Chain Ladder

Package ‘ChainLadder’
November 30, 2011
Type Package
Title Mack, Bootstrap, Munich, Multivariate-chain-ladder, Clark

methods and generalized linear models for insurance claims reserving
Version 0.1.5-1
Date 2011-08-31
Author Markus Gesmann, Wayne Zhang, Daniel Murphy
Maintainer Markus Gesmann <[email protected]>
Description The package provides Mack-, Munich-, Bootstrap, and

Multivariate-chain-ladder methods, as well as the LDF Curve Fitting
methods of Dave Clark and GLM-based reserving models. These methods are typically
used in insurance claims reserving.
Depends Hmisc, lattice, Matrix, methods, stats, systemfit, MASS,RUnit, actuar, statmod, utils
Suggests RODBC
License GPL (>= 2)
URL http://code.google.com/p/chainladder/
LazyLoad yes
LazyData yes
Repository CRAN
Date/Publication 2011-11-12 16:15:22
1
2 R topics documented:
R topics documented:
ChainLadder-package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
ABC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
ata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
auto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
BootChainLadder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
chainladder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
ClarkCapeCod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
ClarkLDF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Cumulative and incremental triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
GenIns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
getLatestCumulative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
glmReserve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Join2Fits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
JoinFitMse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
liab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
M3IR5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
MackChainLadder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
MCLpaid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Mortgage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Mse-methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
MultiChainLadder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
MultiChainLadder-class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
MultiChainLadderFit-class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
MultiChainLadderMse-class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
MultiChainLadderSummary-class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
MunichChainLadder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
NullNum-class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
plot-MultiChainLadder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
plot.BootChainLadder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
plot.clark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
plot.MackChainLadder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
plot.MunichChainLadder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
predict.TriangleModel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
print.ata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
print.clark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
qpaid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
RAA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
residCov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
residuals.MackChainLadder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
summary-methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
summary.ata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
summary.BootChainLadder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
summary.clark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
summary.MackChainLadder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
summary.MunichChainLadder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Table65 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
ChainLadder-package 3
triangle S3 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
triangles-class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
vcov.clark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Index 73
ChainLadder-package Various chain-ladder methods for claims reserving
Description
The ChainLadder-package grew out of presentations given at the Stochastic Reserving Seminar at
the Institute of Actuaries in 2007 and 2008 and followed by talks at CAS meetings in 2008 and 2010.
This package has currently implementations for the Mack-, Munich- and Bootstrap-chain-ladder
methods. The package offers also some utility functions to convert quickly tables into triangles,
triangles into tables, cumulative into incremental and incremental into cumulative triangles.
Since version 0.1.4-0 the package also includes the "LDF Curve Fitting" methods of David Clark’s
paper in the 2003 CAS Forum.
The ChainLadder-package comes with an example spreadsheet which demonstrates how to use the
ChainLadder functions in Excel. The spreadsheet is located in the Excel folder of the package. The
R command system.file("Excel", package="ChainLadder") will tell you the exact path to the
directory. To use the spreadsheet you will need to have the RExcel-Addin, see http://sunsite.
univie.ac.at/rcom/ for more details. It also provides an example SWord file, demonstrating how
the the functions of the package can be integrated into a MS Word file via SWord. Again you find
the Word file via the command:system.file("SWord", package="ChainLadder")
More information is available on the project web site http://code.google.com/p/chainladder/
If you are also interested in loss distributions modeling, risk theory (including ruin theory), simu-
lation of compound hierarchical models and credibility theory check out the actuar package by C.
Dutang, V. Goulet and M. Pigeon.
Another package you might want to look into is lossDev. It implements a Bayesian time se-
ries loss development model. Features include skewed-t distribution with time-varying scale pa-
rameter, reversible jump MCMC for determining the functional form of the consumption path,
and a structural break in this path; by Christopher W. Laws and Frank A. Schmid see also http:
//lossdev.r-forge.r-project.org/
For more financial packages see also CRAN Task View ’Emperical Finance’ at http://cran.
r-project.org/web/views/Finance.html.
Details
Package: ChainLadder
Type: Package
Version: 0.1.5-1
Date: 20011-08-31
License: GPL version 2 or later
4 ABC
Author(s)
Markus Gesmann, Wayne Zhang, Daniel Murphy
Maintainer: Markus Gesmann <[email protected]>
References
Thomas Mack. Distribution-free calculation of the standard error of chain ladder reserve estimates.
Astin Bulletin. Vol. 23. No 2. 1993. pp.213:225
Thomas Mack. The standard error of chain ladder reserve estimates: Recursive calculation and
inclusion of a tail factor. Astin Bulletin. Vol. 29. No 2. 1999. pp.361:366
Gerhard Quarg and Thomas Mack. Munich Chain Ladder. Blatter DGVFM 26. Munich. 2004.
England, PD and Verrall, RJ. Stochastic Claims Reserving in General Insurance (with discussion).
British Actuarial Journal 8. III. 2002
B. Zehnwirth and G. Barnett. Best Estimates for Reserves. Proceedings of the CAS. Volume
LXXXVII. Number 167.November 2000.
Clark, David R., "LDF Curve-Fitting and Stochastic Reserving: A Maximum Likelihood Ap-
proach," CAS Forum, Fall 2003.
Examples
## Not run:
demo(ChainLadder)
## End(Not run)
ABC Run off triangle of accumulated claims data
Description
Run-off triangle of a worker’s compensation portfolio of a large company
Usage
data(ABC)
Format
A matrix with 11 accident years and 11 development years.
Source
B. Zehnwirth and G. Barnett. Best Estimates for Reserves. Proceedings of the CAS. Volume
LXXXVII. Number 167. November 2000.
ata 5
Examples
ABC
plot(ABC)
plot(ABC, lattice=TRUE)
ata Calculate Age-to-Age Factors
Description
Calculate the matrix of age-to-age factors (also called "report-to-report" factors, or "link ratios") for
an object of class triangle.
Usage
ata(Triangle, NArow.rm = TRUE, colname.sep = "-",
colname.order=c("ascending","descending"))
Arguments
Triangle a loss "triangle". Must be a matrix.
NArow.rm logical indicating if rows of age-to-age (ata) factors that are all NA should be
removed. "All-NA" rows typically occur for the most recent origin year of a loss
triangle.
colname.sep a character indicating the separator character to place between the column
names of Triangle that will be used to lable the columns of the resulting matrix
of ata factors
colname.order "ascending" indicates that the less mature age comes first in the column labels
of the ata matrix
Details
ata constructs a matrix of age-to-age (ata) factors resulting from a loss "triangle" or a matrix. Sim-
ple averages and volume weighted averages are saved as "smpl" and "vwtd" attributes, respectively.
Value
A matrix with "smpl" and "vwtd" attributes.
Author(s)
Daniel Murphy
See Also
summary.ata, print.ata and chainladder
6 auto
Examples
ata(GenIns)
# Volume weighted average age-to-age factor of the "RAA" data

y <- attr(ata(RAA), "vwtd")
y
# "To ultimate" factors with a 10% tail
y <- rev(cumprod(rev(c(y, 1.1))))
names(y) <- paste(colnames(RAA), "Ult", sep="-")
y
## Label the development columns in "ratio-type" format

ata(RAA, colname.sep=":", colname.order="desc")
auto Run off triangle of accumulated claim data
Description
Run-off triangles of Personal Auto and Commercial Auto insurance.
Usage
data(auto)
Format
A list of three matrices, paid Personal Auto, incurred Personal Auto and paid Commercial Auto
respectively.
Source
Zhang (2010). A general multivariate chain ladder model. Insurance: Mathematics and Economics,
46, pp. 588-599.
Examples
data(auto)
names(auto)
BootChainLadder 7
BootChainLadder Bootstrap-Chain-Ladder Model
Description
The BootChainLadder procedure provides a predictive distribution of reserves or IBNRs for a
cumulative claims development triangle.
Usage
BootChainLadder(Triangle, R = 999, process.distr=c("gamma", "od.pois"))
Arguments
Triangle cumulative claims triangle. Assume columns are the development period, use
transpose otherwise. A (mxn)-matrix Cik which is filled for k ≤ n + 1 − i; i =
1, . . . , m; m ≥ n. See qpaid for how to use (mxn)-development triangles with
m<n, say higher development period frequency (e.g quarterly) than origin period
frequency (e.g accident years).
R the number of bootstrap replicates.
process.distr character string indicating which process distribution to be assumed. One of
"gamma" (default), or "od.pois" (over-dispersed Poisson), can be abbreviated
Details
The BootChainLadder function uses a two-stage bootstrapping/simulation approach. In the first
stage an ordinary chain-ladder methods is applied to the cumulative claims triangle. From this we
calculate the scaled Pearson residuals which we bootstrap R times to forecast future incremental
claims payments via the standard chain-ladder method. In the second stage we simulate the process
error with the bootstrap value as the mean and using the process distribution assumed. The set of
reserves obtained in this way forms the predictive distribution, from which summary statistics such
as mean, prediction error or quantiles can be derived.
Value
BootChainLadder gives a list with the following elements back:
call matched call

Triangle input triangle
f chain-ladder factors
simClaims array of dimension c(m,n,R) with the simulated claims
IBNR.ByOrigin array of dimension c(m,1,R) with the modeled IBNRs by origin period
IBNR.Triangles array of dimension c(m,n,R) with the modeled IBNR development triangles
IBNR.Totals vector of R samples of the total IBNRs
8 BootChainLadder
ChainLadder.Residuals
adjusted Pearson chain-ladder residuals
process.distr assumed process distribution
R the number of bootstrap replicates
Note
The implementation of BootChainLadder follows closely the discussion of the bootstrap model in
section 8 and appendix 3 of the paper by England and Verrall (2002).
Author(s)
Markus Gesmann, <[email protected]>
References
England, PD and Verrall, RJ. Stochastic Claims Reserving in General Insurance (with discussion),
British Actuarial Journal 8, III. 2002
Barnett and Zehnwirth. The need for diagnostic assessment of bootstrap predictive models, Insure-
ware technical report. 2007
See Also
See also summary.BootChainLadder, plot.BootChainLadder
Examples
# See also the example in section 8 of England & Verrall (2002) on page 55.
B <- BootChainLadder(RAA, R=999, process.distr="gamma")

B
plot(B)
# Compare to MackChainLadder
MackChainLadder(RAA)
quantile(B, c(0.75,0.95,0.99, 0.995))
# fit a distribution to the IBNR

library(MASS)
plot(ecdf(B$IBNR.Totals))
# fit a log-normal distribution
fit <- fitdistr(B$IBNR.Totals[B$IBNR.Totals>0], "lognormal")
fit
curve(plnorm(x,fit$estimate["meanlog"], fit$estimate["sdlog"]), col="red", add=TRUE)
# See also the ABC example in Barnett and Zehnwirth (2007)

A <- BootChainLadder(ABC, R=999, process.distr="gamma")
A
plot(A, log=TRUE)
chainladder 9
chainladder Estimate age-to-age factors
Description
Basic chain ladder function to estimate age-to-age factors for a given cumulative run-off triangle.
This function is used by Mack- and MunichChainLadder.
Usage
chainladder(Triangle, weights = 1, delta = 1)
Arguments
Triangle cumulative claims triangle. A (mxn)-matrix Cik which is filled for k ≤ n + 1 −
i; i = 1, . . . , m; m ≥ n, see qpaid for how to use (mxn)-development triangles
with m<n, say higher development period frequency (e.g quarterly) than origin
period frequency (e.g accident years).
weights weights. Default: 1, which sets the weights for all triangle entries to 1. Other-
wise specify weights as a matrix of the same dimension as Triangle with all
weight entries in [0; 1]
delta ’weighting’ parameters, either 0,1 or 2. Default: 1; delta=1 gives the histor-
ical chain ladder age-to-age factors, delta=0 gives the straight average of the
observed individual development factors and delta=2 is the result of an ordi-
nary regression of Ci,k+1 against Ci,k with intercept 0, see Barnett & Zehn-
wirth (2000);. Please note that Mack (1999) used the notation of alphas, with
alpha=2-delta.
Details
The key idea is to see the chain ladder algorithm as a weighted linear regression through the origin
applied for each development period.
Suppose y is the vector of cumulative claims at development period i+1, and x at development
period i, w are weighting factors and F the individual age-to-age factors F=y/x, than we get the
various age-to-age factors for different deltas (alphas) as:
sum(w*xâlpha*F)/sum(w*xâlpha) # Mack (1999) notation
delta <- 2-alpha
lm(y~x + 0 ,weights=w/x^delta) # Barnett & Zehnwirth (2000) notation
Value
chainladder returns a list with the following elements:
Models linear regression models for each development period
Triangle input triangle of cumulative claims
weights weights used
delta deltas used
10 chainladder
Author(s)
Markus Gesmann <[email protected]>
References
G. Barnett and B. Zehnwirth. Best Estimates for Reserves. Proceedings of the CAS. Volume
See Also
See also ata, predict.ChainLadder MackChainLadder,
Examples
## Concept of different chain ladder age-to-age factors.

## Compare Mack’s and Barnett & Zehnwirth’s papers.
x <- RAA[1:9,1]
y <- RAA[1:9,2]
weights <- RAA

weights[!is.na(weights)] <- 1
w <- weights[1:9,1]
F <- y/x
## wtd. average chain ladder age-to-age factors
alpha <- 1
delta <- 2-alpha
sum(w*xâlpha*F)/sum(w*xâlpha)
lm(y~x + 0 ,weights=w/x^delta)
summary(chainladder(RAA, weights=weights, delta=delta)$Models[[1]])$coef
## straight average age-to-age factors

alpha <- 0
delta <- 2 - alpha
lm(y~x + 0 ,weights=w/x^(2-alpha))
## ordinary regression age-to-age factors

alpha=2
delta <- 2-alpha
## Change weights
chainladder 11
weights[2,1] <- 0.5

w <- weights[1:9,1]
## wtd. average chain ladder age-to-age factors

alpha <- 1
delta <- 2-alpha
## straight average age-to-age factors

alpha <- 0
delta <- 2 - alpha
lm(y~x + 0 ,weights=w/x^(2-alpha))
## ordinary regression age-to-age factors

alpha=2
delta <- 2-alpha
## Model review
CL0 <- chainladder(RAA, weights=weights, delta=0)
## age-to-age factors
sapply(CL0$Models, function(x) summary(x)$coef["x","Estimate"])
## f.se
sapply(CL0$Models, function(x) summary(x)$coef["x","Std. Error"])
## sigma
sapply(CL0$Models, function(x) summary(x)$sigma)

## f.se
## sigma

## f.se
## sigma
## Forecasting
predict(CL0)
12 ClarkCapeCod
predict(CL1)
predict(CL2)
ClarkCapeCod Clark Cape Cod method
Description
Analyze loss triangle using Clark’s Cape Cod method.
Usage
ClarkCapeCod(Triangle, Premium, cumulative = TRUE, maxage = Inf,
adol = TRUE, adol.age = NULL, origin.width = NULL,
G = "loglogistic")
Arguments
Triangle A loss triangle in the form of a matrix. The number of columns must be at least
four; the number of rows may be as few as 1. The column names of the matrix
should be able to be interpreted as the "age" of the losses in that column. The
row names of the matrix should uniquely define the year of origin of the losses
in that row. Losses may be inception-to-date or incremental.
Premium The vector of premium to use in the method. If a scalar (vector of length 1) is
given, that value will be used for all origin periods. (See "Examples" below.) If
the length is greater than 1 but does not equal the number of rows of Triangle
the Premium values will be "recycled" with a warning.
cumulative If TRUE (the default), values in Triangle are inception to date. If FALSE, Triangle
holds incremental losses.
maxage The "ultimate" age to which losses should be projected.
adol If TRUE (the default), the growth function should be applied to the length of time
from the average date of loss ("adol") of losses in the origin year. If FALSE, the
growth function should be applied to the length of time since the beginning of
the origin year.
adol.age Only pertinent if adol is TRUE. The age of the average date of losses within an
origin period in the same units as the "ages" of the Triangle matrix. If NULL
(the default) it will be assumed to be half the width of an origin period (which
would be the case if losses can be assumed to occur uniformly over an origin
period).
origin.width Only pertinent if adol is TRUE. The width of an origin period in the same units
as the "ages" of the Triangle matrix. If NULL (the default) it will be assumed
to be the mean difference in the "ages" of the triangle, with a warning if not all
differences are equal.
G A character scalar identifying the "growth function." The two growth func-
tions defined at this time are "loglogistic" (the default) and "weibull".
ClarkCapeCod 13
Details
Clark’s "Cape Cod" method assumes that the incremental losses across development periods in a
loss triangle are independent. He assumes that the expected value of an incremental loss is equal to
the theoretical expected loss ratio (ELR) times the on-level premium for the origin year times the
change in the theoretical underlying growth function over the development period. Clark models
the growth function, also called the percent of ultimate, by either the loglogistic function (a.k.a.,
"the inverse power curve") or the weibull function. Clark completes his incremental loss model
by wrapping the expected values within an overdispersed poisson (ODP) process where the "scale
factor" sigma^2 is assumed to be a known constant for all development periods.
The parameters of Clark’s "Cape Cod" method are therefore: ELR, and omega and theta (the pa-
rameters of the loglogistic and weibull growth functions). Finally, Clark uses maximum likelihood
to parameterize his model, uses the ODP process to estimate process risk, and uses the Cramer-Rao
theorem and the "delta method" to estimate parameter risk.
Clark recommends inspecting the residuals to help assess the reasonableness of the model relative
to the actual data (see plot.clark below).
Value
A list of class "ClarkLDF" with the components listed below. ("Key" to naming convention:
all caps represent parameters; mixed case represent origin-level amounts; all-lower-case represent
observation-level (origin, development age) results.)
method "CapeCod"
growthFunction name of the growth function
Origin names of the rows of the triangle
Premium Premium amount for each origin year
CurrentValue the most mature value for each row
CurrentAge the most mature "age" for each row
CurrentAge.used
the most mature age used; differs from "CurrentAge" when adol=TRUE
MAXAGE same as ’maxage’ argument
MAXAGE.USED the maximum age for development from the average date of loss; differs from
MAXAGE when adol=TRUE
FutureValue the projected loss amounts ("Reserves" in Clark’s paper)
ProcessSE the process standard error of the FutureValue
ParameterSE the parameter standard error of the FutureValue
StdError the total standard error (process + parameter) of the FutureValue
Total a list with amounts that appear on the "Total" row for components "Origin"
(="Total"), "CurrentValue", "FutureValue", "ProcessSE", "ParameterSE", and
"StdError"
PAR the estimated parameters
ELR the estimated loss ratio parameter
THETAG the estimated parameters of the growth function
14 ClarkCapeCod
GrowthFunction value of the growth function as of the CurrentAge.used

GrowthFunctionMAXAGE
value of the growth function as of the MAXAGE.used
FutureGrowthFactor
the ("unreported" or "unpaid") percent of ultimate loss that has yet to be recorded
SIGMA2 the estimate of the sigma^2 parameter
Ldf the "to-ultimate" loss development factor (sometimes called the "cumulative de-
velopment factor") as defined in Clark’s paper for each origin year
LdfMAXAGE the "to-ultimate" loss development factor as of the maximum age used in the
model
TruncatedLdf the "truncated" loss development factor for developing the current diagonal to
the maximum age used in the model
FutureValueGradient
the gradient of the FutureValue function
origin the origin year corresponding to each observed value of incremental loss
age the age of each observed value of incremental loss
fitted the expected value of each observed value of incremental loss (the "mu’s" of
Clark’s paper)
residuals the actual minus fitted value for each observed incremental loss
stdresid the standardized residuals for each observed incremental loss (= residuals/sqrt(sigma2*fitted),
referred to as "normalized residuals" in Clark’s paper; see p. 62)
FI the "Fisher Information" matrix as defined in Clark’s paper (i.e., without the
sigma^2 value)
value the value of the loglikelihood function at the solution point
counts the number of calls to the loglikelihood function and its gradient function when
numerical convergence was achieved
Author(s)
Daniel Murphy
References
proach", Casualty Actuarial Society Forum, Fall, 2003 http://www.casact.org/pubs/forum/
03fforum/03ff041.pdf
See Also
ClarkLDF
ClarkLDF 15
Examples
X <- GenIns
colnames(X) <- 12*as.numeric(colnames(X))
CC.loglogistic <- ClarkCapeCod(X, Premium=10000000+400000*0:9, maxage=240)
CC.loglogistic
# Clark’s "CapeCod method" also works with triangles that have

# more development periods than origin periods. The Premium
# is a contrived match to the "made up" ’qincurred’ Triangle.
ClarkCapeCod(qincurred, Premium=1250+150*0:11, G="loglogistic")
# Method also works for a "triangle" with only one row:

# 1st row of GenIns; need "drop=FALSE" to avoid becoming a vector.
ClarkCapeCod(GenIns[1, , drop=FALSE], Premium=1000000, maxage=20)
# If one value of Premium is appropriate for all origin years

# (e.g., losses are on-level and adjusted for exposure)
# then only a single value for Premium need be provided.
ClarkCapeCod(GenIns, Premium=1000000, maxage=20)
# Use of the weibull function generates a warning that the parameter risk
# approximation results in some negative variances. This may be of small
# concern since it happens only for older years with near-zero
# estimated reserves, but the warning should not be disregarded
# if it occurs with real data.
Y <- ClarkCapeCod(qincurred, Premium=1250+150*0:11, G="weibull")
# The plot of the standardized residuals by age indicates that the more
# mature observations are more loosely grouped than the less mature, just
# the opposite of the behavior under the loglogistic curve.
# This suggests that the model might be improved by analyzing the Triangle
# in two different "blocks": less mature vs. more mature.
# The QQ-plot shows that the tails of the empirical distribution of
# standardized residuals are "fatter" than a standard normal.
# The fact that the p-value is essentially zero says that there is
# virtually no chance that the standardized residuals could be
# considered draws from a standard normal random variable.
# The overall conclusion is that Clark’s ODP-based CapeCod model with
# the weibull growth function does not match up well with the qincurred
# triangle and these premiums.
plot(Y)
ClarkLDF Clark LDF method
Description
Analyze loss triangle using Clark’s LDF (loss development factor) method.
16 ClarkLDF
Usage
ClarkLDF(Triangle, cumulative = TRUE, maxage = Inf,
adol = TRUE, adol.age = NULL, origin.width = NULL,
G = "loglogistic")
Arguments
Triangle A loss triangle in the form of a matrix. The number of columns must be at least
four; the number of rows may be as few as 1. The column names of the matrix
should be able to be interpreted as the "age" of the losses in that column. The
row names of the matrix should uniquely define the year of origin of the losses
in that row. Losses may be inception-to-date or incremental.
The "ages" of the triangle can be "phase shifted" – i.e., the first age need not
be as at the end of the origin period. (See the Examples section.) Nor need the
"ages" be uniformly spaced. However, when the ages are not uniformly spaced,
it would be prudent to specify the origin.width argument.
cumulative If TRUE (the default), values in Triangle are inception to date. If FALSE, Triangle
holds incremental losses.
maxage The "ultimate" age to which losses should be projected.
adol If TRUE (the default), the growth function should be applied to the length of time
from the average date of loss ("adol") of losses in the origin year. If FALSE, the
growth function should be applied to the length of time since the beginning of
the origin year.
adol.age Only pertinent if adol is TRUE. The age of the average date of losses within an
origin period in the same units as the "ages" of the Triangle matrix. If NULL
(the default) it will be assumed to be half the width of an origin period (which
would be the case if losses can be assumed to occur uniformly over an origin
period).
origin.width Only pertinent if adol is TRUE. The width of an origin period in the same units
as the "ages" of the Triangle matrix. If NULL (the default) it will be assumed
to be the mean difference in the "ages" of the triangle, with a warning if not all
differences are equal.
G A character scalar identifying the "growth function." The two growth func-
tions defined at this time are "loglogistic" (the default) and "weibull".
Details
Clark’s "LDF method" assumes that the incremental losses across development periods in a loss
triangle are independent. He assumes that the expected value of an incremental loss is equal to the
theoretical expected ultimate loss (U) (by origin year) times the change in the theoretical underlying
growth function over the development period. Clark models the growth function, also called the
percent of ultimate, by either the loglogistic function (a.k.a., "the inverse power curve") or the
weibull function. Clark completes his incremental loss model by wrapping the expected values
within an overdispersed poisson (ODP) process where the "scale factor" sigma^2 is assumed to be
a known constant for all development periods.
ClarkLDF 17
The parameters of Clark’s "LDF method" are therefore: U, and omega and theta (the parameters of
the loglogistic and weibull growth functions). Finally, Clark uses maximum likelihood to parame-
terize his model, uses the ODP process to estimate process risk, and uses the Cramer-Rao theorem
and the "delta method" to estimate parameter risk.
Clark recommends inspecting the residuals to help assess the reasonableness of the model relative
to the actual data (see plot.clark below).
Value
A list of class "ClarkLDF" with the components listed below. ("Key" to naming convention:
all caps represent parameters; mixed case represent origin-level amounts; all-lower-case represent
observation-level (origin, development age) results.)
method "LDF"
growthFunction name of the growth function
Origin names of the rows of the triangle
CurrentValue the most mature value for each row
CurrentAge the most mature "age" for each row
CurrentAge.used
the most mature age used; differs from "CurrentAge" when adol=TRUE
MAXAGE same as ’maxage’ argument
MAXAGE.USED the maximum age for development from the average date of loss; differs from
MAXAGE when adol=TRUE
FutureValue the projected loss amounts ("Reserves" in Clark’s paper)
ProcessSE the process standard error of the FutureValue
ParameterSE the parameter standard error of the FutureValue
StdError the total standard error (process + parameter) of the FutureValue
Total a list with amounts that appear on the "Total" row for components "Origin"
(="Total"), "CurrentValue", "FutureValue", "ProcessSE", "ParameterSE", and
"StdError"
PAR the estimated parameters
THETAU the estimated parameters for the "ultimate loss" by origin year ("U" in Clark’s
notation)
THETAG the estimated parameters of the growth function
GrowthFunction value of the growth function as of the CurrentAge.used
GrowthFunctionMAXAGE
value of the growth function as of the MAXAGE.used
SIGMA2 the estimate of the sigma^2 parameter
Ldf the "to-ultimate" loss development factor (sometimes called the "cumulative de-
velopment factor") as defined in Clark’s paper for each origin year
LdfMAXAGE the "to-ultimate" loss development factor as of the maximum age used in the
model
18 ClarkLDF
TruncatedLdf the "truncated" loss development factor for developing the current diagonal to
the maximum age used in the model
FutureValueGradient
the gradient of the FutureValue function
origin the origin year corresponding to each observed value of incremental loss
age the age of each observed value of incremental loss
fitted the expected value of each observed value of incremental loss (the "mu’s" of
Clark’s paper)
residuals the actual minus fitted value for each observed incremental loss
stdresid the standardized residuals for each observed incremental loss (= residuals/sqrt(sigma2*fitted),
referred to as "normalized residuals" in Clark’s paper; see p. 62)
FI the "Fisher Information" matrix as defined in Clark’s paper (i.e., without the
sigma^2 value)
value the value of the loglikelihood function at the solution point
counts the number of calls to the loglikelihood function and its gradient function when
numerical convergence was achieved
Author(s)
Daniel Murphy
References
See Also
ClarkCapeCod
Examples
X <- GenIns
ClarkLDF(X, maxage=20)
# Clark’s "LDF method" also works with triangles that have

# more development periods than origin periods
ClarkLDF(qincurred, G="loglogistic")
# Method also works for a "triangle" with only one row:

# 1st row of GenIns; need "drop=FALSE" to avoid becoming a vector.
ClarkLDF(GenIns[1, , drop=FALSE], maxage=20)
# The age of the first evaluation may be prior to the end of the origin period.
# Here the ages are in units of "months" and the first evaluation
# is at the end of the third quarter.
X <- GenIns
Cumulative and incremental triangles 19
colnames(X) <- 12 * as.numeric(colnames(X)) - 3

# The indicated liability increases from 1st example above,
# but not significantly.
ClarkLDF(X, maxage=240)
# When maxage is infinite, the phase shift has a more noticeable impact:
# a 4-5% increase of the overall CV.
x <- ClarkLDF(GenIns, maxage=Inf)
y <- ClarkLDF(X, maxage=Inf)
# Percent change in the bottom line CV:
(tail(y$Table65$TotalCV, 1) - tail(x$Table65$TotalCV, 1)) / tail(x$Table65$TotalCV, 1)
Cumulative and incremental triangles

Cumulative and incremental triangles
Description
Functions to convert between cumulative and incremental triangles
Usage
incr2cum(Triangle, na.rm=FALSE)
cum2incr(Triangle)
Arguments
Triangle triangle. Assume columns are the development period, use transpose otherwise.
na.rm logical. Should missing values be removed?
Details
incr2cum transforms an incremental triangle into a cumulative triangle, cum2incr provides the
reserve operation.
Value
Both functions return a triangle.
Author(s)
Markus Gesmann, Christophe Dutang
See Also
See also as.triangle
20 GenIns
Examples
# See the Taylor/Ashe example in Mack’s 1993 paper
#original triangle
GenIns
#incremental triangle
cum2incr(GenIns)
#original triangle
incr2cum(cum2incr(GenIns))
# See the example in Mack’s 1999 paper
#original triangle
Mortgage
incMortgage <- cum2incr(Mortgage)
#add missing values
incMortgage[1,1] <- NA
#with missing values argument

incr2cum(incMortgage, na.rm=TRUE)
#compared to
incr2cum(Mortgage)
GenIns Run off triangle of claims data.
Description
Run off triangle of accumulated general insurance claims data. GenInsLong provides the same data
in a ’long’ format.
Usage
GenIns
Format
Source
TAYLOR, G.C. and ASHE, F.R. (1983) Second Moments of Estimates of Outstanding Claims.
Journal of Econometrics 23, 37-61.
getLatestCumulative 21
References
See table 1 in: Distribution-free Calculation of the Standard Error of Chain Ladder Reserve Esti-
mates, Thomas Mack, 1993, ASTIN Bulletin 23, 213 - 225
Examples
GenIns
plot(GenIns)
plot(GenIns, lattice=TRUE)
head(GenInsLong)
## Convert long format into triangle

## Triangles are usually stored as ’long’ tables in data bases
as.triangle(GenInsLong, origin="accyear", dev="devyear", "incurred claims")
getLatestCumulative Triangle information for most recent calendar period.
Description
Return most recent values for all origin periods of a cumulative development triangle.
Usage
getLatestCumulative(cumulative.tri)
Arguments
cumulative.tri a cumulative triangle. Assume columns are the development period, use trans-
pose otherwise.
Value
A vector of most recent non-’NA’ values of a triangle for all origin periods.
See Also
See also as.triangle.
Examples
RAA
getLatestCumulative(RAA)
22 glmReserve
glmReserve GLM-based Reserving Model
Description
This function implements loss reserving models within the generalized linear model framework.
It takes accident year and development lag as mean predictors in estimating the ultimate loss re-
serves, and provides both analytical formula and bootstrapping method to compute the associated
prediction errors.
Usage
glmReserve(triangle, var.power = 1, link.power = 0, cum = TRUE,
mse.method = "formula", nsim = 1000, ...)
Arguments
triangle A object of class triangle.
var.power The index (p) of the power variance function V (µ) = µp . Default to p=1, which
is the over-dispersed Poisson model. See tweedie.
link.power The index of power link function. The default link.power=0 produces a log-
link. See tweedie.
cum A logical value indicating whether the input triangle is on the cumulative or the
incremental scale. If TRUE, then triangle is assumed to be on the cumulative
scale, and it will be converted to incremental losses internally before a GLM is
fitted.
mse.method A character indicating whether the prediction error should be computed analyti-
cally (mse.method="formula") or via bootstrapping (mse.method="bootstrap")
nsim Number of simulations to be performed in the bootstrapping, with a default value
of 1000.
... Arguments to be passed onto the function glm such as contrasts or control.
It is important that offset and weight should not be specified. Otherwise, an
error will be reported and the program will quit.
Details
This function takes an insurance loss triangle, converts it to incremental losses internally if neces-
sary, transforms it to the long format (see as.data.frame) and fits the resulting loss data with a
generalized linear model where the mean structure includes both the accident year and the develop-
ment lag effects. The distributions allowed are the exponential family that admits a power variance
function, that is, V (µ) = µp . This subclass of distributions is usually called the Tweedie distribu-
tion and includes many commonly used distributions as special cases. This function does not allow
the user to specify the GLM options through the usual family argument, but instead, it uses the
tweedie family internally and takes two arguments var.power and link.power through which the
user still has full control of the distribution forms and link functions, respectively. The argument
glmReserve 23
var.power determines which specific distribution is to be used, and link.power determines the
form of the link function. See details in tweedie.
Also, the function allows certain measures of exposures to be used in an offset term in the under-
lying GLM. To do this, the user should not use the usual offset argument in glm. Instead, one
specifies the exposure measure for each accident year through the exposure attribute of triangle.
Make sure that these exposures are in the orignal scale (no log transformations for example), and
they are in the order consistent with the accident years. If the exposure attribute is not NULL, the
glmReserve function will use these exposures, link-function-transformed, in the offset term of the
GLM. For example, if the link function is log, then the log of the exposure is used as the offset, not
the original exposure. See the examples below. Moreover, the user MUST NOT supply the typical
offset or weight as arguments in the list of additonal arguments .... offset should be specified
as above, while weight is not implemented (due to prediction reasons).
Two methods are available to assess the prediction error of the estimated loss reserves. One is using
the analytical formula (mse.method="formula") derived from first-order Taylor approximation.
The other is using bootstrapping (mse.method="bootstrap") that reconstructs the triangle nsim
times by resampling with replacement from the GLM (Pearson) residuals. Each time a new triangle
is formed, GLM is fitted and corresponding loss reserves are generated. Then the nsim sets of
reserves are used to compute the (sample) estimation variance, which, when adjusted by the lost
degree of freedoms and combined with the process variance, will yield the prediction variance. See
England and Verrall (1999) for details.
Value
The output mainly includes components of a glm object, and is thus made into the class glm. As
a result, all the methods available for a glm object such as resid, coef, fitted and so on can be
directly applied. Besides the slots that a typical glm object possesses (see glm), several additional
slots are also returned that are of specific interest to reserving analysis:
summary A data frame containing the predicted loss reserve statistics. Similar to the sum-
mary statistics from MackChainLadder.
Triangle The input triangle.
FullTriangle The completed triangle, where empty cells in the original triangle are filled with
model predictions.
scale Scale parameter calculated using Pearson residuals.
Note
The use of GLM in insurance loss reserving has many compelling aspects, e.g.,
• when over-dispersed Poisson model is used, it reproduces the estimates from Chain Ladder;
• it provides a more coherent modeling framework than the Mack method;
• all the relevant established statistical theory can be directly applied to perform hypothesis
testing and diagonostic checking;
However, the user should be cautious of some of the key assumptions that underline the GLM
model, in order to determine whether this model is appropriate for the problem considered:
24 glmReserve
• the GLM model assumes no tail development, and it only projects losses to the latest time
point of the observed data. To use a model that enables tail extrapolation, please consider the
growth curve model ClarkLDF or ClarkCapeCod;
• the model assumes that each incremental loss is indepedent of all the others. This assumption
may not be valid in that cells from the same calendar year are usually correlated due to inflation
or business operating factors;
• the model tends to be over-parameterized, which may lead to inferior predictive performance.
To solve these potential problems, many variants of the current basic GLM model have been pro-
posed in the actuarial literature. Some of these may be included in the future release.
Author(s)
Wayne Zhang <[email protected]>
References
England P. and Verrall R. (1999). Analytic and bootstrap estimates of prediction errors in claims
reserving. Insurance: Mathematics and Economics, 25, 281-293.
See Also
See also glm, tweedie and MackChainLadder.
Examples
data(GenIns)
# over-dispersed Poisson: reproduce ChainLadder estimates

fit1 <- glmReserve(GenIns)
fit1$summary
# plot of standardized residuals

sr <- resid(fit1)/sqrt(fit1$scale)
plot(fitted(fit1),sr)
# qq plot of residuals
qqnorm(sr)
qqline(sr)
# Gamma GLM:
fit2 <- glmReserve(GenIns,var.power=2)
fit2$summary
# plot of standardized residuals

sr <- resid(fit2)/sqrt(fit2$scale)
plot(fitted(fit2),sr)
# qq plot of residuals
qqnorm(sr)
qqline(sr)
# Now suppose we have an exposure measure

Join2Fits 25
# we can put it as an offset term in the model

# to do this, use the "exposure" attribute of the ’triangle’
expos <- (7 + 1:10*0.4)*1000000
GenIns2 <- GenIns
attr(GenIns2,"exposure") <- expos
fit3 <- glmReserve(GenIns2)
fit3$summary
# use bootstrapping to compute prediction error

## Not run:
set.seed(11)
fit4 <- glmReserve(GenIns,mse.method="bootstrap")
fit4$summary
## End(Not run)
Join2Fits Join Two Fitted MultiChainLadder Models
Description
This function is created to facilitate the fitting of the multivariate functions when specifying different
models in two different development periods, especially when separate chain ladder is used in later
periods.
Usage
Join2Fits(object1, object2)
Arguments
object1 An object of class "MultiChainLadder"
object2 An object of class "MultiChainLadder"
Details
The inputs must be of class "MultiChainLadder" because this function depends on the model slot
to determine what kind of object is to be created and returned. If both objects have "MCL", then an
object of class "MCLFit" is created; if one has "GMCL" and one has "MCL", then an object of class
"GMCLFit" is created, where the one with "GMCL" is assumed to come from the first development
periods; if both have "GMCL", then an object of class "GMCLFit" is created.
Author(s)
See Also
See also MultiChainLadder
26 liab
JoinFitMse Join Model Fit and Mse Estimation
Description
This function combines first momoent estimation from fitted regression models and second moment
estimation from Mse method to construct an object of class "MultiChainLadder", for which a variety
of methods are defined, such as summary and plot.
Usage
JoinFitMse(models, mse.models)
Arguments
models fitted regression models, either of class "MCLFit" or "GMCLFit".
mse.models output from a call to Mse, which is of class "MultiChainLadderMse".
Author(s)
See Also
See also MultiChainLadder.
liab Run off triangle of accumulated claim data
Description
Run-off triangles of General Liability and Auto Liability.
Usage
data(auto)
Format
A list of two matrices, General Liability and Auto Liability respectively.
Source
Braun C (2004). The prediction error of the chain ladder method applied to correlated run off
triangles. ASTIN Bulletin 34(2): 399-423
M3IR5 27
Examples
data(liab)
names(liab)
M3IR5 Run off triangle of claims data
Description
Run off triangle of simulated incremental claims data
Usage
data(M3IR5)
Format
A matrix with simulated incremental claims of 14 accident years and 14 development years.
Source
G. Barnett and B. Zehnwirth. Best Estimates for Reserves. Proceedings of the CAS. Volume
Examples
M3IR5
plot(M3IR5)
plot(incr2cum(M3IR5), lattice=TRUE)
MackChainLadder Mack-Chain-Ladder Model
Description
The Mack-chain-ladder model forecasts future claims developments based on a historical cumula-
tive claims development triangle and estimates the standard error around those.
Usage
MackChainLadder(Triangle, weights = 1, alpha=1, est.sigma="log-linear",
tail=FALSE, tail.se=NULL, tail.sigma=NULL)
28 MackChainLadder
Arguments
Triangle cumulative claims triangle. Assume columns are the development period, use
transpose otherwise. A (mxn)-matrix Cik which is filled for k ≤ n + 1 − i; i =
1, . . . , m; m ≥ n, see qpaid for how to use (mxn)-development triangles with
m<n, say higher development period frequency (e.g quarterly) than origin period
frequency (e.g accident years).
weights weights. Default: 1, which sets the weights for all triangle entries to 1. Other-
wise specify weights as a matrix of the same dimension as Triangle with all
weight entries in [0; 1]
alpha ’weighting’ parameter. Default: 1 for all development periods; alpha=1 gives
the historical chain ladder age-to-age factors, alpha=0 gives the straight average
of the observed individual development factors and alpha=2 is the result of an
ordinary regression of Ci,k+1 against Ci,k with intercept 0, see also Mack’s
1999 paper and chainladder
est.sigma defines how to estimate sigman−1 , the variability of the individual age-to-age
factors at development time n − 1. Default is "log-linear" for a log-linear regres-
sion, "Mack" for Mack’s approximation from his 1999 paper. Alternatively the
user can provide a numeric value. If the log-linear model appears to be inappro-
priate (p-value > 0.05) the ’Mack’ method will be used instead and a warning
message printed.
tail can be logical or a numeric value. If tail=FALSE no tail factor will be ap-
plied, if tail=TRUE a tail factor will be estimated via a linear extrapolation of
log(chainladderf actors − 1), if tail is a numeric value than this value will
be used instead.
tail.se defines how the standard error of the tail factor is estimated. Only needed if
a tail factor > 1 is provided. Default is NULL. If tail.se is NULL, tail.se is
estimated via "log-linear" regression, if tail.se is a numeric value than this
value will be used instead.
tail.sigma defines how to estimate individual tail variability. Only needed if a tail factor >
1 is provided. Default is NULL. If tail.sigma is NULL, tail.sigma is estimated
via "log-linear" regression, if tail.sigma is a numeric value than this value will
be used instead
Details
Following Mack’s 1999 paper let Cik denote the cumulative loss amounts of origin period (e.g.
accident year) i = 1, . . . , m, with losses known for development period (e.g. development year)
k ≤ n + 1 − i. In order to forecast the amounts Cik for k > n + 1 − i the Mack chain-ladder-model
assumes:
Ci,k+1
CL1: E[Fik |Ci1 , Ci2 , . . . , Cik ] = fk with Fik =
Cik
Ci,k+1 σk2
CL2: V ar( |Ci1 , Ci2 , . . . , Cik ) = α
Cik wik Cik
CL3: {Ci1 , . . . , Cin }, {Cj1 , . . . , Cjn }, are independent for origin period i 6= j
MackChainLadder 29
with wik ∈ [0; 1], α ∈ {0, 1, 2}. If these assumptions are hold, the Mack-chain-ladder-model gives
an unbiased estimator for IBNR (Incurred But Not Reported) claims.
The Mack-chain-ladder model can be regarded as a weighted linear regression through the origin
for each development period: lm(y ~ x + 0, weights=w/x^(2-alpha)), where y is the vector
of claims at development period k + 1 and x is the vector of claims at development period k.
Value
MackChainLadder returns a list with the following elements
call matched call

Triangle input triangle of cumulative claims
FullTriangle forecasted full triangle
Models linear regression models for each development period
f chain-ladder age-to-age factors
f.se standard errors of the chain-ladder age-to-age factors f (assumption CL1)
F.se standard errors of the true chain-ladder age-to-age factors Fik (square root of
the variance in assumption CL2)
sigma sigma parameter in CL2
Mack.ProcessRisk
variability in the projection of future losses not explained by the variability of
the link ratio estimators (unexplained variation)
Mack.ParameterRisk
variability in the projection of future losses explained by the variability of the
link-ratio estimators alone (explained variation)
Mack.S.E total variability in the projection of future losses by the chain ladder method; the
square root of the mean square error of the chain ladder estimate: Mack.S.E.2 =
Mack.ProcessRisk2 + Mack.ParameterRisk2
Total.Mack.S.E total variability of projected loss for all origin years combined
weights weights used.
alpha alphas used.
tail tail factor used. If tail was set to TRUE the output will include the linear model
used to estimate the tail factor
Note
Additional references for further reading:
England, PD and Verrall, RJ. Stochastic Claims Reserving in General Insurance (with discussion),
British Actuarial Journal 8, III. 2002
Murphy, Daniel M. Unbiased Loss Development Factors. Proceedings of the Casualty Actuarial
Society Casualty Actuarial Society - Arlington, Virginia 1994: LXXXI 154-222.
Barnett and Zehnwirth. Best estimates for reserves. Proceedings of the CAS, LXXXVI I(167),
November 2000.
30 MackChainLadder
Author(s)
References
Thomas Mack. Distribution-free calculation of the standard error of chain ladder reserve estimates.
Astin Bulletin. Vol. 23. No 2. 1993. pp.213:225
See Also
See also qpaid, chainladder, summary.MackChainLadder, plot.MackChainLadder, residuals.MackChainLadder,
MunichChainLadder, BootChainLadder,
Examples
## See the Taylor/Ashe example in Mack’s 1993 paper

GenIns
plot(GenIns)
GNI <- MackChainLadder(GenIns, est.sigma="Mack")
GNI$f
GNI$sigma^2
GNI # compare to table 2 and 3 in Mack’s 1993 paper
plot(GNI)
plot(GNI, lattice=TRUE)
## Different weights
## Using alpha=0 will use straight average age-to-age factors
MackChainLadder(GenIns, alpha=0)$f
# You get the same result via:
apply(GenIns[,-1]/GenIns[,-10],2, mean, na.rm=TRUE)
## See the example in Mack’s 1999 paper

Mortgage
plot(Mortgage)
MRT <- MackChainLadder(Mortgage, tail=1.05, tail.sigma=71, tail.se=0.02, est.sigma="Mack")
MRT
plot(MRT, lattice=TRUE)
## For more examples see:

## Not run:
demo(MackChainLadder)
## End(Not run)
MCLpaid 31
MCLpaid Run off triangles of accumulated paid and incurred claims data.
Description
Run-off triangles based on a fire portfolio
Usage
data(MCLpaid)
data(MCLincurred)
Format
A matrix with 7 origin years and 7 development years.
Source
Gerhard Quarg and Thomas Mack. Munich Chain Ladder. Blatter DGVFM. 26, Munich, 2004.
Examples
MCLpaid
MCLincurred
op=par(mfrow=c(2,1))
plot(MCLpaid)
plot(MCLincurred)
par(op)
Mortgage Run off triangle of accumulated claims data
Description
Development triangle of a mortgage guarantee business
Usage
data(Mortgage)
Format
Source
Competition Presented at a London Market Actuaries Dinner, D.E.A. Sanders, 1990
32 Mse-methods
References
See table 4 in: Distribution-free Calculation of the Standard Error of Chain Ladder Reserve Esti-
mates, Thomas Mack, 1993, ASTIN Bulletin 23, 213 - 225
Examples
Mortgage
Mortgage
plot(Mortgage)
plot(Mortgage, lattice=TRUE)
Mse-methods Methods for Generic Function Mse
Description
Mse is a generic function to calculate mean square error estimations in the chain ladder framework.
Usage
Mse(ModelFit, FullTriangles, ...)
## S4 method for signature ’GMCLFit,triangles’

Mse(ModelFit, FullTriangles, ...)
## S4 method for signature ’MCLFit,triangles’
Mse(ModelFit, FullTriangles, mse.method="Mack", ...)
Arguments
ModelFit An object of class "GMCLFit" or "MCLFit".
FullTriangles An object of class "triangles". Should be the output from a call of predict.
mse.method Character strings that specify the MSE estimation method. Only works for
"MCLFit". Use "Mack" for the generazliation of the Mack (1993) approach, and
"Independence" for the conditional resampling approach in Merz and Wuthrich
(2008).
... Currently not used.
Details
These functions calculate the conditional mean square errors using the recursive formulas in Zhang
(2010), which is a generalization of the Mack (1993, 1999) formulas. In the GMCL model, the
conditional mean square error for single accident years and aggregated accident years are calcualted
as:
0
ˆ Ŷi,k+1 |D) = B̂k mse(
mse( ˆ Ŷi,k |D)B̂k + (Ŷi,k ⊗ I)Σ̂Bk (Ŷi,k ⊗ I) + Σ̂ik .
Mse-methods 33
I
X I
X I
X I
X I
X
0
mse(
ˆ Ŷi,k+1 |D) = B̂k mse(
ˆ Ŷi,k |D)B̂k +( Ŷi,k ⊗I)Σ̂Bk ( Ŷi,k ⊗I)+ Σ̂ik .
i=ak i=ak +1 i=ak i=ak i=ak
In the MCL model, the conditional mean square error from Merz and Wuthrich (2008) is also
available, which can be shown to be equivalent as the following:
ˆ Ŷi,k+1 |D) = (β̂k β̂k0 ) mse(

mse( 0
ˆ Ŷi,k |D) + Σ̂βk (Ŷi,k Ŷi,k ˆ E (Ŷi,k |D).
) + Σ̂ik + Σ̂βk mse
I
X I
X I
X I
X I
X I
X
mse(
ˆ Ŷi,k+1 |D) = (β̂k β̂k0 ) ˆ Ŷi,k |D)+Σ̂βk (
mse( Ŷi,k 0
Ŷi,k )+ Σ̂ik +Σ̂βk ˆ E (Ŷi,k |D).
mse
i=ak i=ak +1 i=ak i=ak i=ak i=ak
ˆ E (Ŷi,k |D)in the above

For the Mack approach in the MCL model, the cross-product term Σ̂βk mse
two formulas will drop out.
Value
Mse returns an object of class "MultiChainLadderMse" that has the following elements:
mse.ay condtional mse for each accdient year

mse.ay.est conditional estimation mse for each accdient year
mse.ay.proc conditional process mse for each accdient year
mse.total condtional mse for aggregated accdient years
mse.total.est conditional estimation mse for aggregated accdient years
mse.total.proc conditional process mse for aggregated accdient years
FullTriangles completed triangles
Author(s)
References
Zhang Y (2010). A general multivariate chain ladder model.Insurance: Mathematics and Eco-
nomics, 46, pp. 588-599.
Zhang Y (2010). Prediction error of the general multivariate chain ladder model.
See Also
34 MultiChainLadder
MultiChainLadder Multivariate Chain Ladder Models
Description
The MultiChainLadder implements multivariate methods within the chain ladder framework to fore-
cast reserves or IBNR (Incurred But Not Reported) claims based on several cumulative claims de-
velopment triangles simultaneously. It fits development models that reflect both contemporaneous
correlations and structural relationship, and estimates the conditional Mean Square Errors (MSE).
Usage
MultiChainLadder(Triangles,
fit.method = "SUR",
delta = 1,
int = NULL,
restrict.regMat = NULL,
extrap = TRUE,
mse.method = "Mack",
model = "MCL", ...)
Arguments
Triangles a list of cumulative claims triangles.
fit.method method to estimate the development parameters. Default: "SUR", i.e. seemingly
unrelated regressions.
−δ/2 −δ/2
delta parameter for weights. Used to determine the covariance structure D(Yi,k )Σk D(Yi,k ).
It defaults to 1.
int indicator of which periods have intercepts. This only works for GMCL. Default
NULL means no intercept. Otherwise, specify a numeric vector.
restrict.regMat
a list of matrix specifying parameter restriction matrix for each period. This
only works for GMCL. Default NULL means no restriction. See systemfit
extrap logical. Whether to use Mack’s extrapolation method for the last period to get
the variance component estimation. It only works for model="MCL". If the data
are trapezoids, it is set to be FALSE automatically and a warning message is
given.
mse.method method to estimate the mean square error. Could be either Mack or Independence,
multivariate generalization of the Mack formulas and the conditional resampling
approach, respectively.
model structure of the model to be fitted. Either MCL or GMCL. See details.
... arguments passed to systemfit.
MultiChainLadder 35
Details
This function fits the multivariate models within the chain ladder framework. Corresponding to
the model argument, there are two major models that are incorporated into this function. One
is the Multivariate Chain Ladder (MCL) model proposed by Prohl and Schmidt (2005), which is
characterized by a diagonal development matrix, allowing multiple lines to be developed together
while reflecting the correlations among lines. The other is a natural generalization of the MCL
model, the General Multivariate Chain Ladder (GMCL) model proposed by Zhang (2010), which
has a non-diagonal development matrix and intercepts, and can be used to develop structurally
related triangles, such as paid and incurred or paid and case reserve, as well as contemporaneously
related ones. The MCL model is a sub-model of GMCL, but it is programmed separately because:
a) its stand-alone importance; b) different MSE methods are only available for the MCL model; c)
extrapolation is not allowed for GMCL.
Some technical details about the GMCL model. Assume N triangles are available. Denote Yi,k =
(1) (N )
(Yi,k , . . . , Yi,k ) as an N × 1 vector of cumulative losses at accident year i and development year
k where (n) refers to the n-th triangle. The GMCL model in development period k is:
Yi,k+1 = Ak + Bk · Yi,k + i,k ,
where Ak is a column of intercepts and Bk is the usual development matrix. By default, MultiChainLadder
sets Ak to be zero, but one can specify a model with intercepts using the int argument. Assump-
tions for this model are:
E(i,k |Yi,1 , . . . , Yi,I+1−k ) = 0.
−δ/2 −δ/2
cov(i,k |Yi,1 , . . . , Yi,I+1−k ) = Σi,k = D(Yi,k )Σk D(Yi,k ).
losses of different accident years are independent.
i,k are symmetrically distributed.
The GMCL model is very flexible since different parameter restrictions can be specified. It will be
equivalent to the MCL model if the model does not have intercepts and the development matrix is
restricted to be diagonal. When applied to paid and incurred triangles, it can reflect the development
relationship between the two triangles, as described by Quarg and Mack (2004). The full bivariate
model is identical to the "double regression" model described by Mack (2003), which is argued by
him to be equivalent to the Munich Chain Ladder (MuCL) model. GMCL with intercepts can also
help improve model adequacy as described by Barnett and Zehnwirth (2000).
Currently the model GMCL can only work for trapezoid data, and it only allows for estimation method
mse.method="Mack", while the model MCL allows extrapolation and the mse method that assumes
independence among estimated parameters. The model MCL under estimation method "OLS" will
be equivalent to separate chain ladders (SCL). When one triangle is specified (as a list), MCL is
equivalent to MackChainLadder.
GMCL allows different model structures to be specified across the development periods. This is usu-
ally achieved through the combination of the int and restrict.regMat arguments. int indicates
which periods will have intercepts, and restrict.regMat allows different parameter restrictions
to be specified in a list.
In using the multivariate method, one often specifies separate chain ladder for later periods to sta-
bilize the estimation. In this case, one can use "[", defined for class triangles to split the input
data, and use the MultiChainLadder to fit two models, either MCL or GMCL, and join them together
36 MultiChainLadder
using Join2Fits, which creates an object of class MCLFit or GMCLFit. Then methods of predict
and Mse can be called to produce predictions and mean square errors. The function JoinFitMse is
written to make it easy to construct an object of class MultiChainLadder, for which a couple of
methods are defined to produce statistical results and diagonostic plots.
Value
MultiChainLadder returns an object of class MultiChainLadder with the following slots:
model model structure used, either MCL or GMCL
Triangles input triangles of cumulative claims, converted to class triangles
models fitted models for each development period, output from the call of systemfit
coefficients estimated coefficients from systemfit. They are put into the matrix format for
GMCL
coefCov estimated variance-covariance matrix returned by systemfit
residCov estimated residual covariance matrix returned by systemfit
fit.method estimation method
delta value of delta
mse.ay mean square error matrix for each accident year
mse.ay.est estimation error matrix for each accident year
mse.ay.proc process error matrix for each accident year
mse.total mean square error matrix for all accident years combined
mse.total.est estimation error matrix for all accident years combined
mse.total.proc process error matrix for all accident years combined
FullTriangles forecasted full triangles of class triangles
int intercept indicators
Author(s)
References
Buchwalder M, Buhlmann H, Merz M, Wuthrich M.V (2006). The mean square error of prediction
in the chain ladder reserving method (Mack and Murphy revisited), ASTIN Bulletin, 36(2), 521-
542.
Prohl C, Schmidt K.D (2005). Multivariate chain-ladder, Dresdner Schriften zur Versicherungs-
mathematik.
Mack T (1993). Distribution-free calculation of the standard error, ASTIN Bulletin, 23, No.2.
Mack T (1999). The standard error of chain ladder reserve estimates: recursive calculation and
inclusion of a tail factor, ASTIN Bulletin, 29, No.2, 361-366.
Merz M, Wuthrich M (2008). Prediction error of the multivariate chain ladder reserving method,
North American Actuarial Journal, 12, No.2, 175-197.
Zhang Y (2010). A general multivariate chain ladder model.Insurance: Mathematics and Eco-
nomics, 46, pp. 588-599.
Zhang Y (2010). Prediction error of the general multivariate chain ladder model.
MultiChainLadder 37
See Also
See also MackChainLadder, MunichChainLadder, triangles, MultiChainLadder, summary,MultiChainLadder-
method and plot,MultiChainLadder,missing-method.
Examples
# This shows that MCL under "OLS" applied to one triangle

# is equivalent to MackChainLadder using the Mack extrapolation
data(GenIns)
uni1 <- MackChainLadder(GenIns,est.sigma="Mack")

uni2 <- MultiChainLadder(list(GenIns),
fit.method="OLS")
summary(uni1)
summary(uni2)
# show plots
## Not run:
par(mfrow=c(2,2))
plot(uni2,which.plot=1:4)
plot(uni2,which.plot=5)
## End(Not run)
# This illustrates the use of the "Independence" assumption in

# calculating the Mse, which is equivalent to the result in Buchwalder et al. (2006)
fit.bbmw <- MultiChainLadder(list(GenIns),

fit.method="OLS",
mse.method="Independence")
fit.bbmw
# The following shows the inclusion of intercepts for years 1:7

auto <- as(auto,"triangles")
da1 <- auto[,1:7]

da2 <- auto[,7:10]
coefr <- matrix(0,12,6)

pos=cbind(c(1,2,5,7,9,12),1:6)
coefr[pos] <- 1 #coefficient restriction matrix
int=1:6 # specify which periods need intercepts
restrict.regMat <- c(rep(list(coefr),6),rep(list(NULL),3))
fit1<-MultiChainLadder(da1,"SUR",
int=int,
restrict.regMat=restrict.regMat,
model="GMCL")
fit2<-MultiChainLadder(da2,"OLS")
38 MultiChainLadder-class
fit <- Join2Fits(fit1,fit2)

pred <- predict(fit)
mse <- Mse(fit,pred)
fit.int <- JoinFitMse(fit,mse)
## summary statistics
summary(fit.int,portfolio="1+3")@report.summary[[4]]
## Not run:
### residual plots
par(mfrow=c(2,3))
plot(fit.int,which.plot=3:4)
## End(Not run)
# To reproduce results in Zhang (2010) and see more examples, use:

## Not run:
demo(MultiChainLadder)
## End(Not run)
MultiChainLadder-class
Class "MultiChainLadder" of Multivariate Chain Ladder Results
Description
This class includes the first and second moment estimation result using the multivariate reserving
methods in chain ladder. Several primitive methods and statistical methods are also created to
facilitate further analysis.
Objects from the Class

Objects can be created by calls of the form new("MultiChainLadder", ...), or they could also
be a result of calls from MultiChainLadder or JoinFitMse.
Slots
model: Object of class "character". Either "MCL" or "GMCL".
Triangles: Object of class "triangles". Input triangles.
models: Object of class "list". Fitted regression models using systemfit.
coefficients: Object of class "list". Estiamted regression coefficients.
coefCov: Object of class "list". Estimated variance-covariance matrix of coefficients.
residCov: Object of class "list". Estimated residual covariance matrix.
fit.method: Object of class "character". Could be values of "SUR" or "OLS".
delta: Object of class "numeric". Parameter for weights.
MultiChainLadder-class 39
int: Object of class "NullNum". Indicator of which peroids have intercepts.

mse.ay: Object of class "matrix". Conditional mse for each accdient year.
mse.ay.est: Object of class "matrix". Conditional estimation mse for each accdient year.
mse.ay.proc: Object of class "matrix". Conditional process mse for each accdient year.
mse.total: Object of class "matrix". Conditional mse for aggregated accdient years.
mse.total.est: Object of class "matrix". Conditional estimation mse for aggregated accdient
years.
mse.total.proc: Object of class "matrix". Conditional process mse for aggregated accdient
years.
FullTriangles: Object of class "triangles". Completed triangles.
restrict.regMat: Object of class "NullList"
Extends
Class "MultiChainLadderFit", directly. Class "MultiChainLadderMse", directly.
Methods
$ signature(x = "MultiChainLadder"): Method for primitive function "$". It extracts a slot of
x with a specified slot name, just as in list.
[[ signature(x = "MultiChainLadder", i = "numeric", j = "missing"): Method for
primitive function "[[". It extracts the i-th slot of a "MultiChainLadder" object, just as in
list. i could be a vetor.
[[ signature(x = "MultiChainLadder", i = "character", j = "missing"): Method for
primitive function "[[". It extracts the slots of a "MultiChainLadder" object with names in
i, just as in list. i could be a vetor.
coef signature(object = "MultiChainLadder"): Method for function coef, to extract the
estimated development matrix. The output is a list.
fitted.values signature(object = "MultiChainLadder"): Method for function fitted.values,
to calculate the fitted values in the orignal triangles. Note that the return value is a list of fitted
δ/2
valued based on the orignal scale, not the model scale which is first divided by Yi,k .
fitted signature(object = "MultiChainLadder"): Same as fitted.values in the above.
names signature(x = "MultiChainLadder"): Method for function names, which returns the
slot names of a "MultiChainLadder" object.
plot signature(x = "MultiChainLadder", y = "missing"): See plot,MultiChainLadder,missing-
method.
residCov signature(object = "MultiChainLadder"): S4 generic function and method to ex-
tract residual covariance from a "MultiChainLadder" object.
residCor signature(object = "MultiChainLadder"): S4 generic function and method to ex-
tract residual correlation from a "MultiChainLadder" object.
residuals signature(object = "MultiChainLadder"): Method for function residuals, to ex-
tract residuals from a system of regression equations. These residuals are based on model
scale, and will not be equivalent to those on the original scale if δ is not set to be 0. One
should use rstandard instead, which is independent of the scale.
40 MultiChainLadderFit-class
resid signature(object = "MultiChainLadder"): Same as residuals.

rstandard signature(model = "MultiChainLadder"): S4 generic function and method to ex-
tract standardized residuals from a "MultiChainLadder" object.
show signature(object = "MultiChainLadder"): Method for show.
summary signature(object = "MultiChainLadder"): See summary,MultiChainLadder-
method.
vcov signature(object = "MultiChainLadder"): Method for function vcov, to extract the
variance-covariance matrix of a "MultiChainLadder" object. Note that the result is a list of
Bcov, that is the variance-covariance matrix of the vectorized B.
Author(s)
See Also
See also MultiChainLadder,summary,MultiChainLadder-method and plot,MultiChainLadder,missing-
method.
Examples
# example for class "MultiChainLadder"
data(liab)
fit.liab <- MultiChainLadder(Triangles = liab)
fit.liab
names(fit.liab)
fit.liab[[1]]
fit.liab$model
fit.liab@model
do.call("rbind",coef(fit.liab))
vcov(fit.liab)[[1]]
residCov(fit.liab)[[1]]
head(do.call("rbind",rstandard(fit.liab)))
MultiChainLadderFit-class
Class "MultiChainLadderFit", "MCLFit" and "GMCLFit"
Description
"MultiChainLadderFit" is a virtual class for the fitted models in the multivariate chain ladder re-
serving framework, "MCLFit" is a result from the interal call .FitMCL to store results in model
MCL and "GMCLFit" is a result from the interal call .FitGMCL to store results in model GMCL. The
two classes "MCLFit" and "GMCLFit" differ only in the presentation of Bk and ΣBk , and different
methods of Mse and predict will be dispatched according to these classes.
MultiChainLadderFit-class 41

"MultiChainLadderFit" is a virtual Class: No objects may be created from it. For "MCLFit" and
"GMCLFit", objects can be created by calls of the form new("MCLFit", ...) and new("GMCLFit",
...) respectively.
Slots
Triangles: Object of class "triangles"
models: Object of class "list"
B: Object of class "list"
Bcov: Object of class "list"
ecov: Object of class "list"
fit.method: Object of class "character"
delta: Object of class "numeric"
int: Object of class "NullNum"
restrict.regMat: Object of class "NullList"
Extends
"MCLFit" and "GMCLFit" extends class "MultiChainLadderFit", directly.
Methods
No methods defined with class "MultiChainLadderFit" in the signature.
For "MCLFit", the following methods are defined:
Mse signature(ModelFit = "MCLFit", FullTriangles = "triangles"): Calculate Mse
estimations.
predict signature(object = "MCLFit"): Predict ultimate losses and complete the triangles.
The output is an object of class "triangles".
For "GMCLFit", the following methods are defined:
Mse signature(ModelFit = "GMCLFit", FullTriangles = "triangles"): Calculate Mse
estimations.
predict signature(object = "GMCLFit"): Predict ultimate losses and complete the triangles.
The output is an object of class "triangles".
Author(s)
See Also
See also Mse.
Examples
showClass("MultiChainLadderFit")
42 MultiChainLadderMse-class
MultiChainLadderMse-class
Class "MultiChainLadderMse"
Description
This class is used to define the structure in storing the MSE results.
Objects can be created by calls of the form new("MultiChainLadderMse", ...), or as a result of

a call to Mse.
Slots
mse.ay: Object of class "matrix"

mse.ay.est: Object of class "matrix"
mse.ay.proc: Object of class "matrix"
mse.total: Object of class "matrix"
mse.total.est: Object of class "matrix"
mse.total.proc: Object of class "matrix"
FullTriangles: Object of class "triangles"
Methods
No methods defined with class "MultiChainLadderMse" in the signature.
Author(s)
See Also
See Also MultiChainLadder and Mse.
Examples
showClass("MultiChainLadderMse")
MultiChainLadderSummary-class 43
MultiChainLadderSummary-class
Class "MultiChainLadderSummary"
Description
This class stores the summary statistics from a "MultiChainLadder" object. These summary statis-
tics include both model summary and report summary.
Objects can be created by calls of the form new("MultiChainLadderSummary", ...), or a call

from summary.
Slots
Triangles: Object of class "triangles"

FullTriangles: Object of class "triangles"
S.E.Full: Object of class "list"
S.E.Est.Full: Object of class "list"
S.E.Proc.Full: Object of class "list"
Ultimate: Object of class "matrix"
IBNR: Object of class "matrix"
S.E.Ult: Object of class "matrix"
S.E.Est.Ult: Object of class "matrix"
S.E.Proc.Ult: Object of class "matrix"
report.summary: Object of class "list"
coefficients: Object of class "list"
coefCov: Object of class "list"
residCov: Object of class "list"
rstandard: Object of class "matrix"
fitted.values: Object of class "matrix"
residCor: Object of class "matrix"
model.summary: Object of class "matrix"
portfolio: Object of class "NullChar"
44 MunichChainLadder
Methods
$ signature(x = "MultiChainLadderSummary"): Method for primitive function "$". It extracts

a slot of x with a specified slot name, just as in list.
[[ signature(x = "MultiChainLadderSummary", i = "numeric", j = "missing"): Method
for primitive function "[[". It extracts the i-th slot of a "MultiChainLadder" object, just as
in list. i could be a vetor.
[[ signature(x = "MultiChainLadderSummary", i = "character", j = "missing"):
Method for primitive function "[[". It extracts the slots of a "MultiChainLadder" object
with names in i, just as in list. i could be a vetor.
names signature(x = "MultiChainLadderSummary"): Method for function names, which re-
turns the slot names of a "MultiChainLadder" object.
show signature(object = "MultiChainLadderSummary"): Method for show.
Author(s)
See Also
See also summary,MultiChainLadder-method, MultiChainLadder-class
Examples
showClass("MultiChainLadderSummary")
MunichChainLadder Munich-chain-ladder Model
Description
The Munich-chain-ladder model forecasts ultimate claims based on a cumulative paid and incurred
claims triangle. The model assumes that the Mack-chain-ladder model is applicable to the paid and
incurred claims triangle, see MackChainLadder.
Usage
MunichChainLadder(Paid, Incurred,
est.sigmaP = "log-linear", est.sigmaI = "log-linear",
tailP=FALSE, tailI=FALSE)
MunichChainLadder 45
Arguments
Paid cumulative paid claims triangle. Assume columns are the development period,
use transpose otherwise. A (mxn)-matrix Pik which is filled for k ≤ n + 1 −
i; i = 1, . . . , m; m ≥ n
Incurred cumulative incurred claims triangle. Assume columns are the development pe-
riod, use transpose otherwise. A (mxn)-matrix Iik which is filled for k ≤
n + 1 − i; i = 1, . . . , m, m ≥ n
est.sigmaP defines how sigman−1 for the Paid triangle is estimated, see est.sigma in
MackChainLadder for more details, as est.sigmaP gets passed on to MackChainLadder
est.sigmaI defines how sigman−1 for the Incurred triangle is estimated, see est.sigma in
MackChainLadder for more details, as est.sigmaI is passed on to MackChainLadder
tailP defines how the tail of the Paid triangle is estimated and is passed on to MackChainLadder,
see tail just there.
tailI defines how the tail of the Incurred triangle is estimated and is passed on to
MackChainLadder, see tail just there.
Value
MunichChainLadder returns a list with the following elements
call matched call

Paid input paid triangle
Incurred input incurred triangle
MCLPaid Munich-chain-ladder forecasted full triangle on paid data
MCLIncurred Munich-chain-ladder forecasted full triangle on incurred data
MackPaid Mack-chain-ladder output of the paid triangle
MackIncurred Mack-chain-ladder output of the incurred triangle
PaidResiduals paid residuals
IncurredResiduals
incurred residuals
QResiduals paid/incurred residuals
QinverseResiduals
incurred/paid residuals
lambdaP dependency coefficient between paid chain ladder age-to-age factors and in-
curred/paid age-to-age factors
lambdaI dependency coefficient between incurred chain ladder ratios and paid/incurred
ratios
qinverse.f chain-ladder-link age-to-age factors of the incurred/paid triangle
rhoP.sigma estimated conditional deviation around the paid/incurred age-to-age factors
q.f chain-ladder age-to-age factors of the paid/incurred triangle
rhoI.sigma estimated conditional deviation around the incurred/paid age-to-age factors
46 MunichChainLadder
Author(s)
References
Gerhard Quarg and Thomas Mack. Munich Chain Ladder. Blatter DGVFM 26, Munich, 2004.
See Also
See also summary.MunichChainLadder, plot.MunichChainLadder , MackChainLadder
Examples
MCLpaid
MCLincurred
op <- par(mfrow=c(1,2))
plot(MCLpaid)
plot(MCLincurred)
par(op)
# Following the example in Quarg’s (2004) paper:

MCL <- MunichChainLadder(MCLpaid, MCLincurred, est.sigmaP=0.1, est.sigmaI=0.1)
MCL
plot(MCL)
# You can access the standard chain ladder (Mack) output via
MCL$MackPaid
MCL$MackIncurred
# Input triangles section 3.3.1

MCL$Paid
MCL$Incurred
# Parameters from section 3.3.2
# Standard chain ladder age-to-age factors
MCL$MackPaid$f
MCL$MackIncurred$f
MCL$MackPaid$sigma
MCL$MackIncurred$sigma
# Check Mack’s assumptions graphically
plot(MCL$MackPaid)
plot(MCL$MackIncurred)
MCL$q.f
MCL$rhoP.sigma
MCL$rhoI.sigma
MCL$PaidResiduals
MCL$IncurredResiduals
MCL$QinverseResiduals
MCL$QResiduals
NullNum-class 47
MCL$lambdaP
MCL$lambdaI
# Section 3.3.3 Results
MCL$MCLPaid
MCL$MCLIncurred
NullNum-class Class "NullNum", "NullChar" and "NullList"
Description
Virtual class for c("null", "numeric"), c("null","character" and c("null","list"
A virtual Class: No objects may be created from it.
Methods
No methods defined with class "NullNum" in the signature.
plot-MultiChainLadder Methods for Function plot
Description
Methods for function plot to produce different diagonostic plots for an object of class "MultiChain-
Ladder".
Usage
## S4 method for signature ’MultiChainLadder,missing’

plot(x, y, which.plot=1:4,
which.triangle=NULL,
main=NULL,
portfolio=NULL,
lowess=TRUE,
legend.cex=0.75,...)
48 plot-MultiChainLadder
Arguments
x An object of class "MultiChainLadder".

y "missing"
which.plot This specifies which type of plot is desired. Its range is 1:5, but defaults to 1:4.
"1" is the barplot of observed losses and predicted IBNR stacked and MSE pre-
dictions as error bars; "2" is a trajectory plot of the development pattern; "3"
is the residual plot of standardized residuals against the fitted values; "4" is the
Normal-QQ plot of the standardized residuals. "5" is the "xyplot" of develop-
ment with confidence intervals for each accident year. Note that "3" and "4" are
not available for portfolio.
which.triangle This specifies which triangles are to be plotted. Default value is NULL, where
all triangles plus the portfolio result will be plotted.
main It should be a list of titles for each plot. If not supplied, use default titles.
portfolio It specifies which triangles are to be summed as the portfolio, to be passed on to
summary.
lowess Logical. If TRUE, smoothing lines will be added on residual plots.
legend.cex plotting parameter to be passes on to cex in legend if which.plot=1.
... optional graphical arguments.
See Also
Examples
## Not run:
data(liab)
fit.liab <- MultiChainLadder(liab)
# generate diagonostic plots

par(mfcol=(c(3,2)))
plot(fit.liab,which.plot=1:2)
par(mfrow=(c(2,2)))
plot(fit.liab,which.plot=3:4)
plot(fit.liab,which.triangle=1,which.plot=5)
graphics.off()
## End(Not run)
plot.BootChainLadder 49
plot.BootChainLadder Plot method for a BootChainLadder object
Description
plot.BootChainLadder, a method to plot the output of BootChainLadder. It is designed to give a
quick overview of a BootChainLadder object and to check the model assumptions.
Usage
## S3 method for class ’BootChainLadder’
plot(x, mfrow=c(2,2), title=NULL, log=FALSE, ...)
Arguments
x output from BootChainLadder
mfrow see par
title see title
log logical. If TRUE the y-axes of the ’latest incremental actual vs. simulated’ plot
will be on a log-scale
... optional arguments. See plot.default for more details.
Details
plot.BootChainLadder shows four graphs, starting with a histogram of the total simulated IBNRs
over all origin periods, including a rug plot; a plot of the empirical cumulative distribution of the
total IBNRs over all origin periods; a box-whisker plot of simulated ultimate claims costs against
origin periods; and a box-whisker plot of simulated incremental claims cost for the latest available
calendar period against actual incremental claims of the same period. In the last plot the simulated
data should follow the same trend as the actual data, otherwise the original data might have some
intrinsic trends which are not reflected in the model.
Note
The box-whisker plot of latest actual incremental claims against simulated claims follows is based
on ideas from Barnett and Zehnwirth in: Barnett and Zehnwirth. The need for diagnostic assessment
of bootstrap predictive models, Insureware technical report. 2007
Author(s)
Markus Gesmann
See Also
See also BootChainLadder
50 plot.clark
Examples
B <- BootChainLadder(RAA)
plot(B)
plot(B, log=TRUE)
plot.clark Plot Clark method residuals
Description
Function to plot the residuals of the Clark LDF and Cape Cod methods.
Usage
## S3 method for class ’clark’
plot(x, ...)
Arguments
x object resulting from a run of the ClarkLDF or ClarkCapeCod functions.
... not used.
Details
If Clark’s model is appropriate for the actual data, then the standardized residuals should appear
as independent standard normal random variables. This function creates four plots of standardized
residuals on a single page:
1. By origin
2. By age
3. By fitted value
4. Normal Q-Q plot with results of Shapiro-Wilk test
If the model is appropriate then there should not appear to be any trend in the standardized residuals
or any systematic differences in the spread about the line y = 0. The Shapiro-Wilk p-value shown
in the fourth plot gives an indication of how closely the standardized residuals can be considered
"draws" from a standard normal random variable.
Author(s)
Daniel Murphy
References
proach", Casualty Actuarial Society Forum, Fall, 2003
plot.MackChainLadder 51
See Also
ClarkLDF, ClarkCapeCod
Examples
X <- GenIns
Y <- ClarkLDF(GenIns, maxage=Inf, G="weibull")
plot(Y) # One obvious outlier, shapiro test flunked
X[4,4] <- NA # remove the outlier
Z <- ClarkLDF(GenIns, maxage=Inf, G="weibull")
plot(Z) # Q-Q plot looks good
plot.MackChainLadder Plot method for a MackChainLadder object
Description
plot.MackChainLadder, a method to plot the output of MackChainLadder. It is designed to give a
quick overview of a MackChainLadder object and to check Mack’s model assumptions.
Usage
## S3 method for class ’MackChainLadder’
plot(x, mfrow=c(3,2), title=NULL, lattice=FALSE,...)
Arguments
x output from MackChainLadder
mfrow see par
title see title
lattice logical. Default is set to FALSE and plots as described in the details section are
produced. If lattice=TRUE, the function xyplot of the lattice package is used
to plot developments by origin period in different panels, plus Mack’s S.E.
Details
plot.MackChainLadder shows six graphs, starting from the top left with a stacked bar-chart of the
latest claims position plus IBNR and Mack’s standard error by origin period; next right to it is a
plot of the forecasted development patterns for all origin periods (numbered, starting with 1 for the
oldest origin period), and 4 residual plots. The residual plots show the standardised residuals against
fitted values, origin period, calendar period and development period. All residual plot should show
no patterns or directions for Mack’s method to be applicable. Pattern in any direction can be the
result of trends and should be further investigated, see Barnett and Zehnwirth. Best estimates for
reserves. Proceedings of the CAS, LXXXVI I(167), November 2000. for more details on trends.
52 plot.MunichChainLadder
Author(s)
Markus Gesmann
See Also
See Also MackChainLadder, residuals.MackChainLadder
Examples
plot(MackChainLadder(RAA))
plot.MunichChainLadder
Plot method for a MunichChainLadder object
Description
plot.MunichChainLadder, a method to plot the output of MunichChainLadder object. It is de-
signed to give a quick overview of a MunichChainLadder object and to check the correlation be-
tween the paid and incurred residuals.
Usage
## S3 method for class ’MunichChainLadder’

plot(x, mfrow=c(2,2), title=NULL, ...)
Arguments
x output from MunichChainLadder
mfrow see par
title see title
Details
plot.MunichChainLadder shows four plots, starting from the top left with a barchart of forecasted
ultimate claims costs by Munich-chain-ladder (MCL) on paid and incurred data by origin period; the
barchart next to it compares the ratio of forecasted ultimate claims cost on paid and incurred data
based on the Mack-chain-ladder and Munich-chain-ladder methods; the two residual plots at the
bottom show the correlation of (incurred/paid)-chain-ladder factors against the paid-chain-ladder
factors and the correlation of (paid/incurred)-chain-ladder factors against the incurred-chain-ladder
factors.
predict.TriangleModel 53
Note
The design of the plots follows those in Quarg’s (2004) paper: Gerhard Quarg and Thomas Mack.
Munich Chain Ladder. Blatter DGVFM 26, Munich, 2004.
Author(s)
Markus Gesmann
See Also
See also MunichChainLadder
Examples
M <- MunichChainLadder(MCLpaid, MCLincurred)
plot(M)
predict.TriangleModel Prediction of a claims triangle
Description
The function is internally used by MackChainLadder to forecast future claims.
Usage
## S3 method for class ’TriangleModel’
predict(object,...)
## S3 method for class ’ChainLadder’
predict(object,...)
Arguments
object a list with two items: Models, Triangle
Models list of linear models for each development period
Triangle input triangle to forecast
... not in use
Value
FullTriangle forecasted claims triangle
Author(s)
Markus Gesmann
54 print.ata
See Also
See also chainladder, MackChainLadder
Examples
RAA
CL <- chainladder(RAA)
CL
predict(CL)
print.ata Print Age-to-Age factors
Description
Function to print the results of a call to the ata function.
Usage
## S3 method for class ’ata’
print(x, ...)
Arguments
x object resulting from a call to the ata function
... further arguments passed to print
Details
print.ata simply prints summary.ata.
Value
A summary.ata matrix, invisibly.
Author(s)
Daniel Murphy
See Also
ata and summary.ata
print.clark 55
Examples
x <- ata(GenIns)
## Print ata factors rounded to 3 decimal places, the summary.ata default

print(x)
## Round to 4 decimal places and print cells corresponding

## to future observations as blanks.
print(summary(x, digits=4), na.print="")
print.clark Print results of Clark methods
Description
Functions to print the results of the ClarkLDF and ClarkCapeCod methods.
Usage
## S3 method for class ’ClarkLDF’

print(x, Amountdigits=0, LDFdigits=3, CVdigits=3,
row.names = FALSE, ...)
## S3 method for class ’ClarkCapeCod’

print(x, Amountdigits=0, ELRdigits=3, Gdigits=4, CVdigits=3,
row.names = FALSE, ...)
Arguments
x object resulting from a run of the ClarkLDF or ClarkCapeCod function.
Amountdigits number of digits to display to the right of the decimal point for "amount" columns
LDFdigits number of digits to display to the right of the decimal point for the loss devel-
opment factor (LDF) column
CVdigits number of digits to display to the right of the decimal point for the coefficient of
variation (CV) column
ELRdigits number of digits to display to the right of the decimal point for the expected loss
ratio (ELR) column
Gdigits number of digits to display to the right of the decimal point for the "growth
function factor" column; default of 4 conforms with the table on pp. 67, 68 of
Clark’s paper
row.names logical (or character vector), indicating whether (or what) row names should be
printed (same as for print.data.frame)
... further arguments passed to print
56 qpaid
Details
Display the default information in "pretty format" resulting from a run of the "LDF Method" or
"Cape Cod Method" – a "Development-type" exhibit for Clark’s "LDF Method," a "Bornhuetter-
Ferguson-type" exhibit for Clark’s "Cape Cod Method."
As usual, typing the name of such an object at the console invokes its print method.
Value
data.frames whose columns are the character representation of their respective summary.ClarkLDF
or summary.ClarkCapeCod data.frames.
Author(s)
Daniel Murphy
References
See Also
summary.ClarkLDF and summary.ClarkCapeCod
Examples
X <- GenIns
y <- ClarkCapeCod(X, Premium=10000000+400000*0:9, maxage=240)
summary(y)
print(y) # (or simply ’y’) Same as summary(y) but with "pretty formats"
## Greater growth factors when projecting to infinite maximum age

ClarkCapeCod(X, Premium=10000000+400000*0:9, maxage=Inf)
qpaid Quarterly run off triangle of accumulated claims data
Description
Sample data to demonstrate how to work with triangles with a higher development period frequency
than origin period frequency
Usage
data(qpaid); data(qincurred)
RAA 57
Format
A matrix with 12 accident years and 45 development quarters of claims costs.
Source
Made up data for testing purpose
Examples
dim(qpaid)
dim(qincurred)
op=par(mfrow=c(1,2))
ymax <- max(c(qpaid,qincurred),na.rm=TRUE)*1.05
matplot(t(qpaid), type="l", main="Paid development",
xlab="Dev. quarter", ylab="$", ylim=c(0,ymax))
matplot(t(qincurred), type="l", main="Incurred development",
xlab="Dev. quarter", ylab="$", ylim=c(0,ymax))
par(op)
## MackChainLadder expects a quadratic matrix so let’s expand
## the triangle to a quarterly origin period.
n <- ncol(qpaid)
Paid <- matrix(NA, n, n)
Paid[seq(1,n,4),] <- qpaid
M <- MackChainLadder(Paid)
plot(M)
# We expand the incurred triangle in the same way

Incurred <- matrix(NA, n, n)
Incurred[seq(1,n,4),] <- qincurred
# With the expanded triangles we can apply MunichChainLadder

MunichChainLadder(Paid, Incurred)
# In the same way we can apply BootChainLadder

# We reduce the size of bootstrap replicates R from the default of 999 to 99 purely to reduce run time.
BootChainLadder(Paid, R=99)
RAA Run off triangle of accumulated claims data
Description
Run-off triangle of Automatic Factultative business in General Liability
Usage
data(RAA)
58 residCov
Format
Source
Historical Loss Development, Reinsurance Association of Ammerica (RAA), 1991, p.96
References
See Also: Which Stochastic Model is Underlying the Chain Ladder Method?, Thomas Mack, In-
surance Mathematics and Economics, 15, 2/3, pp133-138, 1994
P.D.England and R.J.Verrall, Stochastic Claims Reserving in General Insurance, British Actuarial
Journal, Vol. 8, pp443-544, 2002
Examples
RAA
plot(RAA)
plot(RAA, lattice=TRUE)
residCov Generic function for residCov and residCor
Description
residCov and residCov are a generic functions to extract residual covariance and residual correla-
tion from a system of fitted regressions respectively.
Usage
residCov(object,...)
residCor(object,...)
## S4 method for signature ’MultiChainLadder’

residCov(object,...)
residCor(object,...)
Arguments
object An object of class "MultiChainLadder".
... Currently not used.
Author(s)
residuals.MackChainLadder 59
See Also
residuals.MackChainLadder
Extract residuals of a MackChainLadder model
Description
Extract residuals of a MackChainLadder model by origin-, calendar- and development period.
Usage
residuals(object, ...)
Arguments
object output of MackChainLadder
... not in use
Value
The function returns a data.frame of residuals and standardised residuals by origin-, calendar- and
development period.
Author(s)
Markus Gesmann
See Also
See Also MackChainLadder
Examples
RAA
MCL=MackChainLadder(RAA)
MCL
residuals(MCL)
60 summary-methods
summary-methods Methods for Function summary
Description
Methods for function summary to calculate summary statistics from a "MultiChainLadder" object.
Usage

summary(object, portfolio=NULL,...)
Arguments
object object of class "MultiChainLadder"
portfolio character strings specifying which triangles to be summed up as portfolio.
... optional arguments to summary methods
Details
summary calculations the summary statistics for each triangle and the whole portfolio from portfolio.
portfolio defaults to the sum of all input triangles. It can also be specified as "i+j" format, which
means the sum of the i-th and j-th triangle as portfolio. For example, "1+3" means the sum of the
first and third triangle as portfolio.
Value
The summary function returns an object of class "MultiChainLadderSummary" that has the follow-
ing slots:
Triangles input triangles

FullTriangles predicted triangles
S.E.Full a list of prediction errors for each cell
S.E.Est.Full a list of estimation errors for each cell
S.E.Proc.Full a list of process errors for each cell
Ultimate predicted ultimate losses for each triangle and portfolio
Latest latest observed losses for each triangle and portfolio
IBNR predicted IBNR for each triangle and portfolio
S.E.Ult a matrix of prediction errors of ultimate losses for each triangle and portfolio
S.E.Est.Ult a matrix of estimation errors of ultimate losses for each triangle and portfolio
S.E.Proc.Ult a matrix of process errors of ultimate losses for each triangle and portfolio
report.summary summary statistics for each triangle and portfolio
summary.ata 61
coefficients estimated coefficients from systemfit. They are put into the matrix format for
GMCL
coefCov estimated variance-covariance matrix returned by systemfit
residCov estimated residual covariance matrix returned by systemfit
rstandard standardized residuals
fitted.values fitted.values
residCor residual correlation
model.summary summary statistics for the cofficients including p-values
portfolio how portfolio is calculated
Author(s)
See Also
See Also MultiChainLadder
Examples
data(GenIns)
fit.bbmw=MultiChainLadder(list(GenIns),fit.method="OLS", mse.method="Independence")
summary(fit.bbmw)
summary.ata Summary method for object of class ’ata’
Description
Summarize the age-to-age factors resulting from a call to the ata function.
Usage
## S3 method for class ’ata’
summary(object, digits=3, ...)
Arguments
object object resulting from a call to ata
digits integer indicating the number of decimal places for rounding the factors. The
default is 3. NULL indicates that rounding should take place.
... not used
62 summary.BootChainLadder
Details
A call to ata produces a matrix of age-to-age factors with two attributes – the simple and volume
weighted averages. summary.ata creates a new matrix with the averages appended as rows at the
bottom.
Value
A matrix.
Author(s)
Dan Murphy
See Also
See also ata and print.ata
Examples
y <- ata(RAA)
summary(y, digits=4)
summary.BootChainLadder
Methods for BootChainLadder objects
Description
summary, print, mean, and quantile methods for BootChainLadder objects
Usage
summary(object, probs=c(0.75,0.95), ...)

print(x, probs=c(0.75,0.95), ...)

quantile(x, probs=c(0.75, 0.95), na.rm = FALSE,
names = TRUE, type = 7,...)

mean(x, ...)

residuals(object, ...)
summary.BootChainLadder 63
Arguments
x, object output from BootChainLadder

probs numeric vector of probabilities with values in [0,1], see quantile for more help
na.rm logical; if true, any NA and NaN’s are removed from ’x’ before the quantiles are
computed, see quantile for more help
names logical; if true, the result has a names attribute. Set to FALSE for speedup with
many ’probs’, see quantile for more help
type an integer between 1 and 9 selecting one of the nine quantile algorithms detailed
below to be used, see quantile
... further arguments passed to or from other methods
Details
print.BootChainLadder calls summary.BootChainLadder and prints a formatted version of the

summary. residuals.BootChainLadder gives the residual triangle of the expected chain-ladder
minus the actual triangle back.
Value
summary.BootChainLadder, mean.BootChainLadder, and quantile.BootChainLadder, give a

list with two elements back:
ByOrigin data frame with summary/mean/quantile statistics by origin period

Totals data frame with total summary/mean/quantile statistics for all origin period
Author(s)
Markus Gesmann
See Also
See also BootChainLadder
Examples
B <- BootChainLadder(RAA, R=999, process.distr="gamma")
B
summary(B)
mean(B)
quantile(B, c(0.75,0.95,0.99, 0.995))
64 summary.clark
summary.clark Summary methods for Clark objects
Description
summary methods for ClarkLDF and ClarkCapeCod objects
Usage
## S3 method for class ’ClarkLDF’
summary(object, ...)
## S3 method for class ’ClarkCapeCod’

Arguments
object object resulting from a run of the ClarkLDF or ClarkCapeCod functions.
... not currently used
Details
summary.ClarkLDF returns a data.frame that holds the columns of a typical "Development-type"
exhibit.
summary.ClarkCapeCod returns a data.frame that holds the columns of a typical "Bornhuetter-
Ferguson-type" exhibit.
Value
summary.ClarkLDF and summary.ClarkCapeCod return data.frames whose columns are objects
of the appropriate mode (i.e., character for "Origin", otherwise numeric)
Author(s)
Dan Murphy
See Also
See also ClarkLDF
Examples
y <- ClarkLDF(RAA)
summary(y)
summary.MackChainLadder 65
summary.MackChainLadder
Summary and print function for Mack-chain-ladder
Description
summary and print methods for a MackChainLadder object
Usage


print(x, ...)
Arguments
x, object object of class "MackChainLadder"
... optional arguments to print or summary methods
Details
print.MackChainLadder calls summary.MackChainLadder and prints a formatted version of the
summary.
Value
summary.MackChainLadder gives a list of two elements back
ByOrigin data frame with Latest (latest actual claims costs), Dev.To.Date (chain-ladder
development to date), Ultimate (estimated ultimate claims cost), IBNR (esti-
mated IBNR), Mack.S.E (Mack’s estimation of the standard error of the IBNR),
and CV(IBNR) (Coefficient of Variance=Mack.S.E/IBNR)
Totals data frame of totals over all origin periods. The items follow the same naming
convention as in ByOrigin above
Author(s)
Markus Gesmann
See Also
See also MackChainLadder, plot.MackChainLadder
66 summary.MunichChainLadder
Examples
R <- MackChainLadder(RAA)
R
summary(R)
summary(R)$ByOrigin$Ultimate
summary.MunichChainLadder
Summary and print function for Munich-chain-ladder
Description
summary and print methods for a MunichChainLadder object
Usage

print(x, ...)
Arguments
x, object object of class "MunichChainLadder"
... optional arguments to print or summary methods
Details
print.MunichChainLadder calls summary.MunichChainLadder and prints a formatted version of
the summary.
Value
summary.MunichChainLadder gives a list of two elements back
ByOrigin data frame with Latest Paid (latest actual paid claims costs), Latest Incurred (lat-
est actual incurred claims position), Latest P/I Ratio (ratio of latest paid/incurred
claims), Ult. Paid (estimate ultimate claims cost based on the paid triangle), Ult.
Incurred (estimate ultimate claims cost based on the incurred triangle),Ult. P/I
Ratio (ratio of ultimate paid forecast / ultimate incurred forecast)
Totals data frame of totals over all origin periods. The items follow the same naming
convention as in ByOrigin above
Author(s)
Markus Gesmann
Table65 67
See Also
See also MunichChainLadder, plot.MunichChainLadder
Examples
M <- MunichChainLadder(MCLpaid, MCLincurred)
M
summary(M)
summary(M)$ByOrigin
Table65 Functions to Reproduce Clark’s Tables
Description
Print the tables on pages 64, 65, and 68 of Clark’s paper.
Usage
Table64(x)
Table65(x)
Table68(x)
Arguments
x an object resulting from ClarkLDF or ClarkCapeCod
Details
These exhibits give some of the details behind the calculations producing the estimates of future
values (a.k.a. "Reserves" in Clark’s paper). Table65 works for both the "LDF" and the "CapeCod"
methods. Table64 is specific to "LDF", Table68 to "CapeCod".
Value
A data.frame.
Author(s)
Daniel Murphy
References
68 triangle S3 Methods
Examples
Table65(ClarkLDF(GenIns, maxage=20))
Table64(ClarkLDF(GenIns, maxage=20))
X <- GenIns
Table65(ClarkCapeCod(X, Premium=10000000+400000*0:9, maxage=Inf))
Table68(ClarkCapeCod(X, Premium=10000000+400000*0:9, maxage=Inf))
triangle S3 Methods Generic functions for triangles
Description
Functions to ease the work with triangle shaped matrix data. A ’triangle’ is a matrix with some
generic functions. Triangles are usually stored in a ’long’ format in data bases. The function
as.triangle can transform a data.frame into a triangle shape.
Usage
## S3 method for class ’matrix’
as.triangle(Triangle,origin="origin", dev="dev", value="value",...)
## S3 method for class ’data.frame’
as.triangle(Triangle, origin="origin", dev="dev", value="value",...)
## S3 method for class ’triangle’
as.data.frame(x, row.names=NULL, optional, lob=NULL, na.rm=FALSE, ...)
as.triangle(Triangle, origin="origin", dev="dev", value="value",...)
## S3 method for class ’triangle’
plot(x, t = "b", xlab = "dev. period", ylab = NULL, lattice=FALSE, ...)
Arguments
Triangle a triangle
origin name of the origin period, default is "origin".
dev name of the development period, default is "dev".
value name of the value, default is "value".
row.names default is set to NULL an will merge origin and dev. period to create row names.
lob default is NULL. The idea is to use lob (line of business) as an additional column
to label a triangle in a long format, see the examples for more details.
optional not used
na.rm logical. Remove missing values?
x a matrix of class ’triangle’
xlab a label for the x axis, defaults to ’dev. period’
triangles-class 69
ylab a label for the y axis, defaults to NULL

lattice logical. If FALSE the function matplot is used to plot the developments of the
triangle in one graph, otherwise the xyplot function of the lattice package is
used, to plot developments of each origin period in a different panel.
t type, see plot.default
... arguments to be passed to other methods
Warning
Please note that for the function as.triangle the origin and dev. period columns have to be of type
numeric or a character which can be converted into numeric.
Author(s)
Markus Gesmann
Examples
GenIns
plot(GenIns)
## Convert long format into triangle

## Triangles are usually stored as ’long’ tables in data bases
head(GenInsLong)
as.triangle(GenInsLong, origin="accyear", dev="devyear", "incurred claims")
X <- as.data.frame(RAA)
head(X)
Y <- as.data.frame(RAA, lob="General Liability")

head(Y)
triangles-class S4 Class "triangles"
Description
This is a S4 class that has "list" in the data part. This class is created to facilitate validation and
extraction of data.

Objects can be created by calls of the form new("triangles", ...), or use as(...,"triangles"),
where ... is a "list".
70 triangles-class
Slots
.Data: Object of class "list"
Extends
Class "list", from data part. Class "vector", by class "list", distance 2.
Methods
Mse signature(ModelFit = "GMCLFit", FullTriangles = "triangles"): See Mse
Mse signature(ModelFit = "MCLFit", FullTriangles = "triangles"): See Mse
[ signature(x = "triangles", i = "missing", j = "numeric", drop = "logical"):
Method for primitive function "[" to subset certain columns. If drop=TRUE, rows composed of
all "NA"s are removed. Dimensions are not dropped.
[ signature(x = "triangles", i = "missing", j = "numeric", drop = "missing"):
Method for primitive function "[" to subset certain columns, where rows composed of all
"NA"s are removed. Dimensions are not dropped.
[ signature(x = "triangles", i = "numeric", j = "missing", drop = "logical"):
Method for primitive function "[" to subset certain rows. If drop=TRUE, columns composed of
all "NA"s are removed. Dimensions are not dropped.
[ signature(x = "triangles", i = "numeric", j = "missing", drop = "missing"):
Method for primitive function "[" to subset certain rows, where columns composed of all
"NA"s are removed. Dimensions are not dropped.
[ signature(x = "triangles", i = "numeric", j = "numeric", drop = "missing"):
Method for primitive function "[" to subset certain rows and columns. Dimensions are not
dropped.
[<- signature(x = "triangles", i = "numeric", j = "numeric", value = "list"):
Method for primitive function "[<-" to replace one cell in each triangle with values specified
in value.
coerce signature(from = "list", to = "triangles"): Method to construct a "triangles"
object from "list".
dim signature(x = "triangles"): Method to get the dimensions. The return value is a vector
of length 3, where the first element is the number of triangles, the sencond is the number of
accident years, and the third is the number of development years.
cbind2 signature(x = "triangles", y="missing"): Method to column bind all triangles using
cbind internally.
rbind2 signature(x = "triangles", y="missing"): Method to row bind all triangles using
rbind internally.
Author(s)
See Also
vcov.clark 71
Examples
data(auto)
# "coerce"
auto <- as(auto,"triangles") # transform "list" to be "triangles"
# method for "["

auto[,4:6,drop=FALSE] # rows of all NA’s not dropped
auto[,4:6] # drop rows of all NA’s
auto[8:10, ,drop=FALSE] #columns of all NA’s not dropped

auto[8:10, ] #columns of all NA’s dropped
auto[1:2,1]
# replacement method
auto[1:2,1] <- list(1,2,3)
auto[1,2]
dim(auto)
cbind2(auto[1:2,1])
rbind2(auto[1:2,1])
vcov.clark Covariance Matrix of Parameter Estimates – Clark’s methods
Description
Function to compute the covariance matrix of the parameter estimates for the ClarkLDF and Clark-
CapeCod methods.
Usage
## S3 method for class ’clark’
vcov(object, ...)
Arguments
object object resulting from a run of the ClarkLDF or ClarkCapeCod functions.
... not used.
Details
The covariance matrix of the estimated parameters is estimated by the inverse of the Information
matrix (see Clark, p. 53). This function uses the "FI" and "sigma2" values returned by ClarkLDF
and by ClarkCapeCod and calculates the matrix
-sigma2*FI^-1.
72 vcov.clark
Author(s)
Daniel Murphy
References
See Also
ClarkLDF, ClarkCapeCod
Examples
x <- GenIns
colnames(x) <- 12*as.numeric(colnames(x))
Y <- ClarkCapeCod(x, Premium=10000000+400000*0:9, maxage=240)
round(vcov(Y),6) ## Compare to matrix on p. 69 of Clark’s paper
# The estimates of the loglogistic parameters

Y$THETAG
# The standard errors of the estimated parameters
sqrt(tail(diag(vcov(Y)), 2))
# The parameter risks of the estimated reserves are calculated

# according to the formula on p. 54 of Clark’s paper. For example, for
# the 5th accident year, pre- and post-multiply the covariance matrix
# by a matrix consisting of the gradient entries for just that accident year
FVgrad5 <- matrix(Y$FutureValueGradient[, 5], ncol=1)
sqrt(t(FVgrad5) %*% vcov(Y) %*% FVgrad5) ## compares to 314,829 in Clark’s paper
# The estimated reserves for accident year 5:

Y$FutureValue[5] ## compares to 2,046,646 in the paper
# Recalculate the parameter risk CV for all accident years in total (10.6% in paper):
sqrt(sum(t(Y$FutureValueGradient) %*% vcov(Y) %*% Y$FutureValueGradient)) /
Y$Total$FutureValue
Index
∗Topic aplot triangle S3 Methods, 68

plot.BootChainLadder, 49 ∗Topic models
plot.clark, 50 BootChainLadder, 7
plot.MackChainLadder, 51 chainladder, 9
plot.MunichChainLadder, 52 ClarkCapeCod, 12
∗Topic array ClarkLDF, 15
Cumulative and incremental glmReserve, 22
triangles, 19 Join2Fits, 25
∗Topic classes JoinFitMse, 26
MultiChainLadder-class, 38 MackChainLadder, 27
MultiChainLadderFit-class, 40 Mse-methods, 32
MultiChainLadderMse-class, 42 MultiChainLadder, 34
MultiChainLadderSummary-class, 43 MunichChainLadder, 44
NullNum-class, 47 predict.TriangleModel, 53
triangles-class, 69 residuals.MackChainLadder, 59
∗Topic datasets ∗Topic package
ABC, 4 ChainLadder-package, 3
auto, 6 ∗Topic print
GenIns, 20 print.ata, 54
liab, 26 print.clark, 55
M3IR5, 27 summary.BootChainLadder, 62
MCLpaid, 31 summary.MackChainLadder, 65
Mortgage, 31 summary.MunichChainLadder, 66
qpaid, 56 ∗Topic summary
RAA, 57 summary.ata, 61
∗Topic methods summary.clark, 64
getLatestCumulative, 21 [,triangles,missing,numeric,logical-method
Mse-methods, 32 (triangles-class), 69
plot-MultiChainLadder, 47 [,triangles,missing,numeric,missing-method
plot.clark, 50 (triangles-class), 69
plot.MackChainLadder, 51 [,triangles,numeric,missing,logical-method
print.clark, 55 (triangles-class), 69
residCov, 58 [,triangles,numeric,missing,missing-method
summary-methods, 60 (triangles-class), 69
summary.BootChainLadder, 62 [,triangles,numeric,numeric,missing-method
summary.clark, 64 (triangles-class), 69
summary.MackChainLadder, 65 [<-,triangles,numeric,numeric,list-method
summary.MunichChainLadder, 66 (triangles-class), 69
Table65, 67 [[,MultiChainLadder,character,missing-method
73
74 INDEX
(MultiChainLadder-class), 38 GenIns, 20
[[,MultiChainLadder,numeric,missing-method GenInsLong (GenIns), 20
(MultiChainLadder-class), 38 getLatestCumulative, 21
[[,MultiChainLadderSummary,character,missing-method
glm, 22–24
(MultiChainLadderSummary-class), glmReserve, 22
43 GMCLFit-class
[[,MultiChainLadderSummary,numeric,missing-method (MultiChainLadderFit-class), 40
(MultiChainLadderSummary-class),
43 incr2cum (Cumulative and incremental
$,MultiChainLadder-method triangles), 19
(MultiChainLadder-class), 38
$,MultiChainLadderSummary-method Join2Fits, 25
(MultiChainLadderSummary-class), JoinFitMse, 26
43
liab, 26
ABC, 4 list, 70
as.data.frame.triangle (triangle S3
Methods), 68
M3IR5, 27
as.triangle, 19, 21
MackChainLadder, 10, 24, 27, 37, 44–46,
as.triangle (triangle S3 Methods), 68
51–54, 59, 65
ata, 5, 10, 54, 61, 62
matplot, 69
auto, 6
MCLFit-class
(MultiChainLadderFit-class), 40
BootChainLadder, 7, 30, 49, 63
MCLincurred (MCLpaid), 31
cbind2,triangles,missing-method MCLpaid, 31
(triangles-class), 69 mean.BootChainLadder
ChainLadder (ChainLadder-package), 3 (summary.BootChainLadder), 62
chainladder, 5, 9, 30, 54 Mortgage, 31
ChainLadder-package, 3 Mse, 41, 42, 70
ClarkCapeCod, 12, 18, 24, 51, 64, 72 Mse (Mse-methods), 32
ClarkLDF, 14, 15, 24, 51, 64, 72 Mse,GMCLFit,triangles-method
coef,MultiChainLadder-method (Mse-methods), 32
(MultiChainLadder-class), 38 Mse,MCLFit,triangles-method
coerce,list,triangles-method (Mse-methods), 32
(triangles-class), 69 Mse-methods, 32
cum2incr (Cumulative and incremental MultiChainLadder, 25, 26, 33, 34, 37, 40, 42,
triangles), 19 48, 59, 61, 70
Cumulative and incremental triangles, MultiChainLadder-class, 44
19 MultiChainLadder-class, 38
MultiChainLadderFit, 39, 41
dim,triangles-method (triangles-class), MultiChainLadderFit-class, 40
69 MultiChainLadderMse, 39
MultiChainLadderMse-class, 42
family, 22 MultiChainLadderSummary-class, 43
fitted,MultiChainLadder-method MunichChainLadder, 30, 37, 44, 52, 53, 67
fitted.values,MultiChainLadder-method names,MultiChainLadder-method
(MultiChainLadder-class), 38 (MultiChainLadder-class), 38
INDEX 75
names,MultiChainLadderSummary-method resid,MultiChainLadder-method
(MultiChainLadderSummary-class), (MultiChainLadder-class), 38
43 residCor (residCov), 58
NullChar-class (NullNum-class), 47 residCor,MultiChainLadder-method
NullList-class (NullNum-class), 47 (residCov), 58
NullNum-class, 47 residCor-methods (residCov), 58
residCov, 58
par, 49, 51, 52 residCov,MultiChainLadder-method
plot,MultiChainLadder,missing-method, (residCov), 58
37, 39, 40 residCov-methods (residCov), 58
plot,MultiChainLadder,missing-method residuals,MultiChainLadder-method
(plot-MultiChainLadder), 47 (MultiChainLadder-class), 38
plot-methods (plot-MultiChainLadder), 47 residuals.BootChainLadder
plot-MultiChainLadder, 47 (summary.BootChainLadder), 62
plot.BootChainLadder, 8, 49 residuals.MackChainLadder, 30, 52, 59
plot.clark, 13, 17, 50 rstandard,MultiChainLadder-method
plot.default, 49, 51, 52, 69 (MultiChainLadder-class), 38
plot.MackChainLadder, 30, 51, 65
plot.MunichChainLadder, 46, 52, 67 show,MultiChainLadder-method
plot.triangle (triangle S3 Methods), 68 (MultiChainLadder-class), 38
predict,GMCLFit-method show,MultiChainLadderSummary-method
(MultiChainLadderFit-class), 40 (MultiChainLadderSummary-class),
predict,MCLFit-method 43
(MultiChainLadderFit-class), 40 summary,MultiChainLadder-method, 37, 40,
predict.ChainLadder, 10 44
predict.ChainLadder summary,MultiChainLadder-method
(predict.TriangleModel), 53 (summary-methods), 60
predict.TriangleModel, 53 summary-methods, 60
print.ata, 5, 54, 62
summary.ata, 5, 54, 61
print.BootChainLadder
summary.BootChainLadder, 8, 62
(summary.BootChainLadder), 62
summary.clark, 64
print.clark, 55
summary.ClarkCapeCod, 56
print.ClarkCapeCod (print.clark), 55
summary.ClarkCapeCod (summary.clark), 64
print.ClarkLDF (print.clark), 55
summary.ClarkLDF, 56
print.data.frame, 55
summary.ClarkLDF (summary.clark), 64
print.MackChainLadder
summary.MackChainLadder, 30, 65
(summary.MackChainLadder), 65
summary.MunichChainLadder, 46, 66
print.MunichChainLadder
(summary.MunichChainLadder), 66
Table64 (Table65), 67
qincurred (qpaid), 56 Table65, 67
qpaid, 7, 9, 28, 30, 56 Table68 (Table65), 67
quantile, 63 title, 49, 51, 52
quantile.BootChainLadder triangle, 22
(summary.BootChainLadder), 62 triangle (triangle S3 Methods), 68
triangle S3 Methods, 68
RAA, 57 triangles, 37
rbind2,triangles,missing-method triangles-class, 69
(triangles-class), 69 tweedie, 22–24
76 INDEX
vcov,MultiChainLadder-method
vcov.clark, 71
vector, 70
xyplot, 51, 69

Chain Ladder

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Package ‘ChainLadder’

November 30, 2011

Title Mack, Bootstrap, Munich, Multivariate-chain-ladder, Clark

Author Markus Gesmann, Wayne Zhang, Daniel Murphy

Maintainer Markus Gesmann <[email protected]>

Description The package provides Mack-, Munich-, Bootstrap, and

License GPL (>= 2)

Date/Publication 2011-11-12 16:15:22

ChainLadder-package Various chain-ladder methods for claims reserving

ABC Run off triangle of accumulated claims data

ata Calculate Age-to-Age Factors

# Volume weighted average age-to-age factor of the "RAA" data

## Label the development columns in "ratio-type" format

auto Run off triangle of accumulated claim data

Run-off triangles of Personal Auto and Commercial Auto insurance.

BootChainLadder Bootstrap-Chain-Ladder Model

call matched call

B <- BootChainLadder(RAA, R=999, process.distr="gamma")

# fit a distribution to the IBNR

# See also the ABC example in Barnett and Zehnwirth (2007)

chainladder Estimate age-to-age factors

## Concept of different chain ladder age-to-age factors.

weights <- RAA

## straight average age-to-age factors

## ordinary regression age-to-age factors

weights[2,1] <- 0.5

## wtd. average chain ladder age-to-age factors

## straight average age-to-age factors

## ordinary regression age-to-age factors

CL1 <- chainladder(RAA, weights=weights, delta=1)

CL2 <- chainladder(RAA, weights=weights, delta=2)

ClarkCapeCod Clark Cape Cod method

GrowthFunction value of the growth function as of the CurrentAge.used

# Clark’s "CapeCod method" also works with triangles that have

# Method also works for a "triangle" with only one row:

# If one value of Premium is appropriate for all origin years

ClarkLDF Clark LDF method

# Clark’s "LDF method" also works with triangles that have

# Method also works for a "triangle" with only one row:

colnames(X) <- 12 * as.numeric(colnames(X)) - 3

Cumulative and incremental triangles

# See the Taylor/Ashe example in Mack’s 1993 paper

# See the example in Mack’s 1999 paper

#with missing values argument

GenIns Run off triangle of claims data.

## Convert long format into triangle

getLatestCumulative Triangle information for most recent calendar period.

glmReserve GLM-based Reserving Model

# over-dispersed Poisson: reproduce ChainLadder estimates

# plot of standardized residuals

# plot of standardized residuals

# Now suppose we have an exposure measure

# we can put it as an offset term in the model

# use bootstrapping to compute prediction error

Join2Fits Join Two Fitted MultiChainLadder Models

JoinFitMse Join Model Fit and Mse Estimation

liab Run off triangle of accumulated claim data

M3IR5 Run off triangle of claims data

MackChainLadder Mack-Chain-Ladder Model

Yi,k+1 = Ak + Bk · Yi,k + i,k ,