Designation: E 1930 – 07

Standard Practice for

Examination of Liquid-Filled Atmospheric and Low-Pressure
Metal Storage Tanks Using Acoustic Emission1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation E 1930; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.

1. Scope responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-

1.1 This practice covers guidelines for acoustic emission priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-
(AE) examinations of new and in-service aboveground storage bility of regulatory limitations prior to use. Specific precau-
tanks of the type used for storage of liquids. tionary statements are given in Section 8.
1.2 This practice will detect acoustic emission in areas of 2. Referenced Documents
sensor coverage that are stressed during the course of the
examination. For flat-bottom tanks these areas will generally 2.1 ASTM Standards: 2
include the sidewalls (and roof if pressure is applied above the E 543 Specification for Agencies Performing Nondestruc-
liquid level). The examination may not detect flaws on the tive Testing
bottom of flat-bottom tanks unless sensors are located on the E 650 Guide for Mounting Piezoelectric Acoustic Emission
bottom. Sensors
1.3 This practice may require that the tank experience a load E 976 Guide for Determining the Reproducibility of Acous-
that is greater than that encountered in normal use. The normal tic Emission Sensor Response
contents of the tank can usually be used for applying this load. E 1316 Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations
1.4 This practice is not valid for tanks that will be operated E 2374 Guide for Acoustic Emission System Performance
at a pressure greater than the examination pressure. Verification
1.5 It is not necessary to drain or clean the tank before 2.2 ANSI/ASNT Standard:
performing this examination. Recommended Practice ASNT SNT-TC-1A for Qualifica-
1.6 This practice applies to tanks made of carbon steel, tion and Certification of Nondestructive Testing Person-
stainless steel, aluminum and other metals. nel3
1.7 This practice may also detect defects in tank linings (for ANSI/ASNT CP-189 Standard for Qualification and Certi-
example, high-bulk, phenolics and other brittle materials). fication of NDT Personnel3
1.8 AE measurements are used to detect and localize emis- 2.3 ASME Standard:
sion sources. Other NDT methods may be used to confirm the Section V, Article 12, Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code 4
nature and significance of the AE indications (s). Procedures 2.4 AIA Document:
for other NDT techniques are beyond the scope of this practice. NAS-410 Certification and Qualification of Nondestructive
1.9 Examination liquid must be above its freezing tempera- Testing Personnel5
ture and below its boiling temperature. 3. Terminology
1.10 Superimposed internal or external pressures must not
exceed design pressure. 3.1 Definitions:
1.11 Leaks may be found during the course of this exami- 3.1.1 This practice makes use of definitions provided in
nation but their detection is not the intention of this practice. Terminology E 1316. Definitions for terms that do not appear
1.12 The values stated in inch-pound units are to be re- in Terminology E 1316 are given below.
garded as the standard. The SI units given in parentheses are
for information only. 2
For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
1.13 This standard does not purport to address all of the contact ASTM Customer Service at [email protected]. For Annual Book of ASTM
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on
the ASTM website.
3
Available from American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT), P.O. Box
28518, 1711 Arlingate Ln., Columbus, OH 43228-0518, http://www.asnt.org.
1 4
This practice is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E07 on Nonde- Available from American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), ASME
structive Testing and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E07.04 on International Headquarters, Three Park Ave., New York, NY 10016-5990, http://
Acoustic Emission Method. www.asme.org.
5
Current edition approved Dec. 1, 2007. Published December 2007. Originally Available from Aerospace Industries Association of America, Inc. (AIA), 1000
approved in 1997. Last previous edition approved in 2002 as E1930 - 02. Wilson Blvd., Suite 1700, Arlington, VA 22209-3928, http://www.aia-aerospace.org.
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 E 1930 – 07
3.2 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard: 5.1.4.2 Chips, and
3.2.1 AE activity—the presence of acoustic emission during 5.1.4.3 Inclusions.
an examination. It is normally measured by one or more AE
NOTE 1—Not all of these sources are typically encountered in field
parameters such as number of hits, events, signal strength or examination, some are detected under laboratory conditions.
AE counts. A source is considered active if its AE activity
consistently increases with increasing load. 5.2 Accuracy of the results from this practice can be
3.2.2 maximum operating pressure—largest pressure within influenced by factors related to setup and calibration of
the tank during the six-month period prior to AE examination. instrumentation, background noise, material properties and
This pressure involves the maximum liquid contents level, the characteristics of an examined structure.
range of temperature experienced during operation, superim- 5.3 The outcome of this practice is to determine if the tank
posed hydrostatic or pneumatic pressure, or both, and any is suitable for service or if follow-up NDT is needed before that
overload or upset conditions which may have occurred. determination can be made.
3.2.3 signal strength—the measured area of the rectified AE 5.4 Unstressed Areas—Flaws in unstressed areas and pas-
signal. sive flaws (those that are structurally insignificant under the
applied load) will not generate AE. Such locations can include
4. Summary of Practice the roof and certain welds associated with platforms, ladders,
4.1 General—This practice consists of subjecting storage and stairways.
tanks to increasing stress while monitoring with sensors that 5.5 Passive Flaws (in Stressed Areas)—Some flaws in
are sensitive to acoustic emission (transient stress waves) stressed areas might not generate acoustic emission during
caused by growing flaws. The instrumentation and techniques stressing. This usually means that the flaw has a higher stress
for sensing and analyzing AE are described herein. tolerance than the examination stress.
4.2 Loading—This practice requires stressing the tank. 5.6 Filling—Filling proceeds at rates which minimize AE
Stressing can be accomplished by filling the tank with its activity caused by fluid flow and which allow vessel deforma-
normal contents or with an alternative liquid and in some cases tion to be in equilibrium with applied load. Hold periods are
applying a superimposed hydrostatic or pneumatic pressure, or used throughout the filling schedule to evaluate AE activity
both. produced by the loaded structure in the absence of fill noise.
4.3 Report—The report documents results of the AE exami- 5.7 Follow-up—Sources detected by AE should be exam-
nation and other important information. The report also pro- ined using other NDT methods.
vides recommendations for follow-up NDT examinations at 5.8 Background Noise—Excess background noise may dis-
specific locations. tort AE data or render them useless. Users must be aware of
5. Significance and Use common sources of background noise: high fill rate (measur-
able flow noise), mechanical contact (impact, friction, fretting)
5.1 General—This procedure is used for evaluation of the with the tank by objects, electromagnetic interference (EMI)
structural integrity of atmospheric storage tanks. The AE (motors, welders, overhead cranes) and radio frequency inter-
method can detect flaws which are in locations that are stressed ference (RFI) (broadcasting facilities, walkie talkies), leaks at
during pressurization. Such locations include the tank wall, pipe or hose connections, leaks in the tank bottom or walls,
welds attaching pads to the tank, nozzle attachments, and welds airborne particles, insects, or rain drops, heaters, spargers,
attaching circumferential stiffeners to the tank. Among the agitators, level detectors and other components inside the tank,
potential sources of acoustic emission are: chemical reactions occurring inside the tank, and hydrody-
5.1.1 In both parent metal and weld associated regions: namic movement of gas bubbles. This practice should not be
5.1.1.1 Cracks, used if background noise cannot be eliminated or controlled.
5.1.1.2 The effect of corrosion, including cracking of cor-
rosion products or local yielding,
6. Basis of Application
5.1.1.3 Stress corrosion cracking,
5.1.1.4 Certain physical changes, including yielding and 6.1 The following items are subject to contractual agree-
dislocations, ment between the parties using or referencing this practice.
5.1.1.5 Embrittlement, and 6.2 Personnel Qualifications
5.1.1.6 Pits and gouges. 6.2.1 If specified in the contractual agreement, personnel
5.1.2 In weld associated regions: performing examinations to this standard shall be qualified in
5.1.2.1 Incomplete fusion, accordance with a nationally or internationally recognized
5.1.2.2 Lack of penetration, NDT personnel qualification practice or standard such as
5.1.2.3 Undercuts, and ANSI/ASNT-CP-189, SNT-TC-1A, NAS-410, or a similar
5.1.2.4 Voids and porosity. document and certified by the employer or certifying agency,
5.1.2.5 Inclusions: as applicable. The practice or standard used and its applicable
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5.1.2.6 Contamination. revision shall be identified in the contractual agreement be-

5.1.3 In parent metal: tween the using parties.
5.1.3.1 Laminations. 6.2.2 Training and Examination—In addition, it is required
5.1.4 In brittle linings: that personnel performing acoustic emission examination of
5.1.4.1 Cracks, storage tanks attend a dedicated training course on the subject

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 E 1930 – 07
and pass a written examination. The training course shall 6.7 Reexamination of Repaired/Reworked Items—
include the following topics: Reexamination of repaired/reworked items is not addressed in
6.2.2.1 Storage tank construction and terminology, this standard and if required shall be specified in the contrac-
6.2.2.2 Failure mechanisms of metal and metal fabricated tual agreement.
systems,
7. Apparatus
6.2.2.3 Case histories of metal vessels examined with
acoustic emission, 7.1 Essential features of the apparatus required for this
examination method are provided in Fig. 1. Full specifications
6.2.2.4 Storage tank examination procedures, including
are in Annex A1.
loading requirements,
7.2 AE sensors are used to detect stress waves produced by
6.2.2.5 Data collection and interpretation, and flaws. Sensors must be held in contact with the vessel wall to
6.2.2.6 Examination report and permanent record require- ensure adequate acoustic coupling. Sensors may be held in
ments. place with magnets, adhesive tape, or other mechanical means.
6.3 Qualification of Nondestructive Agencies—If specified 7.3 A preamplifier may be enclosed in the sensor housing or
in the contractual agreement, NDT agencies shall be qualified in a separate enclosure. If a separate preamplifier is used, cable
and evaluated as described in Practice E 543. The applicable length between sensor and preamplifier should not exceed 6 ft
edition of Practice E 543 shall be specified in the contractual (1.83 m). Longer cables may cause unacceptable signal attenu-
agreement. ation and increase the likelihood of EMI and RFI.
6.4 Timing of Examination—This practice may be used on 7.4 Signal cable length (that is, cable between preamplifier
new tanks, erected, in place or tanks that have been in service. and signal processor) should not exceed 500 ft (152.4 m). For
longer cable lengths signal repeaters may be required to
6.5 Extent of Examination—The extent of examination shall
minimize signal attenuation.
be in accordance with 1.2, 1.6, 1.7 and 1.11 unless otherwise
7.5 Signals shall be processed with computerized systems
specified.
with independent channels that filter, measure, and convert
6.6 Reporting Criteria/Acceptance Criteria—Reporting cri- analog information into digital form for display and permanent
teria for the examination results shall be in accordance with storage. A signal processor must have sufficient speed and
10.11 unless otherwise specified. capacity to process data independently from all sensors simul-
6.6.1 Non-mandatory acceptance criteria are described in taneously. A printer should be used to provide hard copies of
Appendix X2. examination results.

FIG. 1 Features of the Apparatus

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 E 1930 – 07
7.6 A video monitor should display processed data in 9.3.3 When computed location (See 10.8.7.3) is used, adja-
various formats. Display format may be selected by the cent sensors shall detect lead break signals at amplitudes
equipment operator. exceeding the examination threshold. The location accuracy
7.7 A data storage device, such as a floppy disc, may be shall be verified to be within 5 % of the sensor spacing.
used to provide data for replay or for archives. 9.4 Functional Verification—A simple functional verifica-
7.8 Hard copy capability should be available from a tion used to insure that all channels are operational, makes use
graphics/line printer or equivalent device. of a spring-loaded center punch before and after examination.
To avoid damage to the tank wall, the center punch shall be
8. Safety Precautions made on a stiffener ring, or with a 1⁄8 in. (3.2 mm) minimum
8.1 Ambient temperature should not be below the ductile- thickness backup plate between the center punch and tank wall.
brittle transition temperature of the pressure vessel construc- Multiple center punch sites might be needed to cover the entire
tion material. examination range. Center-punch impacts shall be made at a
distance from sensors such that the peak amplitude measured
9. Standardization and Performance Verification by the sensor/channel combination does not exceed 90 dB (0
9.1 Annual standardization and verification of AE sensors, dB = one µv at preamplifier input). Before or during the
preamplifiers (if applicable), signal processor and AE elec- examination, repair or replace channels that do not respond.
tronic waveform generator shall be performed. Equipment After the examination, report channels that do not respond to
should be adjusted so that it conforms to equipment manufac- the punch or have low sensitivity.
turer’s specifications. Instruments used for standardizations
must have current accuracy certification that is traceable to the 10. Procedure
National Institute for Standards Technology. 10.1 Examination Preliminary—Prior to setting up the ex-
9.2 Routine electronic evaluations must be performed at any amination instruments, the examiner shall be furnished with
time there is concern about signal processor performance. An the following information:
AE signal generator should be used in making evaluations. 10.1.1 A specification of materials in the tank under exami-
Each signal processor channel must respond with peak ampli- nation, including information on linings or internal coatings.
tude reading within 62 dB of the AE signal generator output. 10.1.2 A tank drawing with sufficient detail to establish the
9.3 System performance verification must be conducted dimensions, nozzle locations and material thickness.
immediately before each examination and should be repeated 10.1.3 Information on operating conditions for the 6 month
afterward. Refer to E 2374. period prior to AE examination. This information should
9.3.1 A performance verification uses a mechanical device include the type of liquid contained, maximum liquid contents
to induce stress waves into the vessel wall at a specified level, the operating range of temperature, superimposed hydro-
distance from each sensor. Induced stress waves stimulate a static or pneumatic pressure, or both, and any overload or upset
sensor in a manner similar to emission from a flaw. Perfor- conditions that may have occurred.
mance verification checks the performance of the entire system 10.2 AE Examination Pressure—The AE examination pres-
(including couplant) (see E 2374). sure depends on whether the AE examination is being per-
9.3.2 Pencil lead breaks, in accordance with Guide E 976, formed in conjunction with the hydrostatic proof examination
shall be used to verify system performance. Lead breaks will of a new tank, or whether the AE examination is performed on
be at least 4 in. (10.16 cm) from the sensor. The average peak an in-service storage tank. Table 1 describes AE examination
amplitude shall not vary more than 6 4 dB from the average of pressure to meet the requirements of this examination proce-
all sensors. dure.

TABLE 1 Storage Tank AE Examination Pressure

NOTE 1—If an alternative fluid with a specific gravity lower than the operating fluid is used, the required AE examination load may be achieved by
filling to the maximum level and applying an additional superimposed hydrostatic or pneumatic pressure, or both, to achieve the 5 % overload.
NOTE 2—If an alternative fluid with a specific gravity higher than the operating fluid is used, the maximum fill level shall achieve the 5 % overload
at the bottom of the tank, and must be at least equal to the maximum operating pressure.
NOTE 3—In some cases, due to physical limitations, it may not be possible to fill 5 % above the maximum operating level. In such cases a 2 % overload
is acceptable. An overload less than 2 % is not acceptable per this procedure.
NOTE 4—Repaired tanks are examined with the same examination pressure as described above.
Examination Performed AE Examination Pressure
A. New tank hydrostatic proof tested as specified by Fill to maximum design level and apply superimposed hydrostatic and/or pneumatic pressure above the
governing codes, Standards, or other regulations. liquid level as required by governing Code, test methods or other regulations.
B. New tank with no hydrostatic test required. Fill to maximum design level and apply superimposed hydrostatic or pneumatic pressure, or both, to
achieve maximum design pressure. If design pressure is not available, apply maximum operating pres-
sure.
C. In-service tank with operating and superimposed Fill to maximum operating level plus 5 %. Apply normal superimposed hydrostatic or pneumatic pressure,
pressure < 0.22 psig or both.
D. In-service tank with operating and superimposed Fill to maximum operating level plus 5 %. Apply maximum operating superimposed hydrostatic or pneu-
pressure 0.22 to 5.0 psig matic pressure, or both, that the tank has seen during the previous six months.
E. In-service tank with operating and superimposed Fill to maximum operating level plus 5 %. Apply maximum operating superimposed hydrostatic or pneu-
pressure > 5.0 psig matic pressure, or both, that the tank has seen during the previous six months plus 0.5 psig.

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10.3 Tank Stressing—Make arrangements to expedite the 10.4.3 Take precautions to prevent overflowing of tanks.
stressing of the tank at a rate consistent with the requirements Consideration shall be given to the consequences of fluid
of 10.9.4 and Table 1. Tanks will normally be stressed by spillage.
hydrostatic head pressure plus superimposed hydrostatic or 10.4.4 Take special safety precautions during gas or pneu-
pneumatic pressure, or both. For some in-service tanks it may matic examinations, and the examiner shall determine that it is
be appropriate to stress using a combination of hydrostatic safe to conduct the examination. Such precautions may include
head pressure plus superimposed hydrostatic or pneumatic the use of safety valves, a rapid-release valve, and supplemen-
pressure, or both, plus elevated temperature. For such situa- tal acoustic emission monitoring during pressurization. Such
tions, the examiner and user must be in agreement on the monitoring shall be separate from the acoustic emission
thermal changes that will result in the desired stress change. monitoring defined under this procedure and shall provide a
During tank stressing, it is particularly important to fill through real time warning of impending failure. Terminate pressuriza-
a submerged nozzle to minimize noise from liquid splashing,
tion and unload the vessel if the acoustic emission character-
etc., that could invalidate data taken during filling. Addition-
istics described in paragraph T-1244.3.3 of Article 12, Section
ally, the following should be considered in planning for an AE
V, of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code are observed.
examination.
10.3.1 Fill Time Required—When scheduling AE examina- 10.4.4.1 Examination Termination—Departure from a lin-
tion of large storage tanks it is important that the tank owner ear count or signal strength versus load relationship should
provide the examiner with an estimate of the time interval signal caution. If the AE count or signal strength rate increases
necessary to fill the tank as required by the appropriate rapidly with load, the vessel shall be unloaded and either the
sequence described in either 10.9.4.1 or 10.9.4.2. This estimate examination terminated or the source of the emission deter-
should be based on the availability of fluid to fill the tank and mined and the safety of continued examination evaluated. A
flow rate of the filling fluid during examination. rapidly (exponentially) increasing count rate or signal strength
10.3.2 Level Measurement—Make arrangements to monitor may indicate uncontrolled, continuing damage indicative of
the fill level throughout the AE examination. In most instances impending failure.)
existing measuring systems can be used. If a fluid with a 10.4.4.2 Bolted and screwed connections such as manway
specific gravity different from that of the normal process fluid covers, valves, and blind flanges are a particular concern.
is used during AE examination, restandardization of the level These shall be inspected prior to examination to ensure that
instrumentation may be required for accurate level measure- bolts and other attachment components are in place, adequate
ment. for the examination pressure, properly torqued, not seriously
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10.3.3 Start and Stop Filling—Make provisions to start and corroded, or otherwise deteriorated.
stop filling as required for load hold periods. The tank owner 10.4.5 Provide proper venting when draining tanks after
shall review these provisions with the AE examiner, making completing AE examination. This is necessary to prevent
him aware of unavoidable circumstances such as line flushing excessive vacuum loading.
which may be required when flow stops.
10.4.6 Exercise care to avoid the consequence of sudden
10.3.4 Hold Time Tolerance—Shall be -0, +2 min. and unexpected premature release of relief valves and safety
10.3.5 On-Line Examination—When existing storage tanks vents. This is particularly important when examining tanks
are examined on-line, the tank owner shall make the AE containing potentially hazardous fluids.
examiner aware of circumstances that could affect AE data
10.5 Environmental—For ambient temperatures below 32°F
acquisition. Such circumstances may include existence of
steam or gas spargers inside the tank, agitators or submerged (0°C) take care to eliminate ice buildup that can cause
pumps, motion of solids suspended in the liquid, chemical emissions during vessel loading.
reactions, or the inability to accomplish submerged filling. 10.6 Background Noise—It is important to capture valid
10.3.6 New Atmospheric Tanks—A new tank will normally emissions during monitoring periods. To accomplish this,
be AE examined during hydrostatic proof examination as background noise must be at a minimum. Sources of back-
specified by governing codes or standards. Examine a new tank ground noise are discussed in 5.8
in its operating position and supported in a manner consistent 10.6.1 The examiner shall review the stressing techniques
with good installation practice. and identify all potential sources of extraneous acoustic noises
10.3.7 In-Service Tanks—In-service tanks will normally be due to loading.
AE examined over the pressure range of 75 or less to 100 % of 10.6.2 Field experience has shown that care should be
AE examination pressure. The pressure range shall include exercised in dealing with electrical background noise sources,
both the liquid contents and any superimposed pressure. for example, electromagnetic interference (EMI) is usually due
10.4 Safety—All safety requirements unique to the exami- to motors, switch gear, solenoids, and the like. EMI can also be
nation location shall be met. caused by a bad power supply, particularly an inadequate
10.4.1 Examiners shall wear protective clothing and equip- ground. Radio frequency interference (RFI) can be distin-
ment that is normally required in the area in which the guished from EMI with an oscilloscope or correlation plot.
examination is being conducted. Control both RFI and EMI by using shielded sensors and
10.4.2 A fire permit may be needed to allow use of the narrow band filters. Power source EMI can be controlled with
electronic instrumentation. a constant voltage supply unit.

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10.7 Power Supply—A stable grounded power supply meet- necessary to measure the zone radius on every tank. However,
ing the specifications of the AE system is required at the this distance must be determined for at least two representative
examination site. tanks having the same type of paint, lining (if any), and of the
10.8 Sensor Mounting: same size, design, and pressure rating. If severe internal or
10.8.1 General—Guide E 650 gives guidance on sensor external corrosion or pitting is suspected, determine the zone
mounting. The location and spacing of sensors are discussed in radius for the specific tank to be examined. In many cases, the
10.8.3. Place the sensors in the designated location with a suspected condition of the tank will be provided by the owner
couplant between the sensor face and metal surface of the tank. prior to the examination.
Exercise care to ensure that adequate couplant is applied. All 10.8.4.2 Computed location requires determination of the
signal cables must be constrained to prevent loss of coupling maximum allowable sensor spacing according to the procedure
and to avoid extraneous noise from wind-induced movement of defined in 10.8.5. It is not necessary to measure the maximum
the cables. spacing on every tank. However, this distance must be deter-
10.8.1.1 Attachment—Attach sensors against the tank with a mined for at least two representative tanks having the same
suitable couplant applied between the sensor face and metal type of paint, lining (if any), and of the same size, design, and
tank surface. In order to examine a jacketed (insulated) tank pressure rating. If severe internal or external corrosion or
from the outside, it is necessary either to use waveguides or cut pitting is suspected, determine the maximum spacing for the
a hole through the jacket and insulation so that the sensor face specific tank to be examined. In many cases, the suspected
can be mounted against the tank surface. The preferred condition of the tank will be provided by the owner prior to the
methods of securing sensors in place are with magnetic examination.
hold-downs and a suitable acoustic couplant or hot melt glue. 10.8.5 Attenuation Characterization—In order to determine
When using hot melt glue, the glue serves as an acoustic sensor spacing an attenuation characterization of representative
couplant, making it important that the glue layer be thin to tanks must be performed. Perform the characterization on a
minimize signal losses, and that couplant losses be checked per representative cylindrical portion of the tank away from the
procedures described in 9.3. A third method attaches sensors heads, manways, nozzles, heater coils, etc., and below the fluid
with a combination of duct tape and a suitable couplant applied level. Mount sensors in the same fashion as when the AE
between the sensor face and tank surface. This method, examination is performed.
however, is less reliable, particularly when sensors must 10.8.5.1 Un-Insulated Tanks—Mount a sensor and strike a
remain in place for long periods of time. After completion of an line out from the sensor. Break 0.3 mm (2H) pencil leads (refer
insulated tank examination, arrangements will be made for all to Guide E 976) next to the sensor and then at 2 ft (61 cm)
insulation and jacket holes to be refilled with insulation and intervals along this line. The breaks shall be done with the lead
sealed to prevent water or other foreign materials from getting at an angle of approximately 30° to the surface and with a 0.1
beneath the insulation. in. (2.5 mm) lead extension. Record the amplitude as the
10.8.2 Surface Contact—Mount the sensor with the center average from five lead breaks at each point. Plot amplitude
of the sensor face directly coupled to the surface of the tank. versus distance from the sensor for each breakpoint and find
Reliable coupling between the sensor and metal surface must the zone radius. The zone radius is the distance at which the
be ensured, and the surface in contact with the sensor face must lead breaks can no longer be detected. For zone location,
be clean and free of particulate matter. Signal loss can be maximum sensor spacing is 1.5 times the zone radius. For
caused by certain types of paint or coatings, geometric discon- computed location, the maximum sensor spacing is one zone
tinuities, and surface roughness. The magnitude of this type of radius. These data shall be retained as part of the examination
signal loss can be determined using the procedures described in record.
9.3. In certain cases, it may be necessary to reduce signal loss 10.8.5.2 Insulated Tanks—To determine zone radius or
by locally removing corrosion, paint, etc. from the surface of maximum sensor spacing on insulated tanks it may be neces-
the metal. sary to remove insulation or cut additional access holes.
10.8.3 Sensor Locations—A primary consideration in 10.8.6 Source Location—As a minimum, base source loca-
choosing sensor locations is the need to detect structural tion on the zone location method. This method uses sensor
defects at critical sections, for example, high-stress areas, activity from each area of interest as an indication of the
geometric discontinuities, nozzles, manways, reinforcement approximate location of the source.
pads, and attachment welds. Take particular care to avoid 10.8.7 Location Refinement—An improved approximation
shielding by large openings and to compensate for attenuation of the location of a source can be obtained by three different
through fillet welds. It is also important to provide coverage of methods.
plate areas and not to exceed the maximum sensor spacing 10.8.7.1 Comparative Signal Strength—This method is
described in 10.8.4. Sensor location guidelines and recom- based on a comparison of the relative signal strength at
mended sensor arrangements for various tank configurations adjacent sensors responding to the same source. Large emis-
are found in Appendix X1. sion bursts on multiple channels are recognized as being from
10.8.4 Sensor Spacing—Locate sensors so that they provide a common source when responding channels show a sharp
complete coverage of the tank. increase in signal strength at the same time. Such occurrences
10.8.4.1 Zone location requires determination of the zone can be seen on the cumulative signal strength per channel
radius according to the procedure defined in 10.8.5. It is not versus time plots. When this is observed, the relative distance
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 E 1930 – 07
of the source from each sensor can be estimated from the problem is particularly severe with new or recently blasted
relative magnitude of the signal strengths at the time of the metal surfaces. Emission will show as a steady stream of hits
emission bursts. during the entire background noise period. Use of corrosion
10.8.7.2 Reduced Zone Sizes—If an AE examination indi- inhibitors may be required to control this problem.
cates a source in a particular zone, the zone can be subdivided 10.9.3.6 Thermal Expansion of the Jacket—It has been
into smaller zones by adding channels in the zone of interest. found that certain types of jackets, particularly those with
The emission source is then stimulated to emit by a small sliding expansion joints of the type used on tanks with exterior
increase in load. Typically, a pressure increase of the smaller of heating coils, will generate emission when exposed to changes
5 % or 2 psi will stimulate emissions. If the load cannot be in temperature. Direct sunlight has been found to be particu-
increased, it may be possible to stimulate the emission source larly troublesome. This type of emission will show as discrete
by reducing the level by 15 to 20 %, then reapplying the stress bursts which include long duration hits. To overcome this type
by refilling to achieve the previous maximum stress level. For of problem it may be necessary to examine in a temperature-
the follow-up examination, channels that had originally cov- controlled atmosphere, or during periods when the temperature
ered zones away from the region of interest can be used to is relatively constant, such as early morning.
provide the additional zone coverage within the region of 10.9.3.7 Filling Rate—Flow noise from fluid entering the
interest. tank can be a source of high background noise. Filling rate
10.8.7.3 Computed Location—This method involves the use must be adjusted to eliminate this noise.
of additional sensors that cover the area to be monitored such 10.9.4 Examination Procedure—The tank is stressed by
that the exact position of the source can be calculated. filling with liquid. To determine the AE examination pressure
10.9 Data Acquisition: refer to 10.2.
10.9.1 General—Each storage tank is subjected to pro- 10.9.4.1 New Tanks—Fig. 2 shows the filling schedule for
grammed increases in pressure up to a predetermined maxi- new tanks. AE monitor an initial 10-min period for background
mum and monitored with sensors detecting acoustic emission noise. After acceptably low levels of background noise have
(stress waves) caused by stressed structural defects. been confirmed, monitor the tank during filling, with hold
10.9.2 Data: periods at 50, 80, 90, and 100 % of the AE examination
10.9.2.1 Examination Log—The examiner shall maintain an pressure. If the examination includes superimposed pressure,
examination log recording: setup and data file names, times of apply this pressure before the start of the hold at the 100 % AE
various phases of the examination such as the start and end of examination pressure. During examination, increases in pres-
hold periods, manual parameter settings (if available) as the sure levels shall not exceed 10 % of the AE examination
tank fills, occurrences impacting data acquisition such as leaks pressure in 2 min. Hold periods at 50, 80, 90, and 100 % are 10
min each. The final hold at the 100 % AE examination pressure

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or other significant observations, pre/post examination system
performance verification files, setup files and examination data is 30 min. If emission data indicates a flaw, or are inconclusive,
files. a second loading may be performed from 80 to 100 % of the
10.9.3 Background Noise—Extraneous noise must be iden- AE examination pressure, with holds the same as during the
tified and minimized. If the examiner judges background noise initial examination.
to be excessive the examination must be terminated. 10.9.4.2 In-Service Tanks—Fig. 3 shows the filling se-
10.9.3.1 Leaks—Background noise due to a leak may be of quence for in-service storage tanks. Monitor an initial 10-min
sufficient quantity and magnitude to require the examination to period for background noise. After acceptably low levels of
be stopped until the leak can be sealed. Leaks can occur in the background noise have been confirmed, monitor the tank
shell of a tank, but more commonly occur across improperly during filling. The fill range shall be 85 to 100 % of the AE
sealed valves, or at gaskets.
10.9.3.2 Movement—False emissions can be caused by
movement between tank components such as the tank wall and
insulation. Such emissions are generally sporadic and can be
identified and filtered out in post-examination analysis.
10.9.3.3 Wind and Vibration—Visually examine the sen-
sors, cables, and other hardware to verify the equipment is
securely mounted and will not be subject to wind or vibration-
induced movement. Isolate the tank and AE hardware from
uncontrollable sources of noise.
10.9.3.4 External Noise—Evaluate uncontrolled noise
caused by conditions such as rain, sleet, hail, snow, wind-
blown particles, air hoses, leaks, blasting, etc., as they occur.
Minimize the effects of such sources by acoustic isolation
where practical. In extreme cases it may be necessary to delay
examination until uncontrolled sources can be eliminated.
10.9.3.5 Internal Corrosion—Emission can be generated by
internal rust during hydrotesting of carbon steel tanks. This FIG. 2 New Tank Fill Schedule

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 E 1930 – 07
10.10.4 Large-Amplitude Hits—Large amplitudes often sig-
nal a growing crack. An observed trend of increasing ampli-
tudes with increasing stress may indicate severe defect growth.
10.10.5 Signal Strength—Increasing signal strength may
indicate that a defect area is responding to increasing stress.
10.11 Examination Report—Issue, a report for each tank

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examined. Appendix X3 shows a report form that can be used
to document examination results. An examination report
should include this form, plus a sensor layout sketch. The
following information shall be included with each examination
report:
10.11.1 A complete identification of the tank, including:
10.11.1.1 Tank item number,
10.11.1.2 Material of construction,
FIG. 3 In Service Tank Fill Schedule
10.11.1.3 Manufacturer,
examination pressure. During examination, increases in pres- 10.11.1.4 Serial number, and
sure shall not exceed 10 % of the AE examination pressure in 10.11.1.5 Applicable codes or standards.
2 min. Holds at 85 and 95 % are 10 min each. The final hold 10.11.2 Examination date and location,
at the 100 % AE examination pressure is 30 min. If the purpose 10.11.3 Sketch or drawing showing overall dimensions and
of the AE examination is to evaluate repairs, and emissions sensor locations and corresponding channel numbers,
indicate a flaw in the repaired area, or are inconclusive in the 10.11.4 Examination fluid and fluid temperature,
repaired area, a second examination may be performed from 75
10.11.5 Stressing sequence including fill level(s), hold lev-
to 100 % of AE examination pressure, with load holds the same
els, starting and ending times of hold periods, and examination
as during the initial filling.
loads relative to normal operating conditions,
10.10 Description of Evaluation Criteria—Evaluate the
tank based on the following criteria. If these criteria are 10.11.6 A comparison of the data with the appropriate
exceeded, additional nondestructive evaluation may be re- evaluation criteria,
quired. 10.11.7 Results of analysis,
10.10.1 Emission During Hold—This is a very important 10.11.8 Recommended follow-up examination including ar-
criterion. Emission that continue during a hold period may eas of concern and complementary NDT methods,
indicate continuing yielding or damage caused by creep, or a 10.11.9 Any unusual effects or observations during the
flaw which is continuing to grow under a constant stress level. examination,
10.10.2 Cumulative Duration—This criterion measures to- 10.11.10 Name(s) of examiner(s) and qualification level,
tal activity. It is particularly important as an indicator of and
widespread damage. Emission that continually exceed this
10.11.11 Examination instrumentation, including serial
criterion may be an indication of a tank in a deteriorated
number, type of sensor and standardization dates.
condition.
10.10.3 Number of Hits—This criterion is particularly im-
11. Keywords
portant in the evaluation of in-service tanks. Hits at stress
levels below normal operation may indicate the presence of 11.1 acoustic emission; metal storage tanks; above ground
significant defects. storage tanks

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 E 1930 – 07
ANNEX

(Mandatory Information)

A1. SPECIFICATIONS FOR APPARATUS

A1.1 Instrumentation Specifications A1.4.5 Preamplifier shall include a bandpass filter with a
A1.1.1 AE sensors shall be resonant in a 100 to 200 kHz minimum of 18 dB/octave signal attenuation below the 100
frequency band. kHz and 18 dB/octave above 200 kHz. Note that the crystal
A1.1.2 Sensors shall have a peak sensitivity greater than -77 resonant characteristics provide additional filtering as does the
dB (referred to 1 volt per microbar, determined by face-to-face band pass filter in the signal conditioner.
ultrasonic examination) within the frequency range 100 to 200 A1.4.6 It is preferred that the preamplifier be mounted
kHz. Sensitivity within the 100 - 200 kHz range shall not vary inside the sensor housing.
more than 3 dB within the temperature range of intended use. A1.5 Power-Signal Cable
A1.1.3 Sensors shall be shielded against electromagnetic
A1.5.1 Cable and connectors that provide power to pream-
interference through proper design practice or differential
plifiers, and that conduct amplified signals to the main proces-
(anti-coincidence) element design, or both.
sor, shall be shielded against electromagnetic interference.
A1.1.4 Sensors shall be electrically isolated from conduc-
Signal loss shall be less than 3 dB over the length of the cable.
tive surfaces.
(When standard coaxial cable is used, 1000 ft is the maximum
A1.1.5 Sensors shall have omni-directional response, with
recommended cable length to avoid excessive signal attenua-
variations not exceeding 2 dB from the peak response.
tion).
A1.2 Sensor-Preamplifier Cable A1.6 Power Supply
A1.2.1 Cable connecting sensor to preamplifier shall not A1.6.1 A stable, grounded, power supply that meets signal
attenuate the sensor peak voltage in the 100 to 200 kHz processor manufacturer’s specification shall be used.
frequency range more than 3 dB (6 ft (1.83 m) is a typical A1.7 Signal Processor
length). Integral preamplifier sensors meet this requirement.
They have inherently short, internal, signal cables. A1.7.1 Electronic circuitry gain shall be stable within 61
A1.2.2 Sensor-preamplifier cable shall be shielded against dB in the temperature range 40 to 100°F (4.4 to 37.8°C).
electromagnetic interference. Standard low-noise coaxial cable A1.7.2 Threshold shall be accurate within 6 1 dB.
is generally adequate. A1.7.3 Signal strength shall be measured on a per channel
basis and shall have a resolution of 1 % of the value obtained
from a one millisecond duration, 150 kHz sine burst having an
A1.3 Couplant
amplitude 25 dB above the data analysis threshold. Usable
A1.3.1 Commercially available couplants for ultrasonic dynamic range shall be a minimum of 35 dB.
flaw detection may be used. Silicone-based stopcock grease A1.7.4 Peak amplitude shall have a usable dynamic range of
has been found to be particularly suitable. Quick-setting a minimum of 60 dB with 1 dB resolution over the frequency
adhesives may be used, provided the reduced couplant sensi- band of 100 kHz to 200 kHz, and the temperature range of 40
tivity is accounted for by closer sensor spacing. Couplant to 100°F (4 to 52°C). Not more than 62 dB variation in peak
selection should be made to minimize changes in coupling detection accuracy shall be allowed over the stated temperature
sensitivity during an examination. Consideration should be range. Amplitude values shall be stated in dB, and must be
given to the time duration of the examination and to the surface referenced to a fixed gain output of the system (sensor or
temperature of the tank. preamplifier).
A1.7.5 Hit duration shall be accurate to 610 µs and is
A1.4 Preamplifier measured from the first threshold crossing to the last threshold
A1.4.1 Preamplifier shall have noise level no greater than 5 crossing of the signal or envelope of the rectified linear voltage
microvolts rms (referred to a shorted input) within the 100 to time signal. It shall not include the hit definition time that
200 kHz frequency range. defines the end of an event.
A1.4.2 Preamplifier gain shall vary no more than 6 1 dB A1.7.6 Arrival Time—Hit arrival time shall be recorded
within the 100 to 200 kHz frequency band and temperature globally, for each channel accurate to within one millisecond
range of use. when a zone location technique is used.
A1.4.3 Preamplifier shall be shielded from electromagnetic A1.7.7 Rearm Time—The rearm time of each channel of the
interference. system shall be no greater than 200 µs.
A1.4.4 Preamplifiers of differential design shall have a A1.7.8 Hit Definition Time—The hit definition time shall be
minimum of 40 dB common-mode rejection. 400 µs.

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 E 1930 – 07
APPENDIXES

(Nonmandatory Information)

X1. SENSOR LOCATION GUIDELINES

X1.1 General—A common approach is used to select sensor X1.1.2 When possible, additional sensors should be placed
locations regardless of the size or shape of the tanks examined. near large diameter openings such as manways. When rein-
The first step is to determine the maximum distance between forcing pads are present and a zone location technique is used,
sensors using the techniques described in 10.8.5. Once the it is advisable to tee at least two sensors together, placing one
maximum spacing has been determined, sensors can be spaced on the pad and one on the opposite side of the manway on the
accordingly in rings around the circumference of the tank shell. tank shell.
The first ring will generally start at or near the bottom of the X1.1.3 For vented storage tanks which cannot fill up into the
shell. Additional rings will be added up the sidewall. The
roof and are not otherwise pressurized above the liquid, it may
vertical distance between rings should also be determined on
not be necessary to place sensors on the roof. AE will not
the basis of 10.8.5. The following guidelines should also be
detect defects in locations which are not stressed during the
considered:
course of the examination. Flat roofs on non-pressurized
X1.1.1 Sensor positions in alternate rings should be stag- storage tanks normally will not be stressed during AE
gered. A staggered arrangement provides maximum coverage examination.
of the shell plate sections and is particularly helpful in
minimizing the number of AE channels necessary to cover very
large tanks.

X2. EXAMPLE INSTRUMENT SETTINGS AND REJECTION CRITERIA

X2.1 Acceptance Criteria: X2.2 Material of Construction—This example is based on

X2.1.1 Signal strengths (that is, of signals from AE sources) tanks made from carbon steel.
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shall not increase with increasing load.

X2.1.2 Activity shall not increase with increasing load. X2.3 Instrumentation, Characteristics and Settings:
X2.1.3 Evaluation Threshold shall be 50 dB (where 0 dB Sensor sensitivity -77 dB ref. 1 volt/microbar at approxi-
mately 150 kHz
equals one microvolt at the preamplifier input).
Couplant silicone grease
X2.1.4 Any flaw which is detected must be precisely Preamplifier gain 40 dB
located; and, flaw dimensions must be determined using Preamplifier filter 100 to 300 kHz bandpass
Power/signal cable length less than 500 ft (152 m)
secondary NDT method (for example, ultrasonic inspection). Signal processor threshold 40 dB (0 dB = 1 µv, preamplifier input)
X2.1.5 Flaws that are large enough to be “fracture critical Signal processor filter 100 to 300 kHz bandpass
flaws”, or that are large enough to grow to fracture critical size Hit definition time 400 µs
Background noise less than 27 dB (0 dB = 1 µv, at the
before another re-examination is performed, shall cause a tank preamplifier input)
to be repaired or removed from service. Functional check amplitude greater than 80 dB (0 dB = 1
X2.1.5.1 “Fracture critical” flaw dimensions are based upon µv, preamp input)
fracture mechanics analysis of a vessel using strength proper-
ties which correspond to materials of construction.

X3. EXAMINATION REPORT

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 E 1930 – 07

FIG. X3.1 Sample Examination Report

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