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The Multinomial Theorem

The document presents the Multinomial Theorem, which states that expanding (x1 + x2 + ... + xt)n results in terms of the form (coefficient) xn11 xn22 ... xntt, where the coefficient equals n!/(n1!n2!...nt!). It provides examples of using the Multinomial Theorem to find coefficients and explains corollaries about distributing distinct objects into identical containers and combinations with repetition.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
390 views82 pages

The Multinomial Theorem

The document presents the Multinomial Theorem, which states that expanding (x1 + x2 + ... + xt)n results in terms of the form (coefficient) xn11 xn22 ... xntt, where the coefficient equals n!/(n1!n2!...nt!). It provides examples of using the Multinomial Theorem to find coefficients and explains corollaries about distributing distinct objects into identical containers and combinations with repetition.

Uploaded by

SUMAN SAHOO
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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The Multinomial Theorem

Theorem 14

(x1 + x2 + · · · + xt )n
 n!
= xn1 1 xn2 2 · · · xnt t .
0≤n1 ,n2 ,...,nt ≤n
n1 ! n2 ! · · · nt !
n1 +n2 +···+nt =n

• Expand (x1 + x2 + · · · + xt )n .
• Each term in the expansion must have the form

(coefficient) × xn1 1 xn2 2 · · · xnt t ,

where 0 ≤ n1 , n2 , . . . , nt ≤ n and n1 + n2 + · · · + nt = n.

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2022 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 72
The Proof (concluded)
• The coefficient of

xn1 1 xn2 2 · · · xnt t

equals the number of ways to pick n1 x1 ’s, n2 x2 ’s, and


so on.
• By formula (2) on p. 16, there are
 
n Δ n!
=
n 1 , n 2 , . . . , nt n1 ! n2 ! · · · nt !
ways.

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2022 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 73
Coefficient of a2 b3 c2 d5 in (a + 2b − 3c + 2d + 5)16
• Make x1 = a, x2 = 2b, x3 = −3c, x4 = 2d, and x5 = 5
symbolically.
• The coefficient of a2 (2b)3 (−3c)2 (2d)5 54 is
 
16 16!
= = 302, 702, 400
2, 3, 2, 5, 4 2! 3! 2! 5! 4!
by the multinomial theorem with n = 16.
• The desired coefficient is then

302, 702, 400 × 23 × (−3)2 × 25 × 54


= 435, 891, 456, 000, 000.

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2022 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 74
Distinct Objects into Identical Containers
(rn)!
Corollary 15 There are (r!) n n! ways to distribute rn

distinct objects into n identical containers so that each


container contains exactly r objects.
• Consider (x1 + x2 + · · · + xn )rn .
– Let xi denote the containers (distinct, for now).
– Each object is associated with one x1 + x2 + · · · + xn .
– It means an object can be assigned to one of the n
containers.
• What does the coefficient of

xr1 xr2 · · · xrn

mean?

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2022 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 75
Distinct Objects into Identical Containers (continued)
• It is the number of ways rn distinct objects can be
distributed into n distinct containers, each of which
contains r objects.
• By Theorem 14 (p. 72), it is
 
rn Δ (rn)!
= .
r, r, . . . , r r! r! · · · r!

• Finally, divide the above count by n! to remove the


identities of the containers.

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2022 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 76
Distinct Objects into Identical Containers (concluded)
(rn)!
Corollary 16 (r!)n n! is an integer.
• Immediate from Corollary 15 (p. 75).

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2022 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 77
An Alternative Proof of Corollary 16 (p. 77)a
(rn)!
(r!)n n!
1 (rn)! [ r(n − 1) ]! [ r(1) ]!
= ···
n! [ r(n − 1) ]! r! [ r(n − 2) ]! r! [ r(n − n) ]! r!
n−1 r(n−k)
k=0 r
=
n!
r(n−k)

n−1 
n−1
[ r(n − k) ]!
r
= =
n−k (n − k)r![ r(n − k − 1) ]!
k=0 k=0
 

n−1
r(n − k)[ r(n − k) − 1 ]!  r(n − k) − 1
n−1
= = .
k=0
(n − k)r[ r − 1 ]![ r(n − k − 1) ]! k=0
r − 1

a Contributed by Mr. Ansel Lin (B93902003) on September 20, 2004.

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Distinct Objects into Identical Containers (continued)
• Take n = 3 and r = 2.
• So we have

(x1 + x2 + x3 )6 = (x61 + · · · + x63 )


 5 5

+6 x1 x2 + · · · + x2 x3
 4 2 2 4

+15 x1 x2 + · · · + x2 x3
 3 3 3 3

+20 x1 x2 + · · · + x2 x3
 4 4

+30 x1 x2 x3 + · · · + x1 x2 x3
 3 2 2 3

+60 x1 x2 x3 + · · · + x1 x2 x3
+90x21 x22 x23 .

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An Example (concluded)
• Indeed, the coefficients are
             
6 6 6 6 6 6 6
, , , , , , ,
6 5, 1 4, 2 3, 3 4, 1, 1 3, 2, 1 2, 2, 2
consistent with the multinomial theorem (p. 72).
• The coefficient of x21 x22 x33 is 90.
• Thus the desired count is
90
= 15.
3!

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Combinations (Selections) with Repetition
Theorem 17 Suppose there are n distinct objects and r ≥ 0
is an integer. The number of selections of r of these objects,
with repetition, is
 
n+r−1
C(n + r − 1, r) = .
r
• Note that the order of selection is not important.
• Imagine there are n distinct types of objects.

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The Proof (continued)
• Permute
r n−1
 
 

xx · · · x | | · · · | .

• Think of the ith interval as containing the ith type of


objects.
• So
xx | xxx | x | | | |
means, out of 7 distinct objects, we pick 2 type-1
objects, 3 type-2 objects, and 1 type-3 object.

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The Proof (concluded)
• Our goal equals the number of permutations of
r n−1
 
 

xx · · · x | | · · · | .

• By formula (2) on p. 16, it is


 
(r + n − 1)! n+r−1
= = C(n + r − 1, r).
r! (n − 1)! r

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Combinatorial Proof of the Hockeystick Identity (P. 39)a
m n+k n+m+1
Corollary 18 For m, n ≥ 0, k=0 k = m .
• The number of ways to select m objects out of n + 2
n+m+1
types is m by Theorem 17 (p. 81).
• Alternatively, let us focus on how the objects of the first
n + 1 types are chosen.
n+m
• There are m ways to select m objects out of the first
n + 1 types.
n+m−1
• There are m−1 ways to select m − 1 objects out of
the first n + 1 types and 1 object out of the last type.
a Contributed by Mr. Jerry Lin (B01902113) on March 13, 2014.

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The Proof (concluded)
n+m−2
• There are m−2 ways to select m − 2 objects out of
the first n + 1 types and 2 objects of the last type.
• . . ..
• So,
       
n+m n+m−1 n+m−2 n+0
+ + + ··· +
m m−1 m−2 0
 
n+m+1
= .
m

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Integer Solutions of a Linear Equation
The following three problems are equivalent:
1. The number of nonnegative integer solutions of

x1 + x2 + · · · + xn = r.

2. The number of selections, with repetition, of size r from


a collection of n distinct objects (Theorem 17 on p. 81).
3. The number of ways r identical objects can be
distributed among n distinct containers.a
n+r−1 b
They all equal r .
a Thecase of distinct objects and identical containers will be covered
on p. 277 (see p. 75 for a special case).
b See p. 504 and p. 509 for alternative proofs.

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Application: The Multinomial Theorem (P. 72)
• The theorem is about the coefficient of xn1 1 xn2 2 · · · xnt t in
the expansion of

(x1 + x2 + · · · + xt )r .

• But how many distinct termsa are there?


• Each term has the form xn1 1 xn2 2 · · · xnt t such that
– n1 + n2 + · · · + nt = r, and
– 0 ≤ n1 , n2 , . . . , nt .
• For example, consider

r = 2.
a That is, summands.

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Application: The Multinomial Theorem (continued)
• Now,

(x1 + x2 + x3 )2 = x21 + x22 + x23 + 2x1 x2 + 2x1 x3 + 2x2 x3 .

– E.g., the solution “n1 = 1, n2 = 1, n3 = 0” to


n1 + n2 + n3 = 2 contributes to the term

x11 x12 x03 = x1 x2 .

– So there are 6 nonnegative integer solutions to


n1 + n2 + n3 = 2 because there are 6 terms.

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Application: The Multinomial Theorem (concluded)
• The desired number of terms is therefore
 
r+t−1
.
r
from the equivalencies on p. 86.
2+3−1
• Indeed, 2 = 6.

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Positive Integer Solutions of a Linear Equation
• Consider
x1 + x2 + · · · + xn = r,
where xi > 0 for 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
Δ
• Define xi = xi − 1.
• The original problem becomes

x1 + x2 + · · · + xn = r − n,

where xi ≥ 0 for 1 ≤ i ≤ n


• The number of solutions is therefore (p. 86)
     
n + (r − n) − 1 r−1 r−1
= = . (14)
r−n r−n n−1

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Application: Subsets with Restrictions
How many n-element subsets of { 1, 2, . . . , r } contain no
consecutive integers?
• Say r = 4 and n = 2.
• Then the valid 2-element subsets of { 1, 2, 3, 4 } are

{ 1, 3 }, { 1, 4 }, { 2, 4 }.

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The Proof (continued)
• For each valid subset { i1 , i2 , . . . , in }, where
1 ≤ i1 < i2 < · · · < in ≤ r, define

dk = ik+1 − ik .

• As “placeholders,” introduce

i0 = 1,
in+1 = r.

• Then, by telescoping,

d0 + d1 + · · · + dn = in+1 − i0 = r − 1.

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The Proof (continued)
• Observe that

0 ≤ d0 , dn
2 ≤ d1 , d2 , . . . , dn−1 .

• Define

Δ
d0 = d0 ,
Δ
dk = dk − 2, k = 1, 2, . . . , n − 1,
Δ
dn = dn .

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The Proof (concluded)
• So equivalently,

d0 + d1 + · · · + dn = r − 1 − 2(n − 1)

with 0 ≤ d0 , d1 , . . . , dn .


• The answer to the desired number is (p. 86)
 
(n + 1) + (r − 1 − 2(n − 1)) − 1
r − 1 − 2(n − 1)
 
r−n+1
=
r − 2n + 1
 
r−n+1
= . (15)
n

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Application: Political Majoritya
In how many ways can 2n + 1 seats in a parliament be
divided among 3 parties so that the coalition of any 2
parties form a majority?
• If n = 2, there are 5 seats.
• Clearly, no party should have 3 or more seats.
• The only valid distribution of the 5 seats to 3 parties is:
2, 2, 1.
• The number of ways is therefore 3.
a Recall p. 68.

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The Proof (continued)
• This is a problem of distributing identical objects (the
seats) among distinct containers (the parties) (p. 86).
• So without the majority condition, the number is
   
3 + (2n + 1) − 1 2n + 3
= .
2n + 1 2

• Observe that the majority condition is violated if and


only if a party gets n + 1 or more seats (why?).

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The Proof (concluded)
• If a given party gets n + 1 or more seats, the number of
ways of distributing the seats is
   
3+n−1 n+2
= .
n 2
– Allocate n + 1 seats to that party before allocating
the remaining n seats to the 3 parties.
– Then refer to p. 86 for the formula.
• The desired number of no dominating party is
     
2n + 3 n+2 n n+1
−3 = (n + 1) = . (16)
2 2 2 2

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Political Majority: An Alternative Proofa
• Recall that the majority condition holds if and only if no
party gets n + 1 or more seats.
• So each party can hold up to n seats.
• Give each party n slots to hold real seats.
• As there are 2n + 1 seats, there will be

3n − (2n + 1) = n − 1

empty slots in the end.


a Contributed by Mr. Weicheng Lee (B01902065) on March 14, 2013.

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Political Majority: An Alternative Proof (concluded)
• So the answer to the desired number is the number of
ways to distribute the n − 1 empty slots to 3 parties.
• The count is (p. 86)
     
3 + (n − 1) − 1 n+1 n+1
= = .
n−1 n−1 2

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Integer Solutions of a Linear Inequality
• Consider
x1 + x2 + · · · + xn ≤ r,
where xi ≥ 0 for 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
• It is equivalent to

x1 + x2 + · · · + xn + xn+1 = r,

where xi ≥ 0 for 1 ≤ i ≤ n + 1.
• The number of integer solutions of the original
inequality is therefore (p. 86)
   
(n + 1) + r − 1 n+r
= . (17)
r r

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The Hockeystick Identity (P. 39) Reproved
n+1+m
• By Eq. (17) on p. 100, there are m nonnegative
integer solutions to

x1 + x2 + · · · + xn+1 ≤ m, m ≥ 0.
n+k
• By p. 86, there are k nonnegative integer solutions
to
x1 + x2 + · · · + xn+1 = k.

• Any solution to x1 + x2 + · · · + xn+1 ≤ m is a solution to


x1 + x2 + · · · + xn+1 = k for some 0 ≤ k ≤ m.

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The Proof (concluded)
• The opposite is also true.
• It is also clear the correspondence is one-to-one.
• So
m 
   
n+k n+m+1
= .
k m
k=0

• This is exactly the hockeystick identity.

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Compositions of Positive Integers
• Let m be a positive integer.
• A composition for m is a sum of positive integers
whose order is relevant and which sum to m.
• For m = 3, the number of compositions is 4:

3, 2 + 1, 1 + 2, 1 + 1 + 1.

• For m = 4, the number of compositions is 8:

4, 3+1, 2+2, 1+3, 1+1+2, 1+2+1, 2+1+1, 1+1+1+1.

• Is the number of compositions for general m equal to


2m−1 ?

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The Number of Compositions
Theorem 19 The number of compositions for m > 0 is
2m−1 .
• Every composition with i summands corresponds to a
positive integer solution to

x1 + x2 + · · · + xi = m.
m−1
• So the number of solutions is m−i by Eq. (14) on p. 90.
• The total number of compositions is therefore
m  
m−1
= 2m−1
i=1
m−i

by Eq. (8) on p. 57.

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An Alternative Proof for Theorem 19 (p. 104)a
• Let f (m) denote the number of compositions for m > 0.
• A composition for m is either (1) m or (2) i plus a
composition for m − i (“i + · · · ”) for i = 1, 2, . . . , m − 1.
• Then
m−1
 m−1

f (m) = 1 + f (m − i) = 1 + f (i).
i=1 i=1

• The above implies that f (m + 1) − f (m) = f (m) so

f (m + 1) = 2f (m).
a Contributed by Mr. Chih-Ning Chou (B01902046) on March 7, 2013.

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The Proof (concluded)
• As a result,
f (m) = 2m−1 f (1).

• Finally, as f (1) = 1 = 20 ,

f (m) = 2m−1 .

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A Third Proof for Theorem 19 (p. 104)a
• Start with m x’s and m − 1 |’s.
• Consider this arrangement:
2m−1
 

x|x|x| ··· |x.

• Think of the |’s as dividers.


• Now remove some of the |’s.
a Contributed by Mr. Jerry Lin (B01902113) on March 6, 2014.

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The Proof (concluded)
• For example,
xx | xxx | x | x
means the composition

2+3+1+1

for 7.
• Each removal of some |’s leads to a unique composition.
• As there are
2m−1
ways to remove the |’s, this is the number of
compositions for m.

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Palindromes of Positive Integers
• Let m be a positive integer.
• A palindrome for m is a composition for m that reads
the same left to right as right to left.
– For m = 4, the number of palindromes is 4:

4 , 1 + 2 + 1, 2 + 2, 1 + 1 + 1 + 1.

– For m = 5, the number of palindromes is 4:

5 , 1 + 3 + 1, 2 + 1 + 2, 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1.

– The center elements are boxed above.

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Palindromes of Positive Integers (concluded)
• The numbers to the left of the center element mirror
those to the right, and with the same sum.
• Palindrome is possibly the hardest form of wordplay.a
• For example,b
A man, a plan, a canal, Panama!
a Bryson (2001, p. 228).
b Ignore the spaces and punctuation marks.

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The Number of Palindromes
Theorem 20 The number of palindromes for m > 0 is
2m/2 .
• Assume m is even first.
• The central element of a composition of m can be
m, m − 2, . . . , 2 or “+” (think of it as a 0).a
• When the central element is m, the number of
palindromes is clearly 1.
• Suppose the central element is some other even number
0 ≤ i < m.
a The central element must be even (why?)!

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The Proof (concluded)
• Then the numbers to its left sum to (m − i)/2.a
• They form a composition (p. 103).
• Hence the number of palindromes is 2(m−i)/2−1 by
Theorem 19 (p. 104).
• The total number of palindromes for m is thus

2 (m−2)/2−1 m/2−1
1 + 1+2 + 2 + ···+ 2 +2 = 2m/2 .

• Follow the same argument when m is odd to obtain a


count of 2(m−1)/2 .
a By symmetry, the numbers to its right automatically sum to (m −
i)/2.

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Runs
• Consider a permutation of 10 Os and 5 Es:

O O E O O O O E E E O O O E O.

• It has 7 runs:

O O


 E O O
O O E E E O

 O O


 E

O .
run run run run run run run

• In general, a run is a maximal consecutive list of


identical objects.

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The Number of Runs
Theorem 21 There are
     
m−1 n−1 n−1 m−1
+
m − r/2 n − r/2 n − r/2 m − r/2
ways that m identical objects of type 1 and n identical
objects of type 2 can give rise to r runs.
• Suppose the run starts with a type-1 object.
• Let xi denote the number of type-1 objects in run
i = 1, 3, . . . , 2r/2 − 1.

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The Proof (continued)
• The number of runs with the said counts x1 , x3 , . . .
equals the number of positive-integer solutions to

x1 + x3 + · · · + x2r/2−1 = m.

– There are r/2 terms.


• There are
   
m−1 m−1
=
r/2 − 1 m − r/2
solutions by Eq. (14) on p. 90.

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The Proof (continued)
• Now let xi denote the number of type-2 objects in run
i = 2, 4, . . . , 2r/2.
• The number of runs with the said counts x2 , x4 , . . .
equals that of positive-integer solutions to

x2 + x4 + · · · + x2r/2 = n.

– There are r/2 terms.


• Similarly, the number of solutions equals
   
n−1 n−1
= .
r/2 − 1 n − r/2

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The Proof (concluded)
• Therefore the number of runs that start with a type-1
object equals
  
m−1 n−1
.
m − r/2 n − r/2

• Repeat the argument for the case where the 1st run
starts with a type-2 object.
• The count is
  
n−1 m−1
n − r/2 m − r/2
(by swapping m and n).

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The Catalana Numbers (1838)
• A binomial random walk starts at the origin (p. 43).
• What is the number of ways it can end at the origin in
2n steps without being in the negative territory?
• A left move lowers the position, whereas a right move
increases the position.
• So it is equivalent to the number of ways
n n
 
 

RR · · · R LL · · · L

can be permuted so that no prefix has more Ls than Rs.


a Eugène
Charles Catalan (1814–1894). It was known to Euler (1707–
1783) and, even earlier, Mongolian mathematician Minggatu (1730).

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The Catalan Numbers (concluded)
• For example,
0
 

1
 

2
 

1
 

0
 

1
 

0
 

1


R LRLRRLL.

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Formula for the Catalan Numbera
The number isb
     
2n 2n 1 2n
bn = − = , n ≥ 1. (18)
n n−1 n+1 n
with b0 = 1.
n n
 
 
2n
• RR · · · R LL · · · L can be permuted in n ways by
formula (2) on p. 16.c
• Some of the permutations are illegal, such as

RLLLRR.
a Attributed to Jacques Touchard (1885–1968).
b The subscript in b is n not 2n!
n
c Alternatively, recall formula (4) on p. 44.

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The Proof (continued)
 
2n
• We now prove that n−1 of the permutations are illegal.
• For every illegal permutation, we consider the first L
move that makes the particle land at −1.
– Such as RL L LRR.
• Swap L and R for this offending L and all earlier moves.
– Such as L R R LRR.
• The result is a permutation of
n+1 n−1
 
 

RR · · · R LL · · · L .

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The Proof (concluded)
 2n

• There are n−1 ways to permute
n+1 n−1
 
 

RR · · · R LL · · · L

by Eq. (2) on 16.


• But the correspondence is one-to-one between the
permutations of
n+1 n−1
 
 

RR · · · R LL · · · L

and illegal permutations (see next page).


 2n 
• So there are n−1 illegal walks.

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The Reflection Principlea

a André (1887).

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2022 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 123
A Simple Corollary
Corollary 22 For n ≥ 1,
n n2
i=0 i
bn = .
n+1
• See Eq. (13) on p. 62.

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Application: No Return to Origin until End
What is the number of ways a binomial random walk that is
never in the negative territory and returns to the origin the
first time after 2n steps?
• Let n ≥ 1.
• The answer is bn−1 .

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2022 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 125
Application: No Return to Origin until End
(concluded)
What is the number of ways a binomial random walk returns
to the origin the first time after 2n steps?
• Let n ≥ 1.
• The answer is
 
1 2n
2bn−1 = . (19)
2n − 1 n
– It may return to the origin by way of the negative
territory.
– It may return to the origin by way of the positive
territory.

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Application: Nonnegative Partial Sums
What is the number of ways we can arrange n “+1” and n
“−1” such that all 2n partial sums are nonnegative?
• For example, the six partial sums of (1, 1, −1, 1, −1, −1)
are (1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 0).
• Let n ≥ 1.
• The answer is bn by definition (p. 118).
• The number remains bn if we have only n − 1 “−1”.
– In the original problem, the last number must be −1.
– So it is “redundant.”

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Application: Nonpositive Partial Sums
What is the number of ways we can arrange n “+1” and n
“−1” such that all 2n partial sums are nonpositive?
• For example, the six partial sums of (−1, −1, 1, −1, 1, 1)
are (−1, −2, −1, −2, −1, 0).
• Let n ≥ 1.
• The answer is bn .
• The number remains bn if we have only n − 1 “+1”.
– In the original problem, the last number must be 1.
– So it is “redundant.”

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Combinatorics and “Higher” Mathematics

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2022 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 129
For relaxation,
General Bradley did algebra problems,
and he worked at integral calculus
when he was flying an airplane
— or flying in his airplane.
He said it relaxed him, made him think.
— Chet Hansen, Major,
aide to 5-star General Omar Bradley (1893–1981)

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Growth of Factorials
n n! n n!
0 1 8 40320
1 1 9 362880
2 2 10 3628800
3 6 11 39916800
4 24 12 479001600
5 120 13 6227020800
6 720 14 87178291200
7 5040 15 1307674368000

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A Logplot (Base Two)
Logplot of n!
1200
1000
800
600
400
200

50 100 150 200

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2022 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 132
A Useful Lower Bound for n!
Lemma 23 n! > (n/e)n .
Proof:
ln(n!) = ln 1 + ln 2 + ln 3 + · · · + ln n
n
= ln k
k=1
n  k
> ln x dx as ln x is increasing
k=1 k−1
 n
= ln x dx
0
n
= [ x ln x − x ]x=0
= n ln n − n.

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ln x

k-1 k

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2022 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 134
How Good Is the Bound?
n! over lower bound

100

80

60

40

20

250 500 750 1000125015001750

Good, but probably not of the same order as n!.

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2022 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 135
A Marginally Better Lower Bound
Lemma 24 n! > e(n/e)n .
Proof:
ln(n!) = ln 1 + ln 2 + ln 3 + · · · + ln n
n
= ln k
k=2
n  k
> ln x dx
k=2 k−1
 n
≥ ln x dx
1
n
= [ x ln x − x ]x=1
= n ln n − n + 1.

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A Useful Upper Bound for C(n, m)
Lemma 25 C(n, m) < (ne/m)m for any 0 < m ≤ n.a
Proof:
n!
C(n, m) =
(n − m)! m!
n(n − 1) · · · (n − m + 1)
=
m!
nm

m!
nm
< by Lemma 23 (p. 133)
(m/e)m
= (ne/m)m .

a The tighter bound (ne/m)m /e follows Lemma 24 (p. 136).

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Stirling’s Formulaa (1730)
• The notation f (x) ∼ g(x) means

lim f (x)/g(x) = 1,
x→∞

i.e.,
f (x) = g(x) + o(g(x))
as x → ∞.b
• Stirling’s formula says:

Theorem 26 n! ∼ 2πn (n/e)n .
Corollary 27 e = limn→∞ n/(n!)1/n .
a James Stirling (1692–1770); but due to Abraham DeMoivre (1667–
1754)!
b It does not imply f (x) − g(x) → 0.

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Goodness of Approximation to n!
n! over approximation

1.0008

1.0006

1.0004

1.0002

200 400 600 800

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Approximation of C(n, m)
• Stirling’s formula can be used to approximate C(n, m)
better than Lemma 25 (p. 137) under some conditions.
• For that purpose, a more refined Stirling’s formula is
stated below without proof:a
√ n n 1 √ n n 1
2πn e 12n+1 < n! < 2πn e 12n . (20)
e e
a Robbins (1955).

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The Proof (concluded)
• Now from bounds (20) on p. 140,

C(n, m)
n!
=
(n − m)! m!
√  n 1
2πn n
e e 12n
<   n−m
n−m
1 √  m 1
2π(n − m) e 12(n−m)+1 2πm m
e e e 12m+1

 m  n−m
1 n n n
= √
2π m n−m m(n − m)
1−12n−144(m−n)2 −144mn
×e (··· )(··· )(··· )
 m  n−m
1 n n n
< √ . (21)
2π m n−m m(n − m)

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Approximation of C(n, m), 1 ≤ m ≤ n/2
C(n, m)
 m  n−m
1 n n n 1
12n+1
− 1
12(n−m)
− 1
12m
> √ e
2π m n−m m(n − m)
 m  n−m −12m−1
1 n n n − 1
= √ e 12(n−m)(12n+1) 12m
2π m n−m m(n − m)
 m  n−m −12m−1
1 n n n 12m(24m+1)
− 1
12m
≥ √ e
2π m n−m m(n − m)
 m  n−m
1 n n n − 1 + 1
= √ e 6m (24m+1)
2π m n−m m(n − m)
 m  n−m
1 n n n − 1
> √ e 6m . (22)
2π m n−m m(n − m)

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The Proof (continued)
• Combine inequalities (21) on p. 141 and (22) on p. 142
under 1 ≤ m ≤ n/2 to obtain
 n−m 
1 n m n n 1
√ e− 6m
2π m n−m m(n − m)
< C(n, m)
 n−m 
1 n m n n
< √ .
2π m n−m m(n − m)

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The Proof (concluded)
• So
 n−m 
1  n m n n
C(n, m) ∼ √ (23)
2π m n−m m(n − m)

as m → ∞ and n − m → ∞.
• An alternative formulation is
1
C(n, m) ∼ √ (pp q q )−n ,
2πpqn
Δ Δ
where p = m/n and q = 1 − p.

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Application: Probability of Return to Origin
• Suppose the binomial random walk has a probability of
2−1 = 0.5 of going in either direction (p. 47).
– This is called a symmetric random walk.
• The number of ways it is at the origin after 2n steps is
2n a
n by formula (4) on p. 44.

• The probability for this to happen is



2n √ 1 n n 2   

2 2 n 1 1
n
≈ ≈ =O √ (24)
22n 22n πn n
by Eq. (23) on p. 144.
 
a Wehave seen 2nn
many times before (e.g., p. 58, p. 62, p. 120, and
p. 124). We will continue to encounter it.

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Application: Probability of Return to Origin
(concluded)
• Suppose 100 U.S. Senators vote on a bill randomly.a
• What is the probability of a tie?b
• By Eq. (24) on p. 145, it equals
100
50 1
= 0.0795892 ≈ .
2100 12
• The probability is surprisingly high.
• It rises to 0.176197 with 20 Senators in late 18th century.
a Dixit& Nalebuff (1993).
b Which is broken by the Vice President.

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Application: Deviation
• Consider the symmetric random walk again.
• Its average position at the end is 0.
• Assume n is even.
• Given c > 0, after n steps what is the probability for the

walk to end at a position ≥ c n for n sufficiently large?

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Application: Deviation (continued)
• The probability that the walk ends at position k after n
steps is  
n −n
n+k 2
2
by formula (4) on p. 44, where k is even.

• The probability that the position is at least c n is

n
    c n  
n 1 n
n+k 2−n ≈ − n+k 2−n
√ 2 2 2
k=c n k=2

by Eq. (9) on p. 59.


– The integer k must be even.

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2022 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 148
Application: Deviation (concluded)
• But

c n   √  
1  n 1 c n n −n
− n+k 2−n ≥ − n 2
2 2 2 2 2
k=2

according to the unimodal property (p. 28).a


– That k is even accounts for the 2 in the denominator.
• Finally, the desired probability is
√   
1 −n c n n 1 1
−2 n ≥ −c
2 2 2 2 2π
by Eq. (24) on p. 145 for n sufficiently large.
a Corrected
by Mr. Gong-Ching Lin (B00703082) on March 8, 2012
and Mr. Rajon Geng (B03902010) on March 5, 2016.

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2022 Prof. Yuh-Dauh Lyuu, National Taiwan University Page 149
An Upper Bound for C(2n, n)
2n √
Lemma 28 n < 4n / nπ .
Proof: From inequality (21) on p. 141,
 
2n
n
 n  2n−n 
1 2n 2n 2n
< √
2π n 2n − n n(2n − n)
1
= √ 4n .

Note that Lemma 25 (p. 137) gives a much looser upper
bound of (2e)n ∼ 5.43656n .

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A Tight Bound for C(2n, n)
2n √
Lemma 29 n ∼ 4 / nπ .a
n

• From inequality (22) on p. 142,


 
2n
n
 n  2n−n 
1 2n 2n 2n 1
− 6n
> √ e
2π n 2n − n n(2n − n)
1 1
= √ 4n e− 6n .

• Finally, recall Lemma 28 (p. 150).


a In √ 2n
fact, e−1/(8n) < nπ n
/4n < 1 (Hipp & Mattner, 2008).

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A Tight Bound for C(2n, n) (concluded)

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First Return to Origina
What is the probability a symmetric binomial random walk
returns to the origin the first time at step 2n?
• Formula (19) on p. 126 says the probability is
 
1 2n −2n
2 .
2n − 1 n

• The above probability is asymptotically


1
∼ √
2 n3 π
by Lemma 29 (p. 151).
a Recall p. 125.

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