ties which create continuity of sense at a deeper level
3) Intentionality​: the speaker wants to produce a cohesive and coherent text
4) Acceptability​: the addressee accepts/recognizes the text as cohesive and coherent
5) Informativity​: the degree to which a text produced is expected or unexpected, or
whether it contains old or new information
6) Situationality​: it is the situational context which gives meaning to a text
7) Intertextuality​: the understanding of a text depends upon the reader’s knowledge of
other texts, or text-types, or ways of expression

​COHESION ​:
- Lexical
- Syntactic

Lexical cohesion: ​repetition and partial repetition (synonymy, antonymy (contrari),

hyponymy, meronymy, words belonging to the same lexical field).
- Synonymy​: many synonyms are near synonyms because they can have similar
meaning but they can vary in their usage or emotional colour. Ex: freedom/libery are
near synonyms because you can say: “freedom of speech” but you can’t say “liberty
of speech”.
Other near synonyms (begin/commence, look at/contemplate, eat/consume,
build/construct…). The words which have a Germanic root tend to be used in
informal situations, whereas the other ones which have a latin root tend to be used
in formal situations and in particular they specialise the context.
- Antonym​: there are different groups of antonyms (opposites)
+ ​binary opposites​ (non gradable opposites): it is one of a pair of words with
opposite meanings, where the two meanings do not lie on a continuous spectrum
and are therefore binary/absolute antonyms. Ex: mortal/immortal; exit/entrance;
dead/alive -> there is no level of gradation.
+ ​converse opposites ​(gradable opposites): a gradable antonym is one of a pair of
words with opposite meanings where the two meanings lie on a continuous
spectrum. Temperature is such a continuous spectrum sol hot and cold, two
meanings on opposite ends of the spectrum, are gradable antonyms. Ex: heavy/light;
fat/skinny; dark/light; young/old; early/late.
+ ​relational opposition​: a relational antonym is one of a pair of words that refer to a
relationship from opposite points of view. There is no lexical opposite of teacher, but
teacher and pupil are opposite within the context of their relationship. This makes
them relational antonyms. Ex: husband/wife; doctor/patient; predator/prey;
parent/child.
 - Hyponymy​: ​this implies a superordinate and subordinate term. Rose, daisy and tulip
are subordinate terms (hyponyms) which are included in the meaning flower
(hypernym).
- Meronymy​: it implies a relationship between the part and the whole (branches and
roots are part of a tree).
- Lexical fields​: there are words which create a lexical cohesion in a text because they
belong to the same topic. If a text is about smoking, you’ll find words such as smoke,
ashtray, nicotine, cigarettes.

11/03/20

Syntactic cohesion:
- co-reference (coreferentiality : anaphoric/cataphoric reference; definite article ​the;​
deictics of place and time: here, over there, the day before, the following day;
implied reference: same, different, other, else;)
- substitution (preforms : do, one, ones, so)
- ellipsis
- coordinating conjunctions
- linking adverbials/conjunctive adverbs

COREFERENCE
+ ​coreferentiality:​ when two or more expressions (for example pronouns) in a text refer to
the same person or thing; they have the same referent. Ex : peter is English. He lives in
Bristol.
There are two types of coreferentiality:
- anaphoric reference​: where the reference refers back to something previously
mentioned. Ex: tom said that he (tom) was going home.
- Cataphoric reference​: the reference is to something coming later. Ex: I couldn’t
believed it- the house was completely destroyed)
+ ​The definite article​: the (there are some men in the garden. The man on the left of the
group is shouting something)
+ ​Deictics of place and time​: here, over there, the day before, the following day
+ ​Implied reference​: same, different, other, else (The painter used some beautiful
translucent blues. The same colours are found in some of his later works too)

SUBSTITUTIONS​: it consists of pro-forms like ​one, ones do, so, which​ substitute other
expressions.
->look at those apples! The red ​ones​ look good. Do you like ​one​ ?
->I’ve got lots of apples. Would you like these ones?
->Frank’s painting his house: I know he ​does​ it every 4 years
->Who spoke? He ​did
​ as Mark arrived yet? I think ​so
->H

ELLIPSIS​: in ellipsis there is the omission of the word or structure but not of the word or
structure’s meaning.
->Edward liked the white plates. I preferred the ​pink​ (‘plate’ is missing)
->Has he left his job? No, but he will soon (‘leave his job’ is missing)
COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS​: and, but, both…and, neither….nor

LINKING ADVERBIALS/CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS​: for, so, yet, however, nevertheless,

therefore, meanwhile, for example

​ SYNTACTIC PARALLELISM: ​it consists in the repetition of similar syntactic constructions in

the text in order to strengthen the emotional impact or expressiveness of the description.
➔ He came, he saw, and he conquered
➔ He wanted to have a new house to live in, and a new car to drive
➔ My fellow Americans ask not what your country can do for you but what you can do
for your country

12/03/2020

SPOKEN DISCOURSE
(Different from written communication)

Grammar of spoken discourse​:

1) Spoken discourse occurs in a face-to-face interaction with others
2) Speakers and addresses share a lot of knowledge (situational, social, cultural, and
institutional knowledge)
3) This affects the grammar:
- High frequency of pronouns (especially I/you pronouns referring to the participants)
- The use of substitute pro-forms and ellipsis
- Use of deictic words (this, that, these, those, the, now)
- Use of inserts/fillers (ah, you know, well, like, I mean)
- Low density of lexical words but higher frequency of primary verbs (be, have and do)
and modal auxiliaries
- Infrequent use of more than two premodifying adjectives: a bold and strong person
- More generalized vocabulary (a lot of, got, things, nice, place, things like that)
- More repeated words and structure (I saw the man and this man, well the man was
walking towards; we decided to go there because we thought .. we decided)
- More parataxis –not much subordination ( I saw a man. He was at the bus stop)
- Frequent use of coordinating conjunctions (and, but)
- More active clauses
- Many incomplete sentences verbless clauses and pauses
- Features of back channel (words, phrases and utterances like I see, oh, really, used
by a listener to give his feedback to a speaker that the message is being understood)

WRITTEN DISCOURSE:
(il linguaggio parlato e il linguaggio scritto non vanno considerate come due dimensioni
nettamente distinte, ci possono essere dei testi in cui abbiamo sia le caratteristiche del
linguaggio scritto che di quello parlato; es: testi pensati per essere letti davanti ad un
pubblico)
- Standard grammar
- Greater use of passive (the letter was written)
- More pre-modifying adjectives before nouns (the tall, elegant, dark-eyed, lawyer)
- Greater use of hypotactic structures
 - Complete sentences

17/03/20

PARAMETRI LINGUISTICI DELLA CRISI NEL DISCORSO POLITICO

Discorso politico non come specchio di verità ma come costruzione​ (Greimas 1983)
- La politica attuale ha cominciato, dapprima in sordina, e poi in modo sempre più
aperto, a configurarsi come prodotto. Prodotto da vendere, e quindi,
necessariamente, da comunicare, attraverso strategie importate dalle aziende: in
alter parole un’operazione di marketing, dove l’elettorato è il target, il discorso viene
proposto in funzione del gradimento dell’obiettivo e il gradimento stesso misurato
non in quantità di prodotto venduto ma in percentuali di consenso.
- Oggi un politico è tenuto a misurare in questi termini l’efficacia della sua strategia
comunicativa, a correggere il tiro, a cambiare stile e, naturalmente ad affidarsi a
professionisti addestrati a vendere
- Si impone quindi un’attenta revision, da parte di chi analizza il discorso politico, degli
strumenti usati.

Definizione di Crisi in inglese: ​ ​ according to the Oxford English Dictionary, crisis is defined
as: ​a vitally important or decisive stage in the progress of anything; a turning-point; also, a
state of affairs in which a decisive change for better or worse is imminent; non applied esp.
to times of difficulty, insecurity, and suspense in politics or commerce.

Political discourse: inaugural speech

- The inaugural speech can be considered a ritual/formulaic speech, characterised by a
repetitive and featuring a similar set of rules and restrictions. Below is the formulaic
structure:
1) HERITAGE OF THE PAST:
+ initial greetings
+ thanks to the Predecessor
+ references to Presidents
2) PRESENT:
+ continuity
 + change, renewal

3) FUTURE AND WORKS WHICH NEED TO BE DONE

+ problems
work to do

Parametri:
1) Sintattico/strutturali:
-lunghezza tot del document (più lungo)
-lunghezza paragrafi (possono essere più o meno lunghi)
-ipotassi/paratassi (ci sono più ipotassi)
2) Caratteristiche retorico/persuasorie
-figure retoriche (ce ne sono di più)
-densità metaforica (ci sono più metafore rispetto al numero di parole)
3) Grammaticali
-tempi verbali (più passato e futuro)
-pronomi personali (plurale in Roosvelt e singolare in Obama)
-tipologie di aggettivi e sostantivi utilizzati

↑Tutta sta roba in inglese è:

Results of the parameters of crisis applied to inaugural speeches
1) Speech length​ : no remarkable differences between crisis/non-crisis speeches. This
can also due to the etiquette which imposes time restrictions on the inaugural
speech
2) Paragraph length​: by and large, paragraphs in crisis speeches are longer than
paragraphs in non-crisis speeches. Indeed, crisis speeches require more
complex-sentence constructions in order to explain, convince and reassure the
audience.
3) Parataxis/hypotaxis​: in crisis speeches there is a higher presence oh hypotactic
constructions. The hypotactic construction is characteristic of rhetoric, which aims at
the falsification and mystification of reality so as to create a new version of the
events. The paratactic construction, on the other hand, is the one used in the Gospel
and is meant to encode truth and objectivity.
4) Rhetorical figures​: in crisis speeches there is higher usage of rhetorical figures than
in non-crisis speeches. As in the previous case, rhetoric is exploited in order to
mystify reality by appealing to people’s uncontrolled emotions and obtain their
consensus.
5) Metaphorical density​: metaphorical density is higher in crisis speeches than in
non-crisis speeches. Metaphors are used to dissimulate the negativity of a crisis
through the embellishment of stylistic variation.
6) Verb tenses​: in both crisis and non-crisis speeches there is a predominance of
present tense, whereas there is a difference in the frequency of the past tense and
future tense. The past tense is used to anchor discourse to the historical values and
honourable deeds of the past, whereas the future is used to call on people’s hope for
a better future.
7) Personal pronouns​: in crisis speeches there is a higher frequency of the I pronoun
(see Roosevelt and Lincoln). The President takes on the role of the Father of the Land
 who carries duties and responsibilities on his shoulders to help his children in the
moment of crisis. In Obama’s speech the I pronoun is replaced with the We pronoun
in line with the globalizing and inclusive character of his electoral campaign (yes, we
can)
8) Nouns and evaluative adjectives​: in crisis speeches the President uses nouns to
refer to reality (apprehension, terror, emergency, fear) and negatively evaluated
adjectives (dark, grim, hard) to describe it. This is in line with the American political
principle according to which the President has to tell the truth no matter how hard it
can be. At the same time, however, the President uses more positively evaluated
words, which indicate the possibility of a change for the better (change, faith, trust,
confidence) and the hope that difficulties can be overcome in the future (support,
promise, prosperity, freedom, peace).