PRINCIPLE OF POWER GENERATION

The most common method of generating energy is by means

of electrical machine called Generator. When the power

generated is DC it is called NYNAMO and when it is alternating

current it is called an ALTERNATOR.

These machine are essentially converters which convert

mechanical energy to electrical energy. That is, these machines

must be coupled mechanically to prime movers.

METHODS OF ELECTRICITY GENERATION

i. Hydro-electrical power station

A generating station which utilizes the potential energy at a high

level for the generating of electrical energy is kwhm as the Hydro-

electric power station.

Hydro-electric power stations are generally located in hilly areas

where dams can be built conveniently and large water reservoir

can be obtained.

The hydro-electric stations convert the energy stored (potential

energy) in water into electric power by the use of water turbines

coupled with alternators. The water stored at higher altitudes is

1
allowed to impinge energy on the blades through penstocks, thus

the potential energy and the kinetic energy of water is

transformed into mechanical energy and then to the electric

energy. Hence, the availability of water throughout the year is an

absolute necessity for proper operation of a hydro-electric power

station.

So the analysis of the availability of hydro-electric power

also include the study of rainfall, run off and stream flow

available head and its limitations and facility for storage and

bondage. Of necessity, the location of such plant is possible only

in non-profilious mountainous areas.

Hydro-electric power station is becoming very popular

because the reserves of fuels (i.e coal and oil) are depleting daily.

The systems have added importance for flood control, ,storage

water for irrigation and water for drinking purposes.

2
Below is the schematic diagram of high Hydro- Electric

Station

Low head instation of H.E Station

Advantage

3
 1. It requires no fuel as water is used for the generation of

electrical energy

2. Simple in construction, rebust and requires low

maintenance

3. It is quite neat and clean as no smoke or ash is produced.

4. Such plants serve many purposes: Like irrigation and flood

control.

5. It can be put into service instantly.

6. It can respond to changing load without difficulty.

7. A single unit of very high output can be used.

8. It requires very small running charges because water is the

source of energy which is available.

Disadvantage

1. It involves high capital cost due to construction of dam.

2. There is uncertainty about the availability of huge amount

of water due to defendence on weather conditions.

3. Skilled and experienced hands are required to build the

plant.

4. It requires high cost of transmission lines as the plant is

located in highly hillly areas which are quite away from the

consumer.

4
CHOICE (SELECTION) OF SITE FOR HYDRO-ELECTRIC

POWER STATION

The following points should be taken into consideration when

selecting the site for Hydro-electric power station.

1. Availability of water – sufficient quantity of water at a

reasonable head should be available.

2. Preferably, there should be high strong mountains on the

two sides that could make it economical to store water at

the side selected site.

3. The site should allow for strong foundation with minimum

cost

4. Transportation facilities the site selected for a hydroelectric

plant should be accessible by rail and road so that

necessary equipment and machinery could easily be

transported.

5. There should be no possibility of future shortage of water

6. The site should be easily accessible

7. There should be possibility stream diversion during

consumption period.

8. Local supplies of sent, gravel, etc should be available

5
FORMATION OF HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER STATION

The constituents of a hydro-electric plant are:-

- Hydraulic structures

- Water turbines

- Electrical equipment

Calculation in hydro-electric power station

A hydro-electric generating station is supplied from a reservoir of

capacity 5 x 116 cutic metres at a head of 200 metres find the

total energy available in kwhr if the overall efficiency is 75%.

Solution

Weight of water; W= volume of water x density=¿

Since 1 mass of 1m3 of water is 1000kg and so 5 x 109kg x 9.8N

Electrical energy available = W x H x Y x 7

5 x 109 x 9.81 x 200 x 0.75 watt sec

DIESEL POWER STATION

A diesel engine is a prime mover which obtains to its energy from

a liquid generally known as diesel oil and converts the energy

into mechanical work. An alternator mechanically coupled to it

6
convert the mechanical energy developed into electrical energy. It

can otherwise be described as a compression-ignition type of

power source in which the heat for ignition the fuel is obtained

from the compression of air in the engine cylinder before the fuel

is introduced in to it. The main difference between diesel and

thermal engine is that the former the chemical energy of

combustion is release on the cylinder while in the latter case the

energy developed during combustion of fuel is first transformed

into steam and this in turn develop mechanical power in the

turbine with small power stations and its therefore used as stand

by plants by consumers for emergency or to beat mains voltage.

They are also needed in medium sized installation to supply peak

loads for small duration or for seasonal loads.

At time of breakdown it may be used for restoring boiler etc. it

may also supply power to auxilations.

NUCLEAR POWER STATION

In this station, there is no steam boiler but a nuclear

reactor is used as the source of heat. The heat produced by

splitting of nucleurs called nuclear fission heats some fluid such

as motten bismuth or sodium, - potassium alloys. This can attain

7
a high temp without creating high vapour pressure which is used

to heat the feed water to form steam. The materials which

undergoes fission are Uranium U 35 , thorium (Th232) Plutonium

(Pu239). The subscripts no refer to their atomic numbers. These

are heaviest metals existing on the earth.

Hot metal

Schematic Arrangement of a Nuclear Power Station

8
 They are available plentiful but very expensive. The process

of fission involves bombarding a U35 with a show moving neutron

and thus its mass is split into two smaller masses.

1
In this process 1000th of the original mass is converted heat.

Thus, when 1kg of U35 is fission25 x 106 kwhr of heat energy is

produced. Thus is equivalent to burning 36,000 tons of coal. Out

of 140 parts mined of mined U35, only one part can undergo

fission. But the U35 is burnt in air with natural U35 to convert

part of U35 to plutonium Lu239 which is fissible material in a

breeder reactor. The heat in the hot metal is exchanged to the gas

or water in the heat exchanged. The carbon moderator used in

the atomic reactor shows the neuton down to their hormal

velocity.

The nuclear reactor is a complex unit and it essentially consists

of the following 7 component:-

i. Fuel ii. Moderator iii. Reflector iv. Control

v. coolant vi. Shielding vii. Structure

For satisfactory operation of the reactor all 7 component must

work properly.

9
The following are the characteristic of a nuclear power station:

1. The power is economical only if the output is very high.

2. The initial cost is very high like that of hydro-electric and

the running cost is very low.

3. The power output is controlled by heat remover methods

from the nuclear reactor to prevent overheating of the

reactor.

4. There is no problem of transportation as the fuel is used in

term of kg and not in tonnes.

PROBLEMS IN DEVELOPING ATOMIC POWER

1. Problem of making the casing of the thermopile so as to

withstand high temperature, corrosion and intense neutron

bombardment.

2. To prevent radiation of heat from the heat transferring

system.

3. To dispose off the radioactive waste of the plants which

gives out large quantities of X-rays, gamma ray, etc at high

energy level.

4. To shield the plant from radioactive radiation

MAGNETOHYDRO POWER STATION (MHD)

10
 The generation of power by magnetohydro station (MHD)

generation is based on the fundamental laws of electro-magnetic

induction when a current carrying conductor moves across a

magnetic field (cut the lines of force) an electromotive force emf is

induced in the conductor, which produces an electric current

that flows if the external circuits is complete.

Similarly in MHD when an ionized gas flows across the lines of

field. A voltage gas flows a cross the lines of magnetic field a

voltage is induced. The ionized gas acts like an electric

conductor.

An MHD power generation system

11
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF MHD GENERATOR

MHD generator is an efficient heat engine, which directly

converts thermal energy into electricity. MHD is one of the

current techniques employed in power generation where the

efficiency is high as 60% conpered to about 35% efficiency of

conventional thermal power stations.

It requires a working fluid and one of such fluid is partially

ionized gas. The principle is shown in the figure above or in the

preceding page.

The MHD generator consists of a pipe whose diameter increases

from one end to another. The diameter is coupled to magnetic

poles and electrodes at the end. The ionized fluid is,

perpendicular to the direction of motion of a fluid conductor. At

very high temperature, the gas becomes conductive, conductivity

is increased when the gas is heated that means, when small

amount of vaporized metal such as potassium is added to the

gas. The chamber is also supplied with compressed air. The gas

expands after passing through the nozzle to almost atmospheric

pressure energy is induced when ionized gas passes through the

magnetic field, the energy generated subsequently causes the

12
flow of current in the electric circuit. An inverter is used to

convert the direct current (D.C) into alternative current (A.C).

furthermore, the remaining current from the MHD, which is

about 231 0C, is used to steam a turbine.

Nigeria currently does not generate current from MHD

generation even through the potentials are enormous reserve of

high grade cool estimate at about 1307 million tones. There is the

need to set up a research and development centre in the field of

MHD. For example, a 5 MW experiment plant can set up which is

expandable to accommodate work units as expertise in improved.

The advantages acccurable from using MHD generation are as

follow:

o High reliability, as there is no moving part

o The MHD is suitable for use as base load, especially in peak

loading as it can be used as in capacity just after starting.

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF A TYPICAL POWER SYSTEM

13
TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL POWER

Electrical power is usually generated and transmitted in 3-phase.

As for the Distribution, a 3-Phase or 1-phase could be used

depending on the need of the consumer. This could be seen from

the above figure how power is supplied from the generator, say

11kv which is stepped up by the step up transformer to about

132v. this high voltage is used to transmit electricity over a long

distance so as to minimized power losses at a far end of the line.

For the purpose of security, continuity, repairs and maintenance,

transmission lines are designed and constructed in duplicate.

The 3-phase wire overhead higher voltage transmission line term

intakes in step down transformer in substation, usually situated

outside the city, the voltage is stepped down to 33k. at the

substation The voltage is reduced from 33kv to 3.3kv, 3-wire for

14
primary distribution. Secondary is at 415/240V, where voltage is

further stepped down from 3.3kv to 415V at the distribution sub-

stations. Feeders radiating from distribution sub-station supply

power ti distribution network in their respective areas.

If the distribution network happen to be at a great distance from

the substation, then they are supplied from secondaries of

distribution transformers which are either pole-mounted

distribution networks. The must common system for secondary

distribution is 415/240, 3 – φ , 4-wire system. The single phase

residential lighting load is connected between any one line and

the neutral where as 3-phase, 415V motor load is connected

across 3-φ line.

Generating voltages are 6.6kv, 11kv, 13.2kv or 33kv high voltage

transmission voltage: 330kv, 132kv, 66kv, 6.6kv, 3.3kv.

How voltage distribution: AC 415/240V, 3-φ , 4-wire

Standard frequency for Nigeria : 50HZ ± 1%

UK : 50H Z

USA: 60HZ

15
MAJOR COMPONENTS IN A TYPICAL POWER SYSTEM

LAYOUT

1. Generating stations (Alternators)

2. Step – up Transformers

3. Step - Down Transformers

4. Busbars

5. Transmissions Lines

6. Distributions lines

NATIONAL GRID SYSTEM IN NIGERIA

Electricity generated at various locations in the country is

often remotely located from major load centres. This is so

because the power stations must be cited as close as possible to

their fuel sources. This calls for centralized or Grid connected to

operations of the power sources. In Nigeria, the power generation

stations are linked to the National Control Centre located at

Oshogbo, Osun state where supervision, control of system and

load allocation to the various parts of the country is connected.

A new supervisory National Control Centre (SNCC) at

Sheroro, Niger state has been completed by POWER HOLDING

COMPANY OF NIGERIA (PHCN) and is expected to offer

16
computerized control of all grid operations, which the old

National Control Centre could not provide.

The installation and commissioning of the supervisory

control and Data Acquision (SCADA) project at the SNCC will

enable the operators to view various control and their switching.

The operators will also have at their disposal the grid data with

which to supervise and control the system.

The power generated from the station is transported to the

load centres via grid lines, which are high voltage levels of 330kv

and 132kv. As most of the generators produce power at lower

voltage, step up power transformers are utilized to raise it to high

levels. To maintain stability in grid operations and system

stability. Switching of generation is considered with the following

criteria.

1. System frequency of 50HZ ± 1%

2. Voltage at 330kv level ± 10 % and -15%

3. Voltage 132kv level ± 5 % and – 15%

4. Spinning reserve capacity to be 200MW

Power is transmitted at a very high voltage levels so as to

minimize losses in view of far distance of the transmission lines.

17
Transmission losses in 1998 has been estimated to be 9.77% of

the total energy production.

As at 1998, PHCN has a total route length of 5000kv for 330kv

transmission lines and 6000km for 132kv lines.

As at 1922, PHCN (NEPA) had only 1,262km and 1,012km for

330kv and 132kv lines respectively.

DIFFERENT VOLTAGE LEVELS ACCORDING TO

CONSUMPTION

When power is generated and eventually transmitted to the

various load centres, distribution lines are utilized to convey the

electricity to the numerous consumers.

Since very few industrial consumer tap power at 132Kv

levels different ratings of power and distribution transformer are

required to step down the voltage to cover levels with majority of

the consumers taking power at 415/240V. In the distribution

sub-sector, injection substation are required to step down the

voltage from 132kv to 33kv and 11kv levels. The 33kv lines are

then used to convey power to urban and rural areas and also

feed some industrial customers. 11kv lines are usually used as

the major distribution network in both urban and rural. The

18
voltage is finally stepped down to 415/240V using distribution

transformer for majority of commercial and domestic consumer.

As the demands exceed generations, the difference in power has

to be shed systematically across the country so that electric

power is rotated among various load centres, which is referred to

as to prevent the power system from total collapse. Load location

is centrally done through the National Control Centre and it is

the duty of the distribution sub-sector to ensure that the

allocated power is shared judiciously.

Load shedding is mostly carried out on 11kv feeders and in

certain cases 33kv levels depending on the amount of load to be

shed as instructed by the NCC (National Control Centre).

LOAD CURVE

Load curve is a graphical representation of load with respect to

time in hours. The load curve shows the variation of load on the

power station. The load on a power station is never constant it

varies from time to time. These load variations during the whole

day (24hours) are recorded half-hourly and are plotted against

time and on the graph, on which it could be daily, weekly,

monthly and annually.

19
THE IMPORTANCE OF LOAD CURVE

Load curve and duration curves help in the followings:

1. In the estimation of generating cost

2. The selecting the proper sequence in generating units

should be run.

3. The selection of economical sizes of generating units

4. As an aid to forecasting power generating needs for future

expansion

5. The daily load curve different hours of the day.

6. The area under the daily load curve gives the number of

unit generated in the day. i.e

Unit generated /day = Area (in kwhr) under daily load C

7. The highest point on the daily load curve represents the

maximum demand on the station on that day.

8. The area under the daily load curve divided by the total

number of hours gives the average load on the station in the

day i.e

Area under the daily load curve = the average load

Total number of hours

On the station in the day

20
:- Average load = Area in (kwhr) under daily load curve

24 hours

The ratio of the area under the load curve to the total area of

rectangle in which it is contained gives the load factor.

Load factor = Area in (kwhr) under daily load curve

Maximum Demand

Average load x 24

Max. demand x 24

Load Factor = Area in (kwhr) under daily load curve

Total area in rectangular in which the load curve is

contained

FACTOR INFLUENCING COST OF ELECTRICITY SUPPLY

These factors determine the size and the necessary capital

investment needed to set up a plant and also the various factors

are used in computing parameters of power plant loads. The

factors are

- Demand factors

- Average demand

21
 - Connected load

- Plant use factor,

- Maximum demand

- Diversity factor and load factor.

Plant use factor: This is the ratio of kwhr generated to the

product of plant capacity and the number of hours for which the

plant was in operation . i.e. plant use factor.

Demand: This is defined as load requirement over a small period

of time.

Demand Factor Factor: It is the ratio maximum demand on the

power station to it connecting load.

Demand factor factor = Maximum demand

Connected load

Connected Load: Refers to the sum of ratingin kw of equipment

installed on the consumer premises.

Maximum Demand: It is the greatest demand of load on the

power station during a given period.

Average Demand Load: The average loads occurring on the

power station in a given period (day, month or year).

22
Daily average load = No of units (kwhr) generated in a day

24 hours

Monthly average load = No of units (kwhr) generated in a month

No of hours in a month

Yearly average load = No of units (kwhr) generated in a year

No of hours in a year

= No of units (kwhr) generated in a year

24 x 365

Diversity Factor = Sum of individual max demands

Maximum demand of power station

Plant capacity Factor: It is the ratio of actual energy produced is

the maximum possible energy that could have been produced

during a given period.

Plant capacity factor: Actual energy produced

Max . energy that could have been produced

VARIABLE LOADS (BASE, INTERMEDIATE AND PEAK) BASE,

INTERMEDIATE AND PEAK LOAD

23
Base load – base load is the load below, which the demand never

fails and must be supplied 100% of all the time. The power plants

use to supply the load at the base portion of the load curve. This

is called as base load power plants. Base load plants run

continuously throughout the year. They have large capacities and

are expected to be very efficient. Base load plants are also

expected to have low maintenance costs. Hydropower stations

and Nuclear power station are often used to provide base loading

requirement.

Intermediate Load: An intermediate load is the load that satisfies

the average load demand.

Thermal power stations are usually employed to satisfy this

intermediate load.

Peak load: Peak load is the load that will satisfy the maximum

load demand in a given period. Peak load plants should be

capable of quick starting, should be of a smaller capacity and

should be for a short period in the whole year. Gas turbine units,

diesel generating units and pumped hydropower system of

medium sizes are often used and to satisfy peak loading

24
requirements. Gas turbine generating units are popular because

they can be started few minutes.

UNIT GENERATING PER ANNUM

It is often required to find the kwhr generated per annum from

maximum demand and load factor.

The procedure are:-

Load Factor = Average load = average load = M.D x L.F

Max . demand

:- Units generated/annum = average load (kw) x hours in a year

= max . (kw) x LF x 8760

Example: The maximum demand on a power station is 100MW if

the annual load factor is 40%, calculate the total energy

generated in a year.

Solution:

Energy generated in a year = M.D . L.F x Hours in a year

= (100 x 10) x 0.4 x 24 x 365 kwhr

= 3504 x 105 kwhr

25
Example:

A generating station has a connected load of 43MW and

maximum demand of 20MW, the units generated being 61 x 10 +6

per annum. Calculate

i. The demand factor and

ii. Load factor

Demand factor 20
(I) Connected load
=max . dm= =20.4565
43

Units generate/annum
(II) Average demand = hours ∈a year

6
61.5 x 10
=7020 kw
8759

Average Demand 7020

Example: An individual consumer having a maximum demand

100kw consumed 500,000 units of electricity/ annum determine

his load factor.

Solution

A . D( Average demand)
Load factor = M . D(Maximum Demand )

500,000
Load Factor = 100 x 365 x 24 =57.1 % (¿ 0.571)

26
Examples: A power station has to supply load as follows:

Time 0–6 6 – 12 12 – 14 14 – 18 18 – 24

(hours)

30 90 60 100 50

a. Draw the load curve

b. Draw the load duration curve

c. Choose a suitable generating unit to supply the load

d. Calculate the load factor

Solution

Example:

A power station has to meet the following demand

a. 200kw between 8 am and 6 pm

27
b. 100kw between 6 am and 10 am

c. 50 kw between 6 am and 10 am

d. 100 kw between 10 am and 6 pm and then between 6 pm and

6 am plot the daily load curve and determine

1. Diversity factor

2. Unit generated per day

3. Load factor

Solution

Table for the load cycle

Time 0–6 6–8 8 – 10 10 – 18 18 – 24

(Hours)

Loads - - 200 kw 200 kw -

(kw)

A -

B - 100kw 100kw - -

C - 50 kw 50 kw - -

D 100 kw 100 kw 100 kw

Total 100 kw 150 kw 350 kw 300 kw 100 kw

From the maximum demand MD = 350 kw

28
Sum of individual max demand of groups = 200 + 100 + 150 +

100 = 400 kw

1. Diversity factor (DF) = 450 ¿ ¿

= 1.286

2. Unit generated/ day = Area (kwhr) under load curve = (100 x

6) + (150 x 2) + (350 x 2) + (300 x 8) + (100 x 6) = 4600 kwhr

units generated /day 4600

average load 191.7

LINE SUPPORTS

Line supports refers to the supporting structure for over head

line conductors at various types of poles and towers.

In general, the line supports should have the following

properties:-

 High mechanical strength to withstand the weight of

conductors and wind, loads , etc

 Light in weight without the loss of mechanical strength

29
  Cheap in cost and economical to maintain

 Longer life spam

 Easy accessibility of conductors for maintenance

The line supports used for transmission and distribution of

electric power are of various types including wooden poles, steels

pole, RCC and Lattice steel towers. The choice of supporting

structure for a particular case depend on the line span, X-

sectional area , line voltage, cost and local conditions.

Wooden Poles:- These are made of seasoned wood (Sal or Chir)

and are suitable for lines of moderate X-sectional area of

relatively shorter span say up to 50 metres such support is

cheap, and easily available provide insulating properties and

therefore are widely used for distribution purposes in rural areas

as an economical proposition.

The main objective to wooden supports are:

 Tendency to rot below the ground level

 Comparatively smaller life span 20 – 25 years

 Cannot be used for voltages higher than 20 kv

 Less mechanical strength

 Requires prodical inspection

30
Steel Poles:- The steel poles are often used as a substitute for

wooden poles. They possess greater mechanical strength, longer

life span permit longer spans to be used. Such poles are

generally used for distribution purposes in the cities. This types

of supports need to be galvanized or painted in order to prolong

their life span.

The steel poles are of 3 types

(i) Rail Poles (ii) Tubular Poles (iii) Rolled Steel joints

RCC Poles – The Reinforced concrete poles have become very

popular as line support in recent year, they have greeters

mechanical strength, longer life span and permit longer spans

than steel poles: Moreover, they give good out look, require. Little

maintenance and have good insulating properties. The poles in

the poles facilitate the climbing of poles and at the same time

reduce the weight of line support. The main difficulty with the

use of these poles is the high cost of transport owing to their

heavy weight, therefore each poles are often manufactured at the

site in order to avoid heavy cost of transportation.

Steel Tower:- In frctiles, wooden, steel and reinforced concrete

poles are used for distribution purpose at low voltage, say up to

31
11kv. However, for long distance transportation at higher voltage,

steel toner are invariably employed. Steel have greater

mechanical strength, longer life span, can withstand most severe

climate conditions and permit the use of longer spans. The risk of

interrupted service due to broken or punctured insulation is

considerably reduced owing to longer spans. Tower footings are

usually grounded by driving roads into the earth. This minimizes

the lightening conductor.

CONSTRUCTION OF UNDERGROUND CABLES

An underground cable essentially consists of one or more

conductors covered with suitable insulation and surrounded by a

protection covers.

Although severe types of cables are available , the type of cable to

be will depend upon the working voltage and service

32
requirements. In general, a cable must fulfill the following

necessary requirements.

1. The conductor used in cable should be tinned stranded

copper or aluminium of high conductivity. Stranding is done

so that conductor may become flexible carrying more

current.

2. The conductor size should be such that the cable carries the

desired load current without over heating and causes

voltage drop within permissible limits.

3. The cable must have proper thickness of insulation in order

to give high degree of safety and reliability at the voltage for

which it is designed.

4. The cable must be provide with suitable mechanical

protection so that it may withstand the rough use in laying

it.

CONSTRUCTION OF CABLES

The various general parts of cables are:-

Cores or conductors, insulation, metallic sheath, Bedding ,

Armouring.

33
 1. Cores or conductor:- A cable may have one or more than

one core (Conductor) depending upon the type of service for

which it is intended. For example, the 3-Q service. The

conductor are made of tinned copper or aluminium and are

usually stranded in order to provided flexible to the cable.

2. Insulation:- Each core or conductor is provided with a

suitable thickness of layer depending upon the voltage to be

withstood by the cable. The commonly used materials for

unsulation are impregnated paper, varnished or mineral

compound.

3. Metal Shealth:- In order to protect the cable from moisture,

gases or other damaging liquids (acid or alkalis) in the soil

and atmosphere a metallic shealth of lead or aluminum is

provided over the insulation.

4. Bedding :- Over the metallic sheath is applied a layer of

bedding which consist of a fibrous matrol like jute. The

purpose of bedding is to protect the metallic sheath against

corrosion and from mechanical injury due to armouring.

Armouring:- Over bedding, armouring is provided which consists

of one or two layers of galvanized steel wire or steel material (like

jute). Similar to bedding is provided over the armouring. It may

34
not be out of place to mention have that bedding, armouring are

only applied to the cables for the protection of conductor

insulation and also protect the metallic sheath from mechanical

injury.

INSULATING MATERIALS FOR CABLES

Insulating materials for cable have the following properties:

i. High insulation resistance to avoid leakage current

ii. High dielectric strength to avoid electrical breakout of

cables

iii. High mechanical strength to withstand the mechanical

handling cables.

Insulating material for cables should be non-hydroscopic, that is,

it should not absorb moisture from air or oil.

The moisture tends to decrease the insulating resistance and

hastens the break-down of the cable. In case of the insulation

material is hygroscopic; it must be enclosed in a water proof

covering like a lead sheath.

It should be non-inflammable.

35
36