Chapter 6 - Adipose Tissue
Chapter 6 - Adipose Tissue
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Junqueira’s Basic Histology: Text and Atlas, 15e
Chapter 6: Adipose Tissue
INTRODUCTION
Connective tissue in which fatstoring cells or adipocytes predominate is called adipose tissue. These large cells are typically found isolated or in
small groups within loose or dense irregular connective tissue but occur in large aggregates in adipose tissue or “fat” in many organs and body
regions. Adipose tissue normally represents 15%20% of the body weight in men, somewhat more in women. Besides serving as storage depots for
neutral fats, chiefly triglycerides (longchain fatty acyl esters of glycerol), adipocytes function as key regulators of the body’s overall energy
metabolism. With a growing epidemic of obesity and its associated health problems, including diabetes and heart disease, adipocytes and adipose
tissue now constitute a major area of medical research.
Two properties of triglyceride lipids explain their selection as the preferred form of nutrient storage. Insoluble in water, lipids can be concentrated
with no adverse osmotic effects on cells. Also, the caloric density of triglycerides (9.3 kcal/g) is twice that of proteins or carbohydrates, including
glycogen, making these simple lipids the most efficient means of storing calories. Adipocytes specialize in concentrating triglycerides as lipid
droplet(s), with other cells normally accumulating relatively little lipid.
Adipocytes are active cells metabolically, responding to both nervous and hormonal stimuli. They release hormones and various other important
substances and adipose tissue is now recognized as an endocrine organ at the center of nutritional homeostasis. With its unique physical properties,
tissue rich in fat conducts heat poorly and provides thermal insulation for the body. Adipose tissue also fills spaces between other tissues, helping to
keep some organs in place. Subcutaneous layers of adipose tissue help shape the body surface, and cushion regions subject to repeated mechanical
stress such as the palms, heels, and toe pads.
There are two major types of adipose tissue with different locations, structures, colors, and functions. White adipose tissue, the more common type
specialized for fat storage, consists of cells each containing one large cytoplasmic droplet of whitishyellow fat. Brown adipose tissue contains cells
with multiple lipid droplets interspersed among abundant mitochondria, which helps give this tissue a darker appearance. Brown adipocytes release
heat and function to warm the blood. Both types of adipose tissue have a rich blood supply and the adipocytes, unlike other cells of connective tissue
proper, are individually surrounded by a thin external lamina containing type IV collagen.
WHITE ADIPOSE TISSUE
Specialized for relatively longterm energy storage, adipocytes of white adipose tissue are spherical when isolated but are polyhedral when closely
packed in situ. When completely developed, a white adipocyte is very large, between 50 and 150 μm in diameter, and contains a single huge droplet of
lipid filling almost the entire cell. With the single large droplets of triglycerides, white adipocytes are also called unilocular (Figure 6–1). Because lipid
is removed from cells by xylene or other solvents used in routine histological techniques, unilocular adipocytes are often empty in standard light
microscopy. The cells are sometimes said to have a signetring appearance, with the lipid droplet displacing and flattening the nucleus against the cell
membrane (Figure 6–1d). This membrane and the thin rim of cytoplasm that remains after dissolution of the stored lipid may shrink, collapse, or
rupture, distorting cell and tissue structure.
FIGURE 6–1
White adipose tissue.
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rupture, distorting cell and tissue structure.
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FIGURE 6–1
White adipose tissue.
White or unilocular adipose tissue is commonly seen in sections of many human organs.
( a ) Large white adipocytes (A) are seen in the connective tissue associated with small blood vessels. The fat cells are empty because lipid was
dissolved away in slide preparation. Nuclei at the cell membranes are visible in some of the fat cells. (X100; H&E)
( b ) Large (empty) adipocytes predominate in this typical white adipose tissue, which shows only a small portion of microvasculature. In a single
histologic section, nuclei of most very large adipocytes are not included. (X100; H&E)
(c) Tissue was fixed here with osmium tetroxide, which preserves lipid (L) and stains it black. Many adipocytes in this slide retain at least part of
their large lipid droplets. (X440; Osmium tetroxide) (Reproduced, with permission, from Berman I. Color Atlas of Basic Histology. 3rd ed. New York,
NY: McGrawHill; 2003).
( d ) In this specimen from a young mammal the smaller adipocytes marked with asterisks are not unilocular, having many lipid droplets of various
sizes. Such cells in white fat represent those in which differentiation is incomplete as well as a small subpopulation of beige cells with brown fat
forming potential. The eccentric nuclei of the unilocular cells are indicated by arrowheads. (X200; PT) (Reproduced, with permission, from Berman
I. Color Atlas of Basic Histology. 3rd ed. New York, NY: McGrawHill; 2003).
MEDICAL APPLICATION
Unilocular adipocytes can generate benign tumors called lipomas that are relatively common, although malignant adipose tumors
(liposarcomas) occur infrequently. Fetal lipomas of brown fat are sometimes called hibernomas.
Most cytoplasmic organelles in a white adipocyte are near the peripheral nucleus, including mitochondria, a small Golgi apparatus, a few cisternae of
RER, and free polyribosomes. The thin, submembranous layer of cytoplasm surrounding the lipid droplet contains cisternae of smooth ER (SER) and
pinocytotic vesicles. TEM reveals a great abundance of caveolae in the cell membranes of most adipocytes, especially immature cells, and numerous
minute lipid droplets in addition to the large droplet. In this cell type, caveolae are important for lipid trafficking and formation of the large triglyceride
storage droplet.
As shown in Figure 6–1, white fat is subdivided into incomplete lobules by partitions of connective tissue containing a vascular bed and nerve network.
Fibroblasts, macrophages, and other cells typically comprise about half the total cell number in white adipose tissue. Reticular fibers form a fine
interwoven network that supports individual fat cells and binds them together, and the microvasculature between adipocytes may not always be
apparent in tissue sections.
The distribution of white adipose tissue changes significantly through childhood and adult life and is partly regulated by sex hormones controlling
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adipose deposition in the breasts and thighs. The color of freshly dissected white adipose tissue depends on the diet, varying from white to yellow with
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the amount of carotenoids dissolved in the lipid.
Storage & Mobilization of Lipids
As shown in Figure 6–1, white fat is subdivided into incomplete lobules by partitions of connective tissue containing a vascular bed and nerve network.
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Fibroblasts, macrophages, and other cells typically comprise about half the total cell number in white adipose tissue. Reticular fibers form a fine
interwoven network that supports individual fat cells and binds them together, and the microvasculature between adipocytes may not always be
apparent in tissue sections.
The distribution of white adipose tissue changes significantly through childhood and adult life and is partly regulated by sex hormones controlling
adipose deposition in the breasts and thighs. The color of freshly dissected white adipose tissue depends on the diet, varying from white to yellow with
the amount of carotenoids dissolved in the lipid.
Storage & Mobilization of Lipids
White adipocytes can store triglycerides derived from three sources:
Dietary fats brought to the cells via the circulation as chylomicrons,
Lipids synthesized in the liver and transported in blood with very lowdensity lipoproteins (VLDLs),
Free fatty acids and glycerol synthesized by the adipocytes.
Chylomicrons (Gr. chylos, juice + micros, small) are particles of variable size, up to 1200 nm in diameter, formed from ingested lipids in epithelial cells
lining the small intestine and transported in the blood and lymph. They consist of a core containing mainly triglycerides, surrounded by a stabilizing
monolayer of phospholipids, cholesterol, and several apolipoproteins.
VLDLs are smaller complexes (3080 nm, providing a greater surfacetovolume ratio), of similar lipid and protein composition to chylomicrons, but are
synthesized from lipids in liver cells. Levels of circulating lipoproteins are routinely measured in clinical tests for blood lipids, after fasting to allow
depletion of chylomicrons. Varying levels of apoproteins and triglycerides in the complexes allow their categorization according to density, from VLDL
to highdensity lipoprotein (HDL).
In adipose tissue both chylomicrons and VLDLs are hydrolyzed at the luminal surfaces of blood capillaries by lipoprotein lipase, an enzyme
synthesized by the adipocytes and transferred to the capillary cell membrane (Figure 6–2). Free fatty acids then enter the adipocytes by both active
transport and diffusion. Within the adipocytes, the fatty acids combine with glycerol phosphate, supplied by glucose metabolism, to again form
triglycerides, which are then deposited in the growing lipid droplet. Insulin stimulates glucose uptake by adipocytes and accelerates its conversion
into triglycerides, and the production of lipoprotein lipase.
FIGURE 6–2
Lipid storage and mobilization from adipocytes.
Triglycerides are transported by blood and lymph from the intestine and liver in lipoprotein complexes known as chylomicrons (Chylo) and VLDLs.
In the capillary endothelial cells of adipose tissue, these complexes are partly broken down by lipoprotein lipase, releasing free fatty acids and
glycerol. The free fatty acids diffuse from the capillary into the adipocyte, where they are reesterified to glycerol phosphate, forming triglycerides that
are stored in the lipid droplet until needed.
Norepinephrine from nerve endings stimulates the cyclic AMP (cAMP) system, which activates hormonesensitive lipase to hydrolyze the stored
triglycerides to free fatty acids and glycerol. These substances diffuse into the capillary, where the fatty acids bind albumin for transport throughout
the body for use as an energy source.
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Abundant caveolae in the adipocyte plasmalemma are rich in cholesterol and other lipids and appear to mediate endocytosis of fatty acids necessary
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for growth of the lipid storage droplet.
glycerol. The free fatty acids diffuse from the capillary into the adipocyte, where they are reesterified to glycerol phosphate, forming triglycerides that
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are stored in the lipid droplet until needed.
Norepinephrine from nerve endings stimulates the cyclic AMP (cAMP) system, which activates hormonesensitive lipase to hydrolyze the stored
triglycerides to free fatty acids and glycerol. These substances diffuse into the capillary, where the fatty acids bind albumin for transport throughout
the body for use as an energy source.
Abundant caveolae in the adipocyte plasmalemma are rich in cholesterol and other lipids and appear to mediate endocytosis of fatty acids necessary
for growth of the lipid storage droplet.
When adipocytes are stimulated by nerves or various hormones, stored lipids are mobilized and cells release fatty acids and glycerol.
Norepinephrine released in the adrenal gland and by postganglionic sympathetic nerves in adipose tissue activates a hormonesensitive lipase
that breaks down triglycerides at the surface of the stored lipid droplets (Figure 6–2). This lipase activity is also stimulated by growth hormone (GH)
from the pituitary gland. The free fatty acids diffuse across the membranes of the adipocyte and the capillary endothelium, and bind the protein
albumin in blood for transport throughout the body. The more watersoluble glycerol remains free in blood and is taken up by the liver. Insulin inhibits
the hormonesensitive lipase, reducing fatty acid release, and also stimulates enzymes for lipid synthesis. Besides insulin and GH, other peptide
hormones also cooperate in regulating lipid synthesis and mobilization in adipocytes.
Hormonal activity of white adipocytes themselves includes production of the 16kDa polypeptide hormone leptin (Gr. leptos, thin), a “satiety factor”
with target cells in the hypothalamus, other brain regions, and peripheral organs, which helps regulate the appetite under normal conditions and
participates in regulating the formation of new adipose tissue.
MEDICAL APPLICATION
Leptin was discovered and is well studied in genetically obese mice, but such studies have not yet led to new treatments for human obesity. In most
obese humans, adipocytes produce adequate or excess quantities of leptin, but target cells are not responsive due apparently to insufficient or
defective receptors or postreceptor signal transduction.
Although white adipose tissue associated with different organs appears histologically similar, differences in gene expression have been noted between
visceral deposits (in the abdomen) and subcutaneous deposits of white fat. Such differences may be important in the medical risks of obesity; it is well
established that increased visceral adipose tissue raises the risk of diabetes and cardiovascular disease, whereas increased subcutaneous fat does
not. The release of visceral fat products directly to the portal circulation and liver may also influence the medical importance of this form of obesity.
In response to body needs, lipids are mobilized rather uniformly from white adipocytes in all parts of the body, although adipose tissue in the palms,
soles, and fat pads behind the eyes resists even long periods of starvation. During starvation adipocytes can lose nearly all their fat and become
polyhedral or spindleshaped cells with only very small lipid droplets.
Histogenesis of White Adipose Tissue
Like other connective tissue, skeletal and muscle cells, adipocytes develop from mesenchymal stem cells. Adipose development first produces
preadipocytes, which look rather like larger fibroblasts with cytoplasmic lipid droplets (Figure 6–3). Initially, the droplets of white adipocytes are
isolated from one another but soon fuse to form the single large droplet (Figure 6–1).
FIGURE 6–3
Development of white and brown fat cells.
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isolated from one another but soon fuse to form the single large droplet (Figure 6–1).
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FIGURE 6–3
Development of white and brown fat cells.
Mesenchymal stem cells differentiate as progenitor cells for all types of connective tissue, including preadipocytes. These are initially of at least two
types. Preadipocytes developing within the lateral mesoderm of the embryo produce large number of white adipocytes (forming white adipose
tissue) and a smaller number of socalled beige adipocytes with cytological features and gene expression patterns of both white and brown adipocytes.
White adipocytes are unilocular, with one large lipid droplet occupying most of the cytoplasm. The white adipocyte is usually much larger than that
shown here in relation to the other cell types.
Brown adipocytes differentiate from another population of preadipocytes located in paraxial embryonic mesoderm and remain multilocular (having
many small lipid droplets) with numerous mitochondria (not shown here). Mitochondrial metabolism of lipid in brown adipocytes releases heat rather
than ATP. Cells functioning as brown adipocytes can also develop from beige adipocytes during adaptation to cold temperatures.
As shown in Figure 6–3, white adipocytes develop together with a smaller population of cells termed beige adipocytes, which remain within white
adipose tissue and have histological and metabolic features generally intermediate between white and brown adipocytes. With adaptation to cold
temperatures beige adipocytes change reversibly, forming many more small lipid droplets, adopting a gene expression profile more like that of brown
fat, and begin to release heat (see below).
MEDICAL APPLICATION
In addition to leptin, white adipose tissue secretes numerous other cytokines and other factors with paracrine and autocrine activity, including
many proinflammatory cytokines. It is not clear whether these are produced by adipocytes or other cells of the tissue such as macrophages or
fibroblasts. With its increased amounts of white adipose tissue, obesity is characterized by a state of chronic mild inflammation. Proinflammatory
factors released from visceral fat are being investigated for links to the inflammationrelated disorders associated with obesity, such as
diabetes and heart disease.
Humans are born with stores of white adipose tissue, which begin to accumulate by the 14th week of gestation. Both visceral and subcutaneous fat is
welldeveloped before birth. Proliferation of progenitor cells diminishes by late gestation, and adipose tissue increases mainly by the filling of existing
adipocytes until around age 10, followed by a period of new fat cell differentiation that lasts through adolescence. New adipocyte formation occurs
around small blood vessels, where undifferentiated mesenchymal cells are most abundant.
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Excessive adipose tissue accumulation, or obesity, occurs when nutritional intake exceeds energy expenditure, an increasingly common condition in
Chapter 6: Adipose Tissue, Page 5 / 13
modern, sedentary lifestyles. Although adipocytes can differentiate from mesenchymal stem cells throughout life, adultonset obesity mainly involves
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increasing the size of existing adipocytes (hypertrophy). Childhood obesity, in contrast, often involves increases in both adipocyte size and numbers
due to the differentiation of more preadipocytes from mesenchymal cells (hyperplasia). Weight loss after dietary changes is due to reductions in
Humans are born with stores of white adipose tissue, which begin to accumulate by the 14th week of gestation. Both visceral and subcutaneous fat is
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welldeveloped before birth. Proliferation of progenitor cells diminishes by late gestation, and adipose tissue increases mainly by the filling of existing
adipocytes until around age 10, followed by a period of new fat cell differentiation that lasts through adolescence. New adipocyte formation occurs
around small blood vessels, where undifferentiated mesenchymal cells are most abundant.
Excessive adipose tissue accumulation, or obesity, occurs when nutritional intake exceeds energy expenditure, an increasingly common condition in
modern, sedentary lifestyles. Although adipocytes can differentiate from mesenchymal stem cells throughout life, adultonset obesity mainly involves
increasing the size of existing adipocytes (hypertrophy). Childhood obesity, in contrast, often involves increases in both adipocyte size and numbers
due to the differentiation of more preadipocytes from mesenchymal cells (hyperplasia). Weight loss after dietary changes is due to reductions in
adipocyte volume, but not their overall number.
MEDICAL APPLICATION
Adultonset obesity is very often associated with agerelated metabolic changes and may involve reduced activity of the hormonesensitive
lipases of adipocytes, causing less effective fat mobilization out of the cells. The increased number of adipocytes produced during childhood
obesity predisposes an individual to obesity in later life. Despite claims of various fad diets, there is no evidence that any particular type of caloric
restriction is more effective than others; rather, any intake of calories that is lower than the energy expenditure will result in loss of adipose tissue.
BROWN ADIPOSE TISSUE
Brown adipose tissue constitutes 2%5% of the newborn body weight, located mainly in the back, neck, and shoulders, but it is greatly reduced during
childhood and adolescence. In adults it is found only in scattered areas, especially around the kidneys, adrenal glands, aorta, and mediastinum. The
color of brown fat is due to both the very abundant mitochondria (containing cytochrome pigment) scattered among the lipid droplets of the fat cells
and the large number of blood capillaries in this tissue. Brown adipocytes contain many small lipid inclusions and are therefore called multilocular
(Figure 6–3). The small lipid droplets, abundant mitochondria, and rich vasculature all help mediate this tissue’s principal function of heat
production and warming the blood.
Cells of brown fat are polygonal and generally smaller than white adipocytes; their smaller lipid droplets allow the nucleus to be more centrally located
(Figure 6–4). Brown adipocytes are often closely packed around large capillaries and the tissue is subdivided by connective tissue partitions into
lobules that are better delineated than the lobules of white adipose tissue. Cells of this tissue receive direct sympathetic innervation, which regulates
their metabolic activity.
FIGURE 6–4
Brown adipose tissue.
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their metabolic activity.
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FIGURE 6–4
Brown adipose tissue.
( a ) Brown adipose tissue is shown here around a small blood vessel (BV) and adjacent white adipose tissue at the top of the photo. Brown
adipocytes are slightly smaller and characteristically contain many small lipid droplets and central spherical nuclei. If the lipid has been dissolved
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Chapter 6: Adipose Tissue,
from the cells, as shown here, the many mitochondria among the lipid spaces are retained and can be easily discerned. (X200; PT) Page 7 / 13
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( b ) A diagram of a single multilocular adipocyte showing the central nucleus, numerous small lipid droplets (yellow), and many mitochondria.
Also shown is a sympathetic nerve ending that releases norepinephrine to stimulate mitochondrial production of heat.
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( a ) Brown adipose tissue is shown here around a small blood vessel (BV) and adjacent white adipose tissue at the top of the photo. Brown
adipocytes are slightly smaller and characteristically contain many small lipid droplets and central spherical nuclei. If the lipid has been dissolved
from the cells, as shown here, the many mitochondria among the lipid spaces are retained and can be easily discerned. (X200; PT)
( b ) A diagram of a single multilocular adipocyte showing the central nucleus, numerous small lipid droplets (yellow), and many mitochondria.
Also shown is a sympathetic nerve ending that releases norepinephrine to stimulate mitochondrial production of heat.
Function of Brown Adipocytes
The main function of these multilocular adipose cells is to produce heat by nonshivering thermogenesis. The physiology of brown fat is best
understood from studies of the tissue in hibernating species. In animals ending their hibernation period, and in newborn humans, nerve impulses
liberate norepinephrine into brown adipose tissue. As in white fat, this neurotransmitter activates the hormonesensitive lipase of adipocytes,
promoting hydrolysis of triglycerides to fatty acids and glycerol. However, unlike the process in white fat, liberated fatty acids of multilocular
adipocytes are not released but are quickly metabolized, with a consequent increase in O2 consumption and heat production. This raises the
temperature within the tissue and warms the locally circulating blood, which then distributes the heat throughout the body.
Heat production in brown adipocytes is greater than that of other cells because their inner mitochondrial membranes have greatly upregulated levels
of the transmembrane protein uncoupling protein1 (UCP1) or thermogenin. In the presence of free fatty acids, UCP1 permits the flow of protons
from the intermembranous space to the matrix without passing through ATP synthetase complexes. Instead of producing ATP, the energy associated
with this proton flow dissipates as heat.
Histogenesis of Brown Adipose Tissue
Brown adipose tissue also develops from mesenchyme, but involves preadipocytes in a different embryonic location (paraxial) from those producing
white adipose tissue. Brown adipocytes also emerge earlier than white fat during fetal development. In humans the amount of brown fat is maximal
relative to body weight at birth, when thermogenesis is most needed and partially disappears by involution and apoptosis during childhood. In adults
the amount and activity of brown fat are higher in lean individuals.
The number of brown adipocytes increases during cold adaptation, usually appearing as clusters of multilocular cells in white adipose tissue. As
indicated earlier this increase involves the reversible shift of beige cells to functional brown adipocytes, but may also include proliferation and
differentiation of new adipocytes from preexisting progenitor cells. Besides stimulating thermogenic activity, autonomic nerves also promote brown
adipocyte differentiation and prevent apoptosis in mature brown fat cells.
SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS
Adipose Tissue SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS
The defining cells of adipose tissue (fat), adipocytes, are very large cells derived from mesenchyme and specialized for energy storage in lipid
droplet(s) with triglycerides.
Adipocytes store lipids from three sources: from dietary fats packaged as chylomicrons in the intestine; from triglycerides produced in the
liver and circulating as VLDLs; and from fatty acids synthesized locally.
Lipids are mobilized from adipocytes by hormonesensitive lipase activated by norepinephrine released from the adrenal gland and
various peptide hormones.
Cells of adipose tissue are supported by reticular fibers, with connective tissue septa dividing the tissue into lobules of various sizes.
There are two types of adipose tissue: white fat and brown fat.
White Adipose Tissue
White adipose tissue is found in many organs throughout the body, typically forming about 20% of the body weight in adults.
Adipocytes of white fat are typically very large cells, ranging in diameter from 50 to 150 μm.
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These cells each contain primarily one large lipid droplet (they are unilocular), causing the nucleus and remaining cytoplasm to be pushed
against the plasmalemma.
differentiation of new adipocytes from preexisting progenitor cells. Besides stimulating thermogenic activity, autonomic nerves also promote brown
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adipocyte differentiation and prevent apoptosis in mature brown fat cells.
SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS
Adipose Tissue SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS
The defining cells of adipose tissue (fat), adipocytes, are very large cells derived from mesenchyme and specialized for energy storage in lipid
droplet(s) with triglycerides.
Adipocytes store lipids from three sources: from dietary fats packaged as chylomicrons in the intestine; from triglycerides produced in the
liver and circulating as VLDLs; and from fatty acids synthesized locally.
Lipids are mobilized from adipocytes by hormonesensitive lipase activated by norepinephrine released from the adrenal gland and
various peptide hormones.
Cells of adipose tissue are supported by reticular fibers, with connective tissue septa dividing the tissue into lobules of various sizes.
There are two types of adipose tissue: white fat and brown fat.
White Adipose Tissue
White adipose tissue is found in many organs throughout the body, typically forming about 20% of the body weight in adults.
Adipocytes of white fat are typically very large cells, ranging in diameter from 50 to 150 μm.
These cells each contain primarily one large lipid droplet (they are unilocular), causing the nucleus and remaining cytoplasm to be pushed
against the plasmalemma.
Fatty acids are released from white adipocytes by lipase activity when nutrients are needed and carried throughout the body on plasma
proteins such as albumin.
Leptin is a polypeptide hormone with target cells in the hypothalamus that is released from white adipocytes and helps regulate eating
behavior.
Brown Adipose Tissue
Brown fat comprises up to 5% of the newborn body weight but smaller amounts in adults.
Adipocytes of this tissue are typically smaller than those of white fat and contain primarily many small lipid droplets (they are
multilocular) in cytoplasm containing many mitochondria and a central nucleus.
Fatty acids released in adipocytes of brown fat are metabolized in mitochondria of these cells for thermogenesis rather than ATP synthesis,
using uncoupling protein1.
LAB GUIDE
This class of tissues supports other tissues and connects all of the body’s tissues and organs together. In contrast to epithelia that are composed
mainly of cells, connective tissue (CT) consists largely of intercellular material, including fibers and a gellike “ground substance.” Production of the
extracellular fibrous material and ground substance is a property shown by all cells; CT cells have developed this activity as their primary function,
yielding a strong type of tissue that can easily support the body and connect other tissues to form organs.
CT cells tend to be widely separated and inconspicuous among the masses of fibers and ground substance. The principal supportive functions of CTs
are expressed in the structure and densities of the fibers and ground substance, which are collectively termed the extracellular matrix (ECM). The
fibers, consisting particularly of collagen or elastin, are responsible for the tensile strength and elasticity of the ECM. The ground substance, which is
substantially made up of hydrated proteoglycans, provides the medium through which dissolved substances pass from capillaries to cells and back.
Based on the distribution and arrangement of cells and fibers, CTs have been classified into various types, but these sometimes vary slightly from
author to author. Because supporting/connective tissues show great diversity in density and regularity of fibers and cells, rigid classification is not
possible. Nonetheless, general terms such as loose (or areolar) CT, dense irregular CT, and dense regular CT are widely used, and you should know
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what is meant by these types of CT, which are sometimes referred to as connective tissue proper. CT types are summarized in Table 5–6. Certain more
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specialized types of CT are also to be studied here, whereas others (cartilage, bone, and blood) will be deferred until later laboratory sessions.
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LABORATORY SESSION LEARNING OBJECTIVES
fibers, consisting particularly of collagen or elastin, are responsible for the tensile strength and elasticity of the ECM. The ground substance, which is
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substantially made up of hydrated proteoglycans, provides the medium through which dissolved substances pass from capillaries to cells and back.
Based on the distribution and arrangement of cells and fibers, CTs have been classified into various types, but these sometimes vary slightly from
author to author. Because supporting/connective tissues show great diversity in density and regularity of fibers and cells, rigid classification is not
possible. Nonetheless, general terms such as loose (or areolar) CT, dense irregular CT, and dense regular CT are widely used, and you should know
what is meant by these types of CT, which are sometimes referred to as connective tissue proper. CT types are summarized in Table 5–6. Certain more
specialized types of CT are also to be studied here, whereas others (cartilage, bone, and blood) will be deferred until later laboratory sessions.
LABORATORY SESSION LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Be able to distinguish areolar (loose), dense irregular and dense regular CTs, and understand how the structure of each type reflects its main
function.
Understand how to distinguish the various cells found in these CT (fibroblasts, adipocytes, mast cells, plasma cells, macrophages, and
undifferentiated mesenchymal cells) and to describe their functions and key features.
Know the composition, morphology, and variations in distribution of the ground substance and the three types of extracellular fibers and their
functions in CT.
Recognize reticular and adipose tissues, and distinguish between white and brown adipose tissue, both structurally and functionally.
TERMS TO UNDERSTAND & USE
Mesenchyme/mesenchymal cells
Fibroblasts
Collagen fibers
Elastin (elastic) fibers
CT proper
Loose/areolar CT
Macrophages
Plasma cells
Mast cells
Dense irregular CT
Dense regular CT
Reticular tissue/reticular fibers
Adipose tissue
Adipocytes
White adipose tissue
Brown adipose tissue
SLIDES & MICROGRAPHS
Primitive (Embryonic) Connective Tissue
Mesenchyme (Figure 5–1): If available, examine a cross section of a mammalian embryo (slide 91 ) and locate regions of mesenchyme within and
around the developing organs. You will see prominent nuclei in eosinophilic, tapering cells, with large amounts of faintly stained extracellular material
around these mesenchymal cells. Mesenchyme can develop into any of the CT types found in adults.
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1. What are some major differences between mesenchymal cells and epithelial cells?
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2. What is the fibrous material faintly visible between the mesenchymal cells, and what does the “empty” space around the fibers represent?
SLIDES & MICROGRAPHS
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Primitive (Embryonic) Connective Tissue
Mesenchyme (Figure 5–1): If available, examine a cross section of a mammalian embryo (slide 91 ) and locate regions of mesenchyme within and
around the developing organs. You will see prominent nuclei in eosinophilic, tapering cells, with large amounts of faintly stained extracellular material
around these mesenchymal cells. Mesenchyme can develop into any of the CT types found in adults.
1. What are some major differences between mesenchymal cells and epithelial cells?
2. What is the fibrous material faintly visible between the mesenchymal cells, and what does the “empty” space around the fibers represent?
Common Forms of Connective Tissue:
A. “CT proper”: This very common type of CT varies in the density and arrangement of collagen fibers, ranging from sparse amounts of collagen
(loose or areolar CT) (Figure 5–19a and b) to heavy, wavy masses of collagen (dense irregular CT) (Figure 5–19c and d, Table 5–6). The stroma or
“packaging material” surrounding the secretory units or other specialized functional components in organs usually contains much collagen and is a
good example of dense irregular CT. These very common types of CT surround and support the blood vessels of organs and almost always contain an
abundant vascular supply.
Following injury to any tissue or organ, CT proper is the usual site of the inflammatory response, a process which defends against infection and
leads to wound healing or tissue repair. The events of wound healing consist mainly of new production of the cells and fibers of the CT, and the
formation of scars involves excessive or otherwise abnormal production of new fibroblasts and collagen during this process.
Examine a slide of CT (slide 45 ), noting the gradations in the amount of pinkstaining (eosinophilic) collagen in different regions. Examine the
CT in slides of the dermis of skin (slide 5 , slide 36 , slide 51 , and slide 89 ), which have different stains, noting again the different
densities and irregular arrangement of collagen.
3. What is the difference in collagen staining in the two common stains?
Examine the ultrastructural appearance of collagen fibers in Figures 5–8a and 5–11, and compare to their simple eosinophilia in Figure 5–8b. Be
sure to view and know the basics of collagen synthesis (Figure 5–10).
4. What are the distinguishing characteristics of fibroblasts actively making collagen?
Without an adequate supply of vitamin C, as in the nutritional deficiency scurvy, collagens I and II do not polymerize properly, leading to slow wound
healing, distension of blood vessels, and loosening of the teeth.
Dense irregular CT containing large amounts of elastic fibers (Figure 5–13), composed of elastin, is sometimes referred to as elastic tissue. Examples
of elastic CT are found in skin (slide 51 ) and mesentery (slide 116 ). You should know the major differences between collagen and elastin fibers
in terms of their synthesis and structure. Besides being made by fibroblasts, elastic fibers are also synthesized by the muscle cells in the walls of blood
vessels and the gut, organs where fibers and lamellae of elastin are also abundant.
“Empty” extracellular areas comprising much of the volume of loose CT and also scattered through dense irregular CT are regions largely devoid of
collagen or elastin, but rich in “ground substance,” a term describing ECM containing much hydrophilic material such as the glycosaminoglycans
(GAGs) (Table 5–5). GAGs are bound to cell surfaces and to collagen fibers, and create spaces for the movement of water, cell nutrients, and wastes,
and cells in the CT.
5. What cell type(s) produces elastic fibers in CT, and how is elastic CT functionally different from “dense” CT?
Besides fibroblasts, cells moving into the extracellular space from small blood vessels are normally found in loose and dense irregular CT. Identify
fibroblasts (Figure 5–3) in slides of intestine and esophagus (slide 21 , slide 43 , and slide 66 ). On the same slides, identify plasma cells
(Figure 5–7) and macrophages, noting the differences from fibroblasts. Macrophages are usually dark staining cells. They are rather difficult to
identify on light microscope slides and are shown ultrastructurally in Figure 5–4. Mast cells are filled with strongly basophilic granules, but also often
very difficult to identify in routine hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) preparations. They can usually be found very close to small blood vessels. Note the
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appearance of mast cells in Figure 5–5.
Chapter 6: Adipose Tissue, Page 11 / 13
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The plasma cells, macrophages, and mast cells abundant in CT proper are all derived from circulating white blood cells and will be studied again more
closely when we study blood cells. These cells are of major importance in CT throughout the body because of the secretory products they release
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Besides fibroblasts, cells moving into the extracellular space from small blood vessels are normally found in loose and dense irregular CT. Identify
fibroblasts (Figure 5–3) in slides of intestine and esophagus (slide 21 , slide 43 , and slide 66 ). On the same slides, identify plasma cells
(Figure 5–7) and macrophages, noting the differences from fibroblasts. Macrophages are usually dark staining cells. They are rather difficult to
identify on light microscope slides and are shown ultrastructurally in Figure 5–4. Mast cells are filled with strongly basophilic granules, but also often
very difficult to identify in routine hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) preparations. They can usually be found very close to small blood vessels. Note the
appearance of mast cells in Figure 5–5.
The plasma cells, macrophages, and mast cells abundant in CT proper are all derived from circulating white blood cells and will be studied again more
closely when we study blood cells. These cells are of major importance in CT throughout the body because of the secretory products they release
during immune challenges, inflammation, wound healing, etc. Table 5–1 summarizes their functions.
6. What are some of the products of the bloodderived cells commonly found in CT?
7. Under what conditions might you expect to find greatly increased numbers of macrophages and other white blood cells in the CT?
B. Dense regular CT: Unlike the types of CT studied previously, dense regular CT (Figure 5–20) consists of regularly arranged, almost parallel
collagen bundles and intervening fibroblasts, but it normally contains hardly any blood vessels and hardly any macrophages or other bloodderived
cells. Dense regular CT is found in tendons and ligaments, on the outer surface (“capsule”) of some large organs, and around skeletal structures of the
bone or cartilage.
Identify dense regular CT at the edges of the section of the adrenal gland (slide 75 ) or other glands, testis (slide 55 ), and bone (slide 34 ).
(One area of the bone on slide 34 shows repair of a fracture. Examine the more active fibroblasts in this region, noting their characteristic features as
described in Figure 5–3.)
Note the very regular, parallel arrangement of the collagen fibers and relative absence of other cells besides fibroblasts, characteristic of dense regular
CT of tendon (Figure 5–20a).
8. What is the functional advantage for this type of fiber arrangement?
The relatively low density of cells and blood vessels among the collagen bundles in tendon helps to increase the tensile strength of this tissue, but it
also contributes to its extremely slow rate of healing after injury.
Specialized Types of Connective Tissue
There are a few specialized types of CT in which mesenchymal cells differentiate into unique cells comprising support tissue with unique functions.
These specialized tissues include cartilage, bone, and blood, each of which will be examined separately later in the laboratory series.
Two other specialized types of CT are reticular tissue and adipose tissue, in which mesenchymal cells differentiate in these two tissues respectively
to shelter and support lymphocytes in immune organs and to store fat. The distinctive cells of these two specialized tissues are called reticular cells
adipocytes respectively.
A. Examine the reticulin fibers (Figure 5–12) in a silverstained, oval lymph node (slide 99 ). “Silver stains” are very commonly used to
demonstrate reticulin in reticular tissue, where it appears as nearly black, fine, unbundled fibers running in many directions. Note their appearance, as
well as that of the collagen bundles in the CT surrounding the lymph node.
9. What is the composition of reticular fibers and their function in lymphoid tissue?
B. Because of its unique appearance and function, as well as its importance in health and medicine today, adipose tissue is given a separate chapter
in Junqueira. Examine a slide of mesentery (slide 92 ) and (slide 45 ) for examples of white adipose tissue (Figure 6–1).
10. In the living condition, what is contained in the large, empty oval spaces of this tissue?
Compare the light and electron microscopic differences between white adipose tissue and brown adipose tissue (Figures 6–1 and 6–4).
11. What are major the structural differences between white and brown adipose tissue?
12. How do the structural features of brown fat (and its differences from white adipose tissue) facilitate its major function?
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ANSWERS TO STUDY QUESTIONS Page 12 / 13
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1. Epithelial cells are bound firmly together and have very little extracellular material, while mesenchymal cells are often normally far apart and
surrounded by abundant extracellular material.
10. In the living condition, what is contained in the large, empty oval spaces of this tissue?
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Compare the light and electron microscopic differences between white adipose tissue and brown adipose tissue (Figures 6–1 and 6–4).
11. What are major the structural differences between white and brown adipose tissue?
12. How do the structural features of brown fat (and its differences from white adipose tissue) facilitate its major function?
ANSWERS TO STUDY QUESTIONS
1. Epithelial cells are bound firmly together and have very little extracellular material, while mesenchymal cells are often normally far apart and
surrounded by abundant extracellular material.
2. The faint fibrous material between the cells is collagen and the “empty” spaces are normally filled with water and glycosaminoglycans (GAGs).
3. In H&E stained slides collagen bundles appear pinkishorange, while with Mallory’s trichrome they appear blue.
4. With H&E actively productive fibroblasts will show large, euchromatic nuclei and basophilic cytoplasm filled with rER.
5. In CT elastin is produced by the same cells making collagen: fibroblasts. All CT with collagen bundles are strong and resistant to tearing; when
elastic fibers are also present, the tissue can be stretched slightly, after which it will return to its previous dimensions.
6. Plasma cells produce various antibodies abundantly, macrophages produce protein factors stimulating cell growth and modulating local
inflammation, and mast cells secrete many pharmacologically active molecules, such as histamine, upon antigenic stimulation.
7. After injuries and infections local connective tissues will contain additional macrophages and other white blood cells, all of which mediate the
process of inflammation which normally results in repaired tissues and cleared infections.
8. Close packed, parallel bundles of collagen make tissues such as tendons very strong.
9. Reticular fibers are composed of glycosylated type III collagen (aka “reticulin”), which in immune organs functions as temporary supports for
lymphocytes, plasma cells and other white blood cells.
10. The large “empty” spaces seen on slides of white adipose tissue are the cytoplasmic regions of white adipose cells and contained fat in the living
tissue.
11. White adipocytes are “unilocular,” with cytoplasm usually containing one large fat droplet filling most of the cell, while brown adipocytes are
“multilocular,” and have many, much smaller lipid droplets with mitochondria scattered among them. Brown adipose tissue is typically also more
vascular than white fat and both these factors cause this tissue to be darker than white adipose tissue.
12. The features of brown fat just mentioned facilitate rapid and continuous metabolism of fat dropletderived lipids by the specialized mitochondria
which release heat and warm the blood in the very abundant small blood vessels near the adipose cells.
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