Una Revisión de Sistemas Sostenibles de Concreto Permeable

Construction and Building Materials 261 (2020) 120491
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat
Review
A review of sustainable pervious concrete systems: Emphasis on

clogging, material characterization, and environmental aspects
Avishreshth Singh, Prasanna Venkatesh Sampath, Krishna Prapoorna Biligiri ⇑
Doctoral Research Scholar, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, India
h i g h l i g h t s
Reviewed state-of-the-art regarding pervious concrete in the built environment.

Examined causes of clogging and strategies for its mitigation.
Assessed merits of using alternative materials and additives in pervious concrete.
Discussed current design, construction, and performance assessment techniques.
Adjudged pervious concrete as environment-friendly sustainable pavement system.
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: The objective of this review paper was to discuss in detail the various sustainability benefits offered by
Received 6 May 2020 pervious concrete (PC), while also documenting the current state-of-the-art pertaining to mechanical and
Received in revised form 2 August 2020 hydrological characteristics. The prevailing mix design procedures as well as the impacts of additives and
Accepted 4 August 2020
recycled materials on behavior of PC have been discussed. Impact of pore morphology on permeability
was examined, and a note was made on current rehabilitation techniques for restoring the infiltration
rate of clogged PC surface courses. Field studies that focused on design, construction, and performance
Keywords:
monitoring of pervious concrete pavements (PCP), were highlighted. Additionally, the contribution of
Pervious concrete
Sustainable pavements
PCP to reduce the environmental impacts of built infrastructure was summarized. The multiple benefits
Environmental aspects offered by PCP such as runoff mitigation, heat alleviation, energy conservation, and emissions reduction
Clogging make it a promising material for construction of environment-friendly PC roadways. However, there still
Additives and alternative materials exists a vast scope to enhance the material’s characteristics for development of sustainable pavement
Resource conservation systems in the urban built environment.
Lifecycle assessment Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Pervious concrete mix design and compaction methodologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3. Characterization of physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4. Hydrological characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.1. Permeability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.2. Clogging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.2.1. Laboratory investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.2.2. Field investigations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.2.3. Strategies to mitigate clogging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5. Mechanical characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5.1. Compressive strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5.2. Flexural strength and fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5.3. Split tensile strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (A. Singh), [email protected] (P.V. Sampath), [email protected] (K.P. Biligiri).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120491
0950-0618/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 A. Singh et al. / Construction and Building Materials 261 (2020) 120491
5.4. Durability – freeze–thaw and abrasion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

6. Additives & alternative materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6.1. Supplementary cementitious materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6.2. Polymer modification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
6.3. Fiber modification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6.4. Replacement of virgin aggregates with rubber and recycled aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
7. Sustainability aspects of pervious concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
7.1. UHI mitigation strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
7.2. Environmental benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
8. Field applications of pervious concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
9. Innovations and future prospects of pervious concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
10. Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Declaration of Competing Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1. Introduction with higher concentration of sediments and other pollutants

[14]. Several such situations lead to an imbalance in the natural
Sustainable development of transportation infrastructure in the hydrologic cycle, which often results in contamination of water
urban environment requires a transition from energy-intensive bodies and affects aquatic life [15,16]. Note that reduced skid resis-
construction methods to low-impact development (LID) practices tance and hydroplaning are some of the other problems pertaining
[1,2]. Specifically, pervious surfaces have proved beneficial in alle- to wet and impervious pavement surface wearing surfaces [17].
viating detrimental impacts of urbanization, including, mitigation Impervious pavement systems have lower latent heat capacity as
of urban heat islands or UHI (defined as warm urban conglomer- compared to the natural ground. Thus, flexible asphalt concrete
ates compared to their surrounding rural settings occurring as a and rigid cement concrete pavement wearing courses act as heat
result of temperature differential between urban and rural estab- storage media during daytime and release heat back to the atmo-
lishments), attenuation of flashfloods, and reduction of sphere, especially during the night hours leading to UHI effect
transportation-related noise [3–7]. Moving forward, LID construc- [5,6,18,19]. UHI increases the surrounding temperature by about
tion practices must bring together a framework that encompasses 2–12 °C, which causes heat stress to urban dwellers, resulting in
novel materials, innovative designs, practicable procedures, and increased energy consumption for cooling purposes as well as
eco-friendly strategies to accomplish endured sustainability for higher CO2 emissions to the atmosphere [5,6,20,21].
future generations. In order to mitigate the impacts of impervious pavement sys-
Generally, construction of a new roadway facility is an energy- tems on society and environment, researchers across the world
intensive process, ranging from aggregate mining, material pro- have been trying to explore and develop innovative pervious pave-
cessing and production as well as transportation and handling. Fur- ment materials and best construction practices, which could
ther, during the processing of raw materials such as asphalt potentially help address the aforementioned concerns. One of the
cement (bitumen) or Portland cement and fine/coarse aggregates approaches to assuage the problems due to high impact develop-
to produce a mixture, significant proportions of greenhouse gases ment is to design and build pervious concrete pavement (PCP) sys-
(GHG) are emitted, and a large amount of heat is generated that tems. Pervious concrete (PC) is a special class of roadway material,
adversely affects the environment [8]. GHG is a set of gases that which is created by removing most or some of the fine aggregates
comprise of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxides from conventional concrete such that a small fillet of cement paste
(NOx), and fluorinated gases that tends to absorb infrared radia- holds the matrix together ensuring interconnected macropores
tions within the earth’s atmosphere, thereby escalating the tem- (1.5–8 mm) within the material [22–27]. The characteristic inter-
perature of the planet, and ultimately causing global warming. connected macropore structure of PC captures stormwater within
The energy required to produce one cubic meter of cement con- the pavement system, which greatly reduces runoff. However, in
crete is about 2775 MJ, which is generated by burning of fossil fuels areas susceptible to very high rainfalls, the stormwater can be
leading to CO2 emissions [9]. The total amount of energy consumed guided through a network of underdrains to stormwater manage-
during production and placement of asphalt concrete and cement ment ponds [24]. Additionally, PCP reduces the UHI effect due to
concrete slabs (without reinforcement) is 680 MJ/ton and 738 MJ/- its high latent heat capacity obtained by interconnected pore net-
ton, respectively; while GHG emissions during the process amount work structure [5]. More so, due to the exclusion of fine aggregates
to around 54 kg/ton and 134 kg/ton, respectively. [10]. Addition- (example: sand) from the mix design, this pavement material helps
ally, increasing crude oil prices have increased the overall cost of conserve depleting natural sand deposits, and minimizes pollutant
asphalt concrete pavements, while continued mining of quarries emissions and/or energy required during production of manufac-
for coarse and fine aggregates have led to excessive consumption tured sand.
of natural resources [11]. In practice, multiple configurations of PCP system are in use
The conventional asphalt concrete/cement concrete pavement across different parts of the world. However, the basic idea is to
fabrics, which are significantly impermeable in nature, do not overlay the PC material (100–200 mm thick) over a coarse-
allow infiltration of stormwater into natural ground, restricting grained granular layer (75–300 mm thick) such that it acts as a
recharge to underground aquifers. This has led to increased surface detention medium before draining or infiltrating stormwater into
runoff, resulting in urban flooding and eventual malfunctioning of the natural ground [28–34]. A geotextile filter fabric may be used
roadways and pathways [12,13]. Additionally, dust and debris pre- at the interface of the granular layer and subgrade/surface wearing
sent over the pavement surface as well as vehicular emissions get course to prevent intrusion of fines in different layers. Further-
mixed with runoff. Furthermore, the modern sewer-drain systems more, soil modification may be necessary if natural soil subgrade
embedded underneath the pavements allow for rapid discharge of is weak. Several attempts have been made in the past to engineer
stormwater into the nearby water bodies at increased flow rates this special pavement technology, and PC sections have been
A. Singh et al. / Construction and Building Materials 261 (2020) 120491 3
Fig. 1. Research review outline.
installed as sustainable alternatives to conventional impervious 2. Pervious concrete mix design and compaction methodologies
pavements. However, research is still emerging in the area of PC
material due to the lack of universally accepted mix design proce- PC consists of materials similar to that of conventional concrete,
dures and field implementation guidelines. except that the use of fine aggregates is eliminated/limited to cre-
Due to a multitude of benefits offered by PC, there is a keen ate a highly porous material that allows infiltration of stormwater
interest among global researchers to develop robust, durable, and through it. The importance of aggregate gradation, aggregate type
long-lasting PCP systems. The major objective of this review paper and size, cementitious materials and their proportions, as well as
was to critically assess the existing literature pertinent to PC and admixture types and content for PC mix design can be found else-
summarize the current state-of-the-art with focus on mix design where [18]. In addition, potable water shall be used to produce PC
methodologies and their impact on mechanical and hydrological mixtures. Low water content leads to the production of stiff mix-
characteristics of PC, while also documenting the various sustain- tures with poor workability; however, very high-water content
ability aspects of PCP beyond conventional pavement technologies. will render the cement paste to drain off the surface of aggregates.
In addition, the role of different supplementary cementitious mate- Previous studies have shown that typical water content for PC gen-
rials (SCMs), polymers, fibers, and recycled materials on the prop- erally varied between 0.25 and 0.45 [22,24,30,35–37]. Further,
erties of PC were documented. This paper serves as a platform to water should be free from the presence of any harmful con-
develop an understanding of the science behind clogging mecha- stituents that may react with cement, and compromise the integ-
nism in PC and the various mitigation strategies. Furthermore, rity of PC. Thus, water content and its quality shall be strictly
the scope of future effort to advance the research has been formu- monitored while designing PC mixtures.
lated using the lacunae that were identified. This collection of lit- The basic objective of mix design in a PC material is to establish
erature is expected to serve as a starting point for developing a a balance between mechanical and hydrological characteristics. In
systematic framework to quantify the environmental footprint of the absence of a universally accepted mix design guideline for PC,
PC in terms of energy savings, resource conservation, and GHG some methodized procedures proposed by different agencies have
emissions throughout its lifecycle, specifically, in the context of been utilized by several researchers and practitioners [22,37],
built environment. It is envisioned that this review will benefit while various others have investigated different mixture and
researchers, practitioners, and urban planners to further under- aggregate combinations to achieve a PC mix with desired strength
stand the various facets of this multi-faceted pavement material, and adequate porous channels to permit rapid infiltration of
and the several parameters influencing its performance over time. stormwater. A careful calibration of water and cement proportions
The structure of this critical review is summarized in Fig. 1.
is required such that the resulting mix has sufficient coating of the
0.330.330.330.330.330.330.330.330.33
cement paste over aggregates. The mix proportions adopted by
various researchers and agencies across the world are summarized
Water-to-cement (w/c) ratio in Table 1.
Traditional approach has been to provide enough cement coat-
ing around the aggregates based on trial batching and experience
0.380.450.550.560.70
to develop PC mixtures; however, research is underway to estab-
lish analytical methods that assist concrete producers to adopt
standard mixing and proportioning techniques. One such hypothe-
0.260.300.36
0.250.30.35
sis is based on excess paste theory [43], where the cement paste
required to sufficiently coat the granular skeleton was obtained
0.34
0.33
0.28
by dividing it by the surface area of spherical grains. Another inves-
tigation involved development of empirical equations for mix
5:15:15:15:15:15:15:15:15:1
design ratio of PC [44]. Researchers also proportioned PC mixtures

14:0.75:13.855:0.935:12.92:
Aggregate-to-cement (a/c)
7.63:18:18.9:110:111.25: on the basis of paste volume (PV) to inter-particle voids (IPV), and
14.57:0.375:14.19:0.56:
3.69:13.74:14:14.25:1
concluded that higher PV/IPV ratios resulted in improved strength

4.75:0:14.56:0.1875:
and durability, but reduced porosity and permeability [45]. A PV/

0.25:112.5:0.25:1
IPV ratio of 50% provided optimum balance between strength

5.94:16.84:1
and permeability.
3:14:15:1
In general, the in-situ compaction energy applied on a material

1.87:1
4.6:1
is usually lower as compared to laboratory compaction effort pro-

ratio
vided to a similar type of material. Researchers have reported that

the difference in density and porosity between field and laboratory
02104167140117
1031041031001
9095100110140
prepared mixtures was as high as 45% [28]. Amongst the different

Water (kg/m3)
compaction methodologies, hand-steel roller compaction is gener-

818285100
ally a low-energy efficient method used to compact PC material in

84–161
the field, which is limited to sidewalks, pathways, and local streets

136
99
99
[38,46]. The formation of rod holes is a common occurrence when

PC is compacted with hand-steel tamping rod due to low slump of
312314312303309
120145150180213
Cement (kg/m3)
the mixture, resulting in highly inconsistent results [47]. Another

316555466390
350360380390
study reported that the static compaction method provided higher

compaction effort near the surface of specimen and lower at the
321–487
bottom owing to low slump and stiff nature of PC [27]. Higher

352
400
300
compaction energy levels reduce the effective void content and

drainability of the PC material, but augment the mechanical perfor-
2.364.759.54.75 & 9.54.75
& 9.54.75 & 9.59.59.59.5
mance [35,48]. Vibratory compaction produces a dense mix, but

16–19.512.5–169–12.5
renders the product susceptible to formation of cavities. Further,

Aggregate Size (mm)
excessive vibrations may reduce the void content, which retards

13.29.56.74.75
the drainage efficiency of PC composite [47].

4–88–160–2
2.36–0.145
Other research studies further indicated that compaction with

26.5–2.36
standard proctor hammer results in PC mixtures with porosity

4.75–9
10–5
and density similar to that of field placed PCP. Some other

researchers have also demonstrated that PC cylindrical specimens
075150224299374748
prepared using in-situ mixtures by impulsive compaction simply

reflected performance attributes with very low standard deviations
Summary of typical mix proportions adopted to develop pervious concrete.
for porosity and permeability [47,49]. Although, standard proctor

hammer and Marshall method of compaction are known to provide
least variability in performance characteristics between laboratory
and field PC specimens, there still exists a need to identify the opti-
Fine
138115011531162516611704
mum number of blows to prepare PC in the laboratory. The number

Aggregate Density (kg/m3)
of blows and compaction layers significantly govern the porosity

379772 and 772396 and
1559156815581137 and
1916184117661692161
and density of PC. Moreover, innovative rolling compaction

1187131613291322
methodologies that closely represent field compaction energies

142014401490
must be developed to replicate the field behavior in laboratories.

1783.72053.3
715421168
1374–1686
Therefore, more research is required in this particular domain, as

compaction effort is an essential quality control parameter that
Coarse
1622
significantly affects physical, mechanical, and functional character-

istics of PC.
Cosic et al., 2015 [40]
Yang et al., 2020 [42]

Biligiri, 2016 [36]
Shu et al., 2011 [38]
Deo and Neithalath,
3. Characterization of physical properties

Narasimha, 2013
Xu et al., 2018 [41]

Chandrappa and
Maguesvari and
PC is an open/gap graded pavement material consisting of a

2010 [23]
large number of interconnected pores with typical porosity values

[39]
Source
ranging from 15 to 35% [22,24,28,35,50]. High porosity levels are

Table 1
achieved by eliminating the fine aggregate content, and propor-

tioning the w/c ratio to form a thin cement coating around the
Fig. 2. Porosity and density relationship (recreated using [22,24,28,30,37,40,43,63–67]).
Fig. 3. Porosity and permeability relationship (recreated using [22,24,26,28,37,38,42,63–67,72–77]).
aggregates. Therefore, porosity is the most essential design charac- Montes et al. method, and vacuum method [56,57]. Amongst the
teristic of PC (as PC is designed for its stormwater mitigation abil- several test methods, image analysis techniques are the most effi-
ity), unlike compressive strength, which is the design parameter cient as they provide the estimate of connected porosity in PC,
for conventional concrete. Total porosity is the summation of which is directly responsible for flow of water from surface layer
closed porosity and connected porosity [51]. Closed porosity refers to the underlying aquifers.
to the disconnected porous channels whereas connected porosity Irrespective of the test methodology, there exists an inverse
indicates the network of continuous paths for water to flow within relationship between porosity and density, i.e., with increase in
PC. porosity, the density and strength of PC tend to reduce, and vice-
Standard test procedures (regarded as the acceptance tests) versa [23,30,39,58–61]. The factors that primarily control porosity
developed by the American Society for Testing and Materials and density of PC, and ultimately mix performance characteristics
(ASTM) International are the most convenient, and extensively are aggregate gradation and cement paste. Investigations have sug-
used by researchers and project engineers to compute fresh and gested that incorporation of fine aggregates in a selective manner
hardened porosity and density of PC [52,53]. However, some other (0–30%) can help achieve higher strength while maintaining poros-
researchers have improvized the method to make use of digital ity and permeability requirements [22,39,62]. Some recent investi-
imaging techniques to distinguish between closed and connected gations have examined that blending different sized aggregates
porosity [23,40,54,55]. A few investigations have utilized methods produces a dense-like PC mixture with sufficient strength without
for determination of porosity based on material science theories compromising on pore properties [23,51,58]. It was observed that
[23,27]. Some other methods for evaluation of porosity include smaller aggregates occupy the void spaces created by larger sized
aggregates leading to the development of an interlocked network sensitive and negatively correlated to the proportion of smaller
structure that is tortuous in nature as well. Further, mixtures pro- pores, while a positive correlation existed with larger pore sizes.
duced with higher cementitious paste tend to have enhanced Medium sized pores did not have any significant influence on per-
mechanical features, but reduced porosity and permeability meability. Additionally, as the aggregate size increased, the num-
[22,24,60]. This can be ascribed to the augmented paste thickness ber and thickness of flow channels increased, thereby
around the aggregate particles, which densified the PC mixtures, contributing to higher permeability.
and resulted in lower porosity. The relationship between porosity In a recent investigation, the vertical pore-cement-aggregate
and density is presented in Fig. 2, which was recreated using the distribution in statically compacted PC specimen (110 mm diame-
data from many reported investigations. As observed, the density ter and 120 mm height) were investigated by using water displace-
of PC decreases with increase in porosity. ment and image analysis techniques [27]. The variation in top
To summarize, this section provided a brief introduction to the down porosity was 11%. Further, the average pore diameter at
concepts of porosity and density to showcase their importance in top and bottom were reported as 3.49 and 4.93 mm, respectively,
designing PC. As porosity and density govern hydrological and which indicated the presence of small sized pores at the top and
structural properties of PC, their impacts on material performance large sized pores at the bottom. Additionally, the effective pore
with and/or without the use of alternative materials will be appro- sizes at top and bottom were 1.72 and 2.23 mm, respectively.
priately discussed under different heads throughout this paper. Moreover, the majority of pores were categorized as rounded in
nature followed by irregular and elongated pores, which is contra-
dictory to the results reported elsewhere [27,69]. Also, it was
4. Hydrological characterization
reported that aggregate fraction dominated PC mixture followed
by pores and binder.
It is well understood that PC consists of aggregates of varying
Permeability being a function of pore properties was assumed
sizes and different proportions of cement paste, which result in
to follow Darcy’s law in several studies [24,61,63,72]. However,
interconnected voids of size typically ranging between 1.5 and
emerging research in this area suggests that Darcy’s law is not
8 mm [22,23,26,27]. The pore properties such as total porosity,
valid for PC as the flow in the porous matrix may not be laminar
connected porosity, closed porosity, pore size and distribution,
[36,54]. Further, the presence of large-sized aggregates contributes
pore surface area, pore connectivity, void volume, shape factor,
to turbulent flow, probably due to less tortuous flow paths. Addi-
and tortuosity, are the fundamental variables that form the basis
tionally, permeability retards asymptotically with increasing heads
for functional performance characterization of this special material
of water [36].
[18,26,27,51,54,55]. Pore parameters are influenced by the mix
In order to ascertain the uncertainties associated with the
proportions, aggregate gradation and shape, compaction tech-
assumption of Darcy’s law, researchers have used Kozeny-
niques, and modifiers [22,24,27,35,55]. Digital imaging techniques
Carman equation that combines Darcy’s flow with pore geometrics
have been used to characterize the pore framework in PC
[54,79]. Incorporation of fines (sand) in proportions>15% can
[23,27,36,51,54,55,57,68–71].
enhance structural and durability performance, but fine particles
tend to clog the pores and retard permeability [41]. It was further
4.1. Permeability observed that the effective porosity varied linearly with the total
porosity, and power function relation was proposed between per-
Permeability, which is the trademark feature of PC, is defined as meability coefficient and effective porosity. Another research sug-
its ability to allow water to flow through the interconnected pores gested that permeability is a function of the vertical distribution of
within the internal framework. The presence of open pores in the beneficial pores [57]. Thus, it becomes essential to perform an
surface wearing course facilitates rapid infiltration of water extensive examination of pore morphology to predict the actual
through the surface to the underlying layers and subsequently con- performance of PC during its service life.
tributing to groundwater recharge. Permeability is a function of Falling head and/or constant head test methods are commonly
mix proportions, pore size and shape, pore connectivity, and tortu- adopted in the laboratory to estimate permeability properties of
osity. The typical permeability for PC varies from 0.2 to 0.54 cm/s, PC. The permeability of PC when investigated under different
although much higher values have been reported in literature heads of water depicted higher values with falling head test than
[22,24,28,37,43]. Fig. 3, which was recreated using the previous the constant head test. The permeability values recorded through
investigations, clearly indicates that permeability generally falling head test method were about 0–0.005 cm/s higher as com-
increases with increasing porosity in PC. pared to constant head test method, and can be ascribed to the fact
Tortuosity, which is the ratio of actual length of fluid flow path that the falling head method does not consider the applied pres-
to the straight path in a specimen, has been found to vary between sure difference [79]. Another recent investigation showed that
2.89 and 5.91 using three-dimensional X-ray tomography (XRT) average deviation between different test methods such as falling
and image analysis techniques [78]. In a study, it was noticed that head, constant head, and constant flow was 10%, thus being similar
rod shaped pores were dominant (35–40%) in the pore structure of and equally efficient in determining the permeability of PC [75]. It
PC followed by spheroidal (22%), blade (20%), and oblate (18%) must be noted that these methods are suitable for determining
pores [69]. Amongst the different mixtures, it was further observed permeability of PC specimens in the laboratory. However, for field
that PC composite with higher proportion of spherical shaped performance characterization of in-built PCP systems, ASTM C1701
pores resulted in reduced strength and higher permeability. Fur- [80] is the most widely accepted test protocol as it gives a more
thermore, the pore volume decreased as sphericity increased. conservative estimate of permeability with lower variability com-
Another study recommended that ellipse shaped pores were pared to the permeability test method proposed by National Center
predominant throughout PC, irrespective of aggregate size (2.36– for Asphalt Technology [81].
15 mm), where most of the pores were confined by three to seven In a first-of-its-kind field study, researchers presented a sys-
aggregates of various sizes [55]. In addition, the pore distribution tematic framework based on the principle of conservation of mass
was more irregular for PC with larger sized aggregates as compared that could be utilized to estimate permeability of surface wearing
to specimens with smaller aggregates. The pore sizes were catego- course and base/sub-base layers in multi-layered PCP systems [30].
rized as small (0–20 mm2), medium (20–50 mm2), and large Interestingly, a lower magnitude of permeability was reported for
(>50 mm2). It was further observed that permeability was most base layer (0.07–0.11 cm/s) as compared to PC surface course
(0.02–1.28 cm/s), which was attributed to the presence of large clogging media was much larger than the pore size, the clogging
percentage of fine aggregates in the base. Another recent investiga- particles could not intrude into the matrix. Further, clogging parti-
tion suggested that embedding an infiltration ring of 270 mm cles with much smaller sizes than the pore size easily flowed out
diameter in PC surface wearing course that does not allow percola- through the PC composite. However, when the size of clogging par-
tion of water in underlying layers was sufficient to estimate the ticles was closely related to the pore size (size ratio of clogging
field permeability of a full-scale PC slab [31]. Such research efforts media to pore space ranging from 0.6 to 0.8), serious clogging
are expected to pave way for identification of test procedures that occurred due to deposition of clogging media within the smaller
help in formulating correlations between the permeability charac- pores of PC matrix.
teristics of in-place PC slabs as well as laboratory specimens. In contrast, an investigation showed that PC mixtures with
higher void content tend to clog at a slower rate due to the pres-
4.2. Clogging ence of a larger number of porous channels [88]. The rate of perme-
ability reduction was much higher during the first five years
PC is a globally accepted pavement material that has potential (almost 67%) of service, and thereafter it decreased at a slower rate.
to allow percolation of stormwater through its interconnected por- Moreover, smoother surface textures allow for easy removal of
ous channels [14,22,24,50]. However, PC comes with its limitation sediments unlike angular and rough aggregates that have a ten-
of clogging over a period of time, which retards the permeability dency to impede the movement of clogging media. Further, pres-
potential either partially or fully. For PC, clogging may be defined sure washing was effective in removing the sediments vertical
as the reduction in functionality due to physical, chemical, and bio- downwards throughout PC, and not just the top surface layer.
logical actions [82,83]. Physical clogging generally occurs due to Guthrie et al. [89] evaluated the impact of clogging on freeze–
the accumulation of suspended particles. It depends upon the thaw durability of PC using two magnitudes of soil clogging and
diameter and concentration of particles in the stormwater. Chem- two water saturation conditions. To mimic the field condition in
ical clogging is influenced by the presence of chemical components the laboratory, soil was collected from the immediate vicinity of
in the flowing water that lead to generation of scales within the the site under consideration. Soil was determined to be non-
pore spaces. Biological clogging is characterized by the reproduc- plastic and fraction passing 0.297 mm nominal sieve opening
tion of algae and bacteria within the porous system, and penetra- was used. Test results showed that the specimen clogged with soil
tion of debris from trees, retarding the permeability of PC. When or fully saturated with water or both deteriorated more rapidly
water enters a permeable pavement, the coarse material is when compared to the unclogged or unsaturated ones. The average
retained on the surface, which forms a blanket layer whereas the number of failure cycles for clogged specimen was 93 and for
fine matter intrudes into the substrate. With the passage of time, unclogged specimen, it was 180. Similarly, saturated samples failed
this blanket film starts to arrest more particles and becomes thick, after 80 freeze–thaw cycles as compared to 193 cycles for unsatu-
retarding the useful infiltration rate of PC material. rated specimens.
A recent study suggested that higher number of connected
4.2.1. Laboratory investigations pores in single sized aggregates are more susceptible to permanent
Past studies have suggested that the retention of fine particles damage due to clogging as the clogging media can percolate to
such as clay and silt have a more damaging effect on the infiltration greater depths, making the de-clogging process a challenging task
capacity of PC than fine sand particles [71,84,85]. Clay is more sus- [69]. It was further speculated that a combination of aggregate gra-
ceptible to deposition near the surface of PC due to the presence of dations would possibly arrest the fine particulates near the surface,
smaller pores at the top portion or surface [71,85]. Water flowing which could be removed with periodic maintenance. It has also
on to the PCP section may consist of many fine and coarse particles, been inferred that clogging is a function of the tortuosity of the
metallic pollutants, and organic waste [84,86]. An investigation flow path [57,69–71], i.e., particles that flow through more sinuous
that involved permeability measurements over multiple parking channels will have higher probability of being accumulated within
lots with five test locations having varied site characteristics the matrix and vice versa. Thus, a uniform pore structure with low
within each parking lot found that sediments with sizes<38 mm tortuosity is essential to have a clogging resistant PCP [90].
were major contributors in reducing permeability of PC [57]. On Another research tried to investigate the usefulness of rejuvena-
the contrary, another investigation suggested that sediments with tion methods to restore the infiltration capacity of PCP and exam-
diameter<6 mm had much more damaging effect on infiltration ined if the clogging media could intrude through the length of the
capacity of PCP systems [84]. Further, the hydraulic performance PC composite and even in the underlying layers [91]. The study
of a PCP retarded with age and the rate of exposure to clogging was contradictory to the results reported elsewhere [57,70,87],
media [57]. Image analysis revealed that top 25 mm of the surface which discussed that the PCP system was prone to clogging within
layer was more susceptible to clogging. It was speculated that the the top 12.5–30 mm of the surface layer only. The differences in
extent of clogging was expected to decrease as the rate of flow the findings indicated that there was no specific depth over which
increased and vice versa. Elsewhere, researchers used optical clogging could take place. It was inferred that clogging would
microscopy on in-service PCP and reported that clogging materials depend on the pore morphological characteristics, which in turn
rarely migrate into voids deeper than 12.7 mm from the surface is a function of the mix design and compaction techniques adopted
[70]. Another study utilized 3-D micro tomography analysis to to develop PC mixtures.
deduce that the clogging media penetrated only up to a depth of
30 mm [87], which is similar to the results reported by other inves- 4.2.2. Field investigations
tigators [57,70]. Researchers showed that in-service PCP systems reduce surface
A recent study examined the influence of size of clogging media, runoff through percolation and additionally improve the overall
PC pore size, and connected porosity on the clogging behavior of PC quality of water by entrapping the pollutants in a two-stage pro-
[26]. The average pore size for different PC mixtures varied cess within the pore spaces of surface and reservoir layers before
between 1.52 and 2.85 mm. Meanwhile, three clogging media of infiltration into the ground [86]. It was further examined that dete-
sizes ranging from 0.5 to 1 mm, 1–1.5 mm, and 1.5–2 mm were rioration of top surface also has a pronounced effect in retarding
used. About 10 g of clogging media was evenly sprinkled and the permeability through PCP layers. Based on in-situ infiltration
flushed within pores of the PC specimen, which resulted in perme- tests, Abbott et al. [92] reported that permeability of a PCP system
ability reduction by 11–54%. It was observed that when the size of reduces by as much as 83% within three years of its construction.
In another study, three different clogging materials: thick soil that 2–5 maintenance regimes in a year can help retain the func-
slurry, landscaping compost, and an equal mixture of both were tional attribute of PC for prolonged duration.
loaded over nine PC slabs of dimensions In a recent study, researchers utilized three sediment types,
350 mm 350 mm 150 mm prepared with similar unit weight namely, sand (S), clay (C), and a combination of both (S + C), and
and void content [93]. It was observed that the infiltration rates of three cleaning methodologies, i.e., surface (with broom), air (with
the unclogged slabs were highly variable from 0.04 to 3.82 cm/s. air compressor at a pressure of 0.83 MPa), and water cleaning (with
After testing, the specimens that offered uniform vertical cross- hydro pressure washer at 7.15 MPa) to propose maintenance
sectional infiltration or capacities higher than 0.02 cm/s were least regimes for field-placed PC [87]. In addition, two cleaning frequen-
susceptible to clogging and offered better infiltration capacity after cies designated as medium (sediment was allowed to accumulate
remedial measures. The slab specimen subjected to equal propor- on PC surface) and high (sediment accumulation over PC surface
tions of slurry and compost showed least recovery after cleaning. was restricted) were adopted. Results indicated that sand reduced
However, the initial infiltration capacity was affected significantly the infiltration rate by about 80%, and by as much as 95% for clay
after clogging test and only 50% of the initial water conductivity and S + C combination. The effectiveness of cleaning methods for
capacity could be recovered. clayey sediments was in the order: pressure washing (8.35% per-
In a recent study, ASTM C1701 [80] protocol was modified and meability recovery) > air cleaning (7.57% recovery) > surface clean-
only 3.79 L of water was used to perform the test, no matter how ing (0% recovery). This was attributed to greater dislodgement of
long the time was required during pre-wetting process [94]. The superficial clayey flakes under pressure washing as compared to
objective was to evaluate the surface permeability of PCP with air cleaning. However, for sand particles, air cleaning (permeability
changes in the surrounding temperatures. Additionally, the behav- recovery of 21.31%) was adjudged as the best maintenance practice
ior of PCP at different levels of clogging and rejuvenation was followed by washing (5.53% recovery) and surface cleaning (inef-
examined. It was interesting to note that the research could not fective). Further, medium periodicity of maintenance was regarded
establish a statistical correlation between the water temperature more effective in recovering the permeability of clogged PC slabs.
and infiltration rates. Clogging was the dominant factor affecting The cleaning frequencies for sandy and clayey sediments, and
surface infiltration rate (SIR) and masked the impacts of viscosity S + C media were recommended as once in every six months and
of water and ambient temperatures. The effect of snow was also twelve months, respectively.
not considered. Another study investigated SIR through PC using Although multiple investigations have examined the suitability
a double-ring infiltrometer, and suggested that the modified of various clogging mitigation strategies to restore the infiltration
method gives more reliable estimates of SIR than the ASTM capacity of clogged PCP systems, but the conclusions differed from
C1701 procedure as the outer ring restricts the lateral movement one study to another across different regions. This can be attribu-
of water [95]. ted to the differences in the mix design, construction and com-
paction techniques, pore characteristics, methods to evaluate
infiltration capacity, and exposure before preservation approach.
4.2.3. Strategies to mitigate clogging Further, the frequency of maintenance would depend on multiple
Based on the investigations mentioned previously, it can be factors such as drainage characteristics of the site under consider-
inferred that periodic maintenance of PCP is essential to preserve ation, nature of clogging material, debris from trees and plants due
its infiltration rate. Presence of smaller sized pores near the top to climatic variations, and landscape features. Additionally, the
surface of PC makes it highly susceptible to clogging. Therefore, effectiveness of maintenance techniques will depend on the depth
removal of fines from the top 10–30 mm of PC is the key require- and extent of clogging.
ment to ensure free movement of water. The most commonly
adopted techniques to rejuvenate the surface infiltration capacity
5. Mechanical characterization
of PCP include: sweeping, pressure washing, vacuum cleaning,
and a combination of the two [22,24,50,70,83,85,87,91].
In order to fulfill the sustainability conditions, PC should not
In vacuum cleaning, suction pressure is used to reopen the
only be credible as a water-draining pavement material, but also
clogged pores, and is effective when the clogging particles are very
meet the durability criteria during its design service life. Thus,
close to the surface. Investigators used three different municipal
strength is an essential characteristic of the PC material, which
utility machines: vacuum truck with a 200-mm diameter suction
ensures that the pavement functions satisfactorily for its design
nose, vacuum truck street sweeper, and regenerative air street
period without showing any major signs of raveling or
sweeper to remove the clogging media from the pores of an oper-
disintegration under working environment. Such a design is
ative PCP system [70]. Optical microscopy suggested that the three
expected to reduce the quantum of raw materials necessary for
equipment were equally effective in removing the sediments up to
repair/maintenance, improve energy efficiency, and reduce the
a depth of 3.18 mm, but inefficient for greater depths.
lifecycle cost.
Pressure washing method utilizes a power head cone nozzle to
channel the water through a narrow cone, and to dislodge the con-
solidated clogging media over the PCP surface, and further push it 5.1. Compressive strength
deep into the pavement through the existing pores [83]. An inves-
tigation suggested that pressure washing was more effective in Test results indicate that compressive strength of PC generally
restoring the infiltration rates than vacuum sweeping as it cleared varies from 1 to 28 MPa [6,23,24,26,28,39,40,42,43,60,61,64,67,
the passage of flow by relocating the clogging media within the 72,76,77], while higher compressive strength magnitudes have
pores [91]. However, under very high pressures, the risk of ground- also been reported in some studies [38,46,62]. Studies have
water contamination may aggravate. Another study demonstrated reported that the use of smaller sized aggregates augments the
that pressure washing was not very effective in restoring the infil- strength of PC, minimizes raveling, but compromises on its perme-
tration rate [85]. Further, the infiltration capacity depends on the ability [58,63]. However, in another study, it was reported that the
head loss that occurs in the subgrade. Hu et al. demonstrated that compressive response of a PC mixture with small sized (2.36 mm)
a combination of pressure washing (20 MPa) and vacuuming have aggregates was poor when compared to aggregates with larger
the best potential to recover the infiltration rates of severely sizes (9.5 mm) [23]. This was attributed to lower mean free spacing
clogged PC surface courses [96]. Additionally, it was recommended between pores that led to early encounter of the stress path with a
Table 2
Summary of compressive strength test results on pervious concrete.
Source Variables Modifier(s) Major Findings

Shu et al., 2011 Aggregate type: limestone and Latex; Fibers; Admixtures: high range PC mixtures prepared with limestone and latex resulted in high
[38] granite; Fine aggregate content water reducing, air entraining, compressive strength with slight reduction in porosity.
viscosity modifying
Maguesvari and Fine aggregate content Not applicable Increase in fine aggregate content resulted in increase of compressive
Narasimha, strength;Use of small-sized aggregates promote greater contact area,
2013 [39] therefore leading to higher compressive strength;Angularity number
influences mechanical behavior and permeability.
Cosic et al., Aggregate type: dolomite and Not applicable Higher proportion (60%) of large sized dolomite aggregates resulted in
2015 [40] steel slagAggregate size:4–8 mm higher strength, whereas smaller proportion (30%) of large steel slag
and 8–16 mm aggregates resulted in higher strength;Dolomite aggregate was more
porous than steel slag aggregate;Aggregate type has higher effect on
connected porosity than its size.
Hassan and Aggregate size: 10 and 20 mm; Ground granulated blast furnace slag; An inverse relationship existed between strength and porosity;Use of
Kianmehr, Ordinary Portland cement Polypropylene fibers large sized aggregates resulted in PC mixtures with higher strength
2016 [99]
Xu et al., 2018 Aggregate type: limestone and Fine aggregate content;Fly ash Utilization of fine aggregates and fly ash augmented the contact area
[41] diabase between aggregates, and resulted in improved strength.
Yang et al., Polymer content Vinyl acetate and ethylene copolymer Compressive strength: 10–20% higher than control;VAE-P at a dosage of
2020 [42] (VAE-P) dispersible powder 10% by mass of cement imparted highest strength due to increased
thickness of ITZ, ultimately leading to enhanced bonding between
aggregate and cement paste.
pore and causing failure of PC. It was further observed that com- 5.2. Flexural strength and fatigue
pressive strength reduced by almost 50% when pore volume frac-
tion was increased by 10%. Other researchers reported that crack The flexural strength of PC lies between 1 and 3 MPa
propagation was predominant through the cement paste when fine [22,24,28,40,61,65,68,100–103], but values higher than 6 MPa
grained aggregates of 2–4 mm sizes were used whereas crack [42,62,67,101,104] have also been reported when the material
propagation was principal through the aggregate grains when was produced with addition of polymers, superplasticizers, and sil-
coarse particles of 4–8 mm sizes were adopted [46]. Similarly, ica fume (SF). A study showed that polymer-modified PC materials
lower cement content (150–250 kg/m3) resulted in PC mixtures have higher fracture toughness and greater fatigue lives when
with low strength (1.06–6.95 MPa) and high porosity (35–42%) compared to PC mixtures prepared with SCMs such as fly ash
due to insufficient film thickness covering the aggregates [61]. (FA) and SF [101]. This was attributed to the development of a
In a recent study, unconfined compression test was performed strong interfacial transition zone between the cement paste and
in combination with acoustic emission technology to investigate aggregates. Another investigation suggests that the flexural
the failure mechanism in PC [97]. Further, discrete element model- strength and stiffness are significantly dependent on porosity
ing technique was used to predict crack initiation and propagation [100]. Further, the use of larger sized aggregates resulted in lower
in PC. The failure process was divided into three stages: (a) initial flexural strength due to increased pore spaces. Additionally, a more
stage, which referred to the gradual compaction of micro-pores uniform aggregate gradation (ternary) was found to develop higher
and development of micro-cracks within PC; (b) crack propagation flexural properties attributed to better interlocking between the
phase, where the deformations increased continuously with grad- aggregates. Furthermore, localized porosity and largest pore size
ual increase in applied loads (the number of micro-cracks at the fractured face, which are dependent on the aggregate grada-
increased continuously with some of them being visible to the sur- tion, have notable influence on the flexural stiffness and fatigue life
face of PC); and (c) failure stage, which refers to the gradual trans- of PC [68]. It has been reported that the overall and open porosity
formation of micro-cracks into macroscopic cracks due to values were higher with dolomite aggregates as compared to PC
increasing loads and ultimately causing the specimen to fail. The mixtures with steel slag aggregates [40]. Further, test results indi-
failure mode in PC was attributed to the stress accumulation in cated that increase in the flexural strength with dolomite aggre-
weak bonding zones between aggregates and binder, which gates was between 22 and 43%, and the dynamic modulus of
resulted in crack initiation at the contact points between aggre- elasticity was about 22–34% higher than PC mixtures with slag
gates, and further extended along their edges into the porous chan- aggregates. This further indicated that aggregate type besides size
nels until failure. However, note that the failure mechanism in has significant influence on the connected porosity and flexural
conventional concrete is generally represented by the failure of strength of PC.
aggregates. However, very few studies have investigated the fatigue behav-
An investigation utilized machine learning algorithms to pre- ior of PC [101,105,106]. In terms of compression fatigue, polymer-
dict the unconfined compressive strength (UCS) and permeability modified PC performed better when subjected to higher stress
of PC [98]. The architecture of support vector regression was tuned levels in the laboratory, which is unlikely at the actual pavement
with beetle antennae search algorithm, which is considered to be a site as the rate of deterioration is higher under higher stress mag-
reliable tool for optimization problems. Amongst the three input nitudes [105]. Researchers utilized two-parameter Weibull distri-
variables (aggregate size, w/c ratio, and c/a ratio) considered, bution to investigate the fatigue behavior of polymer-modified
aggregate size and a/c ratio had the highest influence on UCS and PC mixtures consisting of single-sized aggregates. It was observed
permeability. Higher a/c and w/c ratios led to reduction in UCS that the fatigue life decreased with an increase in the aggregate
and increase in the permeability of PC. Further, the compressive size and stress level [102]. In another recent study, it was found
strength of PC tends to increase with higher cement paste thick- that fatigue life of PC is a direct measure of its stiffness degradation
ness with slight reduction in porosity and permeability [60]. The with time, and frequency levels ranging between 2 and 10 Hz do
compressive strength results obtained from different research not have a considerable effect on field fatigue behavior of PC. Thus,
studies are summarized in Table 2. first-of-its-kind response models were developed to correlate lab-
oratory and field test properties [106]. Albeit, due to a limited Additionally, fiber-reinforced PC samples depicted a much more
number of studies and mix designs, the universal acceptance of uniform structure as compared to unreinforced specimens after
these models is still a conjecture. failure. Site investigations suggested that the aggregate base acted
as an insulating layer, keeping the pavement surface and underly-
5.3. Split tensile strength ing soil warm, thus restricting the formation of frost layer below
the PC surface [109]. Some other researchers reported that soil
PC is a brittle material and develops cracks under tension. The clogged or water submerged PC specimen deteriorated faster than
tensile stresses are generated perpendicular to the direction of unclogged or unsaturated specimen [89]. Further, under cold cli-
applied loads and along the vertical plane, ultimately causing the matic conditions, the entrapped soil particles within the PC matrix
pavement to fail by splitting along the vertical direction. Past stud- saturated and swelled by 2–3%, further contributing to the decay of
ies have indicated that the split tensile strength of PC usually varies the pore structure [90]. Due to unavailability of a systematic proce-
between 1 and 3 MPa [38,42,46,61,63,65,72,77]. However, higher dure, ASTM C666 standard [110], which dictates the traditional
strength magnitudes have also been reported in a few studies method for testing the freeze–thaw resistance of conventional con-
[43,99,107]. Alaica et al. [59] performed a systematic study to eval- crete, has been traditionally used to quantify PC mass loss. Thus,
uate the optimum cement-to-aggregate (c/a) proportion and future research is required to understand the freeze–thaw perfor-
aggregate size strictly based on tensile strength results, which mance of PC.
helped conclude that 13–16 mm aggregates with c/a ratio = 0.25 Abrasion resistance, which is a measure of field performance, is
produced highest tensile strength. It was further investigated that its potential to withstand weathering / raveling. Addition of sand,
the effects of slag and SF with 13–16 mm aggregates were highest air-entraining admixtures, polymers, SF, and fibers have been
on seven-day tensile strength followed by a combination of slag found to augment the abrasion resistance of PC
and metakaolin. In the final batch, where two fiber blends were [38,39,43,62,63,65]. ASTM C1747 test method has been used to
used with different aggregates sizes, namely, 13–16 mm and 10– evaluate the deterioration of PC under combined action of impact
13 mm; the effect on tensile strength was higher with 24% poros- and abrasion [111]. However, researchers have investigated the
ity. The failure in PC under splitting took place along the cement abrasion capacity of PC material with other potential test methods
paste rather than through the aggregates. In another study con- such as Cantabro test, loaded wheel abrasion test, and surface
ducted by Maguesvari and Narasimha [39], it was observed that abrasion test [112]. It was observed that the abrasion resistance
the split tensile strength tends to increase with decrease in the of PC increased when latex and fibers were used; with loaded
aggregate size. Further, the strength enhancement is higher when wheel abrasion method demonstrating the best sensitivity fol-
the proportion of fine aggregates increased. This was ascribed to lowed by surface abrasion and Cantabro test. The abrasion resis-
the fact that as the aggregate size reduced and finer particle con- tance is thought to be controlled by a series of factors such as c/a
tent increased; the contact area was augmented contributing to ratio, compaction, and curing techniques [35,113]. An increase in
the development of a strong matrix with superior mechanical the cement binder content resulted in improved abrasion resis-
properties. Another study reported an increment in the tensile tance. Another researcher used SF in combination with superplas-
strength by 24%, and 4% reduction in porosity when sand (7% by ticizers and concluded that the composite improved the abrasion
mass of coarse aggregates) and fibers (0–0.1% by volume of con- capacity of PC [62]. Other researchers have also examined PC con-
crete) were added to PC mixtures [63]. Researchers suggested that taining palm oil clinker coarse aggregates at different replacement
hooked-end (4D) steel fibers perform better than round crimped levels of granite under different curing conditions and concluded
steel fibers under the action of tensile forces due to higher ductil- that PC samples that are cured in water for 28 days had highest
ity, stiffness, and energy absorption characteristics [103]. The steel abrasive resistance and compressive strength than those cured in
fibers sustained greater tensile strains and delayed crack propaga- air, and under water for 3 days [113]. It was further observed that
tion through the material by bridging gaps within the composite. the abrasion potential of PC mixture depended on the porous nat-
ure of aggregates while curing regime had only a marginal effect.
5.4. Durability – freeze–thaw and abrasion resistance
Freeze-thaw resistance is the ability of any material to with- 6. Additives & alternative materials
stand cyclic stresses due to freezing and thawing. The water infil-
trating through the PC material freezes during cold climatic 6.1. Supplementary cementitious materials
conditions and generates pressure within its porous matrix. When
pore pressure exceeds the tensile capacity of the material, deterio- It is estimated that cement production contributes to around 6%
ration of the mix matrix takes place. Thus, the PC’s resistance to of the global carbon emissions generated by humans [114].
freeze–thaw depends on factors such as pore size, rate of infiltra- Although several improvements have been made in the process
tion, proportion of freezable water, and rate of freezing. In general, efficiency and clinker production, there remains a vast scope for
the freeze–thaw resistance of PC is lower as compared to conven- technological advancements to curtail its several negative impacts
tional concrete mixtures due to its exposed cement-aggregate net- on environment, and promote the development of sustainable con-
work structure [43]. However, researchers suggested that air- cretes. In one such study, three different clinker-free binders were
entrained admixtures enhanced the freeze–thaw resistance of PC synthesized, namely, alkali-activated ground granulated blast fur-
[38,63]. In another study, the use of SF and superplasticizers nace slag (AA-GGBFS), Metakaolin geopolymer (MG), and Metakao-
resulted in higher freeze–thaw durability of PC as compared to lin GGBFS (M GGBFS) [73]. The presence of calcium
conventional concrete and asphalt concrete mixtures [62]. Simi- aluminosilicates (C-A-S-H) and sodium aluminosilicates (N-A-S-
larly, addition of sand and polypropylene fibers increased the H) in AA-GGBFS and MG, respectively, were primarily responsible
freeze–thaw durability of PC, especially during initial period after for good mechanical performance of PC than composites made
production [63,65]. It was observed that the mass loss occurred with OPC. However, compressive strength of about 22–36 MPa
due to deterioration of cement paste followed by raveling of aggre- and porosity of 17–35% were reported for PC mixtures prepared
gates. Further, the compressive strength of polymer modified PC with M GGBFS due to coexistence of both C-A-S-H and N-A-S-H
mixtures after 50 freeze–thaw cycles was between 48 and gels, confirming that those binders possessed superior binding
78 MPa [108]. characteristics as compared to PC mixes prepared with OPC, whose
compressive strength and porosity ranged from 15.6 to 18.3 MPa cement (OPC) with 5–15% FA for a binary graded PC mixture
and 25–26.9%, respectively. (4.75 and 6.3 mm aggregates in equal proportions) having w/c
In another investigation, a novel chitosan modified alkali acti- ratio of 0.30 [76]. Another investigation reported an increase in
vated slag (AAS) binder was developed to prepare PC mixtures that both compressive and splitting strengths by up to 30 and 8%,
had excellent capability to adsorb heavy metal ions (Pb2+) within respectively, with a mild porosity reduction of 3% when FA was
their skeleton [104]. An addition of 2% chitosan to the AAS aug- added up until 20% as partial replacement of OPC [74]. This was
mented the adsorption capacity by about 77%, and the ratio of flex- attributed to the fact that the siliceous material present in the FA
ural strength to compressive strength by about 31%. The reacted with the alkaline agents of cement leading to the develop-
augmented adsorption capacity was attributed to the presence of ment of dense binding layer over the aggregates, which affected
hydroxyl and amino functional groups within chitosan that tend the internal pore structure of PC.
to join with heavy metal ions and contribute to water purification. Researchers indicated that an addition of 5% SF as partial
Additionally, the functional groups present in chitosan leads to replacement of cement resulted in improved structural perfor-
development of cross-linked chemical bonds with AAS leading to mance with slight reduction in void content [116]. Addition of SF
an increase in the flexural rigidity. In order to maintain the balance enhanced the yield stress of mortar with slight improvement in
between strength, permeability, and water purification, the opti- its viscosity, which increased the paste thickness and allowed for
mum value of bulk porosity of aggregates and paste-to-aggregate greater contact points between aggregate particles, resulting in
ratio were reported as 30% and 0.25, respectively. It was further increased density, lower porosity, and improved mechanical char-
concluded that there exists a linear negative correlation between acteristics. For higher percentages of SF, the admixture content
connected porosity and adsorption capacity. must be monitored to ensure desired workability and porosity.
Some other approaches could be the utilization of SCMs such as
FA and SF in PC as partial replacement for cement. A study reported 6.2. Polymer modification
that the utilization of high calcium FA geopolymer resulted in low
strength and high porosity (29–34%) PC mixtures with compressive Polymer-modified concrete has been historically produced by
strength and split tensile strength varying from 5.4 to 11.4 MPa mixing either a monomer or polymer in liquid, powdery, or dis-
and 0.7–1.4 MPa, respectively [115]. Another study utilized FA- persed form with fresh mortar or concrete [117]. The polymeric
lime-gypsum (FALG) in proportion of 50:40:10 along with four dif- substance and hydraulic cement combine to form an interpenetrat-
ferent aggregate sizes of 6.3, 8, 10, and 12.5 mm [66]. It was ing matrix that is strong in tension, resulting in superior quality
observed that the use of smaller sized aggregates resulted in higher concrete for various applications [118]. The use of polymers in
strength and lower permeability due to densely packed matrix, PC is relatively a new concept, and hence needs to be explored fur-
irrespective of the binder type. Compressive strength and split ten- ther to arrive at a rational job mix formula. The addition of waste-
sile strength of PC mixture prepared with FALG as binder reduced latex paint (up to 5% by weight of concrete) resulted in the devel-
(due to poor bond strength between the aggregates) by 25.7–36.4% opment of a PC mix whose characteristics were similar to polymer
and 20.1–33.6%, respectively, whereas, the permeability increased modified concrete produced with commercially available latex
by 21.4–45.6% as compared to PC mixtures prepared with OPC. products [119]. Further, the study contributed to the disposal of
Further, the abrasion loss was about 2–26% higher in FALG-PC mix- waste-latex paint in an eco-efficient manner, while producing a
tures attributed to their low mechanical properties. PC mix with modified characteristics.
Researchers suggested that compressive strength increased A recent study investigated the influence of utilizing polyester
between 35 and 54% while maintaining adequate permeability and epoxy resins on the mechanical, hydrological, and durability
characteristics subject to the replacement of ordinary Portland performance of PC [108]. The mix design comprised of three differ-
Table 3
Characteristics of polymer modified pervious concrete mixes
Source Properties Modifiers Polymer Findings

Huang et al., 2010 [118] Porosity;Permeability; Polypropylene Styrene butadiene Use of latex and sand decreased both porosity and permeability
Strength characteristics fiber and sand rubber (SBR) but enhanced compressive strengthOnly latex addition resulted
in a significant improvement of split tensile strengthFibers did
not affect the strength parameters significantly
Chen et al., 2013 [101] Density; Porosity; SCMs: Class C fly Vinyl Acetate High early age strength gain in SCM modified PC as compared to
Compressive strength; ash; Silica fume Ethylene + acrylic polymer modified PCPolymer modified PC had higher crack
Flexural strength emulsion resistance
Shen et al., 2013 [122] Porosity;Permeability; Rubber Latex Porosity > 18%Permeability > 0.12 cm/sAddition of rubber
Abrasion resistance;Impact augmented the impact and abrasion resistanceRubber
resistance;Permeability aggregates acted as shock absorbers, which reduced the stress
accumulation at initiation point, and restrained crack
propagation
Giustozzi, 2016 [120] Porosity; Stiffness; Tensile High Range Water Cationic SBR latex; Less compaction energy was required for polymer modified PC
strength; Abrasion resistance; Reducer;Air- Polyvinyl acetate mixes due to enhanced lubricationEffective porosity did not
Freeze-thaw resistance Entraining (PVAC) latex mix; change significantly on addition of polymersTensile strength,
Admixture; Ethylene vinyl stiffness, and durability increasedAddition of sand and polymer
Viscosity- acetate (EVA) improved the durability (abrasion, and freeze–thaw) but
Modifying powder;Anionic reduced void content
Admixture SBR latex
Ariffin et al., 2018 [121] Void ratio;Mechanical Not applicable Latex emulsion; Total void percentage did not change significantlyPolymer
properties;Coefficient of Redispersible modification enhanced the compressive and flexural
permeability polymer powder strengthsCoefficient of permeability varied proportionally with
(RPP) void ratio
Table 4
Summary of laboratory studies on fiber-reinforced PC composite
Source Fiber type Fiber properties and dosage Major conclusions

3
Huang et al., 2010 [118] Virgin polypropylene fibrillated Length: 20 mmFiber dosage: 0.9 kg/m Fibers did not have a notable effect on
containing no reprocessed olefin the strength characteristics owing to
material improper dispersion
Wu et al., 2011 [124] Polypropylene (PP) monofilament Length: 18 mmTensile strength: Fibers did not effectively contribute to
680 MPaFiber dosage: 0.9 kg/m3 augmentation of the abrasion
resistance
Kevern et al., 2014 [65] Virgin polypropylene Two lengths: 38 mm and 56 mmDiameter: Infiltration capacity reduced by 3–8
0.677 mmDenier: 3000Fiber dosage: 1.5, 3.0, times for the same mix;56 mm long
and 4.5 kg/m3 macrosynthetic fiber was more
desirable;Recommended dosage rates
for permeability as well as freeze–thaw
durability, and abrasion as key
components were 1.5 kg/m3, and
3.0 kg/m3, respectively.
Bonicelli et al., 2015 [48] Polypropylene (PP)Polyolefin PP: 19 mmPO: 19 mmPE: 12 and 18 mmDosage: Contribution of PP fiber to ITS and
(PO)Polyethylene (PE) 1 kg/m3 stiffness was not significant;PO
provided a strength increment of 10–
15%;PE-12 mm, being shorter led to
reduced strength and stiffness whereas
PE-18 mm provided reinforcing
function to PC;Void ratio reduced by
10% and 20% on addition of PP and PO
fibers, respectively;PE-12 mm and PE-
18 mm increased the effective voids
and permeability coefficient.
Bonicelli et al., 2016 [125] Polypropylene (PP)Polyolefin PP: 19 mmPO: 19 mmPE: 12 mm and 18 mmHTPP: 10% sand addition helps to resist
(PO)Polyethylene (PE)High tenacity 20 mm raveling and achieve strength
polypropylene (HTPP) requirements for urban roads;Inclusion
of PO and PP produced mixes with
ITS > 1.9 MPa after 7-days with results
comparable to that after 10% sand
addition;Addition of sand and fibers
boosted paste volume and retarded
drainability
Rangelov et al., 2016 Cured carbon fiber composite Four fractions: Combined (C), Large (L), Medium Enhanced workability;CCFCM influence
[126] material (CCFCM) (M), void connectivity and impart higher
Small (S)C < 3.35 mm2 mm < L < 3.35 mm0.841 mm infiltration rates despite low
< M < 2 mmS < 0.841 mmThree volumetric fractions: porosities;28-day compressive
0.5, 1, and 1.5% strength enhanced by 4–11% than
control mix;7-day split tensile strength
higher by 11–46%;Modulus of elasticity
improved by 4–46%.
Rodin et al., 2018 [127] Cured carbon fiber composite 0.841 mm < M < 2 mmThree volumetric fractions: Modulus of rupture for 7- and 28-days
material (CCFCM) 3, 4, and 5% improved by 57–84% and 36–65%;
CCFCM enhanced post peak load
behavior, impact and abrasion
resistance.
ent proportions of resins (12, 14, and 16%) by weight of aggregates, cosity, which led to more uniform coating over the aggregates and
and two gradations of coarse aggregates (9.5–4.75 mm and 19– improved ITZ. Studies [42,108,118–122] have well-investigated
9.5 mm). It was observed that all the resin-modified PC mixtures the fundamental science aspects of polymer-modified PC mixtures
(at a resin dosage of 12–16%) performed better than control ones, such as the role of polymer in modifying the mechanical and pore
primarily due to creation of a strong interfacial transition zone properties. All of those studies and others have enlisted the poten-
(ITZ) between the aggregates. Compressive, flexural, and splitting tial use of polymers with PC material owing to the resulting dense
tensile strengths increased by a factor of about 12–15, 5–7.5, 5– mix matrix, and potential improvement of strength when com-
8, respectively with permeability still varying between 0.89 and pared to the unmodified PC mixes. The findings from different
1.35 cm/s. Interestingly, the polyester resin resulted in higher con- research studies are summarized in Table 3.
tact area between the aggregates and cement paste as compared to
epoxy resin leading to the development of PC mixtures with better 6.3. Fiber modification
mechanical characteristics. On another account, the porosity
decreased (15–30%) with increase in the strength, but still ranged In order to augment the structural behavior of PC, investigators
between 20 and 29%, which was higher than the minimum poros- across the globe have made attempts to engineer this material with
ity requirement of 15%. fibers. Fiber-reinforced PC can prove to be beneficial as fibers (if
Researchers suggested that incorporation of vinyl acetate ethy- used in proper dosages and sizes) tend to restrict and control crack
lene copolymer (VAE-P) 10% by mass in cement, resulted in an propagation mechanism by arresting generation of strains and
increment of compressive strength (by about 13%), flexural stresses upon load application [123]. The fiber composite has the
strength (by about 25%), and split tensile strength (by about 46%) ability to withstand repeatedly applied, shock or impact loading
of PC with about 2% reduction in porosity and permeability [42]. and increases the energy absorption characteristics of the material
Addition of VAE-P did not lead to a significant change in air content leading to a ductile failure. Researchers have incorporated rice
of the paste, but improved its fluidity with slight reduction in vis- husk ash (RHA) in different percentages (0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12%
by weight) as replacement for cement supplemented with glass, porosity and permeability, but improving the compressive strength
steel, and polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) fibers in three volumetric and abrasion resistance of PC [129]. Furthermore, CR particles act
fractions of 0.2, 0.5, and 0.3%, respectively, to strengthen cement as shock absorbers and augment the abrasion and impact resis-
paste and characterize the properties of PC [107]. It was interesting tance of PC mixes. Another investigation utilized two different
to note that PPS fibers provided better interlocking between aggre- sizes (0.08–1 and 0.6–2.5 mm) and dosages (5 and 10% by volume
gates and paste. of coarse aggregates) of CR particles [130]. Fine CR inclusions
This was attributed to higher flexibility and uniform distribu- behaved as filler media and densified the cement paste, but dra-
tion of PPS fibers compared to glass and steel fibers. As a result, matically reduced the indirect tensile strength (ITS) by about 49%
the PPS fiber modified PC mixtures resisted strains at greater stress (w/c = 0.35) and 89% (w/c = 0.30) at a dosage of 10%. Conversely,
levels and delayed the crack propagation through the composite coarser particles showed slight improvement in the strength. Addi-
resulting in better mechanical properties. Additionally, test results tionally, adequate w/c ratio was essential to enclose the rubber
indicated that 8–10% RHA content was optimum with the afore- aggregates with sufficient cement paste to hold the matrix
mentioned fiber dosages, and significant enhancement in the com- together. Thus, further research is needed to gage the suitability
pressive, flexural, and tensile strengths was observed due to the of rubber in PC.
additive. Further, porosity and permeability reduced but were in In addition, the utilization of virgin raw materials in PC can be
the range of 9–29% and 0.08–0.48 cm/s, respectively, which are minimized by incorporating recycled materials such as recycled
appropriate ranges used for the design of PC surface drainage layer. aggregates (RA) obtained from construction and demolition
The research outcomes from several laboratory studies on fiber wastes, and other natural sources such as sudden cooling of vol-
reinforced PC are presented in Table 4. cano (pumice aggregate) as partial replacement of coarse aggre-
Another study suggested that utilization of 100% recycled con- gates. Some other sources of recycled materials include slag-
crete aggregates to develop a PC mixture that was suitable for based aggregates, which are produced during different stages of
pavement applications was practical provided the mix design com- production and refining in industries. Such an approach will fur-
prised of steel fibers at a dosage of 2% by volume of concrete mix- ther scale down the need for disposal at landfills and control the
ture along with partial replacement of cement with 10% SF and 2% mining of natural virgin aggregates, and potentially augment the
nanoclay [128]. Furthermore, the utilization of waste plastic fibers sustainability benefits offered by PC [131]. Researchers reported
did not have a significant positive impact on structural perfor- that the compressive and splitting tensile strength of PC mixtures
mance due to their inherent lower strength and modulus of elastic- with 10% replacement of RA were similar to the control mix [132].
ity compared to steel fibers. In a study, it was observed that However, for higher RA content in PC, the cracks propagated easily
addition of hooked-end steel fibers (at dosage of 1.5% by volume) through the weak mortar adhered to the surface of RA, leading to
not only enhanced the strength characteristics of PC with slight reduced strength and increased permeability. Further, full replace-
reduction in permeability, but also led to reduction in thickness ment of natural aggregates with RA led to waste recycling up to
of surface wearing course by about 25 mm [103]. 73% by volume and reduction in carbon emissions by 24%. Another
recent study utilized a novel treatment method by immersing RA
6.4. Replacement of virgin aggregates with rubber and recycled in 10% silane polymer emulsion for 24 h, and subsequently drying
aggregates at room temperatures [133]. It was observed that silane molecules
penetrated the micro-cracks and pore spaces within RA, which led
Disposal of waste tires is a major concern worldwide and poses to the formation of hydrophobic silicon membranes over their sur-
a serious threat to health and environment. The most common face. This resulted in reduction of the water absorption capacity as
recyclable products obtained from waste tires are crumb rubber well as surface free energy, thereby, allowing better bonding
and tire-derived aggregates. The multifold environmental benefits between cement paste and neighboring RA. The cement redistribu-
of this pavement material can be further engineered by accommo- tion action led to the development of PC composites with almost
dating waste tires in the PC composite to dispose the waste rubber 20–80% and 20–60% higher compressive and tensile strengths,
in an environment-friendly manner, while producing a PC mix respectively, as compared to PC mixtures with untreated RA, while
with superior qualities. Investigators in the past have added scrap maintaining permeability within the desired range.
tire-derived rubber aggregates in different proportions to polymer An investigation suggested that utilization of 75% RA to replace
modified PC as partial replacement to coarse and fine mineral low quality natural coarse aggregates with a combination of using
aggregates in two separate mixtures [122]. The rubber aggregates FA to replace about 25% cement content increased the compressive
comprised of two different sizes designated as A (1.18 to and splitting tensile strength of PC [134]. However, Asadi et al. [64]
4.75 mm) and B (0.6 to 2.36 mm), which were added as partial recommended that up to 50% replacement of natural aggregates
replacement for coarse and fine aggregates, respectively. The opti- with RA was permissible to achieve PC mixtures with desired
mum replacement value for A and B rubber aggregates was 18 and strength and porosities. Other researchers investigated that the
14%, respectively, which resulted in an increase in the energy influence of specimen size and shape, binder material type, and
absorption capacity and strength characteristics of PC. The flexural age on the compressive strength were not very significant when
strength of coarse and fine PC composites increased by 30 and 9%, two PC mixes were prepared using granite and RA, respectively,
respectively. However, the compressive strength increased by 12 with GGBFS as partial replacement of cement [135]. It was further
and 8% at optimum dosages of coarse and fine rubber aggregates, observed that compressive strength was a function of aggregate
respectively. Further, at higher rubber contents, a weak porous type and porosity. Exponential relationships were proposed
framework was developed, thus degrading the strength. Addition- between strength and porosity for natural and RA based PC with
ally, very low rubber aggregate content led to the formation of coefficient of determination equal to 95%. Further, the aggregate
multiple weak links in the porous matrix, eventually decaying type did not have a pronounced effect on permeability, and it
the mechanical attributes. Moreover, rubber aggregates reduced was rather dependent on the porosity of the PC mix.
the stress accumulation at the spike of initial crack and restrained The properties of PC mixtures comprising of RA were investi-
the crack propagation effectively through the porous matrix, thus gated by replacing natural crushed aggregates in proportions of
ameliorating the abrasion resistance and impact tolerance. 0–100% [88]. In order to create a more environmental-friendly PC
In another study, it was observed that crumb rubber (CR) parti- mixture, GGBFS was used as 50% replacement of cement. The con-
cles occupied the pores within the aggregate skeleton, retarding trol mixtures were proportioned to achieve target porosities of 10
and 20%. Results indicated that with every 10% increase in RA con- at 10% porosity. Further, PC mixtures designed with sulfoaluminate
tent, the permeability improved by about 12–43%. However, addi- and calcium aluminate cements reacted with EAFSA and led to the
tion of GGBFS led to a reduction in the permeability by about 15– formation of excessive ettringite, which resulted in degradation of
23%, respectively. Further, for every 10% addition of RA to PC mix- mechanical properties, especially for PC specimen cured under sat-
tures, reduction in compressive strength (by 10–12%), flexural urated lime water conditions. In general, air curing resulted in
strength (by 6.2–10.9%), and split tensile strength (by 6.6–11.3%) lower mechanical attributes for PC specimen due to premature loss
was observed. The lower mechanical properties were mainly of moisture.
attributed to: a) development of weak bond between the fresh A recent study examined the impact of binder-to-aggregate
cement and adhered mortar on RA surface, b) low density of RA ratio and different binder types (as partial replacement of OPC)
and, c) increase in porosity of RA modified mixtures. Similarly, on PC specimen prepared with steel slag aggregates (5–10 mm
for RA-GGBFS modified specimen, reduction in compressive size) [137]. An increase in 28-day compressive strength (almost 2
strength (by about 8%), flexural strength (by 4–5.1%), and split ten- times) and decrease in permeability (about 80%) was observed
sile strength (by 5.1–7.6%) was observed. The addition of GGBFS with increase in cement content (from 300-450 kg/m3) due to
improved the mechanical characteristics in comparison to RA mod- reduction in the pore volume of PC. However, when GGBFS was
ified PC due to improved pozzolanic reactivity, which led to densi- used as 16% replacement of OPC, a drastic increase in permeability
fication of cement paste and reduction in porosity of mixture. (from 0.26 to 2.49 cm/s) and reduction in compressive strength
Moreover, the abrasion resistance of PC was not affected for (about 62%) were observed. For binary (8% GGBFS and 8% SF or
replacement of natural aggregates with up to 20% RA. However, FA) and ternary (8% GGBFS, 4% SF, and 4% FA) binder systems,
for higher proportions of RA, the mass loss was considerably higher the permeability varied between 0.63 and 1.30 cm/s, and compres-
due to inferior characteristics of RA, and presence of weak bond sive strength ranged from 19.4 to 24.2 MPa. Based on results, it was
between cement paste and RA. The researchers further recom- understood that the PC mixtures comprising of binary and ternary
mended that addition of GGBFS allows between 20% and 40% binders had improved ITZ, which resulted in better properties as
replacement of natural aggregates with RA without compromising compared to PC mixtures with only GGBFS as partial replacement
on structural-hydrological parameters, while promoting recycling of cement. Further, the utilization of steel slag aggregates with dif-
of industrial wastes and contributing to green construction ferent mineral binders resulted in higher connected porosity as
practices. compared to the control concrete mixtures, which resulted in
In a study conducted by Berry et al. [136], virgin coarse aggre- lower strength and higher permeability.
gates were substituted with six different levels (0, 10, 20, 30, 50, Although slag-based PC mixtures performed satisfactorily in
and 100%) of RA supplemented with an air entraining admixture, terms of functional and structural performance characteristics,
a high-range water-reducing admixture, and a viscosity modifier additional research is needed to investigate their long-term behav-
in predefined proportions. Density and compressive strength aug- ior when directly exposed to water for prolonged durations. There-
mented up to 20% RA substitution with slight reduction in perme- fore, there is an urgent need to characterize the slag-based PC
ability. However, the strength characteristics of PC reduced when mixtures for their volumetric stability under aggressive environ-
blended with 100% RA, which was attributed to the lower density mental conditions. High pH may have a degrading impact on
of RA as compared to virgin natural aggregates, and higher angu- groundwater quality and aquatic life of receiving water body at
larity of RA due to the presence of hydrated cement paste (that the downstream end. More research must be conducted to exam-
had occurred in the past during its service) over its surface. Addi- ine their freeze–thaw durability, life cycle, and cost of application.
tionally, the permeability also impeded with 100% substitution of In another study, researchers characterized PC specimen that
RA. This was ascribed to reduced pore connectivity, resulting in utilized burnt bricks as coarse aggregates [138]. To compensate
fewer numbers of porous channels for percolation of water through the weak nature of burnt bricks, fine aggregates varying between
PC. Further investigation of RA properties such as water absorp- 5 and 20% were added. The highest magnitude of compressive,
tion, density, toughness, and angularity are required to character- splitting tensile, and flexural strengths were recorded at a w/c ratio
ize their effect on the performance of PC mix. of 0.3, whereas the optimum porosity values were recorded as 10–
Another research study investigated the feasibility of utilizing 20%. The compressive strength and permeability of PC with single
copper slag aggregates (CSA) in PC mixtures as partial replacement size aggregate gradation varied from 3 to 10 MPa and 1.36–
of dolomite aggregates (0–100%) [77]. The maximum increase in 2.11 cm/s, respectively, and that for well graded mixtures as 17–
compressive strength (31%), flexural strength (19%), and split ten- 34 MPa and 0.53–1.29 cm/s, respectively. The overall reduction
sile strength (18%) were reported at a CSA dosage of 60%. These in compressive strength of burnt brick PC specimen was 19–62%
results were attributed to the high impact and crushing values, as compared to PC with natural aggregates. Nonetheless, such
bulk density, and abrasion resistance of CSA. However, the low strength PC mixtures should only be installed for pedestrian
mechanical characteristics decreased for higher proportions of movement but never for vehicular loads.
CSA (>60%) due to increase in volume of voids within the mixture
and development of cracks in the ITZ. Further, the pull out adhe-
sion strength at 60% CSA was similar to control mixture but 7. Sustainability aspects of pervious concrete
reduced by about 30% when dolomite aggregates were fully
replaced with CSA. Additionally, the permeability increased 7.1. UHI mitigation strategy
slightly with increase in proportion of CSA, being about 10% higher
than control mix at a dosage of 60% CSA. Although UHI exists at multiple levels such as pavement sur-
An investigation utilized four different cements: type I, type II, face, near pavement surface, ambient air, and atmosphere, most
sulfoaluminate, and calcium aluminate, and two curing regimes of the investigations have dealt with near surface and surface heat
(28 days) namely: lime water curing and air curing to investigate islands. Pavements constitute about 20–40% of the land cover in an
their influence on PC specimen prepared with electric arc furnace urban habitat and are therefore recognized as major contributors
slag aggregates (EAFSA) of sizes ranging between 4.8 and 9.6 mm to the UHI effect [2]. This has led to an increase in the surrounding
[67]. PC specimen prepared with type II cement and lime water temperatures, and higher power consumption for cooling pur-
curing exhibited highest compressive strength (26.73 MPa) and poses. To curb the impacts of high temperatures and GHG emis-
flexural strength (6.87 MPa), and lowest permeability (0.34 cm/s) sions from cooling units on the environment, the concept of cool
pavements has emerged [18,20,21]. Cool pavements are often well as transportation, laying, and maintenance of pavement sys-
referred to as reflective/porous pavements that reduce the surface tems cause negative impacts on the environment [10]. Thus, devel-
temperature and help lower the heat absorbed in the pavement opment of sustainable and eco-friendly pavement technologies has
sub-surface. Porous pavements are known to lower the surface the potential to help conserve natural resources, reduce energy
temperatures through evaporative cooling mechanism. consumption, and minimize GHG emissions. It is estimated that
In a field study, Li et al. [5] investigated six permeable (two sec- transportation sector is responsible for about 75% of the global
tions each for interlocking concrete paver, porous asphalt, and PC) CO2 emissions, and consumes 20% of the total global energy
and three impermeable tests sections (one section each for inter- [142]. In the pavement construction process, the extraction and
locking concrete paver, porous asphalt, and PC) with each having processing of raw materials is remarkably energy-intensive and
a cross-section of 4 m 4 m. Six thermocouples were embedded causes higher GHG emissions as compared to transportation and
below the surface for measurement of in-depth pavement temper- mixing of materials, laying, and maintenance of the pavements
atures, and two above the surface. Further, 0.22 m3 per square [10,143].
meter of water was irrigated over the six permeable sections to In case of PCP systems, unlike conventional pavements, the
study the thermal response under wet and dry conditions. The base/sub-base course is an untreated granular layer. It has been
results indicated that permeable pavements under wet condition found that the energy consumption for untreated granular material
were more effective in reducing the surface temperatures as com- is about 81% lower as compared to that required for the base
pared to impermeable sections. It was also adjudged that perme- course in asphalt concrete pavement system [10]. Similarly, GHG
able pavement is an effective strategy to reduce UHI and emissions reduce by almost 68% for untreated granular material
mitigate thermal discomfort. when compared to the base course in asphalt pavement system.
Another field investigation examined that the surface tempera- Further, GHG emissions for a graded base in permeable asphalt
ture of PC layer was high near the top surface on a dry warm day pavement was lower by about 53.3% than semi-rigid base [144].
with subsequent temperature reductions in the mid and bottom In addition, due to the absence of fine aggregates (sand) in surface
depths [139]. A comparative study was conducted to understand wearing course of PCP, it has the potential to conserve depleting
the thermal behavior of PCP and Portland cement concrete pave- natural sand deposits. A study reported that for every 20% incre-
ment (PCCP) [19]. After a five-day heating cycle, it was found that ment in the proportion of RA content in PC, the CO2 emissions
the surface temperature of PCP was higher than PCCP during the reduced by 5% [132]. Additionally, for PC mixtures comprising of
day-time, but night temperatures were almost similar. Nonethe- 100% RA, the waste reduction was as high as 87% by weight and
less, the amount of heat stored by PCP over the five-day period reduction in CO2 emissions by about 24%. Another investigation
was about 12% lower as compared to that of PCCP. This was attrib- suggested that replacement of natural aggregates with 100% palm
uted to the open pore network of PCP system. oil clinker results in CO2 emissions reduction by 20% [113]. How-
A recent investigation found that PCCP exhibits lower surface ever, such PC mixtures shall be placed at selective locations
temperatures than PC because of their ability to reflect more solar (preferably footpath) owing to their low mechanical properties.
radiations back to the environment [140]. However, the near sur- In a recent study, a systematic cradle-to-gate LCA toolkit was
face air temperature of PCCP was 22–30% higher than PC mixes, proposed to quantify the total embodied energy and GHG emis-
indicating that PCCP pavements are more likely to cause higher sions of 1 km long PCP [145]. It was reported that for RMC produc-
thermal discomfort for urban dwellers. Further, the thermal energy tion, the embodied energy and GHG emissions for PCP were lower
released by PCCP to the atmosphere during night was higher than as compared to conventional concrete pavements by 2.97 and
PC, leading to high nighttime temperatures. Moreover, under 2.84%, respectively. However, for in-situ concrete production, the
windy conditions, the temperature in PC increased slowly but respective energy and emissions were 3.16 and 2.94% lower than
reduced rapidly as compared to PCCP due to its characteristic evap- conventional concrete. The lower energy and emissions for PCP
orative surface. were attributed to the absence of fine aggregates, and slightly
In another recent study, different sizes of aggregates were used higher cement content in conventional concrete pavement sys-
to produce five PC and one type of PCCP mixtures, such that each tems. Further, the capital cost of PCP was about 1% higher for
mixture was representative of single-sized aggregates only [141]. RMC and 3% lower for in-situ concreting activities. A similar study
The test slabs had a dimension of reported that PC has potential to reduce the CO2 emissions as com-
300 mm 300 mm 150 mm. It was observed that the heat pared to conventional concrete [146].
required to raise the temperature of PC per unit mass was smaller Another study examined the environmental performance of
by 12–20% compared to PCCP due to the presence of intercon- three porous pavements, namely, permeable interlocking pavers,
nected pores. Further, due to open pores and presence of a large PC blocks, and porous asphalt systems using a cradle-to-grave
number of voids, albedo of PC was lower by 18–29.1% in compar- approach for a design life of 20 years [147]. The major environmen-
ison with PCCP. Additionally, thermal conductivity of PC was smal- tal burdens were generated during material production phase. The
ler by 8.5–14%, which decreased with increase in the aggregate environmental impacts of PC were 26% lower as compared to inter-
size. The key parameters influencing the near-surface air tempera- locking paver blocks (due to higher material requirement, i.e.,
ture were thermal storage and surface temperature. Since the heat sand) and 71% lower as compared to porous asphalt. Higher bur-
releasing capacity of PC was lower than PCCP, the air temperature dens for asphalt pavement were primarily due to large emissions
near PC was lower than PCCP. that were generated during maintenance phase other than mate-
Based on above investigations, it can be concluded that PCPs rial production stage. Based on findings, it was recommended that
have high potential to mitigate UHI. However, research is still PC was the most suitable pavement material from environmental
emerging in this area, and it is imperative to develop time- considerations.
dependent models that encompass a broad range of variables and Wang et al. [144] proposed a generalized model that was suit-
translate UHI effect into CO2 emissions. able for computation of environmental impacts of permeable pave-
ments. This study indicated that during the use phase of
7.2. Environmental benefits pavements, permeable pavements were beneficial in reducing
energy consumption (by about 73%), GHG emissions (by about
The various stages of construction of pavement infrastructure 47%), zinc emissions (by about 98%), and lead emissions (by about
such as extraction, processing, and manufacturing of materials as 100%) as compared to dense graded asphalt pavements. This was
attributed to the ability of permeable pavements to capture water Based on results proposed by Hassan and Kainmehr [99], the
within their pores and reduce urban flooding, which prevents the albedo of PC is lower by 12% as compared to conventional concrete,
vehicular traffic from detouring and minimizing fuel consumption. but 75% higher than asphalt concrete. Thus, the energy require-
Further, the pores have strong affinity for heavy metals such as ments for PCP are expected to be higher than PCCP but much lower
zinc and lead, and further minimize the need for establishment when compared with asphalt pavements. Another study reported
of stormwater treatment plants. that in terms of environmental benefits, PC performed better than
Some other researchers evaluated the ability of PC to remove porous asphalt and stone matrix asphalt [153]. It was suggested
NOx from air under different environmental conditions [64]. Test that International roughness index (IRI) must be maintained below
results indicated that the air purifying potential of PC mixtures 2.56 m/km to ensure low environmental impacts during vehicular
increased with increase in thickness of titanium dioxide (TiO2) use phase of pavements. Some other studies encompassed several
layer. At a TiO2 depth of 12.5 mm, nitric oxide (NO) and NOx literatures that compared and reviewed the environmental perfor-
removal rates were reported as 30 and 34%, respectively, while at mance of permeable pavements with conventional drainage sys-
75 mm depth, the NO and NOx reduction were 50 and 53%, respec- tems [154]. However, the current review paper discussed the
tively. These results were attributed to the fact that ultraviolet literature pertinent to construction and use of porous pavements,
radiations can penetrate at greater depths in PC unlike conven- specifically PCP systems from the energy, emissions, and cost
tional concrete (where NO and NOx reduction were about 9%), perspectives.
resulting in improved photocatalytic action at increasing depths Based on the above investigations, it can be stated that sustain-
of porous media. Overall, the NOx removal rate was between 34 ability in pavement infrastructure can be achieved by utilizing
and 62%. Further, the effect of void contents (23, 27, and 31%) on novel pavement systems such as PCP and energy efficient pro-
air purifying ability were similar. Additionally, higher flow rates cesses that will help conserve existing natural resources, reduce
resulted in lower contact period between pollutants and TiO2 energy consumption, minimize GHG emissions, and thus con-
agents, resulting in reduced NOx removal efficiency. However, fur- tribute to LID. However, PCP systems are emerging pavement tech-
ther research is needed to investigate the long-term purifying nologies so quantitative models must be developed to
capability of photocatalytic PC. comprehensively investigate the energy consumption and emis-
In a similar research, the air purification capacity of PC consist- sions from the stage of extraction of raw materials to disposal at
ing of TiO2 soaked RA was investigated [148]. Test results indicated the end of design life. Moreover, investigations pertinent to the
that RA performed better than natural aggregates due to their use-phase such as albedo, traffic, lighting energy requirements,
rough texture and presence of porous mortar on the surface, which and expenditures occurring based on temporal behavior of PCP
absorbed higher number of TiO2 particles. Amongst the six differ- are essential. Finally, models considering accumulation of dust
ent concentration of TiO2 (0–0.5% in increments of 0.1%), the high- and dirt, air temperature and pressure, humidity, surface rough-
est reduction in concentration of NO was achieved at 0.3%. The ness, and deterioration of infiltration capacity with time must be
reduction in NO concentration before and after severe rainfall developed for systematically evaluating the environmental
event were 70 and 49.60%, respectively. impacts of PC material and associated pavement systems.
In terms of lifecycle cost analysis (LCCA), permeable pavements
were about 30% more cost-effective compared to conventional
pavements [149]. However, researchers recommended the need 8. Field applications of pervious concrete
for a more detailed LCCA encompassing different phases of pave-
ment lifecycle such as construction, operation, maintenance and Most of the studies in the past have focused on characterization
scrap value. Similarly, the initial cost of construction of conven- of PC material in the laboratory for its structural and hydrological
tional concrete and asphalt concrete was 18 and 41% lower than performance. However, very limited studies are available that dis-
PC [150]. However, permeable pavements were cost-effective for cuss the long-term performance of this material in the field.
20 and 30 years LCCA period. Further, for an analysis duration of Researchers investigated the long-term hydraulic performance of
40 years, the LCCA was highest for PC and lowest for conventional PCP system by monitoring the infiltration rates across eight park-
concrete. Another study reported that permeable pavements are ing lots [155]. Two field test facilities were designed, and field
efficient in removing about 98% of the runoff generated during cored samples were drawn to estimate the infiltration rates
storm event unlike standard asphalt pavements whose runoff mit- through the PC surface and the underlying soil. Based on the field
igation efficiency was only 32% [151]. Although the installation cores, it was observed that PCP, if properly constructed, would per-
cost of permeable pavements (US$165,350) was higher compared form satisfactorily even after 12 years of operation, and the aver-
to asphalt systems (US$109,000), for a design life of 25 years, per age infiltration rate recorded was 0.006 cm/s.
acre cost of permeable pavements was about 17% lower than In another study [32], a PCP section 27 m 3 m 0.25 m was
asphalt pavement systems. Further, the construction of permeable constructed adjacent to a truck parking area, and monitored for its
pavements eliminates the need for installation of water runoff infiltration response as well as water filtering action over a period
treatment facility, and hence results in cost savings as well. of one year. The PC surface wearing course was supported over a
Researchers reported that the albedo of PC was 75% higher than 300-mm thick GSB layer composed of CR from scrap tires and sand.
asphalt and 11% lower than conventional concrete [99]. Further, The GSB layer was compacted to 90% of the maximum density, and
the albedo of PC increased by 19% when cement was partially embedded ring infiltrometers were used to estimate the infiltra-
replaced with 50% GGBFS, while CO2 emissions reduced by 54%. tion rates over time. Three different heads were used that varied
An investigation depicted the energy consumption to meet the from 0 to 25, 150, and 225 mm, and the average infiltration rates
lighting requirements for asphalt and concrete pavements over a were recorded to be 0.002, 0.003, and 0.004 cm/s, respectively.
50-year period [143]. It was observed that the energy consumption Additionally, it was observed that the quality of discharge through
due to lighting requirements for asphalt was nearly 720 MWh a collection of pipes installed at the edge of PCP was better than the
higher as compared to the concrete pavement per km stretch. quality of runoff water. Further, an average of 500 axles per week
Researchers further claimed that the lighting requirements for was recorded based on traffic counts, and the PCP behaved satisfac-
asphalt pavement were about 50% higher than concrete pavements torily with no visual raveling over a period of one year.
[152]. Note that the lighting requirements not only depend upon Though permeability is the functional attribute of PCP, analysis
the climatic conditions but also the albedo of a pavement surface. of the structural response of this special material is also essential
Table 5 Association (ACPA) [159]. A finite element software package was

Summary of pervious concrete characteristics based on parking lot applications. utilized for modeling the PC slabs resting over 304–609 mm thick
Source Parameters Investigated Results base layers when subjected to single and tandem axle loads. Three
Chopra et al., 2010 [91] Density 1631–2355 kg/ levels of flexural strength (1.7, 2.4, and 3.1 MPa), and two typical
m3 subgrade moduli (27.14 and 54.28 MPa) were utilized for stress
Permeability (before 0.0003– computations. However, the science behind thickness computation
cleaning) 0.1603 cm/s actually requires further validation by developing fatigue models,
Permeability (after 0.003–1.016 cm/
cleaning) s
specific to PCP systems.
Shu et al., 2011 [38] Porosity 10–24% In a study by Chandrappa and Biligiri [28], eighteen PC slabs
Permeability 0.06–0.20 cm/s that were 3 m long, 2 m wide, and 0.15 m thick using six different
Split tensile strength 2.2–3.1 MPa mixtures (three replicate slabs per mix type) were constructed
Abrasion loss 12–15%
over a 60 m stretch to serve as walkway and parking lot for light
Kayhanian et al., 2012 [57] Porosity (Scanning 8.26–34.51
method) motor vehicles. As the proposed pilot section was expected to carry
Porosity (Gravimetric 9.19–26.54 low traffic volume moving at slow speeds, a 75-mm thick com-
method) pacted sand bed was used as the base layer instead of GSB layer.
Permeability 0.0002– Fresh PC material was laid over the base layer and vibratory plate
1.9861 cm/s
roller was utilized to compact the fresh mix. The joints between PC
Gogo-abite et al., 2014 [34] Average density 1792 kg/m3
Average compressive 11.5 MPa slabs were sealed with 12.5 mm thick polystyrene sheets for full
strength depth (0.15 m). Curing compound was sprayed over the finished
Chandrappa and Biligiri, Porosity 22.1–33.37% slabs to control the loss of moisture and covered with plastic
2016 [28]
sheets for 14 days as part of the curing process. Test results indi-
Compressive strength 11.29–
19.48 MPa cated a higher porosity and lower density for field mixtures when
Flexural strength 1.87–2.89 MPa compared to similar mixtures prepared in the laboratory. However,
Permeability 0.39–1.45 the magnitude of infiltration rates observed for field and laboratory
Singh et al., 2018 [29] Infiltration rate (PCP) 0.05–0.29 cm/s mixtures were found to be similar. Further, single graded mixes
Singh et al., 2019 [30] Porosity 14.41–29.10%
resulted in lower infiltration capacity due to thicker coating of
Density 1860–1989 kg/
m3 cement paste over the aggregates. Further, field-cored specimens
Compressive strength 20.47– were found to be inaccurate measures to judge the mechanical
24.56 MPa characteristics of this special material due to a loss of aggregates
Infiltration rate (PC) 0.02–1.28 cm/s
and generation of dust during the field coring process.
Infiltration rate (GSB) 0.07–0.11 cm/s
Recent investigations followed a similar construction procedure
with the difference that a GSB layer was installed beneath the PC
to characterize its field performance under vehicular loads in a
surface wearing course as the pavement test sections were
concurrent manner. Falling weight deflectometer (FWD) has been
designed to serve as parking lots, which were expected to carry
used by researchers in the past to evaluate the load–deflection
occasional truck traffic [29,30]. Additionally, rubber mastic pads
response of a pavement subjected to impulsive loading. Further,
were inserted for full depth across full width between the joints.
back calculation of moduli of subgrade reaction (k) and modulus
A summary of the range of different PC characteristics found for
of elasticity (E) was undertaken [33,34,156]. Depending on the
parking lots is presented in Table 5.
sub-base and subgrade characteristics, PC deflected 1.4 to 7 times
compared to impervious conventional cement concrete surface
when subjected to traffic loads by the FWD [34]. The structural 9. Innovations and future prospects of pervious concrete
integrity of PCP, in terms of the magnitudes of deflection, was
found to be strongly dependent on the compaction effort applied Despite the growing recognition of PC as a sustainable pave-
on the underlying layers [33,34]. ment material, further research is essential to promote widespread
In a study conducted by Alam et al. [157], finite element field implementation of PCP as follows:
methodology was used to assess stress and deflection responses
of PCP (with 25% mean porosity) roadway shoulders when sub- This review documented the existing mix design practices and
jected to 80 kN single axle and 160 kN tandem axle truck loading. their impact on structural and hydrological properties of PC.
Linear static analysis was performed and the pavement slab was Due to disparity between mixture proportions adopted by dif-
analyzed for corner, edge, and center loadings. The critical stress ferent researchers, there is a lack of a universal design method-
occurred for edge loading, while the maximum deflection was ology. Compaction methodologies that translate the field
noticed for corner loading in the PCP slab. Based on the pavement’s compaction energy for laboratory mixture designs must be
response, it was concluded that location of the wheel at the center investigated. Additional research is needed to advance the cur-
of the pavement slab was not critical for stress as well as deflection rent state-of-the-knowledge pertinent to microstructural and
estimations. It was further observed that if the thickness of a PC pore characteristics of PC. Further, refined structural modeling
slab was increased, the deflection reduced by 0.43% due to techniques that analyze the discrete nature of PC must be inves-
increased stiffness. However, the displacement increased when tigated. Moreover, standard test methodologies specifically for
the thickness of a PC layer was increased to 305 mm, apparently PC must be devised. A systematic investigation and compilation
due to additional self-weight. Also, tensile and compressive stres- of these research lacunae is envisioned to pave way for formu-
ses decreased with increasing thickness of PC surface wearing lation of design and construction guidelines. In addition, repair
course. and maintenance strategies must be formulated based on per-
Another investigation [156] developed a thickness design data- formance of PC.
base for low volume roads using four different traffic categories The mechanical and hydrological characteristics of PCP with dif-
and axle loads given in the ACI standard for ‘‘Design and Construc- ferent additives, SCMs, wastes, and recycled materials must be
tion of Concrete Parking Lots” [158]. The evaluation was based on explored further. The impact of alternative materials on pore
the fatigue equation proposed by the American Concrete Pavement properties must be investigated as they govern the behavior
of PC. Further, studies on long-term performance evaluation of conserving energy, and reducing CO2 emissions, thereby reducing
PC comprising of recycled materials such as rubber and slag is the environmental impact of conventional pavement infrastruc-
required and must be explored to quantify their sustainability ture, and contributing to LID.
benefits during the design life. In addition, other aspects associ- Overall, the wealth of literature collated in this study is envis-
ated with the use of alternative materials such as runoff quality, aged to foster widespread implementation of PCP systems, and
resource conservation, economy, and environmental footprint promote development of sustainable pavement infrastructure. This
must be quantified. critical review depicted several research gaps and highlighted the
Although the high porosity of PC is beneficial in terms of runoff research way forward for advancement of current technological
mitigation, it also renders the system highly susceptible to rav- prospects of PCP application. These research gaps, if investigated
eling and clogging. Therefore, more research is required to thoroughly may lead to enhanced pavement performance and
frame practices that help preserve the beneficial pore structure eventually contribute to the development of standard test proto-
of PC, such that the resulting matrix not only imparts good cols, design and construction guidelines, performance monitoring
strength and permeability but also resists clogging. Develop- strategies, maintenance practices, and rational procedure for envi-
ment of load type-frequency-time dependent models for esti- ronmental evaluation of PCP systems in future. Nonetheless, fur-
mation of raveling is a major research lacuna, which must be ther research is needed to advance the applicability of this
addressed. Further, quantitative models must be developed to special pavement material for medium-to-high volume roads,
predict the long-term structural and hydraulic performance of and contribute to the development of environment-friendly built
PCP subjected to clogging. An inventory must be created to environment, especially in urban cities.
show the relationship between clogging behavior of PCP with
different pore characteristics against a wide range of road dust Declaration of Competing Interest
particles and sediments with passage of time. Such an approach
will help in the formulation of reliable and cost-effective main- The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
tenance guidelines that would ensure satisfactory field perfor- cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
mance during the service life of PCP. to influence the work reported in this paper.
Predictive models based on extensive research data must be
created that assess the various thermal properties and evapora- Acknowledgments
tive cooling effect of PCP. Most importantly, UHI mitigation
capability of PCP systems must be linked to energy consump- This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
tion, while including the corresponding GHG emissions as well. agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
In the absence of sufficient literature on LCA, it is essential to
quantify the environmental impacts of PCP pertinent to
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Construction and Building Materials 261 (2020) 120491

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

A review of sustainable pervious concrete systems: Emphasis on

 Reviewed state-of-the-art regarding pervious concrete in the built environment.

5.4. Durability – freeze–thaw and abrasion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1. Introduction with higher concentration of sediments and other pollutants

Fig. 1. Research review outline.

design ratio of PC [44]. Researchers also proportioned PC mixtures

concluded that higher PV/IPV ratios resulted in improved strength

and durability, but reduced porosity and permeability [45]. A PV/

IPV ratio of 50% provided optimum balance between strength

In general, the in-situ compaction energy applied on a material

is usually lower as compared to laboratory compaction effort pro-

vided to a similar type of material. Researchers have reported that

prepared mixtures was as high as 45% [28]. Amongst the different

compaction methodologies, hand-steel roller compaction is gener-

ally a low-energy efficient method used to compact PC material in

the field, which is limited to sidewalks, pathways, and local streets

[38,46]. The formation of rod holes is a common occurrence when

the mixture, resulting in highly inconsistent results [47]. Another

study reported that the static compaction method provided higher

bottom owing to low slump and stiff nature of PC [27]. Higher

compaction energy levels reduce the effective void content and

mance [35,48]. Vibratory compaction produces a dense mix, but

renders the product susceptible to formation of cavities. Further,

excessive vibrations may reduce the void content, which retards

the drainage efficiency of PC composite [47].

Other research studies further indicated that compaction with

standard proctor hammer results in PC mixtures with porosity

and density similar to that of field placed PCP. Some other

prepared using in-situ mixtures by impulsive compaction simply

for porosity and permeability [47,49]. Although, standard proctor

mum number of blows to prepare PC in the laboratory. The number

of blows and compaction layers significantly govern the porosity

and density of PC. Moreover, innovative rolling compaction

methodologies that closely represent field compaction energies

must be developed to replicate the field behavior in laboratories.

Therefore, more research is required in this particular domain, as

significantly affects physical, mechanical, and functional character-

Yang et al., 2020 [42]

3. Characterization of physical properties

Xu et al., 2018 [41]

PC is an open/gap graded pavement material consisting of a

large number of interconnected pores with typical porosity values

ranging from 15 to 35% [22,24,28,35,50]. High porosity levels are

achieved by eliminating the fine aggregate content, and propor-

Fig. 2. Porosity and density relationship (recreated using [22,24,28,30,37,40,43,63–67]).

Fig. 3. Porosity and permeability relationship (recreated using [22,24,26,28,37,38,42,63–67,72–77]).

Source Variables Modifier(s) Major Findings

Source Properties Modifiers Polymer Findings

Source Fiber type Fiber properties and dosage Major conclusions

Table 5 Association (ACPA) [159]. A finite element software package was

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Reviewed state-of-the-art regarding pervious concrete in the built environment.