MEDIEVAL

INDIA
Preface:
These notes are prepared for Ancient India by referring following sources:
1. Old NCERT class 11
2. New NCERT class 12 – Themes of Indian History – Part 2
3. TN class 11 History book
4. Shankar IAS Ancient history book
5. https://www.insightsonindia.com/medieval-indian-history/
6. https://onlyias.com/medieval-history/
These notes hopefully might make a good use during your preparation period.
Aspirants are requested to make a good use of it.

Unit Name Page

No No
1 Pallavas & Chalukyas 1
2 Major dynasties of Early Medieval 17
Period
3 Ghaznavid & Turkish invasions 32
4 Chola Empire (9th – 12th century) 35
5 Delhi Sultanate 39
6 Regional Kingdoms 54
7 Rajput states 58
8 Vijayanagar & Bahmani Sultans 61
9 Mughal Empire 71
10 Bhakti & Sufi movement 86
11 Maratha state & Maratha confederacy 99
 MEDIEVAL INDIA

Unit: Pallavas & Chalukyas

Topics: Pallavas and Chalukyas in South; Administration & Economy, Chalukya art, Pallava art &
literature

Pallavas:

Introduction:
 The Pallavas ruled south-eastern India from the 3rd through the 9th centuries CE. Their empire
covered what is today the Tamil Nadu state.
 Their origin is shrouded in mystery though historians believe their roots might have been from
Andhra Pradesh state, north of Tamil Nadu. The Pallavas were one of the greatest dynasties of
South India. They played significant role in the political, social and cultural history of South
India.
 Pallava are identical with the pulindas mentioned in Ashoka’s inscriptions.
 Pallavas ruled from Kanchi and Mahabalipuram/Mamallapuram as their capital

History:
 Early Pallavas
o Pallavas rose to the power during the latter part of the Ikshvaku rule in Andhra.
 Pallava king, Simhavarma defeated the Ikshvaku king Rudrapurushadatta in
300 CE and established Pallava rule in Coastal Andhra, which was known at
that time as, ”Karmarashtra” and started as a political power in south India.
o It is believed that Simhavarma ( 280- 335 CE ) was the founder of this dynasty
and Sivaskandavarman who ruled probably about the beginning of the fourth century
CE, seems to have been the greatest of the early Pallavas.
o Early Pallavas came into conflict with the Kadambas, who had founded their rule in
Northern Karnataka was founed by Mayurasarnam. It is said that he came to receive
education at Kanchi, but was driven out and defeated Pallavas with help of forest tribes
however Pallavas recognized authority of Mayurasarnam with royal signia who is said
to have performed 18 ashvamedhas. Kadambas - established their capital at Vaijayanti
or Banavasi in North Kanara district in Karnataka.
o Gangas another contemporary of Pallavas – set up their rule in southern Karnataka
around 4 th century. They are called Western Gangas or Gangas of Mysore in order to
demarcate themselves from Eastern Gangas who ruled in Kalinga from 5 th century;
made mostly land grants to Jains
 His dominions extended from the Krishna to the South Pennar and upto the
Bellary district.
o Nandivarman I was the last of the early Pallava kings. During his time the Pallava
kingdom experienced the invasion of the Kalabhras.

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 o The conflict between Pallavas and Chalukyas was for region between land lying
between Krishna and Tungabhadra
 Imperial Pallavas
o Simhavishnu (575 – 590 CE), was the first ruler of this line
 Simhavishnu defeated the Kalabhras and laid foundation for the establishment
of the “Age of the Imperial Pallavas”.
o Mahendravarman I (590 – 630 CE), was a versatile genius.
 The long drawn Pallava-Chalukya conflict began during this period
 He was defeated by Chalukya King Pulikeshi II
 Gunabhara, Satyasandha, Chettakari (Temple – maker), Chitrakarapuli
(painter), Vichitrachitta and Mattavilasa were titles used for Mahendravarman
I
 Mandagapathu inscriptions mentions beginning of rock cut temple
constructions
 He was versatile genius having expertise over painting, music and literature;
composed a satirical drama Mattavilasa Prahasanam in Sanskrit
 Music inscriptions at Kudumiamalai were ascribed to him.
o Narasimhavarman I (630 – 668 CE), was the greatest of the Pallavas who raised the
power and prestige of the dynasty to an amazing height
 He had the title Mahamalla or Mamalla, founded great city of Mahabalipuram
 The Pallava-Chalukya conflict that was started by his father was successfully
continued by him
 Narasimhavarman I defeated Chalukya King Pulikeshin II at the battle of
Maninmangalam as per the Kuram copper plate inscriptions
 On conquering Badami (Vatapi), he assumed title of ‘Vatapikonda’
 Another notable achievement of Narasimhanvarman I was his novel expedition
to Srilanka, to reinstate the Sinhalese princes Manavarman
 During his reign Hiuen Tsang visited the Pallava capital Kanchi and noted that
Buddhism and Jainism flourished in the city besides Hindusim
 Besides he was a great builder having constructed Mamallappuram and created
the Monolithic Rathas (Rock-cut Rathas) during his reign.
 Mahendravarman II (668 – 670 CE), ruled for a very short period of two years, since he was
killed by Chalukya king Vikramaditya I.
 Paramesvaravarman I (670 – 695 CE), finally won a decisive victory over the Chalukyas and
their ally, the Gangas.
 Narasimhavarman II (695 – 722 CE), had the title ”Rajasimha‟. He enjoyed a peaceful reign
and credited with the construction of large and beautiful temples like the Shore temple at
Mamallapuram and the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi.

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 o The famous Sanskrit scholar Dandin is said to have adorned his court.
o He sent embassies to China and the maritime trade flourished during his reign
o Patronized Perundevannar who translated Mahabharata in Tamil and named
Bharathavenba

 Nandivarman II (731 – 795 CE), was a worshipper of Vishnu and a great patron of learning.
o During his reign, several old temples were renovated and new ones like the
Vaikuntaperumal temple at Kanchi were constructed.
 End of the Pallava Rule
o Vikramaditya II’s attack and the temporary occupation of Kanchi may be regarded as
the beginning of the end of the Pallava supremacy over South India.
 Also, The Pandyas, the western Gangas and the Rashtrakutas attacked the Pallava kingdom.
 The Pallava rule lasted till the end of the 9th Century CE
o Nandivarman III (846 – 869 CE), Nripatunga (869 – 899 CE) were the other rulers.
o Aparajitavarman (903 CE), was the last Pallava king
 The Chola king Aditya I defeated the Aparjitavarman and seized the Kanchi region.
o With this, the Pallava domination over South India came to an end.

Administration:
 The Pallavas had a well-organized administrative system.
o Monarchy was the order of the day.

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 o The title ”Dharma-Maharaja‟ assumed by the kings show that they exercised their rule
righteously.
o The king was the head of the state, the fountain of honour, judge, and leader of the
armed forces.
 The Pallava state was divided into Kottams. The Kottam was administered by officers appointed
by the king
 Group of villages were called Nadu. The village is the basic unit of administration.
 Group of Nadus were called as ‘Nagaram’ (organization of merchants)
o Different types of villages like villages with inter caste population, Brahmadeya and
Devadana existed during this period.
o The village administration was run by various local autonomous assemblies.
 Sabha, Urar, were the most popular assembles of this period.
o Every village had got a court of justice, viz.Dharamasasana.
o Every village was provided with professional servants like potters, weavers, carpenters,
smiths etc.
o It appears that the village acted like self-sufficient miniature republics in the Pallava
period.
o Entrusting the administration of a smaller territorial to an assembly or a local
autonomous institution appears to be a very important feature of t he Pallava polity
o Non Brahmin land owners assemblies were called ‘Ur’
 Land revenue was the major source of income.
o The Pallavas also levied taxes on professions, marriages, manufacture of salt, sugar
and textiles, draught cattle etc.,
o It is evident from the testimony of Hiuen Tsang that the people were very hard working
and the soil was very fertile, the labourers who did agricultural work were paid in kind.

Society & Religion:

 The heterodox religions viz. Buddhism and Jainism were still very active in the Pallava
kingdom, which is evident from the testimony of Hieun Tsang
o Jainism enjoyed popularity in the beginning.
 Most of the Pallava kings were the followers of both Vaishnavis m and Saivism.
o The Pallava kings assumed not only the title “Dharma -Maharaja‟ but also performed
the Vedic sacrifices like Agnisthoma, Vajapeya and Asvamedha sacrifices, which were
in conformity with the Vedic sacrifices.
o As a result, Buddhism and Jainism lost the royal patronage and mass support.
 This paved the way for the rise of Vedic religion.
o Besides the performance of Vedic sacrifices, the worship of gods Brahma, Vishnu and
Siva became popular.

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 o From the 7th century onwards the Nayanars and Alvars contributed to the growth of
Saivism and Vaishnavism. This is known Bhakti movement.
o The cult of Bhakti began to dominate the religious life of the South Indians, and
the Alvars (Vaishnav sage – poets; Important: Perialvar, Andal – poetess, Nammalvar,
Kusashekhar) and Nayanars (Shaiva sage – poets; important; Thirunavukkarasar or
Appar, Sundarar or Sundaramurti; Sambandar; Manikkavasagar) played a great part in
propagating it
 The Vedic tradition was further reinforced by a movement started by Sankaracharya.
o This movement was aimed at cleaning the Vedic philosophy of its obscurities and its
inconsistencies thereby making it both comprehensible and acceptable to the people at
large.
o Sankaracharya achieved fame by advocating Advaita philosophy.
 Four – fold caste system became rigid & Brahmana occupied dominant position as Pallava were
orthodox Brahmanical Hindus.

Education and Literature:

 The Pallavas were great patrons of learning.
o The University of Kanchi became the nucleus of learning and intellectualism. It
attracted students from different parts of India and abroad.
o The founder of the Kadamaba dynasty, Mayurasarman, studied Vedas at Kanchi.
 Several works in Sanskrit were produced during this period.
o The Kiratarjuniyam of Bharavi, Dasakumaracharita of Dandi and the
Mattavilasaprahasana of Mahendravarman I were the best Sanskrit works of the period.
 The Tamil literature had also developed under the patronage of the Pallavas.
o Tiruvelluvar, the author of ‘kural’ lived during this period.
o Perundevanar was patronized by Nandivarman II and he translated Mahabharata into
Tamil.
o The ‘Thevaram’ composed by
the Nayanars and ‘Nalayaradivyaprabhandam’ composed by the Alvars represent the
religious literature of the period.
o Periayapuranas: collection of songs in love and de votion of Shiva
o The Tamil devotional saints exploited music and dance to realize the ‘concept of
compassionate God’.
o The religious hymns were sung with the accompaniment of music and dance. This
became a regular feature in the temple festivals.

Art and Architecture:

 The religious revival of the period gave an impetus to the architectural activity.
 The contribution of the Pallavas to the Indian Art and Architecture is immense.

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 In fact the history of Dravidian style of Indian Architecture in the south began with the
Pallavas.
o It was a gradual evolution starting from the cave temples to the monolithic Rathas and
culminated in structural temples.
 The Five Rathas popularly called as the ‘Pancha Pandava Rathas (Rock -cut Rathas), at
Mamallapuram signifies five different styles of Architecture.

Pancha Rathas of Mamallapuram

 The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi and Shore temple at Mamallapuram remain the finest
examples of early structural temples of the Pallavas. The Kailasanatha temple is the greatest
Architectural master piece of Pallava Art.

The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi

 The Pallavas had also contributed to the development of sculpture.
o The Mandapas contain beautiful sculptures on its walls.
o The sculpture depicting the ‘Descent of Ganges or the Penance of Arjuna’ at
Mamallapuram is a master piece of classical art.
 Music, Dance and Painting had also developed under the patronage of the Pallavas.
 Also, the Paintings at the caves of Sittannavasal belonged to the Pallava period

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 Paintings at the caves of Sittannavasal
Legacy
 The crowning achievement of the Pallavas was that they became torch-bearers of Hindu
culture in South-East Asia.
 This later on paved the way for the creation of Greater India.

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Chalukyas:

Introduction:
 The Chalukya dynasty refers to an Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and
central India between the sixth and twelfth centuries.
 During this period, they ruled as three closely related, but individual dynasties.
o The earliest dynasty, known as the Badami Chalukyas, ruled from their capital Badami
from the middle of the sixth century.
 The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of
the Kadamba kingdom of Banavasi and rapidly rose to prominence during the
reign of Pulakesi II.
o After the death of Pulakesi II, the Eastern Chalukyas became an independent kingdom
in the eastern Deccan.
 They ruled from the capital Vengi until about the eleventh century.
o In the western Deccan, the rise of the Rashtrakutas in the middle of eighth century
eclipsed the Chalukyas of Badami before being revived by their descendants, the
Western Chalukyas in late tenth century.
 Those Western Chalukyas ruled from Basavakalyan till the end of the twelfth
century.

Significance:
 The rise of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of South India and
a golden age in the history of Karnataka.
 The political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with
the rise of Badami Chalukyas.
 For the first time in history, a South Indian kingdom took control and consolidated the entire
region between the Kaveri and the Narmada rivers.
 The rise of that empire also saw the birth of efficient administration, rise in overseas
trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called Vesara.
 Around the ninth century, it also saw the growth of Kannada as a language of literature in the
Jaina Puranas, Veerashaiva Vachanas and Brahmanical traditions.
 Further, the eleventh century saw the birth of Telugu literature under the patronage of
the Eastern Chalukyas.
 The Aihole inscription issued by Pulakesin II substantiates that he was most important ruler of the
dynasty.
 Ravikirti, the court poet of Pulakesin II and composer of Aihole inscription was a Jain.
 Pulakesin II defeated Harshavardhan and limited his southward expansion till Narmada.
 He also defeated Kadambas of Banavasi and the Gangas of Mysore and established his suzerainty.
 Pulakesin II emerged victorious against first struggle with Pallavas but he was defeated by
Narasimhavarman I (Vatapikonda) of Pallavas (Kanchi) who captured the capital Vatapi (Badami).
 Pulakesin II sent an ambassador to the court of Persian King Khusrau.
 Huien Tsang, the Buddhist pilgrim from China, visited Chalukyas’ Kingdom during his reign.
 VIKRAMADITYA I: Pulakesin II was succeeded by Vikramaditya I, who pushed Pallavas out of
Badami and re-consolidated the kingdom.

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  VIKRAMADITYA II: After peaceful and prosperous reigns of Vinayaditya (681-93) and Vijayaditya
(693-733), Vikramaditya II again invaded Pallava kingdom three times, and the repelled the Arab
invasion of south Gujarat.
 KIRTIVARMAN II: He was the last ruler of the Chalukyas. Dantidurga defeated him to establish rule of
the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
 After the death of Pulakesin II, in Eastern Deccan, a branch of Chalukyas appeared with capital at Vengi.
They ruled till the 11th
 During the late 10th century, the descendants of the Chalukyas of Badami, re-appeared and ruled with
Kalyani as their capital (Basavakanlyan, western deccan).

Sources of Chalukyan History:

 Inscriptions constitute the main source of information about the Badami Chalukya history.
Important among them are:
o the Badami cave inscriptions (578) of Mangalesa
o Kappe Arabhatta record of 700
o Peddavaduguru inscription of Pulakesi II
o the Kanchi Kailasanatha inscription and
o Pattadakal Virupaksha Temple inscriptions of Vikramaditya II
 Hiuen-Tsiang, a Chinese traveller visited the court of Pulakesi II
o At the time of that visit, as mentioned in the Aihole record, Pulakesi II had divided his
empire into three Maharashtrakas or great provinces comprising of 99,000 villages
each.
o That empire possibly covered present day Karnataka, Maharashtra and coastal Konkan
 Vidyapati Bilhana, the famous poet in the court of Vikramaditya VI of the Western Chalukya
dynasty of Kalyana, mentions a legend in his work, Vikramankadeva Charita, which has been
used to reconstruct History as well.

History of the Chalukyas:

 Chalukyas of Badami
o In the sixth century, with the decline of the Gupta dynasty and their immediate
successors in northern India, major changes began to happen in the area south of the
Vindyas— the Deccan and Tamilaham
o Pulakesi I established the Chalukya dynasty in 550.
 He took Vatapi (Badami in Bagalkot district, Karnataka) under his control and
made it his capital.
 They ruled over an empire that comprised the entire state of Karnataka and
most of Andhra Pradesh in the Deccan.
o Kirtivarman founded the capital Badami
o Further, Pulakesi II had been perhaps the greatest emperor of the Badami Chalukyas.
 Pulakesi II extended the Chalukya Empire up to the northern extents of the
Pallava kingdom and halted the southward march of Harsha by defeating him
on the banks of the river Narmada.

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 o Later, the Badami Chalukya dynasty went into a brief decline following the death of
Pulakesi II due to internal feuds.
 It recovered during the reign of Vikramaditya I, who succeeded in pushing the
Pallavas out of Badami and restoring order to the empire.
 The empire reached a peak during the rule of the illustrious Vikramaditya II
o Eventually, the Rashtrakuta Dantidurga overthrew the last Badami Chalukya king
Kirtivarman I in 753.

 Chalukyas of Kalyani
o The Chalukyas revived their fortunes in 973 C.E., after over 200 years of dormancy
when the Rashtrakutas dominated much of the Deccan.
o The reign of the Kalyani Chalukyas had been a golden age in Kannada literature.
 Tailapa II, a Rashtrakuta feudatory ruling from Tardavadi-1000 (Bijapur district) overthrew
Karka II and re-established the Chalukyan kingdom and recovered most of the Chalukya empire.
o This dynasty came to be known as the Western Chalukya dynasty or Later Chalukya
dynasty.
o Scholars widely considered Vikramaditya VI the greatest ruler of the dynasty; his 50
year reign called Chalukya Vikrama Era.
 Later, the Western Chalukyas went into their final dissolution 1180 with the rise of
the Hoysalas, Kakatiya and Seuna.

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  Eastern Chalukyas
o Pulakeshin II conquered the eastern Deccan, corresponding to the coastal districts of
modern Andhra Pradesh in 616, defeating the remnants of the Vishnukundina kingdom.
o After the death of Pulakeshin II, the Vengi Viceroyalty developed into an independent
kingdom and included the region between Nellore and Visakhapatnam.
o After the decline of the Badami Chalukya empire in the mid-8th century, territorial
disputes flared up between the Rashtrakutas, the new rulers of the western deccan, and
the Eastern Chalukyas.
o Later, the fortunes of the Eastern Chalukyas took a turn around 1000 C.E.
o Initially, the Eastern Chalukyas had encouraged Kannada language and literature,
though, after a period of time, local factors took over and they gave importance
to Telugu language.
Royal Women:
 Chalukya dynasty of Jayasimhan I line appointed royal ladies as provincial governors.
 They also issued coins in some instances.
 Vijya Bhattariga, a Chalukya princess, issued inscriptions.
 Pallava queens did not take active part in the administration of the kingdom, but they built
shrines and installed images of various deities and endowed temples.
 The image of Queen Rangapataka, the queen of Rajasimha, is found in the inscription in
Kailasanatha temple in Kanchipuram.
Administration:
 Chalukyas was highly centralized unlike Chola and Pallava. Unites (villages) were in direct
control of central authorities.
o Pradhana (head minister)
o Mahasandhi – vigrahika (minister of foreign affairs)

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 o Amatya (revenue minister)
o Samaharta (minister of exchequer)
 Chalukyas maintained great naval force and small but well organized standing army that too
was contributed by feudal chiefs.
 Army officers were put to civil duties whenever an emergency arose.
Economy:
 Chalukyas of Badami practiced Brahmanism but respected other sects of religion too.
 Expansion of Barhmanism is reflected by building of temples in honour of Vishnu, Shiva and
other gods. While Jainism witnessed expansion, Buddhism declined in Chalukya’s reign and
region
 Religious sphere of life became more ritualistic

Art and Architecture:

 The period of Badami Chalukya dynasty saw art flourish in South India.
 Chalukyas contributed to the growth of Prakrit language and literature.
 It brought about some important developments in the realm of culture, particularly in the
evolution and proliferation of a new style of architecture known as Vesara, a combination of
the South Indian and the North Indian building styles.
 One of the richest traditions in Indian architecture took shape in the Deccan during that time,
called Karnataka Dravida style as opposed to traditional Dravida style.
 The fusion of Nagara and Dravidian style i.e., Vesara Style of temples started to appear during
Chalukya’s time but they distinctively developed under Rashtrakutas and Hoysalas.
 Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal are important centres of structural temples of the Chalukyas
 Ajanta (Cave paintings too), Ellora and Nasik have some of the Cave temples of Chalukya’s times.
 A number of rock-cut halls (Chaityas) were constructed and granted to Jain monks.
 Aihole-Badami and Pattadikal groups are two groups of temples of Chalukyas; of these:
o Ladh Khan temple, Durga temple (a Buddha Chaitya), Huchimalligudi temple and the Jain
temple of Meguti are in Aihole group;
o The Muktheeswara temple and the Melagutti Sivalaya are at Badami.
o At Pattadakkal, which is a UNESCO World Heritage site, there are 10 temples;
 The Papanatha temple is in Nagara style:
 The Sangamesvara temple and the Virupaksha temple are in Dravidian style.
 The Kalyani Chalukyas further refined the Vesara style with an inclination towards Dravidian
concepts, especially in the sculptures. They built fine monuments in the Tungabhadra – Krishna
river doab in present day Karnataka.
 Badami Chalukyas
o More than 150 monuments attributed to the Badami Chalukya, and built between 450
and 700, remain in the Malaprabha basin in Karnataka.
o The rock-cut temples of Pattadakal, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Badami and
Aihole constitute their most celebrated monuments. This marks the beginning of
Chalukya style of architecture and a consolidation of South Indian style.

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 Pattadkal Temple Architecture

 In Aihole, the Durga temple (sixth century), Ladh Khan temple (450), Meguti temple (634),
Hucchimalli and Huccappayya temples (fifth century), Badami Cave Temples (600) provide
examples of early Chalukyan art.

Aihole Temple Architecture

Literature:
 The rule of the Chalukyas embodies a major event in the history of Kannada and Telugu
languages.
 During the ninth – tenth century, Kannada language had already seen some of its greatest
writers. The three gems of Kannada literature, Adikavi Pampa, Sri Ponna and Ranna belonged
to that period
 In the eleventh century, the patronage of the Eastern Chalukyas, with Nannaya Bhatta as its
first writer gave birth to Telugu literature.

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  Famous writers in Sanskrit from that period include Vijnaneshwara who achieved fame by
writing Mitakshara a book on Hindu law.
 Somesvara III became a great scholar and king, compiling an encyclopedia of all arts and
sciences called
 From the period of the Badami Chalukya no major Kannada literary work has been recovered,
though many works have been referenced in later centuries.
o The extant Kappe Arabhatta record of 700 in tripadi (three line) metre represents the
earliest work in Kannada poetics.
o The literary work Karnateshwara Katha, quoted later by Jayakirti, belonged to the
period of Pulakesi II with the great king himself as the hero.
o Other Kannada writers of that time included Syamakundacharya of 650 who
wrote Prabhrita, the celebrated Srivaradhadeva also called Tumubuluracharya of
650 (who wrote Chudamani, a commentary on Tattvartha -mahashastra in 96,000
verses)

Badami Chalukya Government:

 Army
o The army consisted of infantry, cavalry, elephant corps and a powerful navy.
o Rashtrakuta inscriptions use the term Karnatabala referring to their powerful armies.
o The government levied taxes called Herjunka, Kirukula, Bilkode, and Pannaya.
 Land governance
o The empire was divided into Maharashtrakas (provinces), then into smaller Rashtrakas
(Mandala), Vishaya (district), Bhoga (group of ten villages).
o Later, many autonomous regions existed ruled by feudatories like Alupas, Gangas,
Banas, and Sendrakas. Local assemblies looked after local issues.
o Groups of mahajanas (learned brahmins), looked after agraharas (like Ghatika or place
of higher learning) like the ones at Badami (2000 mahajans) and Aihole (500
mahajanas).
 Coinage
o The Badami Chalukyas minted coins of a different standard compared to the northern
kingdoms.
o The coins had Nagari and Kannada
o They minted coins with symbols of temples, lion or boar facing right, and the lotus.
The coins weighed four grams, called honnu in old Kannada and had fractions such
as fana and the quarter fana, whose modern day equivalent being hana (literally means,
money)
 Religion
o The rule of the Badami Chalukya proved a period of religious harmony.

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 o They initially followed Vedic Hinduism, as seen in the various temples dedicated to
many popular Hindu deities with Aihole
o Later, from the time of Vikramaditya I, the people took an inclination
towards Shaivism and sects like Pashupata, Kapalikas and Kalamukhas existed.
 They actively encouraged Jainism, attested to by one of the Badami
cave temples and other Jain temples in the Aihole complex.
 Society
o The Hindu caste system appeared .
o Sati may have been absent as widows like Vinayavathi and Vijayanka are mentioned in
records.
o Devadasis’ appeared in temples.
o Sage Bharata’s Natyashastra the precursor to Bharatanatyam, the dance of South India
had been popular as seen in many sculptures and mentioned in inscriptions.V
o Women enjoyed political power in administration.

Conclusion:
 Thus, the Chalukya era may be seen as the beginning in the fusion of cultures of northern and
southern India making way for the transmission of ideas between the two regions.
o This becomes clear from an architectural point of view as the Chalukyas spawned
the Vesara style of architecture including elements of the northern nagara and southern
dravida styles.
o The expanding Sanskritic culture mingled in a region where local Dravidian
vernaculars had already become popular.
 During the Chalukya rule, the Bhakti movement gained momentum in south India in the form
of Ramanujacharya and Basavanna later spreading to north India.

Related aspects in News:

 A celebration called Chalukya utsava, a three-day festival of music and dance, organised by the
Government of Karnataka, is held every year at Pattadakal, Badami and Aihole.
o The event is a celebration of the achievements of the Chalukyas in the realm of art,
craft, music and dance.
o The program, which starts at Pattadakal and ends in Aihole, is inaugurated by the Chief
Minister of Karnataka.
o Singers, dancers, poets and other artists from all over the country take part in this event.

15
Previous Years Questions:

1. Match List – I with List – II and select the correct answer using the codes give below the lists: (1997)
List – I List - II
A Gupta 1 Badami
B Chandella 2 Panamalai
C Chalukya 3 Khajuraho
D Pallava 4 Deogarh

(a) A – 4; B – 3; C – 1; D – 2
(b) A – 4; B – 2; C – 3; D – 1
(c) A – 2; B – 3; C – 4; D – 1
(d) A – 3; B – 4; C – 1; D – 2

2. Which one of the following was a corporation of merchants in ancient India? [1997]
(a) Chaturvedimangalam
(b) Parishad
(c) Ashtadikgaja
(d) Manigrama

3. With reference to the art and archaeological history of India, which one among the following was made earliest?
(2015)
(a) Lingaraja Temple at Bhubneshwar
(b) Rock-cut Elephant at Dhauli
(c) Rock-cut Monuments at Mahabalipuram
(d) Varaha Image at Udayagiri

4. Consider the following events in the history of India: [2020-1]

1. Rise of Pratiharas under King Bhoja
2. Establishment of Pallava power under Mahendravarman - I
3. Establishment of Chola Parantaka - I
4. Pala dynasty founded by Gopala
What is the correct chronological order of the above events, starting from the earliest time?
(a) 2-1-4-3
(b) 3-1-4-2
(c) 2-4-1-3
(d) 3-4-1-2

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 MEDIEVAL INDIA

Unit: Major dynasties of Early Medieval Period

Topics: The Prathiharas, The Palas, The Senas, Rashtrakurtas

After the death of Harshavardhana India witnessed significant changes, this period is also known as twilight of
ancient India.
 Pataliputra permanently lost its prominence as symbol of sovereignty of India.
 Kanyakubja (kannauj) became symbol of sovereignty of India in early medieval times.
 For the control of kanyakubja (Ganga Yamuna doab region) three Indian dynasties waged
continuous wars, which is known as triangular warfare. Palas , Prathiharas and
Rashtrakutas participated in warfare.
 Decentralization was on its peak, paved ways for e mergence of Indian feudalism.
 Many regional powers emerged powerful, political unity of India was shattered into pieces.
 A new ruling clan RAJPUTS

The Prathiharas:

Source:
 Prithvirajraso written by Chandbadrai is the first major source for Rajput history.
 According to this book Rajputs were originated from a fire sacrifice performed at Mt.Abu .
 Prithviraj Raso is considered as the one of first book in Hindi language.
 Colnel James Todd wrote “Annals of Rajputana” or “ Rajasthan Kathavali”,According to James
Todd Rajputs were descedents of HUNs
 Somadeva suri’s “Kathasaritha sagara” also gives details of Rajputs
 Rashtrakuta poet Pampa also mention about Gujara in his book.

17
Political history:
 Known as Gurjara – Prathiara, as the originated from Gurjaras, who were primarily pastoralists and
fighters.
 Dynasty was founded by Harichandra, in and around Jodhpur, south western Rajasthan.
 Prathiaras are known for their sculptures, carved panels and open pavilion style temples. The greatest
development of their style of temple was building was at Khanjuraho, now a UNESCO World Heritage
Site.
 Sanskrit Poet & Dramatist Rajasekhara lived in the court of Mahipala–a grandson of Mihirbhoja.
 Foreign traveller Al-Masudi had visited Pratihara empire.
 They ruled Rajasthan and Gujrat region
 They claimed their origin from Laxman.
 Prathiharas acted as bulwarks against Islamic invaders
 Nagabhatta- 1 was most famous and prominent king , he came into conflict with Rashtrakuta
king Dhruva(tripartiate warfare for Kannauj)
 Nagabhtta was followed by Vatsaraja
 Vatsaraja defeated Dharmapala of Pala dynasty, but lost to Dhruv of Rashtrakuta dynasty.
 Mihirbhoj was greatest among Prathiharas, he defeated Narayanpala of Pala . He ruled long for
46 years.
 Mihirbhoj was mentioned by Arab travelers .Abu suleman called him king Juzr, al -masudi
called king Baura.
 Last king Rajyapala was defeated by Krishna 3 of Rashtrakuta and Ghazni mohammed.
 From 1000 AD onwards Prathiharas became weak due to internal conflicts and rise in feudal
lords.
 This lead to fragmentation of Rajput
Important rulers:
Nagabhatta I (730-760) 1. Most famous Pratiharas kings, known for
containing Arab armies
2. Defeated by Rashtrakuta king Dhruva.
1. Made Kannauj in western U.P as his capital.

18
 2. Expansionist policy brought him into conflict with
Vatsaraja Dharmapala, the Pala king and Rashtrakuta
(780-800) king Dhruv, thus began “tripartite struggle” and
continued for about another 350 years.
3. Vatsraja defeated the Pala
ruler Dharmapala and Dantidurga, the Rashtrakuta
king, for control of Kannauj.
1. He conquered Kannauj and the Indo-Gangetic
Nagabhata II Plain as far as Bihar from the Palas, and again
(805–833) checked the Muslims in the west.
2. He rebuilt the Shiva temple at Somnath in Gujarat,
which had been demolished in an Arab raid
from Sindh.
Bhoja I/ Mihir Bhoja 1. Greatest ruler of Pratiharas, got victories over Palas
(836-885) and Rashtrakutas.
2. Capital at Kannauj, which also known
as Mahodaya. Devotee of Vishnu, adopted title
‘Adivaraha’.

Architecture:
 There are notable examples of architecture from the Gurjara -Pratihara era, including sculptures
and carved panels.
 They started Maru- Gujara style of architecture
 Examples:
o Bateshwar Hindu temples complex, located near Gwalior(MP) Dedicated to Shiva,
Vishnu and Shakti.
o Baroli temple complex

19
The Palas of Bengal:

Political History:

The Pala dynasty ruled from 8th century to 12th century CE in the regions comprising Bihar and Bengal.
 Sashanka, the Gauda ruler, believed to have ruled between 590 and 625 CE, is considered the
frst prominent king of ancient Bengal. After the fall of the Gauda kingdom, there was no central
authority, which led to recurring wars between petty chieft ains.
So, in 750 CE, a group of chiefs met and decided on a “Kshatriya chief ” named Gopala to be
their ruler.
 Gopala I was succeeded by his son
Dharmapala (770–815 CE ), he was the first to control Kanyakubja.
 His title was uttarapatha swamin(master of northern India)
 Dharmapala established vikramashila, Jagaddella,
 He patronised Harisbhadra, a Buddhist writer.
 Dharmapala’s son Devapala extended Pala control eastwards up to Kamarupa (Assam). He
defeated Amoghavarsha, the Rashtrakuta ruler.
 Devapala was succeeded by Vigramapala, Rajyapala, Gopala III, Vigramapala II.
 The fortunes of the dynasty, however, were revived by Mahipala I, son of Vigramapala II. He
checked the advancement of Cholas beyond the Ganges.
 Vijayasena of the Sena dynasty who had become powerful by then in northern Bengal expelled
the last ruler Madanapala (1130–1150 CE) from Bengal and established his dynastic rule.
 Capital: Muddagiri/ Munger (Bihar)
 Pala kingdom included Bengal and Bihar, which included major cities of Pataliputra, Vikrampura,
Monghyr, Tamralipti.
 Palas were followers of Mahayana Buddhism and Tantric schools of Buddhism.
 Pala had close cultural relations with Tibet. The noted Buddhist
scholars, Santarakshita and Dipankara were invited to Tibet. They introduced a new form of religion
there.

20
  They had close trade contacts and cultural links with South-East Asia.
 Sailendra dynasty (Buddhist) which ruled over Malaya, Java, Sumatra sent many embassies to the Pala
court.
 Pala period is considered as golden period in history of Bengal.
 Pala armies were famous for its vast war elephant cavalry.
 Arab merchant Sulaiman had visited Pala kingdom.
 The Palas power were destroyed by the Sena dynasty under Vijyasena.
Important rulers:
Gopala (around 750 CE) 1. As per Khalimpur copper inscription of
Dharampala, he founded Pala dynasty, replacing later
Guptas of Magadha and Khadga dynasty.
Built famous Odantpuri monastery at Bihar, 2. 2.
2nd largest after Nalanda university.
1. Defeated by Rashtrakuta king Dhruva and Pratihara
Dharampala (770-810) king Nahabhatta II.
2. Founded the Vikramshila University near
Bhagalpur, Bihar and built Somapuri
monastery (paharpur, Bihar).
3. Revived Nalanda University.
1. Expanded empire in the east included Assam.
Devapala (810-850) 2. His Inscriptions proclaims his victory over Hunas,
Gurjaras and Dravidas.
3. His Court poet was Buddhist scholar Vajradatta,
author of Lokesvarasataka.
Administration of Pala and Prathiara:
 The directly administered territories were divided into Bhukti (province) and Mandala
or Visaya (Distructs)
 The governor of Bhukti was called Uparika & had duty to collect land revenue and maintain law and
order.
 The head of Visaya was Visayapati and had same duties like Uparika within their territories.
 Smaller unit below the Visaya was pattala.
 Bhogapatis or Samantas were small chieftain, dominated villages.

Language:
Sanskrit, Prakrit, Pali

Religion:
 The Palas were great patrons of Mahayana Buddhism. The Buddhist philosopher Haribhadra
was the spiritual preceptor of Dharmapala.

Architecture:
 Various mahaviharas,Stupas ,chaityas,temples and forts were constructed. Most of the
architecture was religious with the first two hundred years dominated by Buddhist art and the
last two hundred years by Hindu art.
 Among the various mahaviharas ,Nalanda,vikramashila,somapura,Traikutaka,Devikota
,Pandita ,Jagaddala vihara are notable. Planned residential buildings for monks were made.
 A large number of manuscripts on palm-leaf relating to the Buddhist themes were written and
illustrated with the images of Buddhist deities at these centres which also had workshops for
the casting of bronze images.

21
  Somapura mahavihara at Paharpur ,a creation of Dharmapala is one of the largest Buddhist
vihara in Indian sub continent ,its architectural plan had influenced the architecture of countries
like Myanmar and Indonesia.

Painting:

 The earliest examples of miniature painting in India exist in the form of illustrations to the
religious texts on Buddhism executed under the Palas of the eastern India .
 There are two forms of painting manuscripts and wall painting.
 Manuscripts were written on palm leaves.In these paintings scenes of life of Buddha and several
god and goddess of Mahayana sects are depicted. The impact of tantricism on these
paintings are easily visible.
 Red,blue,black and white colours are used a primary colours
 Pala painting is characterized by sinuous line, delicate and nervous lines ,sensuous elegance,
linear and decorative accent and subdued tones of colour.
 It is naturalistic style which resembles the ideal forms of contemporary bronze and stone
sculpture and reflects some feeling of classical art of Ajanta with sensuous bias of art of Eastern
India.
 Wall painting has been found in Saradh and Sarai sthal in Nalanda district. At the bottom of the
platform made of granite stone flowers of geometric shapes, images of animals and humans are
found.

22
Pala Sculpture:

 The Gupta tradition of sculptural art attained a new height under the patronage of Pala rulers
.The art incorporated lot of local characteristics in Bengal under the Palas and it continued right
up to the end of 12th
 The sculptures of stones and bronze were constructed in large numbers mostly in monastic sites
of nalanda,Bodh Gaya etc
 Most of the sculptures drew their inspiration from Buddhism. Apart from Buddha sculptures of
gods and goddess of Hindu Dharma like surya, Vishnu, Ganesh etc were constructed
 Generally only frontal parts of the body have been shown in the sculptures. The front as highly
detailed and decorated..
 Bronze casting was an important feature of pala sculptures.
 The pala style is marked by slim and graceful figures, elaborate jewellery a nd conventional
decoration
 The main features of pala sculptures is their free flowing movement. Almost all figures are of
similar sizes and were carved out of grayish or white spotted sandstone.

Reasons for sudden ending:

 The Pala art came to a sudden end after the destruction of the Buddhist monasteries at the hands
of Muslim invaders in the first half of the 13th century.
 Some of the monks and artists escaped and fled to Nepal, which helped in reinforcing the
existing art traditions there.
 Ramapala was the last strong Pala ruler. After his death, a rebellion broke out
in Kamarupa during his son Kumarapala’s reign. So due to rebellions art was not focussed
much.

23
The Rastrakurtas:
Sources:
 Ellora and samugarh inscription.
 S Altekar has written book “Rashtrakuta and their times”

Political history:
 The Rashtrakutas were originally known to be the feudatories of the Western Chalukyas of
Vatapi.
 They ruled from Manyakheta in Karnataka.
 Dhantidurga was the founder of Rashtrakuta dynasty, he defeated Chalukyas of Badami.
 Dhantidurga was succeeded by Krishna 1. He constructed Kailasa temple in Ellora.
 Rashtrakuta fought constantly against the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi and Pallavas of Kanchi and Pandya
of Madurai.
 Krishna III was the last great ruler of Rashtrakutas. In 972 CE, Capital city was burnt to ashes by the
united This marks the end of Rashtrakutas.
 They were tolerant in their religious views and patronised Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Jainism. He
defeated Gangas of Mysore.
 Krishna was succedded by Govinda 2 followed by DHRUVA
 Dhruva was greatest in Rashtrakuta dynasty, during his reign Rashtrakuta power reached its
Zenith.
1. He defeated Pallavas, Eastern Chalukyas, Palas and Prathiharas.
2. By defeating Vatsaraja of Prathihara and Dharmapala of pala dynasty he conquered
Kannauj
3. He was the first Deccan king to control Kannauj.
 Govinda III succeeded Dhuva. Following his father’s legacy, GovindaIII also waged war
against all the adjacent kingdoms(Pallava, Gangas, Pala,Prathihara) and was victorious.
1. During his reign Rashtrakuta empire extended from Himalayas in north to kanyakumari
in south and Saurashtra in the west to west Bengal in the east. Almost whole of India
came under the influence of Rashtrakutas.
2. His titles: Jaggattunga, srivallabha, Tribhuvanadhavala.
 Amoghavarsha:Govinda III was succeeded by his son Amoghavarsha (814–880 CE)
1. Amoghavarsha was a patron of literature and he patronised the famous Digambara
acharya Jinasena, Sanskrit grammarian Sakatayana and the mathematician
Mahaviracharya.
2. His cultural achievements are greater than his military achievements.
3. He constructed Manyakheta city and made it as his capital.
4. Amoghavarsha was himself a great poet and his Kavirajamarga is the
earliest Kannada work on poetics.
5. Abu sulaiman , the Arab traveler visited his capital in 851CE. He says Rashtrakuta
empire is one of the four great empires of the world.
6. His titles: Nrupatunga, veeranarayan etc.

24
  Krishna III was the last greatest in Rashtrakuta dynasty.
1. He defeated Parantaka Chola in battle of Takko lam.
 Successors of Krishna III were too weak to save kingdom from its decline.
 Kakra II was defeated by Tailapadeva.
 Tailapadeva started rule of kalyani chalukyas.
Important rulers:
Dantidurga Feudatory of the Chalukyan king, Kirtivarman II,
(753-756) Founded Rashtrakutas kingdom in 753 CE.
Extended the empire, included present day Karnataka
Krishna I and Konkan under his control.
(756- 774) Gave final blow to Pallavas.
The rock-cut Kailasanath (Shiva) temple at
Ellora caves was built during his reign.
Dhruva He led successful expeditions to Kannauj, defeated
(780-793) the Nagabhatta II (Pratiharas) and Dharmapala (Pala).
Called as “Ashoka of the South” and also compared to
Gupta king Vikramaditya.
Built new capital city at Manyakheta (Modern
Amoghavarsha I Malkhed).
(814-878) Defeated Eastern Chalukyas, maintained friendly
relations with neighbours.
He wrote Kavirajamarga (Kannadda) and
the Prashnottara Ratnamalika (Sanskrit).
He was follower of Jainism.

Religion:
 Rashtrakuta rulers had great quality of religious tolerance.
 The worship of Shiva and Vishnu was popular during the Rashtrakuta reign. The famous rock -
cut Shiva temple at Ellora was built by Krishna I.
 Jainism was patronized by laters rulers like Amoghavarsha. He was also staunch devotee of
Kolhapur Mahalaxmi .
 Buddhism had declined and its only important centre was at Kanheri.

Literature:
 The Rashtrakuta rulers were great patrons of learning. Kannada and Sanskrit literature made
great progress during their reign.
 The three gems of ancient Kannada literature –Pampa, Ranna, Ponna were patronised by
Rashtrkuta kings. They wrote following books in kannada
1. Pampa- Adipurana, vikramarjuna vijaya
2. Ranna- Gadhayudha
3. Ponna- Shantipurana
 Amoghvarsha wrote Kavirajamarga, first book on poetics in kannada( few claim that this was
originally written by court port Srivijaya).
 Mahaveeracharya , a mathematician , wrote Ganithasarasangraha in sanskrit.
 Halayudha wrote Kavirahasya in Sanskrit.

25
  Overall ,Kannada language received great patronage and golden age in this era.
 he great Apbhramsha poet Svayambhu and his son lived in Rashtrakuta court.
BOOK WRITER
Kavirahasya Halayudha
Parsvabhudya Jinasena
Adipurana Gunbhadara
Amogavritti Sakatayana
Ganitasaram Viracharya
Nalachampu Trivikrama Bhatta
Vikramasenavijaya Pampa
Santipurana Ponna
Administration:
 he system of administration in these empires was based upon the ideas and practices of Gupta empire.
 King was head of administration and commander in chief of the armed forces. He also dispensed justice.
 The king was assisted by number of ministers, generally form leading families and their position was
hereditary.
 The empires consisted of areas administered directly and areas ruled by vessels. The latter had autonomy
in internal affairs.
 The directly administered territories were divided into: Rashtra (province) and Visaya (Districts)
and Bhukti.
 The head of Rashtra was Rashtrapati, and had similar functions as the Uparaika performed in Pala and
Pratihara.
 Village was the smallest unit. The village headman carried out duties with the help of Grama-Mahajana
or Grama-Mahattara (village elders).
 Villages also had commitees to manage schools, tanks, temples etc.
 Law and order in the towns and in areas in their vicinity was the responsibility of Koshtapala or Kotwal.
 Nad-gavundas or Desa-gramakutas were the hereditary revenue officers.

Art and Architecture:

 The Rashtrakutas made splendid contributions to Indian art.
 They built structural temple , cave temple and Basadis.
 Ellora, Ajantha and Elephanta are centres of their art.

Kailasa Temple:

26
  As per the historical records, it was built by the 8th century Rashtrakuta King Krishna I between
the year 756 and 773 AD. Cave 16, known as the Kailasha temple, is a particularly notable cave
temple in India as a result of its size, architecture and having been entirely carved out of a
single rock.
 It is modelled along similar lines to other Hindu temples with
 a gateway,
 an assembly hall,
 a multi-storey main temple surrounded by numerous shrines laid out according to the square
principle,
 an integrated space for circumambulation,
 a garbha-grihya (sanctum sanctorum) wherein resides the linga -yoni, and a spire-shaped like
Mount Kailash – all carved from one rock.
 Other shrines carved from the same rock are dedicated to Ganga, Yamuna, Saraswati, the
ten avatars of Vishnu, Vedic gods and goddesses including Indra, Agni, Vayu, Surya and Usha,
as well as non-Vedic deities like Ganesha, Ardhanarishvara (half Shiva, half
Parvati), Harihara (half Shiva, half Vishnu), Annapurna, Durga and others.
 It has a three-tiered sikhara or tower resembling the sikhara of the Mamallapuram rathas.
 In the interior of the temple there is a pillared hall which has sixteen square pillars.
 The Kailasa temple is an architectural marvel with it beautiful sculptures.
 The sculpture of the Goddess Durga is shown as slaying the Buffalo demon.
 In another sculpture Ravana was making attempts to lift Mount Kailasa, the abode of Siva.
 The scenes of Ramayana were also depicted on the walls.
 The general characteristics of the Kailasa temple are more Dravidian.

Dasavathara cave:

Cave 15, Dashavatara Cave is one of the finest at Ellora. The two storeyed temple contains mesmerising Shiva
Nataraja and a Shiva emerging from Lingam while Vishnu and Brahma pay homage.
Features of Dashavatara Caves:

27
  It has cells and a layout plan that are similar to Buddhist Caves.
 It also indicates presence of non-Buddhist features, such as a Nrtya Mandapa at its entrance.
 Hindu temple housed in Cave 15 has an open court with a free-standing monolithic mandapa at
the middle and a two-storeyed excavated temple at the rear.
 Large sculptural panels between the wall columns on the upper floor illustrate a wide range of
themes, including the ten avatars of Vishnu.
 finest relief of this cave is the one depicting the death of Hiranyakashipu, where Vishnu in man -
lion (Narasimha) form, emerges from a pillar to lay a fatal hand upon his shoulder.
 Other reliefs in Cave 15 include the Gangadhara, marriage of Shiva and Parvati, Tripurantika
of Shakti tradition, Markendeya, Garuda, aspects of life, Nandi in mandapa, dancing Shiva,
Andhakasura, Govardhanadhari, Gajendravarada and others.
 panels are arranged in dyads, which displays “cooperative but also antago nistic energy” with a
mutuality of power transference.

Elephanta cave:

 Elephanta, which is an island 6 miles from Mumbai has 7 caves.The Portuguese after seeing the
large elephant named it elephant.
 The sculptural art of Rashtrakutas reached its zenith in this place.
 The sculptures such as Nataraja and Sadashiva excel even that of the Ellora sculptures in
beauty and crafsmanship.
 Ardhanarishvara and Maheshamurti are the other famous sculptures.
 The most imposing figure of this temple is Trimurthi It is said to represent the three aspects of
Shiva as creator, preserver and destroyer.
It is a UNESCO world heritage site.

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The Senas:

Sources:

 The Deopara Prashasti, commissioned by Lakshmana Sena, describe the Senas as migrant
Brahmaksatriyas from Karnata
 Copper plates found in Adilpur.

Political history:

 Senas ruled from Bengal in duing 11th and 12th century.

 The rulers of the Sena Dynasty traced their origin to the south Indian region of Karnataka.
 Vijayasena expelled Madanpala (last ruler of Pala dynasty) and started Sena dynasty rule. He
was the real founder of Sena kingdom.
 His son Ballala Sena (1160-1178) introduced the social reforms in Bengal known as Kulinism.
 Ballalsena was succeeded by Lakshamanasena.
 Lakshmana sena was the greatest of this dynasty.
 Towards the close of his reign (Lakshmansena) , he became weak. There was sign of
disintegration within his kingdom. Muhammad Bhaktiyar Khalji, gave the final blow to the
Sena kingdom (1204 AD).

Religion:

 The rule of the Senas in Bengal is usually connected with the emergence of orthodox Hinduism
in a Hindu-Buddhist society which for long had enjoyed the peaceful coexistence of the two
religions resulting in an atmosphere of amalgam of the two. The onslaught on the Buddhis ts in
Bengal is believed to have started in this period, which resulted in large scale Buddhist
migration to the neighbouring countries.
 Bhuddism declined in India after Sena’s rule . Many bhuddist universities were plundered by
Bhaktiyar Khalji.(Vikaramshila, Odantapuri, Nalanda).

29
Lierature:

 The Sena rulers were also great patrons of literature. During the Pala dynasty and the Sena
dynasty, major growth in Bengali was witnessed
 The Sena period also witnessed the development of Sanskrit literature.
 Lakshmanasena patronized Pancharatnas in his court.
o Jayadeva, Sarana, Umapathi, Dhoyi, Govardhana
 Jayadeva has composed the romantic devotional songs known as His famous book was Gita
Govindam.
 Jayadeva was founder of Radha Krishna cult.
 Dhoyi has written Pavandutam.

Architecture:

 Architectural style in Sena dynasty is continuation of the style of PALAS. No evident change
in architectural form can be seen.
 Senas are famous for building hindu temples, monastaries. Dhakeshwari temple in Dhaka, Bangladesh
is example of temples built during Sena period.

30
Previous Years Questions:

1. Consider the following statements: [2006]

1. The Ikshvaku rulers of Southern India were antagonistic towards Buddhism.
2. The Pala rulers of Eastern India were patrons of Buddhism.
Which of the statement(s) given above is/ are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
2. Who among the following laid the foundation of the Rashtrakuta Empire? [2006]
(a) Amostghavarsha I
(b) Dantidurga
(c) Dhruva
(d) Krishna I
3. Consider the following events in the history of India: [2020-1]
1. Rise of Pratiharas under King Bhoja
2. Establishment of Pallava power under Mahendravarman - I
3. Establishment of Chola Parantaka - I
4. Pala dynasty founded by Gopala
What is the correct chronological order of the above events, starting from the earliest time?
(a) 2-1-4-3
(b) 3-1-4-2
(c) 2-4-1-3
(d) 3-4-1-2

31
 MEDIEVAL INDIA

UNIT: Ghaznavid and Turkish invasions

Ghaznavid:

 After the Arab penetration into Sindh, it was the Turks who made inroads into India in 11 th century. The
credit of establishing the Muslim rule in India goes to Turks.
 Alptigin, a Turkish slave of the Samanid king Amir – Abu – Bakr Lawik founded the Ghaznivid dynasty in
963 and occupied kingdom of Jabul, with its capital Ghazni.
 He was followed by his son – in – law, Subuktigin, a capable and ambitious ruler. He succeeded in capturing
all the territories which lay between Lamghan and Peshawar from the Hindushahi ruler Jayapala. Thus, the
Hindushahi kingdom failed to check the growing power of Ghaznavids towards East.
 But his raids did not produce a lasting effect. Subuktigin was followed by his son Ismail, who was overthrown
by Mahmud, his brother in 998. He became famous in history as Mahmud Ghazni.

Conditions of India on the eve of Mahmud Ghazni invasions:

 On the eve of invasion North India was divided into a number of independent states.
 On the frontier of India there existed the Hindushahi kingdom which extended from Punjab to Kabul. Its
capital was Waihind. Jayapala and his son Anandapala were prominent rulers.
 Kashmir was an independent state ruled over by the Lohara dynasty and it had family relations with the
Handushahis.
 Kanauj was ruled over by Rajyapala, the Gurjara Prathiara King.
 There were independent kingdoms in Bengal (Pala dynasty), Gujarat (Solanki dynasty), Malwa (Paramwara
dynasty) and Bundhelkhand (Chandela dynasty)
 In the south the later Chalukyas and Cholas have their power kingdoms.

Invasions of Mahmud Ghazni:

 In pursuance of his vow he invaded India many times.

 His 17 raids into India made during period between 1000 and 1027 CE, is a significant event in history.
 Mahmud’s invasion of India was purely religious and economic and not political.
 The initial raids were against the Hindu Shahi kingdom in which its King Jayapala was defeated in 1001.
 After this defeat, Jayapala immolated himself because he thought that his defeat was a disgrace. His successor
Anandapala fought against Mahmud but also defeated in Battle of Waihind, the Hind Shahi capital near
Peshawar in 1008.
 In 1011, he raided Nagarot in the Punjab hills and Thaneshwar near Delhi.
 In 1018 Mahmud plundered holy city of Mathura and also attacked Kanauj. The rule of Kanauj, Rajyapala
abandoned Kanauj and later died. Mahmud returned via Kalinjar with fabulous riches.
 In 1019 and 1029 he undertook two raids on Gangetic valley
 In 2025 he attacked Somnath, the famous holy town on coast of Kathiawar. It was a beautiful temple and
possessed enormous wealth.
 In this expedition he preceded through Multan defeated Bhimadeva of Anhilwad and reached Somnath
temple.
 The Hindus fought very bravely and initially the enemies could not damage the temple. However, after 3
days, Mahmud Ghazni’s troops were successful in plundering the Somnath temple, in which the sacred Linga
was destroyed.
 Ghazni looted all treasures of temple, which was at time worth 20 million Dinars, more than 80 times of what
he had collected in his first invasion.
 Mahmud came back to India for last time in 1027to punish Jats who had troubled him on his return journey
from Somnath. The Jats were severely punished, looted property, enslaved their women and children.
 Thus, Mahmud Ghazni successfully attempted 17 invasions on Indian territories and died in 1030 CE.

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Estimate:

 He built a wide empire from Punjab in east to Caspian Sea and from Samarkand in north to Gujarat in south.
The Ghaznavid empire roughly included Persia, Trans – Oxyana, Afghanistan and Punjab.
 His conquest of Punjab and Multan completely changed the political situation in India. He paved way for
Turks and Afgans for further conquests and make deeper incursions into Gangetic valley at any time.
 Mahmud was considered a hero of Islam by medieval historians.
 He also patronized art and literature. Firdausi was poet – laureate in court of Mahmud. He was author of Shah
Namah.
 Alberuni, the scholar of Turki, Sanskrit, mathematics, Philosophy, Astrology and history stayed in Mahmud’s
court and wrote famous Kitab – I – Hind, an account on India.

Muhammad Ghori:

 After the death of Ghazni, for nearly 150 years there was no Turkish invasions on India.
 The Ghoris started as vassals of Ghazni but became independent after the death of Mahmud.
 Taking advantage of the Ghaznavid empire, Muizzudin Muhammad popularly known as Muhammad Ghori
brought Ghazni under their control.
 Having made his position strong and secure at Ghazni, Muhammad Ghori turned his attention to India.
 Unlike Ghazni, he wanted to conquer and extent his empire in this direction.

Political condition of India on eve of Ghori invasion.

 India did not learn any useful political lesson from Ghaznis rides and failed to develop foresight necessary
to meet new challenge. There was not a single remarkable change in condition of India except in ruling
dyansties and territories.
 Politically India was divided into many kingdoms both in North and South. The North India witnessed the
rule of many Rajput princes.
 The chief among them were:
o Pritiviraj Chauhan was ruling over Delhi and Ajmer
o Jayachandra was ruler of Kanauj
o The Solanki king Mularaja II was ruling over Gujarat
o The Sena king Lakshmanasena ruling over Bengal.
 Vighraharaja and Prithivraj, two prominent Chauhan rulers, Bhoja of Paramara dynasty, Ghadavala king
Jayachandra, Yasovarman, Kirti Varman of Chandelas were all strong in their own regions.
 They indulged in constant internecine warfare which ultimately weakened all Rajput states.

Invasions:

 Muhammad Ghori’s first invasions were on Multan and fortress of Uch, with a view to bring back the Muslim
states of India and conquered it easily in 1175.
 In 1178, he attacked on Anhilwara in Gujarat, but was defeated by its king Mularaja II

First battle of Tarrain or Thaneshwar 1191:

 In 1191 Muhammad attacked and captured Bhatinda, a part of Prithivraj dominion. This led Ghori to come
into direct clash with Prithiraj Chauhan one of most powerful Rajput rulers.
 The enemies met each other in battle at Tarrain, 80 miles from Delhi.
 Muhammad Ghori was defeated in battle and also wounded in arm.
 The Muslim army was routed and battle was completely won over by the Rajputs.

Second battle of Tarrain 1192:

 Ghori was not disheartened and prepared his army for next attack to avenge his defeat with much strategy
and power.
 Prithivraj also organized Hindu confederacy to resist to Ghori.

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  In 1192, both armies met again in same battle field. Muhammed defeated Prithivraj and killed.
 The 2nd battle of Tarrain is well known as one of turning points in India. The battle opened way for further
conquests of India by Muslims. Ajmer and Delhi were occupied by Ghori.
 After battle, Muhammad appointed Qutubuddin Aibak, one of his slaves, as viceroy of Indian provinces. He
consolidated the Indian conquests of his master, conquered Meerut, Bulandhahar, Aligarh etc. made Delhi as
capital in 1193.
 Battle of Chandawar: in 1194 Muhammad Ghori led another expedition against Jayachandra of Kanauj. The
battle took place near Chandawar on river Yamuna between Eatwah and Kanauk. King Jayachandra was
defeated and killed in the battle.
 After successful campaigns Muhammad rested responsibility of consolidating the conquests in India on his
governor Qutubuddin Aibak.
 Muhammad – bin – Baktiyar Khilji, a general of Ghori, led a daring military expedition against Bihar and
Bengal. In between 1202 – 1205 he attacked Odantapuri and plundered Buddhist monastery, destroyed the
university of Nalanda and defeated Lakshmansena of Bengal.

Estimate:

 His greatest achievement was establishment of Turkish empire in India which added a fresh chapter to Indian
history.
 He was assassinated by the Khokars on banks of rivers Indus in 1206, while engaging his evening prayers.
 Qutubuddin Aibak, one of slaves of Muhammad Ghori became the master of his Indian provinces and laid
foundation for Delhi Sultanate.

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 MEDIEVAL INDIA

UNIT: Chola Empire (9th – 12th century)

Topics: The rise of Cholas, Administration and taxation, Territorial Expansion, Society and Culture, Art &
Architecture

Sources:

 More than 10000 inscription engraved on copper and stone from primary sources for the study of Chola
history.
 Inscriptions mainly record endowments and donations to temples by rulers and other individuals.
 Copper plates, copper plates contain royal orders and also contain genealogy, wars, conquests, administrative
divisions, local governance, land rights and various taxes levied.Ittaramerur inscription issued by Paranthaka
Chola gives details of election to local self – governance bodies.

Political history:

 Known as Imperial Cholas of Tanjore.

 The founder of Chola dynasty was Vijayalaya who was at first a feudatory of Pallavas.
 The greatest kings of Cholas were Rajaraja and his son Rajendra – I
 The re – emergence of Cholas behan with Vijayalaya (850 – 871 CE) conquering the Kaveri delta from
Muttaraiyar and built the city of Thanjavur and established Chola kingdom in 850
 Vijayalaya’s illustrious successor starting from Parantaka I (907 – 955) to Kulothunga III (1163 – 1216)
brought glory and fame to the Cholas. Parantaka Chola set tone for expansion of territory and broadened base
of its governance.
 Parantaka Chola suffered at hands of Rashtrakutas in famous battle of Takkolam
 The use pf Agrahatta (Persian wheels) also facilitated the already established smooth irrigation networks of
tanks, canals, wells and sluices.

Important rulers:

Rajaraja I (985 – 1. Greatest Chola ruler, who helped raise empire as largest dominion in South India.
1014 AD) 2. He took titles – Mummidi Chola, Jayankonda & Shivpadshekhara
3. He defeated Chera, Pandya & conquered Maldives Island
4. Naval expedition against Sailendra Empire (Malaya Peninsula)
5. Expanded trade with China
6. In 1010 CE, constructed the Rajarajeshwara or Brihadeeswara temple, dedicated to shiva at
Thanjavur. Greatest living Chola temples and entered the UNESCO world heritage site list in
1987. Finest example of Dravidian architeuture.
7. Developed revenue system where land was surveyed and then revenue was assessed. So, he
was referred as Ulakalanada Perumal (the great who measured the earth)
8. Military victory of Rajraja I over Sri Lanka led to its northern and eastern portion coming
under direct control of Chola authority. He named northern part of Sri Lanka as
Mummidigonda Cholamandalam.
9. Defeated Cheras in the battle of Kandanur salai.
10. He was also successful in expedition of western and Eastern chalukyas and installed
Shaktiverman on Vengi throne.
11. Constructed dam across kaveri river
12. Abdicted his throne for his son Rajendra Chola I
Rajendra I (1014 1. Son of Rajaraja I, defeated and conquered whole Sri Lanka.
– 1044 AD) 2. Made Chola navy strongest in the area and ‘Bay of Bengal’ was converted into a ‘Chola
lake’.
3. He assumed the title of ‘Gangaikondachola’ & built a city Gangaikondacholapuram.
4. He was great patron of learning and known as Pandita – Chola
5. Encouraged local – self – government.

35
 6. He defeated Mahipala 1 of Bengal.
7. He annexed total Sri Lanka.
8. He established many educational institutes in his empire, for this he got title Pandita chola.
9. After the death of Rajendra 1, his three successors were also killed in short time.
Kulathunga 1. Grandson of Rajendra Chola preserved the legacy of Imperical Cholas.
Chola I 2. He abolished many taxes and got title Sungam Tavirtta.
3. Sent trade embassies to China.
4. United Vengi kingdom with Chola Empire.
5. Contemporary to Ramanujacharya
 Rajendra III was last Chola king who was defeated by Jatavarman Sundarapandya II
o On the ruins of Chola empire Pandya and Hoysala kingdom came into existence

Administration:

 King was assisted by council of ministers.

 Perundanam & Serundanam (military) were important officials.
 The Empire was divided into:
o Mandalams (provinces) – Royal princes (in – charge)
o Valanadus – Perinattar
o Nadas (district) – Nattar
o Autonomous village – 30 wards (members selected by lottery type)
 Local self-government was important features of Cholas rule. Uttiramerur Inscriptions gives detailed account
of the village administration.
 Ur Natta was residential portion of city
 Ur was general assembly of village & Sabha was gathering of adult men in Brahmana village – Agrahara
(rent free villages with autonomy)
 Main source of income for Chola Empire was land revenue, which was 1/6th of produce.
 Dues were levied on ceremonial occasions like marriage.
 Military administration: Maintained large army consisting of infantry, cavalry and elephants which were
called three limbs of army. The Venetian traveler Marco Polo says that all bodyguards of king burnt
themselves in funeral pyre of dead king.
 Department of land revenue is known as puravuvari – tinaikkalam.
 Various units of land measurement are kuli, ma, veli, patti, padagam, etc.

Different types of land rights:

 Karanmai (right to cultivate): further divided into:

o Kudi Nikki – People previously settled in village were either removed or deprived their rights
o Kudi Ninga – People were not to be disturbed of their land rights.
 Mitachi (superior possessive right)

IMPORTANT TERMS & MEANING

 Kaikkolaperumpadai – Royal troops
 Velaikkarar – Personal troops to defend kings
 Kadagram – militari cantonment
 Puravuvanithinaikkalam – Revenue dept.
 Peruvazhis – Trunk roads

Chola Society and Economy:

 Divided on caste lines: Periyar (Untouchables) and Vellalas (Farming groups)

 Emergence of supra caste dichotomy
o Idangai (left hand caste groupings); consisted mainly of artisanal and trading groups
o Valangain (right hand groupings): consisted mainly agricultural groups

36
  Women were head of some villages, as per some inscriptions.
 Significant shift of royal patronage from gifts to Brahmans to gifts to temples.
 Expansions in agrarian economy, use of Agrahatta (Persian wheel) for smooth irrigation.
 Emergence of various crafts centers, i.e., Kanchipuram as important weaving industry, Kudamukku was
center for betel nut & areca nut production.
 Emergence of trading caste: Garveras (northern merchants migrated southwards, Gaudas/Gavundas
(originally cultivators).
 Chola had trade relations with Java, Sumatra, Arabia & China
 Inscriptions at Ennayiram, Thirumukkudal & Thirubuvanai gives details of education system & colleges
 Sanskritisation process was started from Chola times (imitation of upper class tradition by lower class is
called sanskritisation)
 Serious clashes between shaivites and vaishnavites
 Practice of sati became sacred
 A new social evil Devadasi system came into proactice.

Religion:

 Chola rulers were ardent Saivite. Shiva was pre – eminent god for Cholas and he was represented in 2 forms.
The iconic form of Siva was Lingodhbhava and Nataraja idol was human form.
 A highly evolved philosophical system called Saiva Siddhanta was founded during this period.
 Kulathunga Chola was ardent Saivite. He persecuted Vaishnavites. Bhakti saint Ramanujacharya left
Srirangam and settled in Melkote, Karnataka.

Art & Architecture:

 The cire – perdu or ‘lost – wax’ process for casting was learnt as long ago as Indus Valley culture
 Dravidian type of temple architecture reached its climax under cholas.
 Kings built lofty temples & inscribed long inscriptions on wall narrating their achievements. They also depict
socio – economic conditions of that period.
 Kailasanath temple of Kanchipuram was built in 8th century. Airavatesvara temple & temple at
Gangaikondacholapuram, Nataraja temple at Chidambaram are famous.
 Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes. The best example is Dancing figure of
Nataraja.
 Bharatanatyam & Kathakali two types of dances performed during chola period.

Literature:

 Sivakasintamani written by Thiruthakkadevar and Kundalakesi belonged to 10 th century

 Ramayana house composed by Kamban and Periyapuranam or Thiruttondarpuranam by Sekkilar are the two
master – pieces of this age.
 Telugu version of Mahabharata was started by Nanniah & completed by Tikkana.
 Jayankondar’s Kalingattupparani describes Kalinga war fought by Kulotunga I
 The Moovarula written by Ottakuthar depicts the life of three Chola kings.
 The Nalavenba was written by Pugalendi.
 The works on Tamil grammar like Kalladam by Kalladanar, Yapperungalamby Amirthasagarar, a Jain,
Nannul by Pavanandhi and Viraasoliyam by Buddhamitra were written.
 Pampa, Ponna & Ranna known are considered 3 gems of Kannada literature lived in the 10 th century
 Kesava swami composed Sanskrit work Nannaravana Samkshevam

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Previous Years Questions:

1. Which one of the Chola kings conquered Ceylon? [2001]

(a) Aditya-I
(b) Rajaraja-I
(c) Rajendra
(d) Vijayalaya

2. Consider the following statements:

1. The Cholas defeated Pandya and Chera rulers and established their domination over peninsular India in
the early medieval times.
2. The Cholas sent an expedition against the Sailendra empire of South-East Asia and conquered some of the
areas.
Which of these statements is/are correct? [2003]
(a) Only 1
(b) Only 2
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2

3. Consider the following events in the history of India: [2020]

1. Rise of Pratiharas under King Bhoja
2. Establishment of Pallava power under Mahendravarman - I
3. Establishment of Chola Parantaka - I
4. Pala dynasty founded by Gopala What is the correct chronological order of the above events, starting from
the earliest time?
(a) 2-1-4-3
(b) 3-1-4-2
(c) 2-4-1-3
(d) 3-4-1-2

38
 MEDIEVAL INDIA

UNIT: Delhi Sultanate

Slave dynasty (1206 – 1290 AD)

 Qutub – Ud – Din Aibak founded Slave dynasty. It is also known as Mamluk dynasty.
 Aibak is considered as real founder of Muslim rule in India

Important rulers:

Qutb – ud – din 1. Aibak was slave of Ghori. In Arabic slave means Mamluk. Hence dynasty established by
Aibak (1206 – Qutbuddin Aibak is called slave dynasty or mamluk dynasty
1210) 2. He tried for internal consolidation only. His rule was only for four years.
3. He constructed Quwwat – ul – Islam mosque in Delhi in commemoration of Islam’s victory
in India
4. He constructed Adhai din ka – Jhompra mosque in Ajmer
5. He started the construction of Qutub minar, dedicated to sufi saint Khwaja Qutbudin
Bhaktiyar kaki.
6. He made Lahore capital
7. He is known as ‘Lakh Baksh’ or giver of lakhs as he gave a lot of liber donations.
8. Aibak issued coins in gold, silver, billon and copper. He discarded carving name of Abbasid
caliph on it.
9. He patronized Fakhar – Ud – Din author of Tarikh – I – Mubarak – Shahi & Hasan Nizami
who write Tajul – Ma’ asir, the first official history of Delhi Sultanate
10. Died in 1210 in Lahore in an accident while paying chaugan.
11. Muhammad Bin Bhakthiyar Khaji, a Turkish general from Afghan assisted in conquering
Bihar and Bengal.
Aram Shah (1210) Considered most incapable ruler. Thus Illtumish (son – in – law of Aibak) was invited to
Delhi. He then disposed Aram Shah and became Sultan
Iltumish (1210 – 1. His original name was Samshuddin Illiyas
1236) 2. he was son in law of Qutbiddin Aibak
3. His mongol policy saved India from attack of Chengis Khan; refusing support to Khwarizmi
Shah Jalaluddin of Central Asia
4. He shifted his capital from Lahore to Delhi.
5. He completed the construction of Quwwat – ul – Islam mosque and Qutb Minar
6. He started feudalistic system Iqtha/Iqthadari
7. He created pact of fourty muslim nobels Chahalgani
8. Started coinage system of Delhi Sultanate
 Tanka – silver coin
 Biranz – Bronze coin
 Jittal – Copper coin
9. He nominated his daughter Raziya as his successor
10. Patronized Minas – Ur – Siraj (writer) author of Minaj – us – siraj.
11. Put down internal rebellion of Rajputs at Gwalior, Ranthambor, Ajmer and Jalore.
12. Overcame challenge of Nasiruddin Qabacha in Lahore and Multan and frustrated
conspiracy of Alivardan, the governor of Bengal
Razia Sultana 1. Raziya ascended the throne of Delhi by removing her brother Raknuddin Feroz
(1236 – 1240) 2. First muslim women ruler in Indian history
3. She appointed an African (Absynnian) slave Yakuth as incharge of cavary
4. Her rule created difference with Chahalgani (40 nobels)
5. She married Altunitya (governor of Bhatinda)
6. Later both Razia and Altuniya were killed by coup of Chahalghani
7. Discarded female apparel and purdah, adopted male attire, went for hunting and led army
aroused resentment among Turkish nobles.

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 Nasiruddin (1246 1. After thde death of Razia, Chahalgani (40 nobles became powerful)
– 66) 2. However, after 6 years Balban succeeded in putting Nasiruddin Mahmud, a younger son of
Iltumish, as Sultan
3. Nasiruddin was interested in philosophy, he was inefficient to rule.
4. He was dethroned by his prime minister Balban
Ghiyasuddin 1. Balban was greatest in slave dynasty also known as Ulugh Khan
Balban (1266 – 2. He abolished Chahalgani
86) 3. He knew that the real threat from monarchy was from nobles called Chahalgani. He was
convinced that only by enhancing power and authority of the monarchy he could face
problems. According to Balban the Sultan was God’s shadow on earth and recipient of divine
grace.
5. Balban introduced Persian customs and traditions such as sizda, paiba (kissing feet of
sultan), jamnibas (kissing hands), Naurauz (Persian new year)
6. He established defence department known as Diwan – I – Ariz.
7. Balban took severe action on robbers and dacoits and made roads of Delhi safe to travel.
8. Balban dealt Mongol issue with blood and iron policy. He strengthened western frontiers.
He sent his son Mahmud to fight against Mongols on western frontiers.
9. Mahmud died fighting with Mongols.
10. Saddened by this tragedy, Balban fell ill and died in 1286
11. After his death Kalimullah and Qaimas became Sultan.
12. Qaiqubad/kaiqubad was last sultan in slave dynasty
13. After few years Qauiqubad became paralytic. He was removed from throne by Jalaluddin
Khilji
14. Indian Muslims  not given important jobs
15. Excluded non – turks from administration
16. Administered justice with extreme impartiality

The Khilji dynasty (1290 – 1320 AD):

 Khilji nobles headed by Jalauddin, overthrew the incompetent successors of Balban in 1290 and established
Khilji dynasty.
 This event is called ‘Dyanstic revolution’ of 1290.

Important rulers:

Jalaluddin Khilji 1. Jalaluddin Khilji was Turk, but settled in Afghanistan

(1290 – 96) 2. Jalaluddin won many battles and even in old age he marched out against the Mongol hordes
and successfully halted their entry into India. (1292)
3. he gave his second daughter to Mongol leaders Ulugh khan in marriage
4. Alauddin Khilji was son in law (also nephew) of Jalaluddin. Alauddin was governor of
Kara.
5. Alauddin invaded Devagiri kingdom and procured lot of wealth.
6. Devagiri was first south Indian state to receive Islamic invasions.
7. Later Alauddin murdered his uncle Jalaluddin and ascended the throne.
8. 1st sultan to have benevolent attitude towards Hindus.
9. He stated state should be based on willing support of governed and as majority of population
was Hindu and cannot become a truly Islamic.
10. Adopted the policy of tolerance and tried to win goodwill of nobility.
Alauddin Khilji 1. Alauddin was the imperialistic Sultan
(1296 – 1316) 2. His military expeditions were
 Devagiri (1296, 1307, 1314)
 Gujarat (1299 – 1300)
 Ranthambor (1301)
 Chittor (1303)
 Malwa (1305)

40
3. He defeated Waghela Karnadeva of Gujarat and married his wife Kamaladevi
4. For the sake of Rani Padmini Alauddin attacked Chittore
5. Chittore was captured but Padmini committed Jauhar
6. Alauddin’s Chittore campaign was described in the book Padmavath written by malik
Muhammed Jayasi
7. He framed regulations to control the nobles
8.Malik Kafur, basically a eunuch became chief commander.
9. Malik Kafur started south Indian campaign. He defeated
 Ramachandradeva – Devagiri
 Prathaprudradeva _ Kakatiya
 Veera Bhallala 3 – Hoysala
 Veera and Sundara – Pandya
10. Malik Kafur erected victory pillar in Rameshwaram
11. Alauddin inscribed the title sikander – e – Saini on his coins (sikander means Alexander)
12. Allauddin nominated his eldest son Khizr Khan, as his successor. However, Allauddin’s
confidant at that time was Malik Kafur. So he himself assumed authority of the government.
But Kafur’s rule lasted only 35 days as he was assassinated by hostile nobles.
13. Was appointed as Amir – I – Tuzuk (master of ceremonies) and Ariz – I – Mumalik
(Minister of Law) By Jalaluddin Khilji.
14. policy of tolerance was reversed by Alauddin Khilji, awarded harsh punishment who
opposed him.
15. To keep hold on nobles – he prohibited to hold festivals, marriages without permission of
him, banned wines & intoxicants to avoid special gathering, reorganized spy services (barids)
16. Barani wrote book ‘Tarikh – I – Firuz Shahi’
17. Patronized powets like Amir Khusrau and Mir Hasan Dehlv
18. Defeated Mongols in the battles of Jalandhar (1298), Kili (1299), Amroha (1305) and Ravi
(1306)
19. Amir Khusrau’s Khazin – Ul – Futuh speaks about Alauddin’s conquest.
Architecture:
 Famous gateway known as Alai Darwaza, Hauz Khas, Mhal Hazaar Satoon, Jamait
Khana mosque, Alai Minar and constructed new capital at Siri
 In 1296, constructed the hauz – I – Alai
 Built Siri Fort & camped in Siri during Mongol invasion in 1303
 Built Qasr – I – Hazar Situn palace at Siri fort.
 Alauddin constructed Alai Darwaza – entrance gate to Qutb Minar
Administrative reforms:
 Alauddin was strong and efficient ruler. He set up a strong central government.
 He believed in theory of divine right.
 He separated religion from politics.
 He took various measures for prevention of rebellions, such as restricting
matrimonial alliance within nobles, prohibiting secret meetings and parties,
appointing spies to keep eye on them and preventing the interference of ulemas in
administration.

Market Reforms:
 Fixed cost of all commodities. For this purpose, he set up 4 separate markets:
 For grains
 For cloth, sugar, dried fruits and oils
 For horses, slaves and cattles
 For miscellaneous commodities
 Alauddin was first sultan to pay his soldiers in cash.
 As soldiers were paid less, the prices had to monitored and controlled. Moreover,
Alauddin had to maintain a huge standing army. In order to restrict prices of essential
commodities, Alauddin set up an elaborate intelligence network to collect
information on black – marketing and hoarding.

41
  Shahana – I – Mandi was incharge of markets, who kept eye on prices of essential
commodities.
 He also appointed Naib – I – Riyasat & Diwan – I – Riyasat to keep check on these
markets.
 Received daily reports of markets from Barids (intelligence officer) and munhiyans
(secret spies)
 Now clear whether these reforms were applied to only Delhi or also other towns

Military Reforms:
 Alauddin maintained strong and huge standing army.
 He introduced system of branding of horses (dagh) and maintenance of detailed
register of soldiers to prevent false musters and corrupt practices.
 He paid salaries in cash.
 Chehra system brought in to give detailed description of each soldier
 Ariz – I – Mumalik was incharge of appointment of soldiers.

Revenue Reforms:
 Revenue was half of produce & was based on land under cultivation
 First ruler to fix land revenue in cash. It enabled him to pay his soldiers in cash.
 Biswa was standard unit of measurement. Imposed one fifth of the produce and along
with it house tax (Grahi) and pasture tax (Chari)
 Abolished Kismat – i – Khuti (headman’s cess). Confiscated religious endowments
and free lands (Inam and Wakt)
 Mukadam and Khuts had to pay taxes
 Created post of Mustakraj to collect revenue.
 Brought area surrounding to Delhi directly under state for revenue purpose. Thus,
Iqta system was not applied there.
 Alauddin created separate department for revenue as Diwan – I – Mustkharaj.
 He introduced scientific method for land measurement for assessment land revenue.
 Jaziya was imposed on non – muslims.
 He imposed heavy taxes on sardars, jagirdars and ulemas

Qutubbdin 1. After the death of Malik Kaffur Alauddin’s son Qutbuddin Mubarak came to power.
Mubarak 2. During the times of Qutubbdin Devagiri Yadava kingdom was annexed into Delhi sultanate.
3. Qutubbdin was murdered by his PM Nasiruddin Khusru shah, who became last sultan in
Khilji dynasty.
4. Later Kushru Shah was dethroned by Ghiyasuddin Tuglaq in year 1320.

Tuglaq dynasty:

Important rulers:

Ghiyasuddin 1. Founded Tuglaq dynasty in 1320

Tuglaq (1320 – 2. He added Tuglaqabad city to Delhi
25) 3. Replaced men with horses in courier system
4. Started Dawk chowkies
5. His son prince Jaunakhan defeated Prataparudradeva of Kakatiyas and annexed kingdom
in 1323.
6. Ghiyasuddin died accidently in 1325 AD.
7. Jauna ascended the throne and took title Mumhammad – Bin – Tuglaq
8. 1st Sultan to start irrigation.
9. Amir Khusrau famous work “tuglaq Nama” deals with rise of Ghiyasuddin Tuglaq.

42
Muhammad bin 1. Was the most controversial personality in medieval Indian history
Tuglaq (1325 – 2. Was a learned, cultured and talented prince but gained a reputation of being merciless, cruel
51) and unjust.
3. Was very tolerant in religious matters.
4. His innovative reforms brought hum bad name, as they were not executed properly.
5. During the time of Muhammad – Bin – Tuglaq, Vijayanagar (1336) and Bahmani (1347)
and Madurai emerged
6. Ibn Batuta, a Morocan traveler visited Tuglaq. He recorded his observation in his book
Qitab – ul – Rihla. Later, he was sent to China as ambassador of Tuglaq.
7. He added Jahanpanah city to Delhi.
8. His reign marks zenith of Delhi Sultanate but alsow saw beginning of disintegration.
9. Defeated Mongols
10. Appointed official on basis of merit
11. Advanced secular policies. Applied justice to Ulema
12. To curb rebellion of Taghi, Tuglaq entered into Sindh desert and died due to sunstroke at
Thatta in 1351 AD

His innovative experiments are as follows:

1. Token currency
 Introduced token currency or copper coins. His main aim was to save precious metals
like gold and silver and introduce more money in circulation.
 For this reason, copper coins were issued which had same values as silver tanka.
 But, minting copper coin was not retained as monopoly of government.
 The goldsmiths began to forge token coins on large scale. Soon new coins were not
accepted in markets
 Finally, sultan stopped the circulation of token currency and promised to exchange
silver coins. Many people exchanged the new coins but the treasury became empty.
2. Transfer of capital
 To safeguard capital from Mongol invasion and to have better control over south
India, sultan decided to shift capital from Delhi to Devagiri (Daulatabad)
 He desired to shift the entire population. Barani says “not a cat or dog was left”.
 The reason for move were very practical, but the method adopted was impractical.
 Entire population was made to travel around 1500km to Daulatabad.
 Many people died during the rigorous journey in summer. After two years, the
Sultan abandoned Daulatabad and asked them to return to Delhi.
3. Increase in taxes
 The area between Ganga – Yamuna doab was very fertile, hence sultan decided to
rise tax so as to enhance revenues of his empire.
 Although it was practical decision, the tax hike was too steep and introduced during
time of no rainfall.
4. Agricultural reforms:
 He launched scheme by which takkavi loans (loans for cultivation) were given to
farmers to buy seed and to extend cultivation.
 A separate department for agriculture, Diwan – I – Kohi was established but failed
due to corrupt officals.
He launched Khorasan project to counter threat of Chinese incursions.
Quarachi expedition – launched in Kumaon hills to counter threat of Chinese incursions -
failed

Firoz Shah Tuglaq 1. Born in 1309 and ascended the throne of Delhi after the demise of his cousin Muhammad
(1351 – 89) – bin – Tuglaq.
2. He started imposition of Jaziya
3. He destructed Jwalamukhi temple.
4. He protected Sanskrit scriptures and started their translation into Persian.
5. he was first to link rivers and provide irrigation with help of 4 canals.

43
 6. He imposed water cess haq – I – shrib
7. The British called him the ‘father of irrigation department’ because of the many gardens
and canals that he built.
8. He established the Diwan – I – Khairat – office for charity.
9. He established the Diwan – I – Bundagan – department of slave
10. He established Sarais (rest houses) for the benefits of merchants and other travelers
11. He adopted Iqtadari framework.
12. Established 4 new towns, Firozabad, Fatehabad, Jaunpur and Hissar
13. Established hospitals known as Darul – Shifa, Bimaristan or Shifa Khana
14. Because of all these, he was called Sultan of constructions
15. Firoz Shah died in 1388. After his death Muhammad shah ascended the throne.
16. During rule of Muhammad Shah Timur invaded and ruined Delhi. (1397)
17. Adopted policy of trying to appease nobles, army, theologians and of asserting his
authority over only such areas which could easily be administered from center.
18. Appointed Khan – I – Jahan Maqbal, a Telugu Brahmin as Wazir or PM
19. Extended principle of heredity to army & nobility.
20. Thus, the iqta system not only revived, but also it was made hereditary.
21. Malik Sarwar was prominent noble and had been wazir for some time.
22. He asserted independence and assumed title of Malik-us-Sharq (lord of the east). • Malik
ruled from Jaunpur, it was called Shiraz of the east. Malik Muhammad Jaisi author of
“Padmavat” lived in Jaunpur.
23. To appease theologians, Firoz took following decisions:
 Prohibited practice of Muslim women going out to worship.
 Gave concessions to theologians
 Made jizya a separate tax. Earlier it was part of land revenue. Only children, women,
disabled exempted.
 Erased wall paintings in his palace
24. He constructed and improved several canals.
25. He set up hospitals for poor called – Dar-ul-shifa.
26. Established town of Hissar and Firozabad.
27. Set up new departments:
 Diwan -i-Khairat - to make provisions for marriages of poor girls.
 Department for public work.
 Diwan -i-Bandagan – Department for slaves
28. Introduced 2 new coins: Adha (50% Jital) and Bitch (23% Jital).
29. He led two unsuccessful expeditions to Bengal. Bengal became free from the control of
Delhi Sultanate.
30. He developed royal factories called karkhanas in which thousands of slaves were
employed.
31. Imposed four taxes sanctioned by Islamic kharaj (land tax), khams (1/5 of the looted
property during wars), Jizya (religious tax on the Hindus), and Zakat (2½per cent of the
income of the Muslims which was spent for the welfare of Muslim subjects and their religion).
32. He was first Sultan to impose Sharb (irrigation tax).
Nasiruddin 1. He was the last ruler of Tuglaq dynasty
Muhammad (1390 2. Taimur’s invasion (1398) during his reign weakened the sultanate.
– 1398) 3. When Timur entered Delhi there was no opposition. He withdrew from India in 1399.
4. Delhi sultanate disintegrated towards the beginning of 15th century and no of independent
states set up. E.g. Malwa and Gujarat etc.
5. Tughlaq empire came to end in 1412.

 Turkish Timur, who could claim a blood relationship with the 12th century great Mongol Chengiz Khan,
ransacked Delhi virtually without any opposition.
 On hearing the news of arrival of Timur, Muhammad Shah fled Delhi.

44
  Timur also took Indian artisans such as masons, stone cutters carpenters whom he engaged for raising
buildings in his capital Samarkhand.
 Nasir – Ud – Din Muhammad Shah managed to rule up to 1412.
 Then Sayyid and Lodi dynasties ruled declining empire from Delhi till 1526.

Sayyid dynasty (1414 – 1451) AD:

 Timur appointed Khizr Khan as governor of Multan. He captured Delhi and founded the Sayyid dynasty in
1414.
 Khizr Khan is succeeded by Mubarak Shah and Muhammad Shah.
 Muhammad Shah is succeeded by Allam Shah
 Allam Shah was philosopher. He voluntarily abducted throne to Bahalul Lodi and led peaceful life in small
town outside Delhi.
 Bahalul Lodi started Lodi dynastic rule.

Lodi Dynasty (1451 – 1526) AD:

Bahlul Lodi (1489 1. Bahalul Lodi was founder of Lodi dynasty

– 1517) 2. Lodis were originally from Afghanistan
3. Bahalul lodi was succeeded by Sikander Lodi (1489 – 1517)
4. He was greatest in this dynasty.
5. He was contemporary to Bhakti saint Kabirdas and tortured him.
6. He was contemporary to Mahmud Begarha of Jujarat and Rana Sangha of Mewar.
7. He abolished octroi duty on grains and established new measurement of yard called Gaz –
I – Sikandari.
8. He destroyed many Hindu temples and imposed many restrictions on the Hindus.
9. Sikandar was orthodox and a bigot king. he reimposed the Jizya on Hindus.
10. He was a poet of repute, composed under the pen-name of Gulruk.
11. Sikandar Lodi was succeeded by his son Ibrahim Lodi.
Inrahim Lodi 1. Sikander Lodi was succeeded by his son Ibrahim Lodi
(1517 – 1526) 2. He was not able administrator as his father. He had differences with nobles, governors.
3. His close rleatives Allak Khan Lodi and Daulat Khan Lodi invited Babar to invade India.
4. Mewar ruler Rana Sanga also invited Babur to invade India.
5. Krishnadevaraya was emperor of Vijayanagara in southern India during this time.
6. Babur defeated and killed Ibrahim Lodi in first battle of Panipat in 1526 AD.
7. Ibrahim Lodi was last sultan in Delhi Sultanate.
8. Babur started Mughal rule in India from 1526 AD.

Important terms and meaning:

 Zimmi – Protected people under Muslim Rule.

 Zawabit – Sultan’s own regulations to supplement Muslim law.
 Jahandari- Secular consideration

Books:

 Tughlaq Nama, Tarik-i-Alai, Ashiqa  Amir Khusro

 Git Govinda  Jaydeva
 Hammir Raso  Sarangdhara
 Fatwa-i-Jahandari  Barani
 Padmavat  Malik Muhammad Jaisi.

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Administration during Delhi Sultanate period:

 With the establishment of the Delhi sultanate a new ruling class emerged in India. This new class introduced
a new administrative system.
 During the Sultanate period the administrative apparatus was head by Sultan who was helped by various
nobles. There were various other officers along with the office of Sultan. Theoretically, there was a council
of Ministers Majilis – I – Khalwat to assist the Sultan.
 Sultanate administration is called as Turko – Afghan setup in Indian environment.
 The Sultans considered themselves as representatives of Caliph.
 Iltumish was first sultan to receive recognition letter from Caliph.
 Delhi sultanate was neither a theocratic state nor a secular state. It was depended on ruler.
 No clear law of succession
 Mullahs were interpreters of Shariyath.
 Qajis were executor of Shariyath.

Sultan  Nabi/wali (practically enjoyed all powers of Sultan and exercised general control over all departments).

1. Diwan – I – Wazirath (Finance minister). Wazir acted as PM.

2. Diwan – I – Ariz – Defence minister
3. Diwan – I – Insha – Department of correspondence
4. Diwan – I – Rasalth – Department of religious affairs headed by sadr
5. Judicial department chief – Qaji
6. Hindus were governed by their ow personal law and their cases were dispensed by village panchayats
7. Wakil – I – Dar- officer responsible for maintenance of proper decorum at court.

Iqta system:

 The institution of Iqta had been force in early Islamic world as a reward for services to state.
 In the caliphate administration it was used to pay civil and military officers.
 After the establishment of Sultanate iqta system was introduced by Sultans.
 To begin with army commanders and nobles were given territories to administer and collect revenue.
 The territories thus assigned were called iqta and their holders as iqtadar or muqti.

Territorial administration:

Delhi Sultanate  Sarkar  Shiq  Pargana  Village

Local administration:

 The provinces were called iqtas under the control of muqtis or walis.
 Their duty was to maintain law and order and collect the land revenue.
 The provinces were divided into shiqs and pargana.
 The shiq was under the control of shiqdar.
 The pargana comprising number of villages was headed by amil.
 The village headman was known as muqaddam or chaudhri. The village accountant was called patwari.

 Shiqs were controlled by shiqdar.

 Pargana were controlled by amil.
 Villagers were controlled by village headmen. He is called by name muqaddam, chaudri, khut. Patwaries
were village accountant.
 The lands were classified into three categories:
o Iqta land – lands assigned to officials as iqtas instead of payment for their services.
o Khalisa land – land under direct control of Sultan and revenues collected were spent for maintenance
of royal court and royal household.
o Inam land – Land assigned or granted to religious leaders or religious institutions

46
Economy during Delhi Sultanate period:

 Land revenue was major source of income for administration.

 The peasantry paid one third of their produce as land revenue and sometimes even one half of the produce.
 Agriculture formed the occupation of bulk of people.
 The peasants produced a large variety of food crops, cash crops, fruits, vegetables and spices. They practiced
advanced agricultural techniques such as crop rotation, double cropping, three crop harvesting, fruit grafting
etc. various types of artificial water lifting devices were also used for this purpose.
 The Persian wheel was most advanced water lifting device of this period.
 During the Sultanate period, the process of urbanization gained momentum.
 Construction of roads and their maintenance facilitated for smooth transport and communication. Particularly
royal roads were kept in good shape. Sarais or rest houses on highways were maintained for convenience of
travelers.
 Cotton textile and silk industry flourished in this period.
 Paper – making technology evolved by Chinese and learnt by Arabs was introduced in India during rule of
Delhi sultans.
 Craft production was organized in villages as well as quasbas. There also existed imperial.
 These karkhanas were part of royal establishment. These units produced commodities for the consumption
of royal household and the court, generally, expensive and luxury items were produced here.
 In the field of commerce India had trade links with contemporary central Asia, China, South – east Asia and
Europe etc.
 The peasantry paid one third of their produce as land revenue, and sometimes even one half of the produce.
 Bengal and Gujrat were famous for fine quality fabrics, Combay (Gujrat) was famous for textile, gold &
silver work. Sonargao was famous for raw silk & muslin.
 Indian textiles were exported to China.
 The royal karkhanas supplied the goods needed to the Sultan and his household.
 Gold coins or dinars became popular during the reign of Alauddin Khalji after his South Indian conquests.
Copper coins were less in number and dateless.
 Turks introduced many new crafts (manufacturing of paper) and techniques ex- use of iron stirrup, amour. It
led to the growth of metallurgical industry.
 They also introduced spinning wheels.
 While Gujaratis and Tamils dominated sea trade, the Hindu Multanis and Muslim Khurasanis, Afghans and
Iranians dominated the overland trade with Central Asia.
 Postal system based on relays of horses or fast-runners was developed.

Education:

 Certain traditions of education were now implanted from Islamic world. At the base was the maktab, where
a school master taught children to read and write.
 At a higher level, important texts in various subjects were read by individual pupils with particular scholars
who gave instruction (dars) in them.
 A more institutionalized form of higher education, the madrasa, became widely established in Central Asia
and Iran in 11th century and from there, it spread to other Islamic countries.
 Usually madrasa had a building where instruction was given by individual teachers.
 Often there was provision of some cells for resident students, a library and a mosque.
 Firoz Tuglaq built a large madrasa at Delhi whose splendid building still stands.
 From Barani’s description it would seem that teaching here was mainly confined to “Quran – commentary,
the Prophet’s sayings and the Muslim Law (fiqh)”.
 It is said that Sikander Lodi (1489 – 1517) appointed teachers in maktabs and madrasas in various cities
throughout his dominions, presumably making provision for them through land or cash grants.

Social Life:

 There was little change in the structure of the Hindu society during this period.

47
  The practice of sati was widely prevalent.
 The seclusion of women and the wearing of purdah became common among the upper-class women. The
Arabs and Turks brought the purdah system into India and it became widespread among the Hindu women
in the upper classes of north India.
 During the Sultanate period, the Muslim society remained divided into several ethnic and racial groups. The
Turks, Iranians, Afghans and Indian Muslims etc. There were no intermarriages between these groups.
 Very rarely the Hindu nobles were given high position in the government.
 The Hindus were considered zimmis or protected people for which they were forced to pay a tax called jiziya.

Literature and Languages during Delhi Sultanate:

 With the establishment of Delhi sultanate, a new language and literary style was introduced into sub –
continent.
 Persian became official language of Delhi sultanate.
 The development of Persian literature in the sub – continent entered a new era in writings of Amir Khusrau.
 The court chronicles were an important feature of literature during the period of Delhi Sultanate.
 Ziauddin Barani made the most important contribution to Persian literature during this period. The Tarikh –
I – Firozshahi and the Fatwa – I Jahandari are his important works.
 Ziauddin Barani was bitter critic of Muhammad bin tuglaq.
 Minhaj – us – Siraj wrote Tabaqat – I – Nasari, a general history of Muslim dynasties up to 1260.
 Abu Backer’s Chachanamh is first geographical treatise deals with conquest of Sindh.
 During this period there were many works that were translated into Persian. The Tuti Nama (book of parrot)
by Zia Nakshabi was the first Persian translation of Sanskrit stories.
 A new language Urdu emerged during 14th century
 The growth in regional languages like Bengali, Gujarati, Marathi and Telugu was a very significant
development.
 Barani’s Tarikhi- Firoz Shahi contains the history of Tughlaq dynasty. Minhajus-Siraj wrote Tabaqat-i-
Nasari, a general history of Muslim dynasties up to 1260.
 Sanskrit and Persian functioned as link languages in the Delhi Sultanate.
 Zia Nakshabi was the first to translate Sanskrit stories into Persian.
 The book Tutu Nama or Book of the Parrot written by Zia Nakshabi, became popular and translated into
Turkish and later into many European languages.
 The famous Rajatarangini written by Kalhana belonged to the period of Zainul-Abidin, the ruler of Kashmir.
 Many Sanskrit works on medicine and music were translated into Persian. • Regional languages also
developed during this period.
 Maldhar Basu, compiler of Sri-Krishna Vijaya was patronized by Bengali Sultans and was granted title of
Gunaraja Khan. His son was honored with title of Satyaraja Khan.
 Chand Baradi was the famous Hindi poet of this period.
 Bengali literature had also developed and Nusrat Shah patronized the translation of Mahabharata into
Bengali.

Music during Delhi Sultanate:

 The important phase in development of music during this period belongs to time of Amir Khusrau.
o Amir Kusrau was first to describe Kahsmir as Eden of Earth.
o He proclaimed himself as tuti – I – Hind or parrot of India.
o He was contemporary of Jalaluddin Khilji, Alauddin Khilji, Ghiyasuddin Tuglaq.
o He witnessed rule of eight sultans.
 It is during this period the quwwali style is said to have developed.
 He is credited for development of many modern ragas like aiman, gora and sanam.
 He is credited with creation of new musical instrument, the sitar that was combination of India veen and
Iranian tambura.
 New musical instruments such as Sarangi and Rabab were introduced during this period.

48
  Raja Man Singh of Gwalior was great lover of music. He encouraged the composition of a great musical
work called Man Kautuhal.
 Pir Bhodan, a Sufi saint was one of the great musicians of this period

Architecture during Delhi Sultanate:

 New architectural forms and styles were introduced in India during the medieval period. The synthesis of
Indian and Islamic architectural features led to emergence of Indo – Islamic architecture.
o The arch and dome were new architectural additions of the period.
o The use of lime – mortar in the construction of buildings and houses altered the building techniques.
o The development of true arch was important feature of architectural style of period.
o In the beginning, they converted temples and other structures demolished into mosques. For
example, the Quwwat – ul – Islam mosque near Qutub Minar in Delhi was built by using materials
obtained from destroying many Hindu and Jain temples.
o With arrival of artisans from West Asia the arch and dome began to show up with precision and
perfection. Gradually local artisans also acquired skill. The tomb of Balban adorned with first true
arch and Alai Darwaza built by Alauddin Khilji as agateway to the Quwwatul – Islam mosque was
adorned with first true dome.
o Tuglaqs went for introduction of innovative features in architecture also, such as.
 “batter” or sloping walls
 Use of stone rubble as principle building material
 A new type of arch called four centered arch
 The emergence of pointed dome
 The introduction of an octagonal plan of tomb building
o Ghiyasuddin Tuglaq added Tuglaqabad to Delhi
o Muhammad bin Tuglaq added Jahanpanha to Delhi
o Firoz Shah Tuglaq added Ferozbad to Delhi
o Muhammad bin Tuglaq built tomb of Ghiyasuddin on high platform
o After Tuglaqs, Sikander Lodi constructed Jama Masjid in Agra, it is first structure in middle of
garden. Later, structures in the middle of garden became an essential feature in Mughal style.
 Double dome was another feature of Lodis architecture. E.g. Mothi ki Masjid (built by Sikandar Lodi).

Reasons of decline of Delhi Sultanate:

 Financial instability
 Degeneration of Delhi Sultans
 Invasion of Timur
 Greed and incompetency of nobles
 Defective military organisation
 Vastness of empire
 Poor means of communication
 War of succession
 Despotic and military type of government.

49
Delhi Sultanate Regimes 1206 – 1526:

Mamluk Regime Khalji Regime Tuglaq Regime Sayyid Dynasty Lodi Dynasty
1210 – 1290 1290 – 1320 1320 – 1414 1414 – 1451 1451 – 1526
Shams – U – Din Jalal - Ud – Din Ghiyas – ud – din Khizr Khan (1414 – Bahlul Lodi (1451 –
Iltumish (1210 – 36) Khalji (1290 – 96) Tuglaq (1320 – 24) 21) 1489)
Nasir – ud – din Allauddin Khalji Muhammad Tuglaq - Sikander Lodi
Mahmud II (1246 – (1296 – 1316) (1324 – 51) (1489 – 1517)
66)
Ghiyas – ud – din Mubarak Shah Firuz Touglaq - Ibrahim Lodi (1517
Balban (1266 – 87) Khalji (1316 – 20) (1351 – 88) – 26)

50
Previous Years Questions:

1. After consolidating his power, Balban assumed the grand title of (1997)
(a) Tute-Hind
(b) (b) Kaisr-I-Hind
(c) (c) Zil-I-Ilahi
(d) (d) Din-I-Ilahi

2. Fawazil in the Sultanate period meant: (1998)

(a) extra payment to the nobles
(b) revenue assigned in lieu of salary
(c) excess amount paid to the exchequer by the Iqtadars
(d) illegal exactions extracted from the peasants

3. Sultan of Delhi who is reputed to have built the biggest network of canals in India was: (1998)
(a) Iltutmish
(b) Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
(c) Firoz Shah Tughlaq
(d) Sikandar Lodi

4. Assertion (A): At first the Turkish administration in India was essentially military.
Reason (R): The country was parcelled out as 'Iqtas' among leading military leaders. (1998)
(a) Both A and R are true but R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true

5. Consider the following: (1998)

1. Tughlaqabad fort
2. Lodi Garden
3. Qutab Minar
4. Fatehpur Sikri
The correct chronological order in which they were built is:
(a) 3, 1, 4, 2
(b) 3, 1, 2, 4
(c) 1, 3, 2, 4
(d) 1, 3, 4, 2

6. 'The king was freed from his people and they from their king'. On whose death did Badauni comment thus? (1999)
(a) Balban
(b) Ala-ud-din Khalji
(c) Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq
(d) Firoz Shah Tughlaq

7. Match List – I with List – II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: (2000)
List – I List – II
A. Iqta 1. Marathas
B. Jagir 2. Delhi Sultans
C. Amaram 3. Mughals
D. Mokasa 4. Vijayanagar
(a) A – 3; B – 2; C – 1; D – 4
(b) A – 2; B – 3; C – 4; D – 1

51
 (c) A – 2; B – 3; C – 1; D – 4
(d) A – 3; B – 2’ C – 4; D – 1

8. Mongols under Chengiz Khan invaded India during the reign of (2001)
(a) Balban
(b) Firoz Tughlaq
(c) Iltutmish
(d) Muhammad Bin Tughlaq

9. Which of the following pairs is correctly matched? (2001)

(a) Dewan-i-Bandagani – Tughlaq
(b) Dewan-i-Mustakhraj – Balban
(c) Dewan-i-Kohi – Alauddin Khilji
(d) Dewan-i-Arz – Muhammad Tughlaq

10. With reference to medieval Indian rulers, which one of the following statements is correct? (2002)
(a) Alauddin Khalji first set up a separate ariz's department.
(b) Balban introduced the branding of horses in his military.
(c) Muhammad Bin Tughlaq was succeeded by his uncle to the military.
(d) Firoz Tughlaq set up a separate department of slaves.

11. Direction: The following item consists of two statements, one labelled as "Assertion A" and the other as "Reason
R". You are to examine these two statements carefully and decide if "Assertion A" and "Reason R" are individually
true and if so, whether the "Reason R" is the correct explanation for the given Assertion A". Select your answers to
these items using the codes given below and mark your Answer Sheet accordingly.
Assertion (A): Muhammad Bin Tughlaq left Delhi, and for two years lived in a camp called Swarga-Dwari.
Reason (R): At that time, Delhi was ravaged by the plague and many people died. (2002)
(a) Both A and R are individually true but R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not a correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true

12. Historian Barani refused to consider the state in India under Delhi Sultans as truly Islamic because (2002)
(a) majority of the population did not follow Islam
(b) Muslim theologists were often disregarded
(c) Sultan supplemented the Muslim law by framing his own regulations
(d) religious freedom was accorded to non-muslims

13. Alam Khan, one of those who invited Babur to invade India was: [2003]
(a) an uncle of Ibrahim Lodi and a pretender to the throne of Delhi
(b) a cousin of Ibrahim Lodi who was ill-treated and expelled from the country
(c) the father of Dilawar Khan to whom cruel treatment was meted out by Ibrahim Lodi
(d) a high official in Punjab province who was discontented with Ibrahim Lodi's treatment of his tribe

14. How did Sultan Qutb-ud-din Aibak die? [2003]

(a) He was treacherously stabbed to death by one of his ambitious nobles
(b) He was killed in a battle with Taj-u-din Yildiz, the ruler of Ghazni who entered into a contest with him
over the capture of Punjab
(c) He sustained injuries while besieging the fortress of Kalinjar in Bundelkhand and succumbed to them
later
(d) He died after a fall from his horse while playing Chaugan

52
15. Who was the last ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate? [2004]
(a) Firoz Shah Tughlaq
(b) Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq Shah II
(c) Nasir-ud-din Mahmud
(d) Nasrat Shah

16. Assertion (A): Muhammad bin Tughlaq issued a new gold coin which was called Dinar by Ibn Battuta.

Reason (R): Muhammad bin Tughlaq wanted to issue token currency in gold coins to promote trade with West Asian
and North African countries. [2006]
(a) Both A are R are true but R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
17. Which one of the following is the correct chronological order of the Afghan rulers to the throne of Delhi? [2006]
(a) Sikandar Shah-Ibrahim Lodi-Bahlol Khan Lodi
(b) Sikandar Shah-Bahlol Khan Lodi-Ibrahim Lodi
(c) Bahlol Khan Lodi-Sikandar Shah-Ibrahim Lodi
(d) Bahlol Khan Lodi-Ibrahim Lodi-Sikandar Shah

18. Consider the following statements: [2019]

1. In the revenue administration of Delhi Sultanate, the in-charge of revenue collection was known as 'Amil'.
2. The Iqta system of Sultans of Delhi was an ancient indigenous institution.
3. The office of' Mir Bakshi' came into existence during the reign of Khalji Sultans of Delhi.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

19. Consider the following statements:

(1) It was during the reign of Iltumish that Chengiz Khan reached the Indus in pursuit of the fugitive
Khwarezm prince.
(2) It was during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughluq that Taimur occupied Multan and crossed the Indus.
(3) It was during the reign of Deva Raya II of Vijayanagara Empire that Vasco da Gama reached the coast of
Kerala.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 2
(c) 3 only
(d) 2 and 3

53
 MEDIEVAL INDIA

UNIT: Regional Kingdoms

Ahom’s of Assam:

 The history of Assam is the history of the confluence of the Tibeto- Burman (Sino-Tibetan), Indo-Aryan, and
Austroasiatic cultures, as well as the confluence of people from the east, west and the north.
 The Ahoms were a Mongoloid tribe from north Burma (present day Myanmar) who had succeeded in
establishing a powerful kingdom in the 13th century, and had become Hinduised in course of time. In fact,
the name Assam is derived from them.
 They suppressed the old political system of Bhuiyans (landlords)
 Ahom state was dependent on forced labor called Paiks.
 Each village had to send a number of Paiks by rotation.
 Almost all male adult served in the kings army during war
 “Buranjisis” - the historical chronicle of Ahom’s
 Originally, Ahom worship their own tribal god but by 17th CE, they adopted Hinduism but they did not left
their tribal culture fully.
 Ahom society was divided into Khel or clan.

Gonds:

 Gond lived in vast forestland mentioned as Gondawana.

 “Akbarnama” mention Gond kingdom in Garh Katanga.
 The kingdom was divided into:
o Garh
o Chaurasi (unit of 84 village below Garh)
o Bahot (divison of Chaurasi in 12 villages)
 The famous queen Durgawati belong to this dynasty.

Orissa:

 Gajapati dynasty was established by Kapilendra Deva in c.1435 CE, after the fall of the last eastern Ganga
king, Bhanudeva IV .
 “Gajapati” etymologically means a king with an army of elephants.
 Narsinghdeo of this dynasty constructed Konark Temple.
 In the middle of the 15th CE there was rise of Gajpati rulers they ruled Orissa until the end of Lodhi period.

Mewar:

 Mewar or Udaipur Kingdom was originally called Medhpaat and over time, the name Medhpath became
Mewar. Interestingly, the rulers of Mewar used the title “Maharana” (Prime Minister or Custodian) instead
of the typical title “Maharaja” (King).
 Rana Kumbha (1433-1468 AD) was the most famous ruler.
 Rana kumbha wrote book like Sangeet Priya, Sudha Prabandh , Rasik Priya, Kam Raja Ratisara etc.
 Kumbha erected a Victory Tower (Kirti Stambh) at Chittor a mark of victory of his conquests. He also
consolidated the fortification of Chittor and constructed a road running through its seven doors.
 He was acclaimed as ‘Sangeet Shiromani’ and wrote an outstanding treatise on indian music titled Sangeet-
Raj as well as other works like Sangeet Mimansa, Sangeet Ratnakar, and Sudprabhandh.

Kashmir:

 In Rajatarangini (a history of Kashmir written by Kalhana in the mid- 12th century) it is stated that the valley
of Kashmir was formerly a lake. Zainul Abedeen was the greatest ruler of Kashmir. He also known as Bud
Shah (the Great Sultan) and as Akbar of Kashmir who was benevolent, liberal, and an enlightened ruler.

54
  He contributed to the agricultural development of Kashmir by constructing dams and canals and initiated the
maintenance of the agricultural records.
 He also constructed “Zaina Lanka” the artificial island on the Wullur Lake.
 Many Sankrit works like Rajtarangini, Mahabharat were translated into Persian under him.
 In c.1586 CE, Akbar conquered Kashmir and made it a part of the Mughal Empire.

The Sharaqi of Jaunpuri:

 Malik Sarwar laid the foundation of the Sharqi dynasty.

 Malik Muhammed Jaisi the writer of “Padmavat” was the court Poet.
 Jaunpur evolved a distinct architecture that is known as the Sharqi style of architecture. Jaunpur was known
as the Shiraz of India. Most notable examples of Sharqi style of architecture in Jaunpur are the Atala Masjid,
the Lal Darwaja Masjid, and the Jama Masjid.

Hoysalas:

Political History:
 Hoysalas were feudatories of chalukyas of Kalyana.
 Dwarasamudra(Halebeedu) was their capital.
 Sala was the founder of this dynasty.
 He was succeeded by Vinayaditya and Balalla 1.
 Vishnuvardhana(Bittideva) was greatest in Hoysala dynasty.
 He completely routed Cholas from Gangavadi in battle of Talakadu, for this he got the title Talkadugonda.
 In commemoration of this victory he built kirtinarayana temple at Talakadu and Chennakesavar temple at
Beluru.

Religion:
 Hoysalas patronized Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Jainism.
 Vishnuvardhana followed Jainism.
 He was influenced by Sri Ramanujacharya and converted into srivaishnavism.

Literature:
 Kannada and Sanskrit literature developed during this period.
 Important literary works in Kannada are
o Harihara-
o Raghavanka- Harishchandracharite
o Nemichandra- leelavati Prabhanda
o Janna-

Art and Architecture:

 Hoysalas combined Vesara and Dravida style and developed new Hoysala style.
 Important features of this style are
o Star shaped platform
o The jagati around the temple is the open pradakshinapatha.
o Polished pillar with variety of designs.
o Elaborate carvings and beautifully carved madanika figures.
o Vimana(shikara) in pyramidical shape.
o Most of their temples in Bhumija style. In this style miniature shikara is carved on the outerwall of
the temple.
 Examples of Hoysala temples are.
o Channakeshava temple at Beluru
o Hoysaleshvara temple at Halebidu
o Keshava temple Somnathpura

55
  They constructed Jain Basadis also. Eg. Savathi Gandhavarana Basadi at Shravanabelagola.

Yadavas:
Political History:
 They ruled area between Narmada and Tungabhadra comprising the areas of present day Maharshtra,
southern Madhya Pradesh and northern parts of Karnataka.
 This dynasty is also knwn as SEVUNA, GAVLI KINGS.
 Devagriri (Daulatabad ) was their capital.
 Initially they were feudatories of western Chalukyas
 Bhillamma declared independence and started independent rule.
 They maintained rivalary with Kakatiyas and Hoysalas.
 The Yadava kingdom reached its peak under Simhana II, and flourished until the early 14th century, when it
was annexed by the Delhi Sultanate.
 Harpaladeva was the last king in this dynasty.

Literature and Language:

 The Yadavas were the first major dynasty to use Marathi as an official language. Earlier,
both Sanskrit and Kannada had been used for official inscriptions in present-day Maharashtra; subsequently,
at least partly due to the efforts of the Yadava rulers, Marathi became the dominant official language of the
region
 Mukundaraya wrote Vivekasindhu in Marathi.
 Gnyaneshwar wrote Gnyaneshwari, a marthi language commentary on Bhagwad Gita.
 Hemadri composed Chaturanga Chintamani. (Sanskrit)
 Sarangapani composed sangeetaratnakara (considered to be first book on music).
 Kannada was one of the court languages during early Yadava times, as is evident from a number of Kannada-
language inscriptions.

Kakatiyas:
Political History:
 The Kakatiya dynasty was a South Indian dynasty that ruled most of eastern Deccan region comprising
present day Telangana andAndhra Pradesh, and parts of eastern Karnataka and southern Odisha between 12th
and 14th centuries.
 Their capital was Orugallu, now known as Warangal.
 Early Kakatiya rulers served as feudatories to Rashtrakutasand Western Chalukyas for more than two
centuries. They assumed sovereignty under Prataparudra I in 1163 CE .
 Ganapati Deva (r. 1199–1262) significantly expanded Kakatiya lands during the 1230s and brought under
Kakatiya control the Telugu-speaking lowland delta areas around the Godavariand Krishna
 Ganapati Deva was succeeded by Rudramma Devi(r. 1262–1289)
 Marco Polo, who visited India sometime around 1289–1293, made note of Rudramma Devi’s rule.
 Alauddin Khalji invaded Kakatiya kingdom in 1303AD. This brought hard times for kakatiyas.
 Finally in 1323 Prince Jaunakhan (muhammed bin Tughlaq) defeated Prataparudra Deva and annexed their
kingdom.
 Prince Jauna changed the name of Kakatiyas capital Oragallu as Sultanpur.
 Prataprudra Deva committed suicide near Narmada river while coming to Delhi as a captive of prince Jauna.

Literature:
 Sanskrit and Telugu literature flourished during this period.
 Jayapa senani has composed Geeta Ratnavali, Nritya Ratnavali and Vadya Ratnavali.
 Andhra natyam and perinisivatandavam was classical dance forms of this period.

Architecture:
 Kakatiyas followed trikuta model in their temple constructions.

56
  In this model temples are contructed for Shiva ,Vishnu and Surya in a triangular way.
 Floating bricks and welcoming archways were silent features in Kakatiya structures.
 The scenic Pakhal lake in Warangal was built by Ganapathi Deva.
 The 1000 pillar temple in Warangal was built during the Kakatiya Rule and is another example to the
exquisite Kakatiya Architecture
 The iconic Kakatiya Thoranam was built by Rudramadevi’s father in the 12th Century. This ornate arch is
said to have many similarities with the gateways at the Sanchi Stupa and is also the emblem of Telangana.
 The Koh-i-Noor Diamond, which is now among the jewels set in the British Crown, was mined and first
owned by the Kakatiya Dynasty.
 Ramappa temple is best specimen in Kakatiya temples.

UNSECO world heritage site 2021:

 The iconic Ramappa Temple showcases the outstanding craftsmanship of great Kakatiya dynasty.
 Rudreshwara (Ramappa) Temple is a masterpiece of Kakatiyan-era architecture, employing engineering
innovation in the form of floating bricks, sand-box foundations, selection of building material and masterful
stone sculpting.
 The Ramalingeswara temple, also known as the Ramappa temple, was named after its chief sculptor
Ramappa. It is one of the very few temples in the world named after its sculptor.
 According to Telangana Tourism, “The mediaeval Deccan temple dates back to 1213 AD and was built under
the patronage of the Kakatiya ruler Kakati Ganapathi Deva under the authority of his Chief Commander
Rudra Samani at Ranakude in the Atukuru province.”
 Aside from its architecture and elaborate carvings on the temple’s walls, pillars, and ceilings, the most notable
feature of this temple is that it was constructed using bricks that are so light that they can float on water.
 The temple is built on a 6-foot-high platform with a cruciform plan in a valley and took nearly 40 years to
complete.
 The chamber of the temple is crowned by a ‘shikharam’ and surrounded by ‘pradakshinapatha’.

57
 MEDIEVAL INDIA

UNIT: Rajput states

Topics: The Chahamanas or Chauhans of Ajmer, Solankis (Chalukya Dynasty), The Paramaras, The
Chandellas, The Rathors or Gahawars (1090 – 1194 CE)

Introduction:

 The Prathihara kingdom declined after the death of Mahendrapala. His successors were not able to keep vast
kingdom intact.
 The Gurjara – Prathiharas subsequently suffered several defeats in the early 10 th century.
 The feudatory chiefs and provincial governors of Gurjara – Prathiharas gradually started asserting
independence, the empire disintegrated and was reduced to area around Kanauj.
 The decline and authority of Prathiharas saw division of Prathihara empire into the hands of Chalukyas
(Solankis) of Anhilwada, the Chandellas of Bundelkhand, Paramaras of Malwa, Chauhans of Sakambari,
Gahawars of southern Rajasthan.

The Chahamanas or Chauhans of Ajmer:

 They ruled south eastern Rajasthan.

 They followed Shkambari cult
 Capital city – Ajmer
 Vishaladeva was founder of this dynasty
 Vishaladeva’s nephew, Rai pithora or Prithivraj was most famous ruler of this dynasty.
 Prithivraj married Samyukta, daughter of Jayachandra (arch rival of Prithivraj)
 Jayachandra invited Muhammad Ghori to invade India or to defeat Prithivraj.
 In 1191 AD, Prithivraj Chauhan defeated Muhammad Ghori in first battle of Tarain.
 In 1192 AD, Muhammad Ghori made fresh attack and defeated Printhivraj in second battle of Tarrain.
 In 1193, Jayachandra was killed by Ghori
 The military conquests of Prithivraj have been described in the long epic poem, Prithivraj Raso composed by
Chand Bardai.
 With the death of Prithivraj, the sun of Rajput glory set for ever.

Solankis:

 They ruled Gujrat area.

 Capital – Anhilwara
 Bhimadeva 1 ruled for about 42 years from 1021 – 1063 CE. During his time the famous Somnath temple
was plundered by Muhammad of Ghazni.
 Bhima – I was followed by his Karna in 1063 – 93 CE. He built numerous temples, dug tanks and founded a
city after his name, now called as Ahmedabad.
 Karna’s successor was Jayasimha Siddharaja. (1093 – 1143 CE)
 One of the ruler Kumarapala is said to have re built temple of Somnath.
 Bhimadeva 2 and Muladeva 2 defeated Ghori in 1178 AD.
 Solankis were dethroned by Waghelas.

The Paramaras:

 They ruled malwa region/central India.

 Capital city – Dharanagar
 The Paramaras of Malwa rose on the ruins of the Prathihara empire of Kanauj.
 The Paramaras or Pawar clan was supposed to have emerged from the Agnikund of Mount Abu.
 Raja Bhoj was greatest in this dynasty. (1018 – 1060)
 Bhoja tried to regenerate Hindu society. He also fought against Muslims.

58
  Apart from great warrior, he was an accomplished scholar.
 Hi constructed Sanskrit college called Bhojshala at his capital.
 His famous books were:
o Ayurveda Sangraha
o Yukti Kalpataru
o Samranga Suthradhara (deals with architecture)
 He was also a great builder and is believed to have been built 104 temples and also a beautiful lake known
as Bhojpur lake.
 The power of the Paramara dynasty came to an end with death of Raja Bhoja.

The Chandellas:

 They ruled eastern part of Madhya Pradesh (Bundelkhand region)

 Capital city – Mohoba, Khajuraho
 The Chandella dynasty of Bundelkhand was one of 36 Rajput clans.
 Handella kingdom expanded steadily under early kings such as Jayashakti
 Dhanga was a great ruler of this dynasty. He took the title of Maharajadhiraja. He is well known for his wars
against Mahmud of Ghazni. Several of Khajuraho temples were built during his reign.
 Vidhyadhara also resisted attacks of Muhammad Ghazni. He built Gwalior and Kalinjar forts.
 The last ruler of Chandellas was Parmal, who was defeated by Prithivraj in 1182 CE and from whom Qutb –
ud – din Aibak captured Kalinjar in 1203 CE.
 After this, Chandellas sank into obscurity and Bundelkhand passed into hands of Muslims.
 Architecture: Chandells were creative builders in their towns and strongholds. Above all in their capital,
Khajuraho.
 A large group of these temples still exists at Khajuraho in Bundelkhand. These temples were built during the
period 900 – 1150 CE.
 The Kandariya Mahadev temple is famous for its artistic excellence. The architecture of Chandellas is
considered as one of the supreme achievements of Indian architecture.

The Rathors or Gahhawars (1090 – 1194 CE):

 Ruled over Kanauj for more than a century

 The founder of this dynasty was Chandradeva. His kingdom included Banaras, Ayodhya and Kanauj.
 Govindachandra, grandson of Chandradeva, enjoyed long reign, (1112 – 1155 CE) and succeeded in
restoring the glory of Kanauj kingdom.
 He was succeeded by Vijayachandra. He drove out Amir Kushro from Lahore.
 The last great ruler of this dynasty was Jaichandra well known in popular legend as Raja Jaichand (1170 –
1194 CE).

59
Previous Years Questions:

1. Consider the following pairs: (2016)

Famous place Region

1. Bodhgaya Baghelkhand
2. Khajuraho Bundelkhand
3. Shirdi Vidarbha
4. Nasik Malwa
5. Tirupati Royal Seema

Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched?

(a) 1, 2 and 4
(b) 2, 3, 4 and 5
(c) 2 and 5 only
(d) 1, 3, 4 and 5

60
 MEDIEVAL INDIA

UNIT: Vijayanagar and Bahmani Sultans

Vijayanagar Empire:

 In 1336, Vijayanagar kingdom was established by Harihara and Bukka, who were two brothers and served
in army of Muhammad – Bin – Tuglaq.
 They broke away from Delhi Sultanate and established an independent state in Karnataka and established the
capital city Vijayanagar on banks of river of Tunghabhadra in 1336.
 Harihara and Bukka were helped and inspired by contemporary scholar and a saint Vidyaranya for
establishment of their kingdom.
 There was constant conflict between Vijayanagar Empire and Bahamani kingdom over Raichur doab (fertile
region between Krishna and Tungabhadra), Tungabhadra doab (fertile areas of Krishna-Godavari delta) &
Marathwada.
 In the south its main rivals were the Sultans of Madurai.
 During the reign of Rama Raya, the combined forces of Bijapur, Ahmednagar, Golkonda and Bidar defeated
him at the Battle of Talaikotta in 1565 which marked an end of the Vijayanagar Empire.
 The last ruler of Vijayanagar was Sri Ranga III
 Four Dynasties ruled Vijayanagar from A.D. 1336 TO 1672

Sources:

Literary sources:

 Rayavachakam by Vishvanatha Sthanapati

 “The forgetten history of vijayanagar empire” by Robert seawell.
 The Kannada and Telugu literature, like Manucharithram, Saluvabhyudayam, etc., patronized in the
Vijayanagar court, give genealogical, political and social information.

Foreign accounts:

 Nicholo de Conti visited Vijayanagar empire during times of Devaraya 1 and gave details about his
personality.
 Abdul Razzaq from Persia visited during Devaraya 2. He described the beauty of capital Hampi.
 Domingo Paes and Barbosa visited during Krishnadevraya time.
 Nuniz visited during times of Achythdevaraya.

Inscriptions:

 Bitragunta inscriptions is the major source for construction of family history of sangama dynasty.
 Srirangam cooper plates of Devaraya II provide the genealogy and achievements of Vijayanagar rulers.
 Various copper plate inscriptions of Krishnadevaraya time.
 The Hampi ruins and other monuments of Vijayanagar provide information of cultural contributions of
Vijayanagara rulers.

Political History:

 Vijayanagar was ruled by four different dynasties

o Sanagama dynasty (1336 – 1486)
o Saluva dynasty (1486 – 1506)
o Tuluva dynasty (1506 – 1565)
o Aravidu dynasty (1570 – 1647)

61
Important Rulers:

Praudhadevaraya (Devaraya II) 1. The most famous king from Sangama dynasty.
2. Titles: ‘Elephant Hunter’, ‘Dakshinapathada Chakravarthi’.
3. Extended Vijayanagara from Gulbarga to Sri Lanka & Telangana to
Kerala.
4.His commander: Lakkanna Dandesha.
Krishna Devaraya (1509-1529 AD) 1. The most famous king Vijayanagara Empire (from Tuluva dynasty).
2. He is also known as Andhra Bhoja
3. Waged war against Bahamani kingdom & kept them under check.
4. Liberated Mohammad Shah & assumed the title “Yavanarjya
Prathishtapanacharya”.
5. The author of Manu Charitramu was the greatest among
Ashtadiggajas.
6. His empire extended from the river Krishna in the north to River
Cauvery in the south; the Arabian Sea in the west to Bay of Bengal in
the east.
7. He had a cordial relationship with Portuguese. 8. He authored
“Amuktamalyada” (Telugu work on polity) and “Jambavati Kalyanam”
(Sanskrit drama). Krishna Deva Raya was a great builder as well. He
built the Hazara Rama temple and the Vittalaswami temple.
9. Patronized Telugu, Kannada, Sanskrit, and Tamil scholars & poets.
10. He had 8 eminent scholars ‘Ashtadiggajas’ at his royal court.
11. He built a new city called Nagalapuram in memory of his queen
Nagaladevi.
“ASHTADIGGAJAS” of Krishna A group of eight scholars adorned Krishnadevaraya’s court and they
Devaraya were:
1. Allasani Peddanna – the author of Manucharitram, he was also known
as Andhra Kavitapitamaha
2. Nandi Thimmana – the author of Parijathapaharanam
3. Madayagari Mallana
4. Dhurjati
5. Ayyalaraju Ramabhadrudu
6. Pingali Surana
7. RamarajaBhushana
8. Tenali Ramakrishna

Sangam Dynasty:

 Harihara raya was first ruler. Vijayanagar and Bahmani conflict started during his times.
 Bukaraya ascended throne after Harihara
 Bukka’s son Kamparaya annexed Madurai. This episode was written by Gangadevi (wife of Kamparaya) as
Madhuravijayam in Sanskrit
 He captured revatidweepa (Goa)
 He created Pansupari Bazaar in Hampi
 Bukaraya was succeeded by Harihara 2 and later Devaraya came to power.
 Devaraya 1 was defeated Bahmani sultan Feroz Shah 1
 The greatest ruler of Sangam dynasty was Deva Raya II
 He inducted Muslim archers into army
 He was first vijayanagar ruler to collect tributes from Ceylon.
 After his death, Sangama dynasty became weak.
 The last king Virupaksharaya was dethroned by his commander Saluva Narasimaraya 1 and he started Saluva
dynastic rule.

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Saluva Dynasty:

 Narasimha raya 2 was greatest in Saluva dynasty

 Annamacharya lived during this time period
 After the death of Narasimha 2, Narasa nayaka installed his son Veeranarasimha on throne.
 Veeranarasimha started rule of Tuluva dynasty.

Tuluva dynasty:

 After the death of Veeranarasimha, PM Thimmarasu installed Krishnadevaraya on throne.

 Krishnadevaraya (1509 – 1529) was greates in this dynasty.
 He was great commander and an efficient administrator. He fought a series of war with independent kingdoms
that came on ruins of Bahmani kingdom, maintained law and order and dealt with Portuguese influence in
Deccan.
 He completely shattered the Adil Shahi forces of Bijapur first and attacked Gulbarga and set free three
Bahmani princes who were imprisoned there. He helped them in recovering the throne of Gulbarga and
Kirshna Deva himself took title of Yavanarajya stapanacharya.
 He started his eastern campaign in 1513 AD.
 Udayagiri was first fort to be captured by Krishnadevaraya.
 He defeated Prataparudra Gajapati of Orissa.
 He married Gajapati princess Tukkadevi or Annapurnadevi
 Raichur campign in 1520 was his last campaign. He defeated Ismail Adil Shah.
 Portuguese governor Alfonso De Alburque concluded treaty with Krishnadevaraya
 In 1510, Portuguese captured Goa from Bijapur Sultan.
 He was great patron of literature and art and he was known as Andhra Bhoja
 Eight eminent scholars known as Ashtadiggajas were at his royal court.
 Due to death of his son, Krishnadevaraya received nervous breakdown and passed away in 1529.
 After his death, Achyutadeva and Sadashivraya succeeded the throne.
 During the reign of Rama Raya, the Bahman confederacy (combined forces of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar,
Golkonda and Bidar) defeated Ramaraya at battle Battle of Talaikote in 1565.
 Rama raya was imprisoned and executed. The city of Vijayanagar was destroyed. This battle was generally
considered to mark end of Vijayanagar empire.
 However, kingdom existed under Aravidu dynasty for about another century.

Aravidu Dynasty:

 Thirumala, Sri Ranga and venkata II were important rulers of this dynasty.
 Venkata II was contemporary to Akbar.
 Sri Ranga III was last ruler of Vijayanagar.
 Sri Ranga was defeated by Mir Jumla of Golconda in battle of Vandavasi in 1647.
 Vijayanagar empire came to an end with this.

Administration:

 They followed traditional monarchy.

 The kind was ultimate authority in the kingdom. He was also the supreme commander of army.
 The king was assisted by council of ministers in his day to day administration.
 One of the important characteristics of the Vijayanagar administration was the amaranayaka. This is similar
to the iqta system of Delhi Sultanate.
 In this system the commander of Vijayanagar army was called nayaka. Each nayaka was given area for
administration. The nayaka was responsible for expanding agricultural activities in his area.
 The succession to the throne was hereditary.
 Administrative units divided as: Mandalams, Nadus, Sthalas and finally into Gramas.
 Mandaleshwar or Nayaka was the governor of Mandalam.

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  He had considerable autonomy- had right to issue coins of small denominations & right to impose new tax
or remit old one.
 Sources of income: land revenue, tributes, and gifts from vassals and feudal chiefs, customs at ports, & taxes
on various professions.
 The army consisted of cavalry, infantry, artillery and elephants.
 Nayankar System - The top-grade officers of the army were known as Nayaks/Poligars.
 They were granted land in lieu of their services which were called Amaram.
 Manyams were tax free lands.
 A body of 12 functionaries known as Ayangars, conducted village affairs.
 He collected taxes in his area and with this income maintained his army, horses, elephants and weapons of
warfare that he had to supply to the Vijayanagar ruler.
 The amara – nayakas sent tribute to king annually and personally appeared in royal court with gifts to express
their loyalty.

Socio – Economic condition:

 The Sangama rulers were chiefly Saivaites and Virupaksha was their family deity.
 The chief gold coin was the varaha or pagoda. The Perta was half a Varaha. Fanam was one tenth a pertha.
 Tar was a silver coin. Jittal was a copper coin.
 The chief items of export were cotton, silk, spices, rice, saltpeter and sugar.
 The imports consisted of horses, pearls, copper, coral etc.
 The art of shipbuilding had developed.
 The Vijayanagara kings issued a large number of gold coins called Varaha (also called Pon in Tamil and
Honnu in Kannada).
 These gold coins have the images of various Hindu deities and animals like bull, the elephant and fabulous
gandaberunda (a double eagle, sometimes holding an elephant in each beak and claw). The legend contains
the king’s name either in Nagari or in Kannada script.

Position of women:

 Women occupied a high position and took an active part in the political, social and literary life of the empire.
 Women even went to battles.
 It was the only empire in Medieval India which employed women in state services. •
 Widow re-marriage was promoted.

Revenue:

 Land revenue was major source of income to state.

 Generally, it was at rate of one sixth of total produce.

Society:

 People were fond of luxurious life.

 Silk and cotton clothes were mainly used for dress. Perfumes, flowers and ornaments were used by people.
Paes mentions beautiful horses of rich and large number of their household servants.
 Prostitution was institutionalized.
 Devdasi or temple dancer system became more popular.
 Practice of sati further strengthened.
 Existence of four castes – Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras.

Religion:

 The Sangama rulers were chiefly Saivites and Virupaksha was their family deity. But other dynasties were
Vaishnavites.

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  But all kings were tolerant towards other religions. Borbosa referred to religious freedom enjoyed by
everyone.
 Muslims were employed in the administration and they were freely allowed to build mosque and worship.
 Shunya sampadane – a collection of vachanas produced in this age. (vachanas literally meaning sayings in
Kannada, these are poetic verses composed in Kannada language, popularized by Beershaiva movement led
by Basavann).

Literature:

 Sanskrit, Kannada, Telugu literature witnessed voluminous literature in Vijayanagar period.

 Few Sanskrit works are.
o Gangadevi wrote – Madhuravijayam
o Krishnadevaraya wrote – usha Parinayan, Jambavanti Kalyanam, Madalas Charita
o Guru Vidyaranya wrote – Raja Kalanirnaya
 Few Literary works in Kannada.
o Chamarasa wrote – Prabhulingaleele.
o Kanakadas wrote – Ramadhanacharite, Nala charite, Mohantarangini
o Kumaravyasa wrote – Karnataka Katha Manjari
o Purandardas – Keertanas
 Few Literary works in Telugu:
o Krishnadevaraya wrote – Amuktamalyada
o Allasani Pedanna wrote – Manucharita
o Nandi Timmanna wrote – Parijathaparahana
 Ashtadiggajas – 8 great poets of Telugu literature flourished in court of Krishnadevaraya.

Architecture:

 They used Dravidian style of architecture later added some unique features to it and came to be called as
Vijayanagara style.
 Preferred for its durability, local hard granite was building material of choice, as it had been for Badami
Chalukyas.
 Templesare surrounded by strong enclosures and characterized ornatepillared kalyana mandapa (marriage
halls); tall raya gopurams (carved monumental towers at entrance of temple) built of wood, brick, and stucco
in Chola style and adorned with life – seized figures of gods and goddesses.
 This dravida style became popular during reign Krishnadevaraya and is seen in South Indian temples
constructed over next 2 centuries.
 The courtly architecture of Vijayanagar is generally made of mortar mixed with stone rubble and often shows
secular styles with Islamic – influenced arches, domes and vaults.
 Some famous temple exemplifying the Vijayanagar style include Virupaksha temple at Hampi and Hazara
Rama temple of Deva Raya I.

List of Foreign Travellers visited Vijayanagara:

Name of Travellers From Vijayanagar Ruler

Abu Abdullah/ lbn Batuta Morocco Harihara I
(Book:Rihla)
Nicolo de Conti Italy Devaraya II
Abdur Razzaq Persia Devaraya II
Athanasius Nikitin Russia Virupaksha Raya II
Ludvico de Vorthema Italy Krishna Deva Raya
Duarte Barbosa Portugal Krishna Deva Raya
Dominigo Paes Portugal Krishna Deva Raya
Fernao Nuniz Portugal Achyuta Deva Raya
Marco Polo Venice -

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Bahmani kingdom:

 The Deccan region was a part of provincial administration of Delhi Sultanate.

 In order to establish stable administration in Deccan, Mohammad bin Tuglaq appointed amiran – I –
sada/Sada Amir, who were the administrative heads of hundred villages.
 From 1337 the conflict between the officers in Deccan and Delhi Sultanate accelerated.
 This led to establishment of an independent state in Deccan in 1347 with capital at Gulbarga in Karnataka.
 The Bahmani Sultanate was a Persianised Muslim state of the Deccan in South India and one of the major
medieval Indian kingdoms.
 Though the region was ruled by a Muslim it was not a 'Muslim State'. Hindus were also part of it.
 The nobles of Bahmani kingdom were categorized in two categories: Afaquis and Deccanis. Deccanis were
nobles of native origin while Afaquis had foreign origin.
 It was founded by Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah (in 1347), also known as Hasan Gangu, revolting against
the Delhi Sultanate of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
 Bahamani kingdom acted as a cultural link between the South & the North.
 The Kingdom stretched from north to south from the Wainganga river to Krishna and east to west from
Bhongir to Daulatabad.
 There was total 14 Bahaman Sultans

Political history:

 Alauddin Hassan Gangu Bahman Shah was founder of Bahmani Sultanate in year 1347 AD.
 Rivalry with Vijayanagar kingdom over fertile region or Raichur doab started from his period, and continued
till last of Bahmani rule.
 He had frequent conflicts with Warangal state, reddy kingdoms of Rajmundry and Kondavidu. Bahman Shah
emerged victorious in all these expeditions and assumed title Second Alexander on his coins.
 Mohammed I succeeded Bahman Shah.
 His attack on Warangal in 1363 brought him a large indemnity including important fortress of Golkonda and
treasured turquoise throne, which thereafter became throne of Bahmani kings.
 Established good system of government that was followed by all successor sultanates as well as by Marathas
later.
 Appointed council of eight ministers of state:
o Vakil – us – saltana or lieutenant of kingdom, the immediate subordinate of the sovereign
o Waziri – kull, who supervised work of all other ministers
o Amir – I – Jumla, minister of finance
o Wasir – I – Ashraf, minister of foreign affairs and master of ceremonies
o Nazir, assistant minister of finance
o Peshwa who was associated with the lieutenant of kingdom
o Kotwal or chief of police and city magistrate in capital
o Sadr – I – Jahan or chief justice and minister of religious affairs and endowments.
 The next hundred years saw a number of Sultans one after another, by succession or usurpation. All of them
fought with their soldiers with their southern neighbor, but without gaining much territory.
 The next hundred years saw a number of Sultans one after another, by succession or usurpation. All of them
fought with their southern neighbor, but without gaining much territory.
 In 1425, Warangal was subdued and their progress further eastwards was challenged by Orissan rulers.
 In 1429, Ahmed Shah Al wali shifted capital city from Gulbarga to Bidar.
 The rule of Mohammed III (1463 – 1482) is worthy of mention because of his lieutenant Mohammed Gawan,
a great statesman.
 The Bahmani Empire was always at war with Vijayanagara Empire for control over Deccan. Firoz shah
invaded Vijaynagar and defeated Krishna Deva Raya I.
 Ahmad Shah Wali later shifted Capital from Gulbarga to Bidar.
 Muhammad Shah III became the sultan at the age of 9 after death of his brother Nizam Shah and Mahmud
Gawan served as Prime Minister.

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  Bahmani Empire reached its zenith during the time of Mahmud Gawan. • Kalimullah was the last king of the
Bahmani dynasty.

Muhammad Gawan:

 Bahmani kingdom reached its peak under PM Muhammad Gawan. He was a Persian merchant.
 He was well – versed in Islamic theology, Persian and Maths. He was also a poet and prose – writer.
 He was also a military genius. He waged successful wars against Vijayanagar, Orissa and sea pirates on
Arabian Sea.
 He built Madarasa at Bidar in Persian architectural style.
 This madrasa was great learning centre with collection of 3000 manuscripts from all over world.
 Gawan’s progress was not tolerated by native Muslim leaders. They made false allegations. They made Sultan
to punish him with death sentence.
 After execution of Gawan Bahmaniin 1481 Sultanate started to decline.
 After few years Sultanate gradually broke up into five independent kingdoms: Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Berar,
Golkonda and Bidar.
 Introduced use of Gunpowder in war against Vijaynagar Kings.

Nizam Shahis of Ahmednagar (1490-1633 AD) 1. Founder - Ahmad Nizam Shah.

2. It was conquered & annexed by Shah Jahan in 1633.
Adil Shahis of Bijapur (1490-1686 AD) 1. Founder - Yusuf Adil Shah.
2. Famous Gol Gumbaz was built by Muhammad Adil Shah.
3. Bijapur was conquered & annexed by Aurangzeb in 1687.
Qutub Shahis of Golconda (1518- 1687 AD) 1. Founder – Muhammad Quli Qutub shah.
2. He built famous Golconda fort and made it capital.
3. Muhammad Quli Qutub Shah founded the city Hyderabad
(originally known as Bhagyanagar) and also built Charminar.
4. It was annexed by Aurangzeb in 1687.
Imad Shahis of Berar (1490- 1574 AD) 1. Founder – Fatullah khan Imad ul Mulk.
2. Capital – Daulatabad
3. Annexed by rulers of Ahmednagar
Barid Shahis of Bidar (1528- 1619 AD) 1. Founder – Ali Barid
2. Annexed by Bijapur rulers.

Administration:

 The kingdom was divided into four administration units called ‘taraf’ or provinces. These provinces were
Daulatabad, Bidar, Berar and Gulbarga.
 Every province was under a tarafdar who was also called a subedar.
 Some land was converted into Khalisa land from jurisdiction of tarafdar. (Khalisa land was that piece which
was used to run expenses of king and royal household)
 Nobles used to get their salary either in cash or in form of grant of land or ‘jagir’.

Military:
 Bahamani ruler depended for military support on his amirs
 There were two groups in the ranks of amirs: One was the Deccanis who were immigrant Muslims
and had been staying for a long time in the Deccan region. The other group was Afaquis or Pardesis
who had recently come from Central Asia, Iran and Iraq.
 Bahamanis were familiar with the use of gunpowder in warfare.

Literature:

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  Persian ,Arabic and Urdu literature flourished in this period.
 Mohammad Gawan wrote poems in Persian language. Riyaz -ul-Insha, Manazir-ul-insha are his
works.
 A new dialect called “Dakhini urdu “ became popular during this time.
 The famous sufi saint of Gulbarga, Khwaja Bande Nawaz Gesu Daraj wrote in this language.

Architecture:
 They followed Indo-Islamic style of architecture with some improvisation. Local materials were
used to construct the buildings.
 The architecture was highly influenced by Persian architecture.
 Some features of this style are
o Tall minarets
o Strong arches
o Huge domes
o Spacious Hazaras
o Crescent moon at the top of the building

Examples:

 Monuments at Gulbarga: Shah bazaar mosque, Hafta Gumbaz, Jama maszid etc
 At Bidar: Mohammad Gawan’s madarasa, solah khamba mosque, Rangeen mahal, Janata mahal etc
 At Bijapur: Gol gumbaz (built by Mohammad Adil shah in 1656AD), Ibrahim roza, Bara Kaman, Anand
mahal, Chand Bawdi etc.

Conflict between Vijayanagar and Bahmani:

 There were constant conflicts between the Vijayanagar and the Bahamani kingdoms over the control of
Raichur doab which was the land between rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra and Marathwada region.
 This area was fertile and rich in mineral resources.
 The famous diamond mines of Golconda were located in the eastern part of the doab region. The geography
of both the kingdoms was such that expansion was possible only across
 Tungabhadra in the Deccan.
 It appears that the battles between the two were not conclusive and the status quo was maintained

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Previous Years Questions:

1. Consider the following events: (2000)

1. Reign of Krishna Deva of Vijaynagara
2. Construction of Qutab Minar
3. The arrival of Portuguese in India
4. Death of Firoz Tughlaq
Correct chronological sequence of these events is:
(a) 2, 4, 3, 1
(b) 2, 4, 1, 3
(c) 4, 2, 1, 3
(d) 4, 2, 3, 1

2. Which one of the following Muslim rulers was hailed as the 'Jagadguru' by his Muslim subject because of his belief
in secularism? (2000)
(a) Hussain Shah
(b) Zain-ul-Abidin
(c) Ibrahim Adil Shah
(d) Mahmud II

3. When Raja Wodeyar founded the kingdom of Mysore, who was the ruler of the Vijayanagar Empire? (2006)
(a) Sadasiva
(b) Tirumala
(c) Ranga II
(d) Venkata II

4. Who of the following founded a new city on the south bank of a tributary to river Krishna and undertook to rule his
new kingdom as the agent of a deity to whom all the land south of the river Krishna was supposed to belong? (2015)
(a) Amoghavarsha I
(b) Ballala II
(c) Harihara I
(d) Prataparudra II

5. Regarding the taxation system of Krishna Deva, the ruler of Vijayanagar, consider the following statements: (2016)
1. The tax rate on land was fixed depending on the quality of the land.
2. Private owners of workshops paid an industries tax.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2

6. With reference to Indian history, which of the following statements is/are correct? (2017)
(1) The Nizamat of Arcot emerged out of Hyderabad state.
(2) The Mysore Kingdom emerged out of the Vijayanagara empire.
(3) Rohilkhand kingdom was formed out of the territories occupied by Ahmad Shah Durrani.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 3 only

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7. Consider the following statements: (2018)
(1) It was during the reign of Iltumish that Chengiz Khan reached the Indus in pursuit of the fugitive
Khwarezm prince.
(2) It was during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughluq that Taimur occupied Multan and crossed the Indus.
(3) It was during the reign of Deva Raya II of Vijayanagara Empire that Vasco da Gama reached the coast of
Kerala. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 2
(c) 3 only
(d) 2 and 3

8. According to Portuguese writer Nuniz, the women in the Vijayanagara empire were expert in which of the following
areas? (2021)
(1) Wrestling
(2) Astrology
(3) Accounting
(4) Soothsaying
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 1, 3 and 4 only
(c) 2 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

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 MEDIEVAL INDIA

UNIT: Mughal Empire

 Babur was the founder of the Mughal empire which was established in 1526 after Babur defeated Ibrahim
Lodi in the first battle of Panipat.
 Reason for Babur’s victory: Alternatively resting one wing of army, services of two Ottaman master gunners
– Ustab Ali & Mustafa, Use of gunpowder, scientific use of cavalry & artillery tactics – Tulughma and the
araba, effective use of cannons.

 Thus a new epoch and a new empire in India began, lasting for nearly three centuries beginning from 1526
to 1857.
 Six major rulers of this dynasty, Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangri, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb, known as
the “Great Mughals”, left their mark on India history.
 The empire declined after the death of Aurangzeb in 1707.

Zaheeruddin Mohammed Babur (1526 – 30 AD):

 Babur ascended the throne at Farghana (Uzbekistan) in 1494 at the age of 12 after the death of his father.
 The situation in Central Asia was not stable and Babur had to face a lot of resistance from nobility itself.
 Although he was able to capture Samarqand but very soon he had to retreat because of desertion of some of
his nobles. He also lost Farghana to the Uzbegs.
 After years of wandering he seized Kabul in 1504.
 During this whole period, he had plans of moving towards Hindustan and finally from 1517 onwards he made
decisive move towards India.
 Meanwhile in India there was conflict between some Afghan chiefs with Ibrahim Lodi. Prominent among
them was Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of large part of Punjab.
 The Rajput king of Mewar Rana Sangha was also asserting his authority against Ibrahim Lodi and was trying
to increase his area of influence in north India.
 Both of them sent word to Babur to invade India. Invitations from Rana Sanga and Daulat Khan Lodi might
have encouraged Babur’s ambitions.
 Between 1519 and 1524 he invaded Bhera, Sialkot and Lahore.
 Finally, in 1526 Ibrahim Lodi and Babur’s forces met at Panipat.
 Babur had an active army of only 12000 soldiers while Ibrahim’s army had an estimated strength of 100,000
soldiers. When face to face in battle field Babur’s tactics were unique. He effectively applied the Rumi
(Ottoman) method of warfare.
 Cannons were an important addition in 16th century warfare. Babur used them effective in first battle of
Panipat.
 Babur had conquered Delhi and Agra, but still had to suppress the Rajputs and Afghans.
 Babur decided to take on Rana Sangha of Chittor, who as ruler of Mewar, had strong influence over Rajasthan
and Malwa.
 The forces of Babur and Rana Sangha met at Khanwa, a place near Fatehpur Sikri. Rana Sangha was defeated
in 1527 and once again the superior military tactics of Babur succeeded. With the defeat of Rana the biggest
challenge in North India was shattered. (Battle of Khanwa – 1527).
 Though the Mewar Rajputs received great shock at Khanwa, Medini Rai at Malwa was still threatening to
challenge the authority of Babur. In the next year Babur defeated Medini Rai in Chanderi. (Battle of Chanderi
– 1528).
 In the subsequent year Babur encountered Afghans (Ibrahim Lodi’s brother Mohammed Lodi) and defeated
them in Battle of Ghagra.
 Babur died in year 1530 AD.
 He was a scholar of Persian and Arabic languages
 He wrote his autobiography, Tuzuk – I – Baburi in Turki language. Later, it was translated into Persian and
other languages.

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  Proclaimed himself as “Emperor of Hindustan”.
 Babur introduces a new mode of warfare in India.
 He had assumed title of Padshah.

Nasiruddin Mohammed Humayun (1530 – 1540; 1555 – 56):

 After the death of Babur in 1530, his son Humayun succeeded him.
 Humayun means ‘fortune’ but he remained the most unfortunate ruler of Mughal Empire.
 Humayun, a cultured and learned person, was not a soldier like his father.
 He faced problems of weak financial systems and the predatory Afghans
 The growth of Aghan power in regions around Bihar and Uttar Pradesgh under leadership of Sher Khan (later
Sher Shah) made Humayun to initiate cation. Defeating the Afghans at Daurah in 1532 Humayun besieged
the powerful fort of Chunar.
 However, in 1539 Sher Shah Suri defeated Humayun in Battle of Chausa. Somehow Humayun managed to
escape form battle group.
 In the next year, Sher Shah Suri confronted Humayun in Kannauj and defeated him completely. (Battle of
Kanauj – 1540).
 Hmayun built a new city at Delhi which he named “Dinpanah”.
 Mosques: Jamali mosque and mosque of Isa Khan at Delhi
 His widow Amida Benu Beum built Humayun’s tomb (UNESCO site)
 Humayun’s sister, Gul Badan Begum, wrote “Humayun – Nama”.
 The foundation for the Mughal painting was laid by Humayun when he was studying in Persia.
 He brought two painters with him – Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdul Sammal, who became famous during Akbar’s
reign.
 Sher Shah started his independent rule.

Sher Shah Suri (1540 – 1555):

 Farid, who later came to be called Sher Khan and subsequently Sher Shah, was son of a Jagirdar under the
kingdom of Jaunpur. His father Hasan Khan Sur held the jagir of Sasaram in Bihar during the rule of Lodis.
 After defeating Humayun he became sovereign ruler in the year 1540 and assumed the title of Sher Shah.
 After gap of 14 years Sher Shah succeeded in establishing Afghan rule again in India in 1540 (Lodis were
first Afghans to rule)
 Sher Shah and his successor ruled for 15 years and this period is known as period of second Afghan Empire.
 He defeated and conquered Malwa in 1542 which was followed by CHanderi. In Rajasthan he led campaigns
against Marwar, Ranthambor, Nagor, Ajmer and Merta, Jodhpur and Bikaner. He defeated rebellious
Afghans in Bengal. By 1545, he had established himself as supreme ruler from Sindh and Punjab to whole
of Rajputana in the West and Bengal in the East.
 Now he turned towards Bundelkhand. Here while besieging the fort of Kalinjar he died in 1545 in an
accidental blast of gun powder.
 Malik Muhammad Jayasi wrote famous Hindi work ‘Padmavat” during his reign.
 After Sher Shah’s death in 1545 his successors ruled till 1555 when Humayun reconquered India.

Sher Shah’s Reforms:

 He made his government highly centralized.

 The king was assisted by important ministers:
o Diwan – I – Wizarat – also called as Wazir – in charge of Revenue and Finance.
o Diwan – I – Ariz – in charge of Army
o Diwan – I – Rasalat – Foreign Minister
o Diwan – I – Insha – Minister for Communication
o Barid – Intelligence
 Sher Shah’s empire was divided into forty-seven sarkars. Chief Shiqdar (law and order) and Chief Munsif
(judge) were two officers in charge of administration in each Sarkar.

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  Each Sarkar was divided into several parganas. Shiqdar (military officer), Amin (land revenue), Fotedar
(treasurer), Karkuns (accountants) were in charge of administration of each pargana.
 Mauza (village) was the lowest level of administration. There were also many administrative units called
iqtas.
 The land revenue was well organized & revenue officers were called Amils and Quanungo were officials
incharge of maintaining revenue records.
 Land survey was done carefully. He introduced schedule of crop rates (ray).
 Imprived land revenue by adopting zabti – I – har – sal (land assessment every year)
 All cultivable lands were classified into 3 classess – good, middle and bad. The state’s share was one third
of average produce and it was paid in cash or crop. Land was measured using Sikandari gaz (32 points)
 Introduced Patta (amount each peasant had to pay) and Quabuliyat (deed of agreement)
 Introduced new silver coins called “Dam” and they were in circulation till 1835.
 He also built Sarais (lodging) which also served as post office. Many Sarais developed into market towns.
 Every Sarai was under the control of Shahana (custodian)
 Sher Shah had also improved the communication by laying four important highway. They were: 1.
Sonargoan to Sind 2. Agra to Burhampur 3. Jodhpur to Chittor and 4. Lahore to Multan
 He extended the Grand Trunk Road from Chittagong in the frontiers of province of Bengal in NE India to
Kabul in Afghanistan in far NW of country.
 Malik Muhammad Jayasi wrote famous Hindi work Padmavat during his reign.
 He followed branding of horses from Alauddin Khilji and maintained his personal royal force called Khasa
Khali.
 He started building a new walled city in Delhi which later came to be known as Purana Qila (Old Fort)
 He built his own mausoleum in Sasaram.

Humayun (1555 – 56):

 When Humayun left India in 1540, he married Hamida Banu Begum on his way to Sind.
 When they stayed in Amarkot, a Hindu kingdom ruled by Rana Prasad, Akbar was born in 1542. Humayun
then proceeded to Iran and sought help from its ruler. He later defeated his brothers, Kamran and Askari.
 In the meantime, the Sur dynasty in India was declining rapidly.
 In 1555, Humayun defeated the Afghans and recovered the Mughal throne. After six months, he died in 1556
due to his fall from staircase of his library.
 His biography Humayunnama was written by Gulbadan Begum in Persian language and was buried in Delhi.

Akbar (1556 – 1605):

 Akbar was only 13 years old at time of Humayun’s death. When his father died, Akbar was at Kalanaur in
Punjab and therefore his coronation took place in Kalanaur itself in 1556.
 It was his tutor and Humayun’s favourite confidant Bairam Khan, who served as regent of Mughal Emperor
from 1556 to 1560.
 As a conqueror Akbar triumphed all over North India. The first four years of Akbar’s rule saw the expansion
of the Mughal Empire from Kabul to Jaunpur, including Gwalior and Ajmer, under his regent Bairam Khan.
 One of the major achievements of his regency period was defeat of Hemu and Afghan forces in the second
battle of Panipat in 1556, who were posing serious threat to Mughal Empire.

Akbar’s Military conquests:

 Malwa conquered in 1562 from Baz Bahadur who was made a mansabdar in Akbar’s court.
 The Gondwana region of central India was annexed after a fierce battle with Rani Durgavati and her son Vir
Narayan in 1564.
 Akbar conquered Gujarat from Muzaffar Shah in 1573. Akbar built new capital Fathepur Sikri in memory of
this victory.
 In the battle of Haldighati, Rana Pratap Singh was severely defeated by Mughal army led by Man Singh in
1576. Following the defeat of Mewar, most of the leading Rajput rulers had accepted Akbar’s suzerainty.

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  Defeated Daud Khan, the Afghan ruler of Bihar and Bengal, both the provinces were annexed to Mughal
Empire in 1576.
 Akbar defeated Gujarat ruler Muzaffar Shah. To commemorate this victory, he built Buland Darwaza at
Fathepur Sikri.
 Akbar gradually enlarged Mughal Empire to include much of sub-continent.
 Akbar’s forces had Khandesh region in 1591.
 Chand Bibi defended Ahmednagar against the Mughal forces.

Administration:

 Empire was divided into subas (provinces), governed by a subadar who carried out both political and military
functions.
 Each subha had officials - diwan, bakshi, sadr, qazi etc.
 There was another division of empire – Jagir (allotted to nobles & members of royal family), Khalisa (tract
reserved for royal exchequer), Inam (given to religious leaders, half of it was uncultivated).

Local Government:

 Pargana & Sarkar were subdivisions of provinces.

 Fauzdar – Charge of law & order & Amalguzar – land assessment and revenue collection were chief officers
of Sarkar.

Land Revenue Administration:

 With the help of Raja Todar Mal, Akbar experimented on the land revenue administration; it was Zabti or
Bandobast system.
 Dahsala System - The revenue was fixed on the average yield of land measured on the basis of previous ten
years. It was improved version of Zabti.
 Battai/Gholla-Bakshi system - Produce divided between state & peasants in fixed proportion. Peasants were
given choice between Battai & Dahsala.
 Nasaq/kankut – revenue on the basis of what peasant had been paying in the past.
 Categorization of land - Polaj (cultivated every year), Parati (once in two years), Chachar (once in three or
four years) and Banjar (once in five or more years).
 Payment of revenue was made generally in cash.
 Qanungos were hereditary holders of land and Karoris were officers appointed all over North India. they had
responsibility of collecting dam (rupees).

Mansabdari syste:

 Akbar introduced the Mansabdari system in his administration. Under this system every officer was assigned
a rank (mansab).
 The word “Mansabdar” used for all but it had 3 scale gradation –
o 1. Mansabdar – (500 zat / below it)
o 2. Amir (between - 500-2500 zat)
o 3. Amir-i-Umda – (above 2500 zat)
 The ranks were divided into two – zat and sawar.
 Zat fixed the personal status & salary of a person.
 Sawar rank indicated the number of sawars had to maintained by person. Every sawar had to maintain at least
two horses.
 The mansab rank was not hereditary & mansabdar were paid by assigning jagir

Rajput policy:

 The Rajput policy of Akbar was notable. He married the Rajput princess, the daughter of Raja Bharamal.

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  It was turning point in history of Mughals. Rajputs served the Mughals for four generations. Many of them
rose to positions of military generals.
 Raja Bhagawan Das and Raja Man Singh were given senior positions in the administration by Akbar. One
by one, all Rajput states submitted to Akbar.

Religious policy:

 He abolished the pilgrim tax and Jizya

 In 1575, he ordered for the construction of Ibadat Khana (house of worship) at his new capital Fatehpur Sikri.
 Akbar invited learned scholars from all religions like Hinduism, Jainism, Christianity and Zoroastrianism.
 In 1582, he promulgated a new religion called Din Illahi or Divine Faith. It believes in one god. It contained
good points of all religions.
 He propagated a philosophy of Sulh – I – Kul (peace to all).
 In 1582, he discontinued the debates in Ibadat Khana as it led to bitterness among different religions.
 Badauni, a contemporary author, was bitter critic of Akbar’s religious experiment.
 Sheikh Mubarak was religious guru of Akbar.
 Akbar’s new religious policy was drafted by Abul Fazl
 Jharoka Darshan was introduced by Akbar with the objective of broadening the acceptance of the imperial
authority as part of popular faith.
 Muhammad Hussain was Akbar’s favorite Calligrapher. He was proficient in Nastaliq – the fluid style with
long horizontal stroke.
 Akbar honored him with Zarin-i-Kalam (golden pen).

Coinage:

 Introduced gold coins called asharafi (mohurs).

 He also began dating his coins as per a new ‘Illahi era’, which replaced the earlier Hijri era.
 Akbar introduced the practice of inscribing Persian poetry praising the ruler on coins.

Akbar’s Navaratnas:

 Abul Fazl  wrote Ain-i-Akbari and “Akbar Nama”.

 Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana  Great poet, Translated Baburnama into Turki
 Birbal  Was a Hindu advisor and main commander (mukhya senapati) of army in the court. Akbar gave
him title ’Raja Birbal’.
 Mirza Aziz Koka  also known as Kotaltash, was the foster brother of Akbar built by Mirza Aziz Koka as
a mausoleum for himself, at the time of Jahangir’s reign
 Faizi  Translated Lilavati into Persian & under his supervision Mahabharata was translated into Persian
language.
 Raja Man Singh  was a mansabdar.
 Raja Todar Mal  Finance Minister. Akbar bestowed on him title of Diwan-iAshraf.
 Faqir Azio-Din  one of the Chief advisors of Akbar
 Tansen  Musician, Hindu of Gwalior. He served to King Ramachandra, who gave him the title of “Tansen”.
Akbar gave him title of “Mian”.

Art:

 Haznama, consisted of 1200 paintings, belonged to his reign.

 European style of painting was introduced by Portuguese priests in his court.
 Jaswant & Daswan were famous painters in his court.
 Persian poets in his court: Abu Fazl and his brother Abul Faizi, Tarikh Alfi, Utbi and Nazir.
 Hindi poets in his court: Tulsidas- wrote “Ramcharitmanas”.
 Akbar commissioned the translation of many Sanskrit works into Persian. A Maktab Khana or translation
bureau was also established at Fatehpur Sikri for this purpose.
 The Razmnamah is Persian translation of the Mahabharata.

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  Akbar period was popularly known as 'the renaissance of Persian literature'.

Architecture:

 Palace-cum- fort complex at Fatehpur Sikri (City of Victory): Many buildings in Gujarati and Bengali styles
are found in this complex. Gujarathi style was probably built for his Rajput wives.
 Akbar built Diwan -i-am (hall of public audience), Diwan-i-Khas (private hall).
 The most magnificent building in it is the Jama Masjid and the gateway to it called Buland Darwaza or the
Lofty Gate, Shaik Saleem chisti dargah.
 Other important buildings at Fatepur Sikri are Jodha Bai’s palace and Panch Mahal with five storeys. During
Akbar’s reign, the Humayun’s tomb was built at Delhi and it had a massive dome of marble. It may be
considered the precursor of the Taj Mahal.
 Akbar’s tomb at Sikandara near Agra was completed by Jahangir.
 He built Agra Fort in red sandstone and also Jahangiri Mahal in it according to Hindu design.

Jahangir (1605 – 1627):

 Akbar was succeeded by his son Salim with title Nur – ud – din Jahangir.
 He was Akbar’s son by a Rajput wife.
 His ascension was challenged by his eldest son Princh Khusrau who staged a revolt with blessings of Sikh
Guru Arjun Dev.
 Prince Khusrau was defeated, captured and blinded, while Guru Arjun Dev was executed.
 In 1608, Ahmad Nagar in Deccan had declared independence under Malik Ambar.
 During the reign of Jahangir there was no addition to Mughal territory in Deccan.
 Jahangir’s reign witnessed visit of two Englishmen – William Hawkins and Sir Thomas Roe. While former
could not get consent of emperor for establishing an English factory in India, the latter, sent as ambassador
by King James I, succeeded in securing permissions to establish British factory at Surat.
 In 1611, Jahangir married Mehrunnisa who was known as Nur Jahan (Light of World.)
 Nur Jahan dominated the royal household and set new fashions based on Persian traditions. She encouraged
Persian art and culture in the court.
 Nur Jahan became real power behind the throne.
 The political intrigues that prevailed because of Nur Jahan, led Prince Khurram (Shah Jahan) to rebel against
his father.
 Nur Jahan, who ruled empire for 10 years lost her power and influence after Jahangir’s death.
 Jahangir erected Zanjr – I – Adal at Agra Fort for seekers of royal justice.
 Faced tough fight of Malik Amber in his expeditions to Ahmendnagar.
 Introduction of “du – aspah – sih – aspah” system. It was modification to Mansabdari system. Nobles were
allowed maintain large no of troops without raising their zat ranks.
 Started decorating wall with floral designs made of semi – precious stones (Pietra Durra) during his reign.
 Built Moti Masjid at Lahore. Laid Shalimar and Nishant gardens in Kashmir.
 The use of Halo or divine ights behind King’s head started under him.
 Jahangir died near Lahore (on the way from Kashmir to Lahore). He was buried in Lahore.

Shah Jahan (1627 – 1658):

 After Jahangir’s death in 1627, Shah Jahan reached Agra with support of nobles and the army and ascended
the throne.
 Shah Jahan launched a prolonged campaign frontier to recover Kandahar and other ancestral lands but was
unable to Kandahar.
 His Deccan policy was more successful. He defeated forces of Ahmadnagar and annexed it. Both Bijapur
and Golkonda signed treaty with emperor.
 Shah Jahan defeated Shivaji’s father Shahiji Bhonsle.
 In 1631, Shah Jahan’s wife Mumtaz Mahal passed away at Burhanpur. In memory of her Shah Jahan started
constructing Taj Mahal at Agra.

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  Defeated Portuguese in 1632
 He was contemporary to Louis XIV of France.
 In his reign famous peacock throne was made for king.
 Europeans like Bernier (French physician and traveler), Tavernier (French gem merchant and traveler),
Mandelslo (German adventurer and traveler), Peter Mundy (English Trade) and Manucci (Italian writer and
traveler) visited India during the reign of Shah Jahan and left behind detailed accounts of India.
 During the last days of Shah Jahan, there was contest for throne amongst his four sons.
 Battle of Dharmat, Battle of Samugarh, Battle of Khajwah and Battle of Deorai took place & finally
Aurangzeb emerged victorious.
 Dara Shukoh, the eldest, was favourite of his father. A war of succession broke out between the four sons of
Shah Jahan in which Aurangzeb emerged victorious.
 Aurangzeb imprisoned Shah Jahan and crowned himself as Mughal emperor. Shah Jahan died broken hearted
as a royal prisoner in January 1666 was buried in Taj Mahal.

Aurangzeb (1657 – 1707):

 Masi – I – Alamgiri book written by Mustaid Khan throws light on Aurangzeb’s rule.
 He assumed the title Alamgir, world conqueror.
 His military campaign in his first 10 years of reign were great success. But he faced serious difficulties in
latter part of his reign.
 The Jats and Santnamis and also Sikhs revolted against him. These revolts were induced by his harsh religious
policy.
 Discontinued official departments of history
 He issued Zawabit – I – Alamgir (decrees of Aurangzeb) and appointed Muhtasibs to enforce moral codes
given under it.
 Drinking was prohibited & cultivation and use of bhang and other drugs were banned.
 Although he was proficient in playing Veena, Aurangzeb forbade music in court.
 He discontinued practice of Jaroka darshan.
 He also discontinued the celebration of Dasarah & Navroz and royal astronomers and astrologers were also
dismissed from service.
 Aurangzeb built Bibi Ka Mqbara (replica of Taj) at Aurangabad, Moti Masjid (Near Red Fort, Delhi)
 Initially Aurangzeb banned construction of new Hindu temples and repair of old temples. Then he began
policy of destroying Hindu temples.
 He was also not tolerant of other Muslim sects and celebration of Muharram was stopped.
 In 1679, he reimposed Jizya and pilgrim tax.
 In Mansabdari system he created additional rank Mashrut (conditional), Added one deduction called Kurak
– I – Dawwab) towards meeting cost for feed of animals.
 Aurangzeb appointed Rajputs to high positions, and under him Marathas accounted for sizeable number
within body of officers.
 Miraz Mohammad Qasim wrote ‘Alamgirnama’.
 Aurangzeb was basically Puritan (religious) in nature. He imposed Jizzya on Hindus.
 He was influenced by Nakshabandi sufi order.
 Prince Akbar rebelled against his father Aurangzeb, in this connection 9 th Guru of Sikhs Guru Teghbahadur
was executed by Aurangzeb.
 Deccan policy of Aurangzeb was motivated by policy of containing the growing influence of Marathas, the
rebellious attitude of Shia kingdoms of Deccan like Golkonda and Bijapur and to curtail the rebellious
activities of his Akbar who had taken refuge in Deccan. Aurangzeb came to Deccan in 1682 and remained in
Deccan till his death in 1707.
 Aurangzeb annexed Golconda and Bijapur.
 In fact, the destruction of Deccan kingdoms was political blunder on part of Aurangzeb. The barrier between
the Mughals and Marathas was removed and there ensued direct confrontation between them. Also, his
Deccan campaign exhausted the Mughal treasury. According to J.N.Sarkar, the Deccan ulcer ruined
Aurangzeb.

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  The Marathas under Shivaji were threat to Aurangzeb.
 Aurangzeb sent two of his generals Shaista Khan and Jai Singh one after other to capture Shivaji. Jai Singh
captured Shivaji and took him to Delhi but Shivaji managed to escape to Deccan.
 Shivaji, employing guerilla tactics, defied the Mughal forces till his death at age of 53 in 1680.
 Aurangzeb was severely tested by Marathas till his death in 1707 as sons of Shivaji continued the rebellion.
 The death of Aurangzeb in 1707 marked a watershed in Indian history as Mughal empire virtually came to
end even though the weak successors of Aurangzeb held throne the next 150 years.

Administration in Mughal Empire:

 The Mughals retained many features of administrative systems of Sultanate and Shershah.
 Under Shershah the administrative units of Pargana (group of villages), Sarkar (group of parganas) and
groups of sarkars (somewhat like subas or province) were placed under specific offices.
 The Mughals formalized a new territorial unit called suba. The Mughal Empire was divided into 12 provinces
or subas by Akbar.
 Institutions of Jagir and Mansab system were also introduced by Mughals.

Jagirdari system:

 It is the system of assignment of revenue of a particular territory to the nobles for their services to the state.
 It was an integral part of Mansabdari system.

TYPES OF JAGIRS
Tankha Jagirs Given in lieu of salary and were transferrable every three to four years
Mashrut Jagirs Were given on certain conditions
Watan Jagirs Were assigned to zamindar or rajas in their local dominions. Were hereditary and non –
transferable
Altamgha Jagirs Given to Muslim nobles in their family towns or place of brith

Zamindars:

 Zamindars had hereditary rights over the produce of the land and claimed a direct share in the peasants
produce which varied from 10% to 25% in different parts of the country.
 They assisted the state and jaghirdars in the collection of land revenue.
 Had their own armed forces and had to render military duties.
 Zamindars were not the owner of all lands comprising their zamindari

Important terms & meanings:

 Tainat-i- Rakab - reserved force

 Taccavi - loans provided for agriculture expansion.
 Merwars - Postal runners
 Banik - Local Traders
 Bitikchis – Clerks
 Chehra - Descriptive roll of every soldier
 Ahadis - the "gentlemen troopers," who drew higher pay than ordinary servicemen under mansabdari system.
 Khudkasht - Peasants who owned the land they tilled.
 Khasa Kail - Personal royal force maintained by Sher Shah.
 Qabuliyat system - deed agreement between the peasant and the government.

European factories/settlements during Mughal rule:

 Portuguese – in 1510, Albuquerque captured Goa from ruler of Bijapur and made it capital of Portuguese
empire in East. Subsequently Daman, Salsette and Bombay on west coast and at Santhome near Madras and
Hugli in Bengal on east coast had become Portuguese settlements.

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  Dutch – the Dutch set up factories at Masulipattinam (1605), Pulicat (1610), Surat (1616), Bimilipatam
(1641), Karaikal (1645), Chinsura (1653), Kasimbazar, Baranagore, Patna, Balasore, Nagapattinam (all in
1658) and Cochin (1663).
 Danes – also established trade settlements in India and their settlements were at Tranquebar in Tamil Nadu
(1620) and Serampore, their headquarters in Bengal.
 French – Surat (1668), Masulipatinam (1669), Pondicherry (1673) Chandernagore in Bengal (1690). Later
they acquired Mahe in Malabar, Yanam in Coromandal (both in 1725) and Karaikal (1739).
 English – The company first created a trading post in Surat (where a factory was built in 1612), and then
secured Madras (1639), Bombay (1668) and Calcutta (1690). Though the companies had many factories, Fort
William in Bengal, Fort St. George in Madras and Bombay Caste were three major trade settlements of
English.

Mansabdari system:

 Under this system every officer was assigned a rank (mansab). The lowest rank was 10 and highest was 5000
for nobles.
 Princes of royal blood received even higher ranks.
 The ranks were divided into two – zat and sawar.
 Zat means personal and it fixed the personal status of person.
 Sawar rank indicated the number of cavalrymen of person who was required to maintain.
 Every Sawar had to maintain at least two horses.
 The mansab rank was not hereditary.
 All appointments and promotions as well as dismissals were directly made by emperor.

Land Revenue system:

 Akbar went for revenue experimentation in his administration.

 The revenue policies of Alauddin Khilji and Sher Shah Suri formed the base for Mughal revenue system.
 In the year 1581, revenue minister Raja Todarmal reorganized the whole land revenue system. This system
is known as Zabti or Bandobast.
 According to this system was measured and classified based on fertility of soil as,
o Polaj – cultivated every year
o Parauti – once in two years
o Chachar – once in three or four years
o Banjar – once in five or more years

Literature during Mughals:

 Persian, Sanskrit and regional languages developed during the Mughal rule.
 Persian was the language of administration in Mughal Empire.
 The greatest contribution in the field of literature during Mughal rule was development of Urdu as common
language of communication for people speaking different dialects.
 Babur wrote his autobiography, Tuzuk – I – Baburi in Turki language.
 This autobiography gives details of flora and fauna in India.
 Babarnama (translation of Tuzuk – I – Babri) was written in Persian by Abdul Rahim Khan.
 Abdul Fazl has written Akbarnama (history of Akbar) and Ain – I – Akbari (administration book)
 Jahangir has written his autobiography as Tuzuk – I – Jahangiri
 Mutamid Khan has written biography of Jahangir as Iqbalnamah – I – Jahangir.
 Shah Jahan’s biography padschanamah was written by two authors who were Abdul Hamid Lahori and Inayat
Khan. Inayat Khan wrote Shah Jahan Namah.
 Persian literature was enriched by translation of Sanskrit works.
 The Mahabharatha was translated under supervision of Abul Faizi, brother of ABul Fazal and court poet of
Akbar.

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  Dara Shikoh translated the Bhagvat Gita and Upanishads into Persian language. His most famous work,
Majma – Ul – Barain.
 Badauni was bitter critic of Akbar. He transtaed Mahabharatha into Persian as Razanamah.
 Regional languages such as Bengali, Oriya, Rajasthani and Gujarati had also developed during this period.
 From the tie of Akbar, Hindi poets were attached to the Mughal court. The most influential Hindi poet was
Tulsidas, who wrote Hindi version of Ramayana, the Ramcharitmanas.
 Jaganath Pandithraya, court poet of Shah Jahan has written two Sanskrit books Ganga Lahari and
Rasagangadharam.

Paintings during Mughal:

 The credit for the development of Mughal painting goes to Akbar and Jahangir. The former possessed a
library of 24000 Manuscripts, many of which were illustrated through paintings.
 The Mughal painting evolved from the Persian school of miniature painting with Hindu, Buddhist and Jain
influences.
 These paintings evolved during the rule of various Mughal Emperors in India. The paintings often revolved
around themes like battles, legendary stories, hunting scenes, wildlife, royal life, mythology, etc. These
paintings also became an important medium to narrate the tall tales of the Mughal emperors.

Akbar:

 Akbar ordered the creation of many paintings and also paid close attention to the final output of all these
artworks. He was very particular about the details and the artistic elements involved
 Akbar had an impressive number of painters in his court. Between 1560 and 1577, he commissioned a number
of massive painting projects. One of the earliest painting projects commissioned by Akbar was ‘Tutinama’
which literally translates to ‘Tales of a Parrot. ’There is Hamzanama as well.
 Akbar and his successors brought revolutionary changes to painting and sensual illustrations. From this
period book illumination or individual miniatures replaced wall painting as the most vital form of art.

Jahangir:

 Since Jahangir was largely influenced by European painting, he ordered his painters to follow the single point
perspective used by European artists. This gave a whole new perspective to the Mughal painting.
 Jahangir even used European paintings that portrayed the images of Kings and Queens as references and
asked his painters to take a leaf out of these paintings.
 As a result, most of the Mughal paintings commissioned by Jahangir had finer brush strokes and lighter
colours. One of the major projects commissioned by him was the ‘Jahangirnama.’
 Several individual portraits of Jahangir were also made by his painters. However, he also commissioned
many paintings of birds, animals and flowers which were portrayed in a realistic manner.
 Artists began to use vibrant colours such as peacock blue and red and were able to give three-dimensional
effects to paintings.

Shah Jahan:

 The paintings that were displayed in the court became increasingly rigid and formal. However, he
commissioned a large number of paintings meant to be his personal collection.
 These paintings were based on themes like gardens and pictures that gave great aesthetic pleasure
 He also ordered many works that portrayed lovers in intimate positions. One of the most important works
produced during his reign was the ‘Padshanama.’
 Shahjahan’s eldest son preferred depicting natural elements like plants and animals in his painting.

Architecture during Mughals:

 The advent of the Mughals brought a new era in architecture.

 Indo-Islamic architecture reached its zenith during this period

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  The first building of this rule was Humayun’s Tomb at Delhi. Red sandstone was used in this building. It has
a main gateway and the tomb is placed in the midst of a garden. Many consider it a precursor of the Taj
Mahal
 Akbar built forts at Agra and Fatehpur Sikri. The Buland Darwaza reflects the grandeur of the mighty Mughal
Empire. This building was made following Akbar’s victory over Gujarat
 The tomb of Salim Chishti, Palace of Jodha Bai, Ibadat Khana, Birbal’s Houseand other buildings at Fatehpur
Sikri reflect a synthesis of Persian and Indian elements.
 During the reign of Jehangir, Akbar’s Mausoleum was constructed at Sikandra near Agra. He built the
beautiful tomb of Itimad-ud-daulawhich was built entirely of marble.
 Shahjahan was the greatest builder amongst the Mughals. He used marble extensively. Decorative design in
inlay work, (called pietra duro) beautiful arches and minarets were the features of his buildings
 The Red Fort and Jama Masjid of Delhi and above all the Taj Mahal are some of the buildings built by
Shahjahan.

Later Mughals:

Important Rulers Important Events

 More tolerant towards Hindu.
Muazzam (Bahadur Shah I)  Never abolished Jizya but didn’t collect the tax strictly.
(1707-1712)  Granted Marathas Sardeshmukhi of Deccan, but failed to grant
Chauth.Mughal historian like Khafi khan gave him the title of Shah-i-
Bekhabar.
 Introduced Ijarah (Revenue Farming)
 Became emperor with help of Zulfikhar Khan (later became PM)
Jahandar Shah  Tried to establish friendly relations with Maratha and Rajputs and
(1712-1713) hence abolished Jizya, granted Sardeshmukhi and Chauth of Deccan
to Shahu and accorded title of Mirza Raj Sawai on Jai Singh of
Ambar and title of Maharaja to Ajit Singh.
 Abolished Jizya completely
 Puppet of Sayyed Brothers – Abdula Khan & Hussain Ali (known as
Farruk Siyar kingmakers)
(1713-1719)  Policy of religious tolerance – abolished Jizya & pilgrimage tax.
 Gave Farman to British in 1717.
 Dethroned by Sayyed Brothers
Rafi-ud-Darajat  Ruled for the shortest period of time among the Mughals
 Autonomous states emerged under his reign
1. Nizam-ul-Mulk  Deccan
2. Saadat Khan  Awadh
Muhammad Shah Rangeela 3. Murshid Quli Khan  Bengal, Bihar and Orissa
(1719-1748)
Nadir Shah invaded India and looted Delhi. He also took away the
famous Kohinoor Diamond.
 Became king with help of Sayyed Brothers later he killed them with
help of Nizam-ul-Mulk.
 Nadir Shah defeated in Battle of Karnal.
 Ahmad Shah Abdali also raided Delhi for first time during his reign.
Ahmad Shah  Mohd. Shah Rangeela’s only son.
(1748-1754)  Was incompetent ruler. left the state affairs in the hands of Udham Bai.
She was given title of Qibla–i-Alam.
Alamgir II  Battle of Plassey (1757) was fought during his reign
(1754-1759)

 Third Battle of Panipat fought between Marathas and Ahmad Shah

Abdali during his reign.

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Shah Alam II/Aligauhar  Participated in Battle of Buxar (1764) along with Mir Qasim and
(1759-1806) Shuja-ud-Daula against British East India Company. Was defeated and
was forced to sign Treaty of Allahabad (1765) under which Diwani of
Bengal was granted to Company.
 Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
 Became pensioner of the English
Akbar II  Gave Ram Mohan Roy the title of “Raja”.
 Introduced Hindu-Muslim unity festival Phool Walon ki Sair.
 Last Mughal Emperor
Bahadur Shah II  Was an Urdu Poet using Zafar as his pen name.
(1837-1857)  Participated in revolt of 1857 after which he was deported to
Rangoon and died

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Previous Years Questions:

1. Nastaliq was: (1996)

(a) a Persian script used in medieval India
(b) a raga composed by Tansen
(c) a cess levied by the Mughal rulers
(d) a manual of code of conduct for the Ulemas

2. Mughal painting reached its zenith under (1996)

(a) Humayun
(b) Akbar
(c) Jahangir
(d) Shahjahan

3. The loss of Qandahar was a big blow to the Mughal empire from the viewpoint of (1998)
(a) natural resources
(b) buffer territory
(c) communication
(d) strategic stronghold

4. Consider the following: (1998)

1. Tughlaqabad fort
2. Lodi Garden
3. Qutab Minar
4. Fatehpur Sikri
The correct chronological order in which they were built is:
(a) 3, 1, 4, 2
(b) 3, 1, 2, 4
(c) 1, 3, 2, 4
(d) 1, 3, 4, 2

5. Which among the following ports was called Babul Makka (Gate of Makka) during the Mughal period?
(2001)
(a) Calicut
(b) Broach
(c) Cambay
(d) Surat

6. The motive behind Shah Jahan's Balkh campaign was to (2002)

(a) secure a friendly ruler in Balkh and Badakshan which bordered Kabul
(b) conquer Samarqand and Fargh ana, the Mughal homelands
(c) fix the Mughal frontier on the 'scientific line', the Amu Daria
(d) expand the Mughal Empire beyond the sub-continent

7. How did the Mughal Emperor Jahandarshah's reign, come to an early end? (2003)
(a) He was deposed by his Wazir
(b) He died due to a slip while climbing down the steps
(c) He was defeated by his nephew in a battle
(d) He died of sickness due to drinking

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 8. How did the dynasty of Nizam Shahis of Ahmadnagar come to an end? (2004)
(a) Ahmadnagar was annexed into the Mughal empire and Hussain Shah was given life imprisonment
(b) Mughal troops destroyed Daulatabad fort and killed Nizam-ul Mulk of Ahmadnagar
(c) Fateh Khan usurped the throne from Nizam-ul-Mulk
(d) Malik Ambar was defeated in a battle with Mughals in 1631 and the entire royal family was killed by the
Mughal troops

9. In the year 1613, where was the English East India Company given permission to set up a factory (trading
post)? (2006)
(a) Bangalore
(b) Madras
(c) Masulipattam
(d) Surat

10. During the time of which Mughal Emperor did the English East India Company establish its first factory in
India? (2008)
(a) Akbar
(b) Jahangir
(c) Shahjahan
(d) Aurangzeb

11. Consider the following: (2015)

The arrival of Babur into India led to the
1. introduction of gunpowder in the subcontinent
2. introduction of the arch and dome in the region's architecture
3. establishment of the Timurid dynasty in the region
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

12. With reference to Mughal India, what is/are the difference/ differences between Jagirdar and Zamindar?
(2019)
1. Jagirdars were holders of land assignments in lieu of judicial and police duties, whereas Zamindars were
holders of revenue rights without obligation to perform any duty other than revenue collection.
2. Land assignments to Jagirdars were hereditary and revenue rights of Zamindars were not hereditary.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2

13. Who among the following Mughal Emperors shifted emphasis from illustrated manuscripts to the album and
individual portrait? (2019)
(a) Humayun
(b) Akbar
(c) Jahangir
(d) Shah Jahan

14. With reference to medieval India, which one of the following is the correct sequence in ascending order in
terms of size? (2021)

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(a) Paragana – Sarkar – Suba
(b) Sarkar – Paragana – Suba
(c) Suba – Sarkar – Paragana
(d) Paragana – Suba – Sarkar

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 MEDIEVAL INDIA

UNIT: Bhakti and Sufi movement

Bhakti movement:

 The term ‘Bhakthi’ refers to ‘devotion’. As a movement, it emphasized on the mutual intense emotional
attachment and love of a devotee toward a personal god and of the god for the devotee. This movement
originated in South India in the 7th and 10th CE, mostly in the poems of Alvars and Nayanars. These poems
were composed in Tamil; the poems were addressed to Lord Vishnu and Lord Shiva respectively
 Bhakti soon spread to North India, appearing most notably in the 10th-century Sanskrit text the Bhagavata-
Purana. It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards, reached its peak between the 15th
and 17th century CE. The Bhakti Saints moved against the austerities propagated by the Buddhist and Jain
schools and professed that ultimate devotion to god was the means to salvation.
 It was a religious reform movement during medieval times which emphasized single-minded intense devotion
to God.
 Bhakti movement was based on the doctrine that the relationship between god and man is through love and
worship rather than through performing any ritual or religious ceremonies.
 The origin of Bhakti is traced in Vedas, but its real development took place after the 7th century.
 It was initiated by Shaiva Nayanars & Vaishnavite Alwars in south India, later spread to all regions.
 Emotional Side of Vaishnavism represented by: Alvars through collective songs – “Prabhandas”.
 Intellectual side of Vaishnavism represented by: “Acharyas”

NAYANARS ALVARS
Devotees of Shiva Devotees of Vishnu
Tirumarai – Compilation of hymns of Nayanars by the Divya Prabandha– Compilation of the hymns of the
highest priest of Raja RajaCholaI, Nambiyandar Alvars saints – poets.
Nambi.
The details of the lives and of the saints are described
in the work ‘Tevaram’ which is also called the Dravida
Veda.
Imp saints – Imp saints –

 Tiru Neelakanta,  Andal (only female Alwar saint who is

 Meiporul, referred to as the ‘Meera of the South’)
 Viralminda,  Thirumazhisai Alvar
 Amaraneedi,  Thiruppaan Alvar
 Karaikkal Ammaiyar (woman)  Nammalwar
 Kulasekara

Bhakti movement in South:

 The transformation of a tribal society into a well-structured social order and the emergence of a powerful
monarchical system of governance necessitated patronizing one religion or the other to legitimize authority.
 Buddhism and Jainism were predominantly patronized by the merchant class and they were also supported
by the States.
 The Bhakti movement originated among the landholding castes, and it was critical of Buddhists and Jains.
This also led to a fight for royal patronage.

Features of Bhakti movement:

 Unity of God or one God though known by different names.

 Condemnation of rituals, ceremonies and blind faith.
 Rejection of idol worship.

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  Surrender of oneself to God.
 Emphasized both Nirguna and Saguna bhakti.
 Salvation through Bhakti.
 Open-mindedness about religious matters.
 Rejected castes distinctions & believed in equality of all humans.
 Rebelled against the upper caste’s domination and the Sanskrit language.
 Use of local or regional languages for Preaching.
 Creation of literature in local language.

Reasons behind Bhakti movement:

 The movement started as a response to the evil practices that had crept into Hinduism. Some of the other
reasons which fueled the spread of the movement across the country were:
o The spread of Islam
o Emergence of great reformers
o Influence of Sufi sects
o Influence of Vaishnavism and Shaivism ideologies
o Evil practice of Hindus

Common teachings associated with Bhakti movement:

 It preached equality. This was in stark contrast to the reality where the society was divided on the lines of
religion, caste, gender etc. Ex: Disciples of Ramananda included a weaver, cobbler, barber
 It preached universal brotherhood built on values such as love, care, and affection etc for everyone in the
society. Ex: Kabir preached universal brotherhood through his Dohas.
 It strove hard to rid the religion and society of evil practices that had crept into the society over the
years. Ex: Guru Nanakcondemned caste difference and rituals like bathing in holy rivers. His idea of religion
was highly practical and strictly moral.
 Perhaps the most important aspect of the movement was its emphasis on the route of ‘Bhakthi’ rather
than superficial rituals as the mode to realize god and salvation.

Schools of thoughts:

 The movement developed under two different schools of thought.

o Nirgunabhakthi
 They believed in formless worship
 It was introduced by Adi Shankara
 Some of the other Bhakthi saints who preached this school of thought are- Kabir, Guru
Nanak, Dadu Dayal etc
o Sagunabhakthi
 It believed in the worship of form.
 It believed that god is the biggest manifestation of everything perfect
 It included philosophers such as- Ramanuja, Nimbaraka, Madhva, Vallabha, Meera Bhai,
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Tulsidas, Surdas etc

Vedanta saints and their contribution:

Sankaracharya: (788 – 820 AD)

 He was born at Kaladi in Kerala and became a saint at the age of 5

 He was the disciple of Govindacharya
 He is credited with the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta
 In order to preach and protect the dharma, he founded Ashramas/mathas at Sringeri in Karnataka, Dwarak in
Gujarat, Puri in Odisha and Badrinath in UP
 He wrote commentaries on Brahmasutras.

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  His popular works include- Vivekachudamani, Saundaryalahari, Bhajagovindam, Shivananda Lahari
 The followers of Shankaracharya are called as Smratas

What does Advaita Vedanta mean?

 This doctrine is based on the concept that the higher or true Self is identical to Brahman, the Absolute Reality.
 In Advaita Vedanta, Jnana yoga is the path of knowledge to Moksha, or liberation from the cycle of life,
death and rebirth.
 This doctrine also believes that Moksha can be achieved in this life (Jivanmukthi) in contrast to other Indian
philosophies that emphasize videhamukti, or Moksha after death
 Advaita influenced and was influenced by various traditions and texts of Hindu philosophies such
as Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, other sub-schools of Vedanta, Vaishnavism, Shaivism, the Puranas, the Agamas

Ramanujacharya (1017 – 1137AD):

 He was born at Sriperumbudur.

 He was the disciple of Yamuna Muni and Vedprakash
 He founded the philosophy called Vishishta Advaita and preached Vaishnavism
 Kulottanga Chola who was a Shaivite banished Ramanujacharya for preaching Vaishnavism
 He wrote Sri Bashya and was the head of Srirangam Vaishnava Math
 Ramanujacharya preached Shudras and outcastes could also attain salvation by completely surrendering to
the will of the guru.
 He was also referred to as Ilaya Perumalwhich means the radiant one.

What is Vishishta Advaita?

 This school grew out of worship of Lord Vishnu
 t is a non-dualistic school of Vedanta philosophy. It is non-dualism of the qualified whole, in which Brahman
alone exists, but is characterized by multiplicity.
 Unlike some Hindu philosophies, Visishtadvaita doesn’t see the world as simply illusion, which would make
it separate from Brahman. The material world is a part of Brahman’s nature.
 Moksha, or spiritual liberation, is seen as the joy of contemplating Brahman (rather than release from the
life-death-rebirth cycle), and that joy is the result of devotion, praise, worship and contemplating the divine
perfection.

Nimbaraka:

 He was the disciple of Ramanujacharya

 He was the first to introduce Radhamadhav cult which was centered n the worship of Radha and Madhav
 He founded the philosophy called Dwita Advaita. It was centered on the balance between Advaita and
Visishtadvaita.
 He wrote Dashasloki and Vedanta
 He propounded the philosophy of ‘bheda-bheda’ -the God, the soul and the world were identical yet distinct
 He was also a prominent astronomer
 Its philosophy held that men were trapped in physical bodies constricted by prakrti(matter) and that only by
surrender to Radha-Krishna (not through their own efforts) could they attain the grace necessary for liberation
from rebirth; then, at death, the physical body would drop away.

Madhavacharya (1238 – 1319):

 Shri Madhvacharya was born to Narayana Bhatta and Vedavati in Pajaka, a small place near Udupi. He was
born in 1238, on the auspicious day of Vijayadashami, and he was named Vasudeva.
 He was the third of the trinity of philosophers who influenced Indian thoughts after the ages of the Vedas
and Puranas (the other two being Shankaracharya and Ramanujacharya)
 He propounded the philosophy of Dwaita or Dualism.

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  He was initiated into sanyasttva by Achyutapreksha
 Was critic of Adi Shankara’s Advaita Vedanta and Ramanuja’s Vishishtadvaita Vedanta teachings.
 Liberation- only through the grace of God
 At the time of initiation, he was given the name Purnaprajna. It was also Achyutapreksha who gave him the
title ‘Madhva’ by which he was more famously known.
 Madhvacharya wrote commentaries on several important Hindu holy texts, including the Bhagavad Gita and
the Brahma Sutra.
 He wrote various texts that detailed his philosophy which he called Tattvavada, or as it is more popularly
known, Dvaita. Some of his works were the Gita Bhashya, Brahma Sutra Bhashya, Anu Bhashya, Karma
Nirnaya, and Vishnu Tattva Nirnaya.

About Dvaita philosophy:

 The basic tenet of Dvaita philosophy is the refutation of the Mayavada of Sri Shankara. Dvaitha emphasizes
that the world is real and not just an illusion.
 The soul is bound to this world through ignorance
 The way for the soul to release itself from this bondage is to seek the grace of Sri Hari
 To reach Sri Hari, one has to practice Bhakthi, there is no other way
 To practice Bhakthi, one needs to meditate
 To meditate, one needs to clear the mind and attain detachment by studying the sacred texts

Nathpanis, Siddha and Yogis:

 Criticised the ritual and other aspects of conventional religion and the social order, using simple, logical
arguments.
 They advocated renunciation of the world.
 To them, the path to salvation lay in meditation on the formless god.
 To achieve this, they advocated intense training of the mind and body through practices like yogasanas,
breathing exercises and meditation.
 These groups became particularly popular among “low” castes.

Vallabacharya (1479 – 1531 AD):

 He was also known as ‘Achinitabhadra’

 He was the first to promote Krishna Bhakthi on the basis of Maha Bhagvad Purana
 He founded the philosophy of Shuddha Advaita which believed in absolute union.
 Worshipped Krishna under the title “Srinathji”.
 He prescribed Pushtimarga as the means for salvation (extreme devotion to God)

Virashaivism/Sharana movement:

 The Virashaiva movement began in Karnataka in the mid-twelfth century.

 It was initiated by Basavanna and other virshaivas like Allama Prabhu and Akkamahadevi.
 They fought for the equality of all human beings and against the Brahmanical ideas of caste and poor
treatment of women.
 They were also against religious rituals and idol worship.
 Challanged caste system, questioned the theory of rebirth
 Encouraged post puberty marriage & widow remarriage.
 Basavanna spread social awareness through his poetry, popularly known as Vachanaas.
 He established Anubhava Mantapa– academy of mystics, saints and philosophers of the ‘Lingayath’s’ faith.

Basavanna:

 He was a 12th century administrator, philosopher, poet, Lingayat saint in the Shiva-focused Bhakti
movement.

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  He raised social awareness through his poetry, popularly known as Vachanaas.
 He introduced new public institutions such as the Anubhava Mantapa (or, the “hall of spiritual experience”),
which welcomed men and women from all socio-economic backgrounds to discuss spiritual and mundane
questions of life, in open.
 He was a propagator of Visishtadvaita
 Basavanna literary works include the Vachana Sahitya in Kannada Language. He is also known as
Bhaktibhandari, Basavanna or Basaveswara.

Ramananda (14 – 15th century):

 He was a 14th century Vaishnava devotional poet saint

 Follower of Ramanuja
 Substitute worship of Rama in place if Krishna
 He has 12 disciples – “Avadutas”
 He developed his philosophy and devotional themes
 Evidence also suggests that Ramananda was influenced by Nathpanthi ascetics of the Yoga school of Hindu
philosophy.
 An early social reformer, Ramananda accepted disciples without discriminating anyone by gender, class,
caste or religion. His disciples included- Kabir, Ravidas, Bhagat Pipa and others.
 His verse is mentioned in the Sikh scripture Adi Granth.
 Some of his works include- Gyan-lila and Yog-cintamani (Hindi), Vaishnava Mata Bhajabhaskara and
Ramarcana paddhati (Sanskrit).

Kabir (1440 – 1510 AD):

 He was a 15th century Indian mystic poet and saint, whose writings influenced Hinduism’s Bhakti movement
and his verses are found in Sikhism’s scripture Guru Granth Sahib.
 He was a disciple of Ramananda
 He was Nirguna saint and openly criticized the orthodox ideas of major religions like Hinduism and Islam
 He mounted a spirited attack against the superficial religious practices followed by both Hindus and Muslims
 Kabir suggested that Truth is with the person who is on the path of righteousness, considered all creatures on
earth as his own self, and who is passively detached from the affairs of the world.
 He was the first to reconcile Hinduism and Islam.
 He believed in formless God.
 Kabir’s legacy survives and continues through the Kabir panth (“Path of Kabir”), a religious community that
recognizes him as its founder and is one of the Sant Mat sects. Its members are known as Kabir panthis.
 He wrote- Sabad, Bijak, Doha, Holi, and Rekhtal. He propagated Ram Bhakti.
 His poems are called “Banis” (utterances) or “Dohe”. His works are compiled in famous book “Bijak”.

Guru Ghasidas (1756 – 1836 AD):

 He was a famous saint from Chhattisgarh and he established the “Satnami Community” there.
 He strongly believed in equality and criticized the oppressive caste system.
 He was a monotheist and was against idol worship.

Surdas (1483 – 1563):

 Disciple of Vallabhacharya
 He wrote “Sursagar” and “Sursurvali”.
 Showed intense devotion to Radha and Krishna
 Regarded as the outstanding devotional poet in Brajbhasha

Guru Nanak (1469 – 1538 AD):

 He was born in Talvandi near Lahore

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  Guru Nanak’s birth anniversary is celebrated as Guru Nanak Gurpurab by Sikhs all over the world.
 In 1496, although married and having a family, Nanak set out on a set of spiritual journeys through India,
Tibet and Arabia that lasted nearly 30 years.
 The last part of his life was spent at Kartarpur in the Punjab, where he was joined by many disciples attracted
by his teachings.
 The most famous teachings attributed to Guru Nanak are that there is only one God, and that all human beings
can have direct access to God with no need of rituals or priests. His most radical social teachings denounced
the caste system and taught that everyone is equal, regardless of caste or gender.
 He introduced the concept of god- that is ‘Vahiguru’, an entity that is shapeless, timeless, omnipresent and
invisible. Other names for God in the Sikh faith are Akaal Purkh and Nirankar.
 Guru Granth Sahib, the holiest book of the Sikhs, contains 974 poetic hymns composed by Guru Nanak
 Founder of Sikh religion & the first Guru of ten Sikh Gurus. Intially worked as Accountant.
 Preached middle path & need of Guru for liberation.
 He composed hymnes and sang along with the help of instrument called ”Rabab” played by his attendant
“Mardana”.
 Travelled across the Asia including Mecca & Baghdad and spread the message of “Ik Onkar” – One God.
 Opposes idol worship, pilgrimage and caste system, and emphasized purity of character and conduct.
 Called God as “Waheguru” that is shapeless, timeless, omnipresent & invisible ( Nirgun Bhakti )
 He started Guru-Ka-langer (Community Kitchen)
 He promoted “Tauhid-e-wazidi”

Mirabai (1498 – 1546 AD):

 She was the most popular Bhakthi reformer

 She was born in Rajasthan
 She became the wife of Rana Bhojraj, one of the royal families in Rajasthan
 She was the first to introduce Giridhara Gopala cult of Brindavan and also the first to introduce Bhajan in
Bhakthi movement
 Her bhajans were composed in the language of Vraj Bhasha

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486 – 1533 AD):

 He was the most popular Bhakthi reformer from Bengal

 He was born at Nabadwip (Bengal)
 He was the disciple of Keshav Bharti.
 He was also known as Gouranga and Vishwambar
 He preached Vaishnavism in Bengal and Odisha
 Puri became the main centre of his activities
 He was also the first to introduce Kirtans in Bhakthi movement
 The form of Vaishnavism that he preached came to be called as ‘Gudik Vaishnavism’
 popularized the chanting of “Hare Rama, Hare Krishna”.
 He made famous the practice of worshipping Radha and Krishna together. He gave the “Achintaya Bheda-
Abheda” philosophy.
 Didn’t reject scriptures or idol worship called god as Hari.
 He wrote “Siksastakam”, a text in Sanskrit, where he elaborated his philosophy.
 He is the inspiration behind the world renowned ISKCON (International Society for Krishna Consciousness)
that was founded in the 20th century.

Tulsidas:

 He was a contemporary of Akbar.

 He wrote ‘Ramcharit Manas’ in the language of Avadi
 He founded the Sankatmochan Templededicated to Lord Hanuman in Varanasi, believed to stand at the place
where he had the sight of the deity

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  Tulsidas started the Ramlilaplays, a folk-theatre adaption of the Ramayana
 Other works of Tulsidas include: Dohavali, Sahitya ratna or Ratna Ramayan, Gitavali , Krishna Gitavali or
Krishnavali and Vinaya Patrika

Dadu Dayal (1544 – 1603 AD):

 He was born into the community of weavers at Ahmedabad

 He preached Nirgunabhakthi
 His teachings were compiled in the form of ‘Dadu Dayaram ki Bani
 Disciple of Kabir
 He was supported of Hindu – Muslim unity
 His followers were called Dadu Panthis

Shankar Dev:

 He was the first to preach Vaishnavism in Brahmaputra valley

 He was the founder of Eka Saranadharma and Veerapurushamarga
 He is widely credited with building on past cultural relics and devising new forms of music (Borgeet),
theatrical performance (Ankia Naat, Bhaona), and dance (Sattriya), literary language (Brajavali).

Purandaradasa (1483 – 1564 AD):

 He was a Haridasa philosopher from Karnataka

 He is considered as the father of Carnatic music
 One of his most notable works is Dasa Sahithya
 He introduced the RagaMayamalavagowla as the first scale to be learnt by beginners in the field – a practice
that is still followed today.
 Most of his keertanas deal with social reform and pinpoint the defects in society

Gnaneshwar (1275 – 1296 AD):

 He was one of the earliest Maratha reformers

 He wrote commentary on Bhagvad Gita called as Gnaneswari, popular known as Maratha Bhagvad Gita
 His followers are known as Varkaris.
 They believe in attaining the presence of God through religious songs or Bhajans and prayers.
 They worship Lord Vithoba whom they believe to be the incarnation of Lord Vishnu.
 He was founder of the Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra in the 13th century.
 Wrote “Dnyaneswari“, a commentary on the Bhagavad-Gita.
 His other work is “Amrutanubhav” on Yoga and philosophy.
 He was a worshipper of Vithoba (Vitthala) who is considered a manifestation of Vishnu.
 He was a follower of Nath Yogi Tradition. He also drew inspiration from the Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita.

Eknath (1598 – 1650):

 He was one of the first reformers to emphasize the growth of Marathi language
 He preached that one could devote oneself to God by leading a family life and discharging all functions of a
householder.
 His works include numerous religious songs called Abhangas, Owees, and Bharuds.

Namdev:

 He was a tailor by profession

 He emphasized on cultural unity of the Marathas by introducing a tradition called Mahapurusha Sampradaya
 He believed in equality of all men and women
 He advocated the practice of devotion to realize god
 Some of his devotional songs are found in the Guru Granth Sahib

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Tukaram (1598 – 1650 AD):

 He was contemporary of Shivaji

 He is considered as the greatest Maratha Bhakthi reformer
 He made popular the Vithoba cult
 He composed devotional songs on Vithalswamy called as Abhangs
 He preached the message of equality and universal brotherhood

Samard Ramdas (1608 – 1681):

 He was guru of Shivaji

 He inspired Shivaji for founding Swaraj
 The message was compiled in the form of the text called ‘Dasabodha’
 He was a devotee of Lord Rama. He established Ashramas all over India.

Shankaradeva (1499 – 1569 AD):

 Spread the Bhakti cult in Assam

 Translated Ramayana & Mahabharat into Assamese
 He started the Ekasarana movement (Neo-Vaishnavite movement). He believed in the worship of ‘Ekasarana’
(One God) in the form of Krishna.
 He also called Krishna by different names like Hari, Narayan and Rama.
 His most famous work is “Kirtana Ghosha”, written in a simple language understood by the masses.
 He wrote in Assamese and Brajavali (mixture of Maithili and Assamese).

Vernacular literature:

 Hindi – Kabir, Surdas, Tulsidas etc.

 Marathi – Jnandeva, Namdev, Eknath, etc.
 Bengali – Chaitanya Mahaprabhu and CHandidas
 Rajasthani (Braj) – Meera Bai, Bihari, etc.
 Punjabi – Guru Nanak
 Assamese – Shankaradeva

Impact:

 The Bhakti saints were social reformers The evil practice of Sati and caste rigidities received some set back.
 Women were encouraged to join kirtans. Mirabai, Laila (Kashmir) and Andal composed verses that are
popular even today.
 In place of Sanskrit, Bhakti saints preached through the medium of local languages which could be
understood very easily. Surdas used ‘Brij’ Tulsi Das composed his works in ‘Awadhi’. Shankaradeva
popularizing Assamese, Chaitanya spreading their message in Bengali, Mirabai in Hindi and Rajasthani.
 Kirtan at a Hindu Temple, Qawaali at a Dargah (by Muslims), and singing of Gurbani at a Gurdwara are all
derived from the Bhakti movement of medieval India (800-1700).
 It popularized idea of equality & brotherhood.
 Preached inclusive path to spiritual salvation.
 Rulers adopted liberal religious policies under the impact of the Bhakti movement.

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Sufi movement:

 In beginning of 12 AD, some religious people in Persia turned to asceticism due to the increasing materialism
of the Caliphate. They came to be called the ‘Sufis’.
 In India, Sufi movement began in 1300 A.D & came to South India in 15th century.
 Sufism is the mystical arm of Islam. Sufis represent the inner side of the Islam creed (tasawwuf).
 Sufism(tasawwuf) is the name given to mysticism in Islam.
 Sufi means wool: People who wear long woolen clothes were called as sufis.
 It was a liberal reform movement within Islam. It stressed the elements of love and devotion as an effective
means of the realization of God.
 It is based on Pir-Murid (Teacher- student)
 Sufism sprang from the doctrine of Wahadut-ul-wajud (unity of being) propounded by Ibn-ul-Arabi [1165-
1240 AD].
 Early Sufi saints – Rabia, Mansur bin hallal.
 Sufi orders are broadly divided in two : Ba-sara– Those followed Islamic law & Be-shara– who did followed
Islamic law.
 In Sufism, self-discipline was considered an essential condition to gain knowledge of God. While orthodox
Muslims emphasise external conduct, the Sufis lay stress on inner purity.
 Sufism entered in India between 11thand 12th Al-Hujwari was first Sufis who settled in India and died in
1089 AD who is popularly known as Data Ganj Naksh (Distributor of unlimited treasure).
 Multan and Punjab were the early centre and later on, it spread to Kashmir, Bihar, Bengal and the Deccan.

Salient features of Sufism:

 Sufis were a group of religious-minded people who turned to asceticism and mysticism in protest against the
growing materialism of the Caliphate as a religious and political institution.
 Sufism derives is inspiration from Islam.
 These Sufis had a deep study of vedantic philosophy and had come in contact with great sages and seers of
India.
 Sufism emphasized upon leading a simple life. Sufi saints preached in Arabic, Persian and Urdu etc.
 The Sufis were divided into 12 orders each under a mystic Sufi saint like Khwaja Moinuddin Chisthi,
Fariuddin Ganj-i-Shakar, Nizam-ud-din Auliya etc.
 While the orthodox Muslims depend upon external conduct and blind observance of religious rituals, the Sufi
saints seek inner purity.
 They were critical of the dogmatic definitions and scholastic methods of interpreting the Qur’an and Sunna
(traditions of the Prophet) adopted by theologians.
 Instead, they laid emphasis on seeking salvation through intense devotion and love for God by following His
commands, and by following the example of the Prophet Muhammad whom they regarded as a perfect human
being.
 The Sufis thus sought an interpretation of the Qur’an on the basis of their personal experience
 Devotion is more important than fast (Roza) or prayer (Namaz).
 Sufis bridged the communal divide as is evidenced by the reverence the Subcontinent’s non-Muslim
population exhibited for Sufi saints. Sufism around the world and in the Subcontinent had the depth to
connect beyond caste, creed and gender
 Fana: Spiritual merger of devotee with Allah
 Insan-e-kamil: Perfect human with all good virtues,
 Zikr-tauba: remembrance of god all the time(zikr),
 Wahadatul-wazudi: one god for entire universe; unity of god and being.
 Sama: spiritual dance and music to promote their concepts, though music is un-Islamic.

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Three stages in history of Sufism:

STAGE PERIOD CHARACTER

1st Stage: Khanqah 10th century Also called the age of Golden Mysticism

2nd Stage: Tariqa 11-14th century When Sufism was being institutionalised and traditions and
symbols started being attached to it.

3rd Stage: Tarifa 15th century onwards The stage when Sufism became a popular movement.

Sufism and Music:

 Sufism encourages music as a way of deepening one’s relation with God, remembering God by zikr (reciting
name) sama or performance of mystical music.
 Sufis too composed poems and a rich literature in prose, including anecdotes and fables, The most notable
writer of this period was Amir Khusrau the follower of Nizamuddin Auliya.
 Sufi saints are credited with invention of sitar and tabla.
 It contributed to evolution of classical music. Khayal style owes a lot to sufism.
 Amir Khusro was disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya. He give unique form to sama.
 Khusrow is sometimes referred to as the “Parrot of India”. His songs are sung in several dargahs across the
country. Khusrow is regarded as the “Father of Qawwali”.

Important features:

 The Sufis rejected the elaborate rituals and codes of behaviour demanded by Muslim religious scholars.
 They believed that God is ‘Mashuq‘ and Sufis are the ‘Ashiqs’.
 Sufism was divided into 12 orders (Silsila) and each under a mystic Sufi saint of which 4 most popular ones
were Chistis, Suhrawardis, Qadiriyahs and Naqshbandis.
 Silsila is continuous link between Murshid (teacher) and Murid (student). They lived in Khanqah -hospice of
worship.
 Names of Silsila were based on name of founding figure E.g. – Qadri Silsila based on name of Shaikh Abdul
Qadri & Place of origin E.g. – Chishti (place in Afghanistan).
 Sufism took roots in both rural and urban areas and exercised a deep social, political and cultural influence
on the masses.
 Sufism believes that devotionis more important than fast (Roza) or prayer (Namaz).
 Sufism discards caste system.
 Sufism has adapted extensively from the Vedanta school of the Hindu philosophy.
 The cardinal doctrines of the Sufism include: Complete surrender to the will of God; Annihilation of the self;
Becoming a perfect person
 These three cardinal principles altogether make the Doctrine of Fana which means annihilation of human
attributes through Union with God.
 In Sufism, a perfect being is also called a Wali (saint), a word that literally means ‘sincere friend’.

Liberal outlook:

 It does not believe narrow societal classification such as caste

 They awakened a new sense of confidence and attempted to redefine social and religious values.
 Their stress on social welfare led to the establishment of works of charitable nature, opening of orphanages
and women service centres.
 A notable contribution of the Sufis was their service to the poorer and downtrodden sections of society.
Nizamuddin Auliya was famous for distributing gifts amongst the needy irrespective of religion or caste.

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  At a time when struggle for political power was the prevailing madness, the Sufi saints reminded men of their
moral obligations. To a world torn by strife and conflict they tried to bring peace and harmony.
 Other ideas emphasized by Sufism are meditation, good actions, repentance for sins, performance of prayers
and pilgrimages, fasting, charity and suppression of passions by ascetic practices.

Sufi orders:

 Chisti
o It was founded by Sheikh Abdul Chisti
o It was introduced in India by Sheikh Moinuddin Chisti. His Dargah is at Ajmer
o Qutubuddin Bakhtiar Kaki was the chief disciple of Moinuddin.
o Iltutmush dedicated Qutub Minar to Bakhtiar Kaki
o Sheikh Nizamuddin was the most popular Sufi saint in India. Amir Khusro, the greatest musician
and literary giant was also the disciple of Sheikh Nizamuddin.
o A system called Nadasampradaya was followed which meant burying disciples near as one family
o Sheikh Salim Chisti was the last great saint of this order. He was held in great respect by Akbar.
o Qamkhana were hermitages of Chisti saints outside the city
 Suhrawardi
o It was founded by Shihabuddin Shuhrawardi
o It was introduced in India by Bhauddin
o It was the richest order and very soon became unpopular
o Main centre was Multan
o Associated with Delhi Sultan
o A famous saint is Bahauddin Zachariah
o Belong to Ba - Sharia
 Firadausia
o It was the only Sufi order which was founded and developed within India
o It was founded by Sharafuddin, it was confined to Bihar
o He composed Maqtubat and Mulfazat literature
o The above dealt with the lives and teachings of Sufi saints
 Qadri
o It was the most secular Sufi silsila
o It was founded by Sheikh Jilani Qadri
o Dara Shikoh, son of Shah Jahan followed this order
 Naqshbandi
o It was founded by Sheikh Biqabullah
o It was introduced into India by Sheikh Pirsai
o Sheikh Niyamtulla was the greatest scholar of this school
o It was the most conservative of the orders. Aurangzeb followed this order
o Mujaddid opposed Shia, philosphu of Wahadat – Ul – Shahdud, wrote ‘Red – I – Khafid’ arrested
by Jahangir.

By educating the masses and deepening the spiritual concerns of the Muslims, Sufism has played an important role in
the formation of Indian society.

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Previous Years Questions:

1. Assertion (A): The sponsor and the most prominent figure of the Chisti order of Sufis in India are Khwaja
Moinuddin Chisti.
Reason (R): The Chisti order takes its name from a village Chisti in Ajmer. In the context of the above two
statements, which one of the following is correct? (1997)
(a) Both A and R are true but R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true

2. Match List – I with List – II and select the correct answer using the codes give below the lists: (2001)
List – I (Bhakti Saint) List – II (Profession)
A. Namdev 1. Barber
B. Kabir 2. Weaver
C. Ravidas 3. Tailor
D. Sena 4. Cobbler
(a) A – 2; B – 3; C – 1; D - 4
(b) A – 3; B – 2; C – 4; D – 1
(c) A – 3; B – 2; C – 1; D – 4
(d) A – 2; B – 3; C – 4; D – 1

3. Who among the following was the first Bhakti saint to use Hindi for the propagation of his message? (2002)
(a) Dadu
(b) Kabir
(c) Ramananda
(d) Tulsidas

4. Consider the following statements: (2003)

1. Kitab-i-Nauras, a collection of songs in praise of Hindu deities and Muslim saints, was written by Ibrahim
Adil Shah II
2. Amir Khusrau was the originator in India of the early form of the musical style known as Qawali Which
of these statements is/are correct?
(a) Only 1
(b) Only 2
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2

5. Consider the following Bhakti Saints: (2013)

1. Dadu Dayal
2. Guru Nanak
3. Tyagaraja
Who among the above was/were preaching when the Lodi dynasty fell and Babur took over?
(a) 1 and 3
(b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 1 and 2

6. Consider the following statements: (2019)

1. Saint Nimbarka was a contemporary of Akbar.
2. Saint Kabir was greatly influenced by Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi.
Which of the statements given above is/ are correct?

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(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2

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 MEDIEVAL INDIA

UNIT: Maratha state and Maratha confederacy

 The Marathas played a major role in the decline of Mughal power. Under the dynamic leadership of Shivaji,
they posed a strong challenge to Mughal power during the 1670s.
 By the middle of the 18th century, they had succeeded in displacing Mughal power in central India.
 Nayak rule ended in 1674 in Thanjavur, when the Maratha General Venkoji (half brother of Shivaji) leading
the Bijapur forces invaded Thanjavur and succeeded in establishing Maratha rule in the Tamil region.
 Maratha rule in Thanjavur which started from 1674 continued until the death of Serfoji II in 1832.

Causes of Rise of Marathas:

Physical features and nature of people:

 Region – narrow strip of land called Konkan.

 Most favorable for military defense.
 Claimed long tradition of military prowess and prided themselves on their loyalty, courage, discipline, etc.
 Earlier served under Bahmani Sultans and after its disintegration under various Sultans.
 Avoided direct battles with Mughal armies. Guerrilla warfare was their strength.

Bhakti movement and its impact:

 The spread of the Bhakti movement inculcated the spirit of oneness among the Marathas.
 Tukaram, Ramdas, and Eknath were the leading lights of the movement.
 The hymns of the Bhakti saints were sung in Marathi and they created a bond among people across the
society.

External causes:

 The degeneration of Bijapur and Golkonda prompted the Marathas to unite and fight together.
 The Deccan wars against the Sultans of Bijapur, Golkonda and Ahmednagar had exhausted the Mughal
treasury.
 Shivaji rallied the Marathas who lay scattered in many parts of Deccan under his leadership and built a mighty
kingdom, with Raigarh (Raigad) as the capital.

Maratha state (1627 – 1680):

Shivaji Maharaj (1627 – 1680):

 Born at Shivneri fort. Father Shahaji Bhosle initially served Nizam ruler of Ahmednagar. Later he joined the
Bijapur.
 He inherited the jagir of Poona from his father in 1637. At the age of 16 he captured the Torna fort, followed
by many more forts.
 He created an independent Maratha kingdom with Raigad as its capital.
 He captured Javali from Chandrarao More in 1656. At the Battle of Pratapgarh (1659) he killed Afzal Khan
(Adil shah’s general).
 Battle of Pavankhind (1660) – smaller Maratha force led by Baji Prabhu Deshpande held back the larger
enemy to buy time for Shivaji to escape.
 Shivaji was defeated by Shaista Khan (sent by Aurangzeb). Later He made a bold attack on Shaista Khan’s
military camp at Poona in 1663 & wounded him.
 Treaty of Purander (1665)
 Signed between Raja Jai Singh (under Aurangzeb) and Shivaji.
 Shivaji ceded some forts to Mughals & visited Agra to meet Aurangzeb.
 He defeated Mughals in Battle of Salher (1672). He was crowned & assumed the title Maharaja Chhatrapati
in 1674 at Raigad fort.

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  He died in 1680 at the age of 52.

Military activities:

Confrontation against Bijapur:

 After Mohammad Adilshah of Bijapur died in November 1656, Adilshah II, a young man of eighteen,
succeeded him. Aurangzeb captured Bidar, Kalyani and Purandar in 1657. So, both Shivaji and the Bijapur
Sultan were forced to make peace with Aurangzeb.
 At this time Shah Jahan fell ill, and a war of succession was imminent in Delhi. Aurangzeb left for Delhi to
take part in it.
 Using this opportunity, Shivaji invaded north Konkan and captured the cities of Kalyan, Bhivandi and fort
of Mahuli.

Shivaji and Afzal Khan, 1659:

 As there was no danger from the Mughals, Bijapur Sultan decided to attack Shivaji. Afzal Khan was sent
with a huge army.
 He boasted that he would bring the “mountainrat” in chains. But, he found fighting in the mountainous
country extremely difficult.

Shivaji and Mughals:

 In July 1658, Aurangzeb ascended the throne as the Emperor. Shaista Khan was appointed the Governor of
the Deccan in 1660 with the main purpose of crushing Shivaji.
 Shivaji hit upon a bold plan. He entered Poona at night with 400 soldiers in the form of a marriage party and
attacked the home of Shaista Khan.
 Aurangzeb was forced to recall Shaista Khan from the Deccan in December 1663.

Conflict with the Mughals (1670):

 Aurangzeb took back a part of the jagir in Berar which was once given to Shivaji. Shivaji got annoyed and
recalled his troops from Mughal service. He recovered almost all the forts he had ceded to the Mughals by
the treaty of Purandar.
 In 1670, he again sacked Surat, the most important port on the western coast. In 1672, the Marathas imposed
chauth or one fourth of the revenue as annual tribute on Surat.

Shivaji’s administration:

 He divided the territory into three provinces. Provinces were divided into Prants which were subdivided into
Parganas or Tarafs.
 Shivaji had well organized Army & Navy. The regular army was called Paga, while the loose auxiliaries
called silahdars & were supervised by havildars.
 Salary in cash was paid to the regular soldier, though sometime the chiefs received revenue grants (saranjam).
 He was assisted by a council of ministers called “Ashtapradhan” Mandal. Each minister was directly
responsible to Shivaji. (No collective responsibility).

Ashtapradhan Mandal:

 Peshwa (Mukhya Pradhan) - Finance & general administration. Later became prime minister
 Senapati (Sar-i-Naubat) - Military commander
 Majumdar (Amatya) - Accountant General
 Waqenavis (Mantri) - Intelligence, posts and household affairs
 Sachiv (Surnavis) - Correspondence
 Dabir (Sumant) - Foreign minister & Master of ceremonies.
 Nyayadhish - Justice

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  Panditrao (Sadar) - High Priest, managing internal religious matters

Provincial government:

 Divided into 4 provinces each under a viceroy – provinces were divided into a number of Pranths.
 Granting jagirs was abandoned and all officers were paid in cash.

Revenue:

 The revenue system of Shivaji was based on that of Malik Amber of Ahmednagar.
 Land was measured using measuring rod called Kathi.
 Discouraged revenue farming
 Chauth (1/4th of land revenue) paid to Marathas to avoid Maratha raid.
 Sardeshmukhi was additional levy of ten percent, that is.1/10 of standard land revenue on those lands on
which the Marathas claimed hereditary rights.
 Reduced the power of existing Deshmukhs and Kulkarnis.
 Appointed own revenue officer called Karkuns.

Chauth and Sardeshmukhi:

 As the revenue collected from the state was insufficient to meet its requirements, Shivaji collected two taxes,
Chauth and Sardeshmukhi, from the adjoining territories of his empire, the Mughal provinces and the
territories of the Sultan of Bijapur. Chauth was one-fourth of the revenue of the district conquered by the
Marthas. Sardeshmukhi was an additional 10% of the revenue which Shivaji collected by virtue of his
position as Sardeshmukh. Sardeshmukh was the superior head of many Desais or Deshmukhs. Shivaji
claimed that he was the hereditary Sardeshmukh of his country.

Sambhaji (1680 – 1689):

 Sambhaji was the son of Shivaji Maharaj and as per Treaty of Purandar was a Mansabdar of Mughals.
 His rule was largely shaped by the ongoing wars between the Maratha kingdom and Mughal Empire as well
as other neighbouring powers such as Siddis, Mysore and the Portuguese in Goa.
 In 1687, at the Battle of Wai he defeated Mughal forces.
 In 1689, Sambhaji was captured, tortured and executed by the Mughals.
 He was succeeded by his brother Rajaram I.

Shahu (1707 – 1749):

 Shahu’s reign saw the rise of Peshwas & reducing Bhosale’s to mere figureheads.
 By the time of Rajaram II/Ram raja the power of Chhatrapati was almost overshadowed by that of Peshwa.

Balaji Vishwanath (1713 – 1818): First Peshwa

 Shahu’s reign saw the rise of Peshwas & reducing Bhosale’s to mere figureheads.
 By the time of Rajaram II/Ram raja the power of Chhatrapati was almost overshadowed by that of Peshwa.

Military organization:

 Organized a standing army

 4 divisions – infantry, cavalry, an elephant corps and artillery.
 Infantry divided into regiments, brigades.

Maratha confederacy (1720 – 1818):

Balaji Viswanath (1713 – 1720):

 Balaji Viswanath assisted the Maratha emperor Shahu to consolidate his control over the kingdom that had
been plagued by a civil war. Kanhoji Angre was the most powerful naval chief on the western coast. During

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 the civil war Kanhoji had supported Tarabai. The Peshwa convinced him of the common danger from the
Europeans and secured his loyalty to Shahu. The practice of granting jagirs was revived. And the office of
Peshwa was made hereditary.

Baji Rao I (1720 – 40):

 Succeeded Balaji Vishwanath. Maratha power reached its zenith under him.
 Was one of the greatest exponents of guerrilla tactics after Shivaji.
 Initiated the system of confederacy. Thus, many families became prominent and established their authority.
 He captured Salsette and Bassein from Portuguese in Battle of Vasai (1733). He defeated Nizam-ul-Mulk in
1737 & concluded Treaty of Durai Sarai.
 His several expeditions in the north weakened the Mughal and made Marathas supreme power in India.
 He said about Mughal: “Let us strike at the trunk of the withering tree and the branches will fall of
themselves”.

KINGDOMS TERRITORY

Scindia Gwalior

Holkar Indore

Pawar Dhar

Gaekwad Baroda

Bhosale Nagpur

Peshwa Poona

Balaji Baji Rao I/Nana Sahib I (1740 – 1761)

 Defeated Nawab of Bengal Alivardi Khan in 1751 and 1/3rd of Indian Subcontinent came under Martha
empire.
 Signed agreement with Ahmad Shah (Mughal emperor) – Peshwas assured to protect the Mughal from
internal and external enemies in return for the Chauth of the north-west provinces, total revenue of Agra &
Ajmer provinces.
 Defeat at the 3rd Battle of Panipat 1761 by Ahmad Shah Durrani checked the expansion of Marathas and
fragmented the empire.
 He and his son Vishwas Rao died in Panipat battle.
 Successor: Madhav Rao  Narayan Rao  Sawai Madhav Rao  Baji Rao II.

Maratha administration under Peshwas:

 The Peshwa was one of the Ashta Pradhan of Shivaji. This office was not a hereditary one. As the power and
prestige of the king declined, the Peshwas rose to prominence. The genius of Balaji Vishwanath (1713-1720)
made the office of the Peshwa supreme and hereditary. The Peshwas virtually controlled the whole
administration, usurping the powers of the king. They were also recognized as the religious head of the state.

Central secretariat:

 The centre of the Maratha administration was the Peshwa Secretariat at Poona. It dealt with the revenues and
expenditure of all the districts, the accounts submitted by the village and district officials. The pay and rights
of all grades of public servants and the budgets under civil, military and religious heads were also handled.
The daily register recorded all revenues, all grants and the payments received from foreign territories.

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Provinces:

 Provinces under the Peshwas were of various sizes. Larger provinces were under the provincial governors
called Sar-subahdars. The divisions in the provinces were termed Subahs and Pranths. The Mamlatdar and
Kamavistar were Peshwa’s representatives in the districts. They were responsible for every branch of district
administration. Deshmukhs and Deshpandes were district officers who were in charge of accounts and were
to observe the activities of Mamlatdars and Kamavistars. It was a system of checks and balances. In order to
prevent misappropriation of public money, the Maratha government collected a heavy sum (Rasad) from the
Mamlatdars and other officials. It was collected on their first appointment to a district. In Baji Rao II’s time,
these offices were auctioned off. The clerks and menials were paid for 10 or 11 months in a year.

Anglo Maratha wars:

First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–1782)  Struggle of Power between Sawai Madhav Rao and
Raghunath Rao was supported by British resulted in First
Anglo-Maratha War.
 The treaty of Salbai in May, 1782 – British acknowledged
Madhavrao as the Peshwa of the Maratha Empire and ended
the Anglo-Maratha War.

 The second war was caused by the peshwa Baji Rao II’s
Second Anglo- Maratha War (1803–05) defeat by the Holkar (one of the leading Maratha clans) and
his acceptance subsidiary alliance (Treaty of Bassein) in
1802.
 Unhappy Maratha confederacy challenged the British power
but got defeated.

 Distressed By low income Pindaris made up of many castes

and started plundering neighbouring territories, including
those of companies.
 Lord Hasting (Governor General) charged Marathas with
Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1818) giving shelter to the Pindaris and hence fought war.
 Maratha warlords fought separately instead of forming a
common front and they surrendered one by one.

End of Maratha Kingdom:

 Third Anglo-Martha war led to the end of the Maratha Empire. All the Maratha powers surrendered to the
British.
 The Peshwa was eventually captured and placed on a small estate at Bithur, near Kanpur.
 The Maharaja of Satara was restored as the ruler of his territory as a princely state. Most of his territory was
annexed and became part of the Bombay Presidency.
 In 1848 this territory was also annexed under the “doctrine of lapse policy” of Lord Dalhousie.

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Previous Years Questions:

1. The member of Shivaji's Ashtapradhan who looked after foreign affairs were: (1998)
(a) Peshwa
(b) Sachiv
(c) Pandit Rao
(d) Sumant

2. Who among the following streamlined the Maratha administration after Sambhaji? (2000)
(a) Raja Ram
(b) Balaji Vishwanath
(c) Ganga Bai
(d) Nanaji Deshmukh

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