Wave forms and wave Generators

Classification of Non-sinusoidal Oscillators

The oscillators which generate waveforms other than sine waveform are called non-sinusoidal
oscillators or relaxation oscillators. Non-sinusoidal waveforms include: square, rectangular,
sawtooth and pulse-shaped waves.
A relaxation oscillator may be defined as a circuit in which voltage or current changes
abruptly from one value to another and which continues to oscillate between these two values as
long as dc power is supplied to it.
We will consider the following three types of such oscillators:
1. Sawtooth generators 2. Blocking oscillators 3. Multivibrators (MV)

Any waveform whose shape is different from that of a standard sine wave is called non-
sinusoidal waveform. Examples are: square, rectangular, saw tooth, triangular waveforms
and pulses as shown in figure below.

(a) Pulses
A pulse may, in general, be defined as a voltage or current that changes rapidly from one level of
amplitude to another i.e. it is an abrupt discontinuity in voltage or current. These pulses are
extensively used in digital electronics.
1. Mark-to-Space Ratio (MSR)
pulse width 1us
MSR    0.25
time between pulses 4us
Hence, mark-to-space ratio of the pulse shown in Fig (a) is 1 : 4.

2. Pulse Repetition Time (PRT)

It may be defined as the time between the beginning of one pulse and that of the other.
As seen from Fig. (a), PRT = 5 μs
3. Pulse Repetition Fre quency (PRF)
 It is given by the number of pulses per second.

Pulse circuits find applications in almost all electronic-based industries. Various types of pulse
code modulations are employed in communication systems whereas radars utilize pulses to track
targets. Digital computers require circuits that can be switched very rapidly between two states
by using appropriate pulses.

(b) Square Wave

It is shown in Fig (b) and is, in fact, a pulse waveform with a mark-to-space ratio of 1:1
Such square waves or pulses are used
1. for audio frequency note generation,
2. for digital electronic switching as in computers,
3 in radars,
4. as synchronizing pulses in TV,
5. for switching of high-power electronic circuits such as thyristor circuits.

(c) Sawtooth Wave

It is shown in Fig. (c). Such waves are used
1. in the scanning circuits of cathode-ray tubes (CRT),
2. in timing circuits where the time for the wave to proceed from one level to another is
measured, such as that produced in an integrating circuit.
(d) Triangular Wave
It is shown in Fig. (d). Such waves are often used
1. in scanning circuits where a uniform left-to-right scan is required as in computer displays,
2. for audio frequency note generation,
3. in timing circuits for electronic applications

Pulse Definitions
Due to capacitive effects in a transistor (or to circuit elements external to it), its output does not
directly follow its input. For example, if we apply a square input pulse to its E/B junction, some
amount of time lapses before IC starts to rise. Similarly, when the input becomes zero, there is
some time lapse before IC starts to decrease. There is always some time delay between the
application of input and change in the output. In order to measure how quickly the output
changes i.e. in order to define the switching (i.e.OFF/ON) characteristics of a transistor, we will
define the following few terms. It will be assumed that perfect square wave, as shown in Fig.
65.23 (a), has been applied at the input. The output wave and the various time delays are shown
in Fig. 65.23 (b).
1. Time delay, td
It is the time interval between the beginning of the input pulse and the time the output voltage (or
current) reaches 10 per cent of its maximum value.
It depends on (i) depletion region capacitances, (ii) turn-on base current and (iii) value of
transistor β.
2. Rise time, tr
It is the time taken by the output voltage (or current) to rise from 10% to 90% of its ma ximum
value. It primarily depends on diffusion capacitance CD of the transistor.
3. Turn-on time TON
It is equal to the sum of the delay time and rise time i.e. TON = td+ tr
4. Storage time, Ts
It is the time interval between the end of the input pulse (trailing edge) and the time when
output voltage (or current) falls to 90% of its initial maximum value.
It depends on the degree of saturation. Deeper the transistor is driven into saturation, more the
stored charge that has to be removed and hence longer the storage time. That is why non-
saturated switching is often preferred.
5. Fall time, tf
It is the time interval during which the output voltage (or current) falls from 90% of its
maximum value to 10%.
In simple words, it is the time interval between 90% and 10% levels of the output pulse.
6. Turn-off time, TOFF
It is equal to the sum of storage time and fall time i.e. TOFF = ts + tf .For a fast switching
transistor, TON and TOFF must be of the order of nanoseconds.
7. Pulse Width, W
It is the time duration of the output pulse measured between two 50% levels of the rising and
falling waveform.

Basic Require ments of a Sawtooth Gene rator

The essential requirements of a sawtooth generator
are:
1. a dc power source, 2. a switching device
3. a capacitor, 4. a resistor.

Circuit Action
The V/I characteristics of the RC circuit play an important role in the operation of such a
generator. By restricting the time interval equal to the time constant λ = CR, only the rising
portion of the characteristic (OA in Fig. 65.24) which is almost a straight line, is utilized. For
periods of time greater than λ , the rising portion of the characteristic is no longer a straight line
and hence cannot be utilized. The frequency of the wave is given by the reciprocal of time which
elapses between the two waves. In Fig. 65.24, f = 1/λ.

UJT Sawtooth Generator

The circuit is shown in Fig. 65.25. It consists of a power source, a unijunction transistor and an
R-C network.
Circuit Action
When S is initially closed, following chain of events takes place :
1. a small current is set up through R2 and R1 via B2 and B1 and an initial reverse bias is
established across the E/B1 junction;
2. at the same time, C begins to get charged through RE and voltage across it increases
exponentially with time towards the target voltage V;
3. When capacitor voltage equals the emitter firing (or peak point) voltage VP, E/B1 junction
becomes forward-biased and the emitter goes into the negative region of its characteristic;
4. being forward-biased, E/B1 junction offers very low resistance. Hence, C starts discharging
through B1 and R1 at a rate determined mainly by E/B1 junction resistance and R1;
5. as capacitor voltage approaches zero, the E/B1 junction again becomes reverse-biased and
so stops conducting;
6. we revert to the initial state where C begins to charge and the whole cycle of circuit actions
is repeated.
The emitter voltage waveform is shown in Fig. 65.25 (b). As seen, VE rises exponentially
towards the target voltage V but drops to a very low value after it reaches the value VP due to
sudden conduction through E/B1 junction. Since RE is large (10 K or so) charging rate is
comparatively slow but discharge is much quicker since R1 is very small (50 Ω or less). This
slow charge and fast discharge produces a sawtooth wave.
The time required for νE to rise to VP is given by
Here, RB1 and RB2 are the internal inter-base resistances.
The frequency of oscillation of the UJT or of the output sawtooth wave is

Its amplitude is determined primarily by applied voltage V and VP.

Applications
Sawtooth voltage waves are commonly used as
1. sweep voltages at the picture tubes of TV receivers,
2. as sweep voltages of the viewing screens of oscilloscopes and radar equip ment

65.29. Multivibrators (MV)

These devices are very useful as pulse generating, storing and counting circuits. They are
basically two-stage amplifiers with positive feedback from the output of one amplifier to the
input of the other. This feedback (Fig. 65.26) is supplied in such a manner that one transistor is
driven to saturation and the other to cut-off. It is followed by new set of conditions in which the
saturated transistor is driven to cut-off and the cut-off transistor is driven to saturation.
There are three basic types of MVs distinguished by the type of coupling network employed.
1. astable multivibrator (AVM),
2. monostable multivibrator (MMV),
3. bistable multivibrator (BMV).
The first one is the non-driven type whereas the other two are the driven type (also called
triggered oscillators).

1. Astable Multivibrator (AMV)

It is also called free-running relaxation oscillator. It has no stable state but only two quasistable
(half-stable) states between which it keeps oscillating continuously of its own accord without any
external excitation.
In this circuit, neither of the two transistors reaches a stable state. When one is ON, the other is
OFF and they continuously switch back and forth at a rate depending on the RC time constant in
the circuit. Hence, it oscillates and produces pulses of certain mark-to-space ratio. Moreover, two
outputs (180° out of phase with each other) are available. It has two energy-storing elements i.e.
two capacitors.

2 . Monostable Multivibrator (MMV)

It is also called a single-shot or single swing or a one-shot multivibrator. Other names are :delay
multivibrator and univibrator.
It has (i) one absolutely stable (stand-by) state and (ii) one quasi-stable state. It can be switched
to the quasi-stable state by an external trigger pulse but it returns to the stable condition after a
time delay determined by the value of circuit components. It supplies a single output pulse of a
desired duration for every input trigger pulse. It has one energy-storing element i.e. one
capacitor.
This circuit is used to generate rectangular waveform. The time between the transition from
quasi-stable state to stable state can be predetermined and hence it can be used to introduce time
delays with the help of fast transition. Due to this application, it is also called delay circuit.
3. Bistable Multivibrator (BMV)
It is also called Eccles-Jordan or flip- flop multivibrator. It has two absolutely stable states. It
can remain in either of these two states unless an external trigger pulse switches it from one state
to the other. Obviously, it does not oscillate. It has no energy storage element.
The bistable multivibrator is used for the performance of many digital operations such as
counting and storing of the binary information .This multibrator circvuit also finds applications
in the generationand processing of pulse-type waveforms.
The general form of a bistable multivibrator circuit is shown below
The A1 and A2 are the active devices which are transistors,X,Y and Z are the three terminals of a
transistor. The output of each transistor amplifier stage is directly coupled to the input of the
other stage.
Let I1 and I2 be the quiescent currents of the two stages.From the symmetry of the circuit,its
expected that both the currents must be the same.These will be the same if both devices are
operated in cutoff or in saturation region.
Let us assume that both devices are in active region and carry equal currents I1and I2.These
currents can be obtained using kirchoff’s laws and such a state of the circuit is called equilibrium
state.But this state is not stable though equilibrium.

Uses of Multivibrators
Some of their uses are :
1. as frequency dividers, 2. as sawtooth generators,
3. as square wave and pulse generators,
4. as a standard frequency source when synchronized by an external crystal oscillator,
5. for many specialised uses in radar and TV circuits,
6. as memory elements in computers.

Astable Multivibrator
Fig. 65.27 shows the circuit of a symmetrical collector-coupled AMV using two similar
transistors. It, in fact, consists of two CE amplifier stages, each providing a feedback to the other.
The feedback ratio is unity and positive because of 180° phase shift in each stage. Hence, the
circuit oscillates. Because of the very strong feedback signal, the transistors are driven either to
saturation or to cut-off (they do not work on the linear region of their characteristics).
The transistor Q1 is forward-biased by VCC and R1 whereas Q2 is forward-biased by VCCand
R2. The collector-emitter voltages of Q1 and Q2 are determined respectively by RL1 and RL2
together with VCC. The output of Q1 is coupled to the input of Q2 by C2 whereas output of Q2
is coupled to Q1 by C1.
Note that it is not essential to draw the coupling leads at 45° to the vertical as shown but it is
usually done because it helps to identify the circuit immediately as MV.

The output can be taken either from point A or B though these would be phase-reversed with
respect to each other as shown in Fig. 65.27.
Circuit Operation
The circuit operation would be easy to understand if it is remembered that due to feedback
(i) when Q1 is ON, Q2 is OFF and (ii) when Q2 is ON, Q1 is OFF.
When the power is switched on by closing S, one of the transistors will start conducting before
the other does (or slightly faster than the other). It is so because characteristics of no two
seemingly
similar transistors can be exactly alike. Suppose that Q1 starts conducting before Q2 does. The
feedback system is such that Q1 will be very rapidly driven to saturation and Q2 to cut-off.
The following sequence of events will occur :
1. Since Q1 is in saturation, whole of VCC drops across RL 1. Hence, VC1 = 0 and point A is at
zero or ground potential.
2. Since Q2 is in cut-off i.e. it conducts no current, there is no drop across R L2. Hence, point
B is at VCC.
3. Since A is at 0 V, C2 starts to charge through R2 towards VCC.
4. When voltage across C2 rises sufficiently (i.e. more than 0.7 V), it biases Q2 in the forward
direction so that it starts conducting and is soon driven to saturation.
5. VC2 decreases and becomes almost zero when Q2 gets saturated. The potential of point B
decreases from VCC to almost 0 V. This potential decrease (negative swing) is applied to the
base of Q1 through C1. Consequently, Q1 is pulled out of saturation and is soon driven to
cut-off.
6. Since, now, point B is at 0 V, C1 starts charging through R1 towards the target voltage VCC.
7. When voltage of C1 increases sufficiently, Q1 becomes forward-biased and starts conducting.
In this way, the whole cycle is repeated.
It is seen that the circuit alternates between a state in which Q1 is ON and Q2 is OFF and a state
in
which Q1 is OFF and Q2 is ON. The time in each state depends on RC values. Since each
transistor is
driven alternately into saturation and cut-off the voltage wavefrom at either collector (points A
and B in
Fig. 65.27) is essentially a square waveform with a
peak amplitude equal to VCC (Fig. 65.28).