Republic of the Philippines

PALAWAN STATE UNIVERSITY

Tiniguiban Heights, Puerto Princesa City, Palawan

ROXAS CAMPUS
National Highway, Barangay New Barbacan (Retac), Roxas, Palawan

[DEPARTMENT NAME] DEPARTMENT

MODULE IN
[GE-Ad: GENERAL
CHEMISTRY (Organic)]

[PICTURES/ILUSTRATION (OPTIONAL) WITH PROPER CITATION)]

[JOHN MARK L. JUAREZ]

Faculty
 Module 1

[Module 1]
[MATTER AND ITS PROPERTIES]

MODULE OVERVIEW

Chemical substances and processes are essential for our existence, providing sustenance,
keeping us clean and healthy, fabricating electronic devices, enabling transportation, and
much more.

You may be studying chemistry because it fulfills an academic requirement, but if you
consider your daily activities, you might find chemistry interesting for other reasons. Most
everything you do and encounter during your day involves chemistry. Making coffee,
cooking eggs, and toasting bread involve chemistry. The products you use like soap and
shampoo, the fabrics you wear, the electronics that keep you connected to your world, the
gasoline that propels your car all of these and more involve chemical substances and
processes. Whether you are aware or not, chemistry is part of your everyday world. In this
chapter, you will learn many of the essential principles underlying the chemistry of modern-
day life.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

 Describe the basic properties of each physical state of matter: solid, liquid, and gas.

 Classify matter as an element, compound, homogeneous mixture, or heterogeneous

mixture with regard to its physical state and composition.

 Identify properties of matter as extensive or intensive.

CONTENT

A. [State and Classification of Matter]

1.1 State of Matter

Matter is defined as anything that occupies space and has mass, and it is all around
us. Solids and liquids are more obviously matter: We can see that they take up space,
and their weight tells us that they have mass. Gases are also matter; if gases did not
take up space, a balloon would not inflate (increase its volume) when filled with gas.

Solids, liquids, and gases are the three states of matter commonly found on earth
(Figure 1.1). A solid is rigid and possesses a definite shape. A liquid flow and takes
the shape of its container, except that it forms a flat or slightly curved upper surface
when acted upon by gravity. (In zero gravity, liquids assume a spherical shape.) Both
liquid and solid samples have volumes that are very nearly independent of pressure.
A gas takes both the shape and volume of its container.
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Figure 1.1: The three most common states or phases of matter are solid, liquid, and gas.

A fourth state of matter, plasma occurs naturally in the interiors of stars. Plasma is a gaseous
state of matter that contains appreciable numbers of electrically charged particles (Figure
1.2). The presence of these charged particles imparts unique properties to plasmas that justify
them classification as a state of matter distinct from gases. In addition to stars, plasmas are
found in some other high-temperature environments (both natural and man-made), such as
lightning strikes, certain television screens, and specialized analytical instruments used to
detect trace amounts of metals.

Figure 1.2: A plasma torch can be used to cut metal.

 In a tiny cell in a plasma television, the plasma emits ultraviolet light, which in turn
causes the display at that location to appear a specific color. The composite of these
tiny dots of color makes up the image that you see.

Some samples of matter appear to have properties of solids, liquids, and/or gases at the same
time. This can occur when the sample is composed of many small pieces. For example, we
can pour sand as if it were a liquid because it is composed of many small grains of solid sand.
Matter can also have properties of more than one state when it is a mixture, such as with
clouds. Clouds appear to behave somewhat like gases, but they are actually mixtures of air
(gas) and tiny particles of water (liquid or solid).

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The mass of an object is a measure of the amount of matter in it. One way to measure an
object’s mass is to measure the force it takes to accelerate the object. It takes much more
force to accelerate a car than a bicycle because the car has much more mass. A more
common way to determine the mass of an object is to use a balance to compare its mass with
a standard mass.

Although weight is related to mass, it is not the same thing. Weight refers to the force that
gravity exerts on an object. This force is directly proportional to the mass of the object. The
weight of an object changes as the force of gravity changes, but its mass does not. An
astronaut’s mass does not change just because she/he goes to the moon. But her/his weight on
the moon is only one-sixth her/his earth-bound weight because the moon’s gravity is only
one-sixth that of the earth’s. She/he may feel “weightless” during her/his trip when she/he
experiences negligible external forces (gravitational or any other), although she/he is, of
course, never “massless.”

The law of conservation of matter summarizes many scientific observations about matter: It
states that there is no detectable change in the total quantity of matter present when matter
converts from one type to another (a chemical change) or changes among solid, liquid, or
gaseous states (a physical change). Brewing beer and the operation of batteries provide
examples of the conservation of matter (Figure 1.6). During the brewing of beer, the
ingredients (water, yeast, grains, malt, hops, and sugar) are converted into beer (water,
alcohol, carbonation, and flavoring substances) with no actual loss of substance. This is most
clearly seen during the bottling process, when glucose turns into ethanol and carbon dioxide,
and the total mass of the substances does not change. This can also be seen in a lead-acid car
battery: The original substances (lead, lead oxide, and sulfuric acid), which are capable of
producing electricity, are changed into other substances (lead sulfate and water) that do not
produce electricity, with no change in the actual amount of matter.

Figure 1.3: (a) The mass of beer precursor materials is the same as the mass of beer
produced: Sugar has become alcohol and carbon dioxide. (b) The mass of the lead, lead
oxide, and sulfuric acid consumed by the production of electricity is exactly equal to the
mass of lead sulfate and water that is formed.

Although this conservation law holds true for all conversions of matter, convincing examples
are

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few and far between because, outside of the controlled conditions in a laboratory, we seldom
collect all of the material that is produced during a particular conversion. For example, when
you eat, digest, and assimilate food, all of the matter in the original food is preserved. But
because some of the matter is incorporated into your body, and much is excreted as various
types of waste, it is challenging to verify by measurement.

1.2 Classification of Matter

Matter can be classified into several categories. Two broad categories are mixtures and pure
substances. A pure substance has a constant composition. All specimens of a pure substance
have exactly the same makeup and properties. Any sample of sucrose (table sugar) consists
of 42.1% carbon, 6.5% hydrogen, and 51.4% oxygen by mass. Any sample of sucrose also
has the same physical properties, such as melting point, color, and sweetness, regardless of
the source from which it is isolated.

Pure substances may be divided into two classes: elements and compounds. Pure substances
that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical changes are called
elements. Iron, silver, gold, aluminum, sulfur, oxygen, and copper are familiar examples of
the more than 100 known elements, of which about 90 occur naturally on the earth, and two
dozen or so have been
created in laboratories.

Pure substances that can be broken down by chemical changes are called compounds. This
breakdown may produce either elements or other compounds, or both. Mercury (II) oxide, an
orange, crystalline solid, can be broken down by heat into the element’s mercury and oxygen.
When heated in the absence of air, the compound sucrose is broken down into the element
carbon and the compound water. (The initial stage of this process, when the sugar is turning
brown, is known as caramelization-this is what imparts the characteristic sweet and nutty
flavor to caramel apples, caramelized onions, and caramel). Silver (I) chloride is a white
solid that can be broken down into its elements, silver and chlorine, by absorption of light.
This property is the basis for the use of this compound in photographic films and
photochromic eyeglasses (those with lenses that darken when exposed to light).

The properties of combined elements are different from those in the free, or uncombined,
state. For example, white crystalline sugar (sucrose) is a compound resulting from the
chemical combination of the element carbon, which is a black solid in one of its uncombined
forms, and
the two elements hydrogen and oxygen, which are colorless gases when uncombined. Free
sodium, an element that is a soft, shiny, metallic solid and free chlorine, an element that is a
yellow-green gas, combine to form sodium chloride (table salt), a compound that is a white,
crystalline solid.

A mixture is composed of two or more types of matter that can be present in varying
amounts and can be separated by physical changes, such as evaporation (you will learn more
about this later). A mixture with a composition that varies from point to point is called a
heterogeneous mixture. Italian dressing is an example of a heterogeneous mixture (Figure
1.7). Its composition can vary because it may be prepared from varying amounts of oil,
vinegar, and herbs. It is not the same from point to point throughout the mixture-one drop
may be mostly vinegar, whereas a different drop may be mostly oil or herbs because the oil
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and vinegar separate and the herbs settle. Other examples of heterogeneous mixtures are
chocolate chip cookies (we can see the separate bits of chocolate, nuts, and cookie dough)
and granite (we can see the quartz, mica, feldspar, and more).

A homogeneous mixture, also called a solution, exhibits a uniform composition and appears
visually the same throughout. An example of a solution is a sports drink, consisting of water,
sugar, coloring, flavoring, and electrolytes mixed together uniformly (Figure 1.). Each drop
of a sports drink tastes the same because each drop contains the same amounts of water,
sugar, and other components. Note that the composition of a sports drink can vary-it could be
made with somewhat more or less sugar, flavoring, or other components, and still be a sports
drink. Other examples of homogeneous mixtures include air, maple syrup, gasoline, and a
solution of salt in water.

Figure 1.4: (a) Oil and vinegar salad dressing is a heterogeneous mixture because its
composition is not uniform throughout. (b) A commercial sports drink is a homogeneous
mixture because its composition is uniform throughout.

Although there are just over 100 elements, tens of millions of chemical compounds result
from

different combinations of these elements. Each compound has a specific composition and
possesses definite chemical and physical properties that distinguish it from all other
compounds. And, of course, there are innumerable ways to combine elements and
compounds to form different mixtures. A summary of how to distinguish between the various
major classifications of matter is shown in (Figure 1.5).

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Figure 1.5: Depending on its properties, a given substance can be classified as a

homogeneous mixture, a heterogeneous mixture, a compound, or an element.

Eleven elements make up about 99% of the earth’s crust and atmosphere (Table1.1). Oxygen
constitutes nearly one-half and silicon about one-quarter of the total quantity of these
elements. A majority of elements on earth are found in chemical combinations with other
elements; about one-quarter of the elements are also found in the Free State.

1.3 Physical and Chemical Properties

The characteristics that distinguish one substance from another are called properties. A
physical property is a characteristic of matter that is not associated with a change in its
chemical composition. Familiar examples of physical properties include density, color,
hardness, melting and boiling points, and electrical conductivity. Some physical properties,
such as density and color, may be observed without changing the physical state of the matter.
Other physical properties, such as the melting temperature of iron or the freezing temperature
of water, can only be observed as matter undergoes a physical change. A physical change is a
change in the state or properties of matter without any accompanying change in the chemical
identities of the substances contained in the matter. Physical changes are observed when wax
melts, when sugar dissolves in coffee, and when steam condenses into liquid water (Figure
1.5). Other examples of physical changes include magnetizing and demagnetizing metals (as
is done with common antitheft security tags) and grinding solids into powders (which can
sometimes yield noticeable changes in color). In each of these examples, there is a change in

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the physical state, form, or properties of the substance, but no change in its chemical
composition.

Figure 1.5: (a) Wax undergoes a physical change when solid wax is heated and forms liquid
wax. (b) Steam condensing inside a cooking pot is a physical change, as water vapor is
changed into liquid water.

Figure a, is a photograph of butter melting in a pot on a stove. Figure b is a photograph of

something being heated on a stove in a pot. Water droplets are forming on the underside of a
glass cover that has been placed over the pot.

The change of one type of matter into another type (or the inability to change) is a chemical
property. Examples of chemical properties include flammability, toxicity, acidity, and many
other types of reactivity. Iron, for example, combines with oxygen in the presence of water to
form rust; chromium does not oxidize (Figure 1.6). Nitroglycerin is very dangerous because
it explodes easily; neon poses almost no hazard because it is very unreactive.

Figure 1.6: (a) One of the chemical properties of iron is that it rusts; (b) one of the chemical
properties of chromium is that it does not.

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Figure a, is a photo of metal machinery that is now mostly covered with reddish orange rust.
Figure b shows the silver-colored chrome parts of a motorcycle. One of the parts is so shiny
that you can see a reflection of the surrounding street and buildings.

A chemical change always produces one or more types of matter that differ from the matter
present before the change. The formation of rust is a chemical change because rust is a
different kind of matter than the iron, oxygen, and water present before the rust formed. The
explosion of nitroglycerin is a chemical change because the gases produced are very different
kinds of matter from the original substance. Other examples of chemical changes include
reactions that are performed in a lab (such as copper reacting with nitric acid), all forms of
combustion (burning), and food being cooked, digested, or rotting (Figure 1.7).

Figure 1.7: (a) Copper and nitric acids undergo a chemical change to form copper nitrate and
brown, gaseous nitrogen dioxide. (b) During the combustion of a match, cellulose in the
match and oxygen from the air undergo a chemical change to form carbon dioxide and water
vapor. (c) Cooking red meat causes a number of chemical changes, including the oxidation of
iron in myoglobin that results in the familiar red-to-brown color change. (d) A banana
turning brown is a chemical change as new, darker (and less tasty) substances form.

1.4 Extensive and Intensive Properties

Properties of matter fall into one of two categories. If the property depends on the amount of
matter present, it is an extensive property. The mass and volume of a substance are examples
of extensive properties; for instance, a gallon of milk has a larger mass than a cup of milk.
The
value of an extensive property is directly proportional to the amount of matter in question. If
the property of a sample of matter does not depend on the amount of matter present, it is an

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intensive property. Temperature is an example of an intensive property. If the gallon and cup
of milk are each at 20°C (room temperature), when they are combined, the temperature
remains at 20°C. As another example, consider the distinct but related properties of heat and
temperature. A drop of hot cooking oil spattered on your arm causes brief, minor discomfort,
whereas a pot of hot oil yields severe burns. Both the drop and the pot of oil are at the same
temperature (an intensive property), but the pot clearly contains much more heat (extensive
property).

EVALUATION

1. Why is an object’s mass, rather than its weight, used to indicate the amount of matter it
contains?

2. What properties distinguish solids from liquids? Liquids from gases? Solids from gases?

3. How does a heterogeneous mixture differ from a homogeneous mixture? How are they
similar?

4. How does a homogeneous mixture differ from a pure substance? How are they similar?

5. How does an element differ from a compound? How are they similar?

6. How do molecules of elements and molecules of compounds differ? In what ways are they
similar?

7. How does an atom differ from a molecule? In what ways are they similar?

8. Many of the items you purchase are mixtures of pure compounds. Select three of these
commercial products and prepare a list of the ingredients that are pure compounds.

9. A sulfur atom and a sulfur molecule are not identical. What is the difference?

10. How are the molecules in oxygen gas, the molecules in hydrogen gas, and water
molecules similar? How do they differ?

REFERENCES

1. R. Chang, General Chemistry: The Essential Concepts, 5th ed., 2008

2. J.W. Hill and R.H. Petrucci, General Chemistry: An Integrated Approach, 2nd ed., 1999.
3. Patricia Eldredge, R.H. H and, LLC, General Chemistry-Principles, Patterns, and
Applications, 2011. (http://www.saylor.org/books)
4. David W. Ball, Introductory Chemistry, Cleveland State University,2011,
(http://www.saylor.org/books)
5. J. E. Brady, J. W. Russel and J.R. Holum, General Chemistry: Principles and Structure,
5th ed., 2006.
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6. S. S. Zumdahl and S.A. Zumdahl, Chemistry, 7th ed., 2007

7. J. McMurry, Organic Chemistry, 8th ed., 20P

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